Adi Shankara - Wikipedia

Adi Shankara - Wikipedia
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8th-century Indian Vedic scholar
This article is about the vedic scholar Adi Shankara. For the title used in Advaita traditions, see
Shankaracharya
"Adi Shankaracharya" redirects here. For the 1983 Indian film, see
Adi Shankaracharya (film)
"Adi Shankar" redirects here. For the producer, see
Adi Shankar (producer)
Adi Shankara
Painting of Adi Shankara, exponent of Advaita Vedanta with his disciples by
Raja Ravi Varma
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Born
Shankara
c. 700 CE
note 1
Died
c. 750 CE
note 1
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Expounded
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Adi Shankara
(8th c. CE),
note 1
also called
Adi Shankaracharya
Sanskrit
आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य
romanized
Ādi Śaṅkara, Ādi Śaṅkarācārya
lit.
First
Shankaracharya
note 2
pronounced
[aːd̪i
ɕɐŋkɐraːt͡ɕaːrjɐ]
),
note 3
was an Indian
Vedic scholar
-monk, philosopher, and teacher (
acharya
) of
Advaita Vedanta
While in recent times he is often revered as the most important
Indian philosopher
reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scant,
and the historical influence of his works on Hindu intellectual thought has been questioned.
The historical Shankara was probably relatively unknown
and
Vaishnava
-oriented
and his true impact lies in the popular perception of him as a heroic religious leader who re-established traditional Hinduism.
Until the
10th century
Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary
Maṇḍana Miśra
and there is no mention of him in concurrent Hindu,
Buddhist
or
Jain
sources until the
11th century
The legendary Shankara was created in the
14th century
, centuries after his death, when Sringeri
matha (Sanskrit:
मठ
)(maṭha) (monasteries)
started to receive patronage from the
emperors
of the
Vijayanagara Empire
10
11
and shifted their allegiance from
Advaitic
Agamic
Shaivism (Śaivism) to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy.
12
Hagiographies dating from the 14th-17th centuries deified him as a
ruler
renunciate
, travelling on a
digvijaya
(conquest of the four quarters)
13
14
across the
Indian subcontinent
to propagate his philosophy, defeating his opponents in theological debates.
15
16
These hagiographies also portray him as founding four
mathas
. Adi Shankara also came to be regarded as the organiser of the
Dashanami
monastic order, and the unifier of the
Shanmata
tradition of worship. The title of
Shankaracharya
, used by heads of certain monasteries in India, is derived from his name. Tradition also portrays him as the one who reconciled the various
sects
Vaishnavism
Shaivism
, and
Shaktism
) with the introduction of the Panchayatna (
Pañcāyatana
) form of
worship
, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi, arguing that all deities were but different forms of the one
Brahman
, the invisible Supreme Being.
17
Owing to his later fame over 300 texts are attributed to him, including commentaries (Bhashya,
Bhāṣya
), introductory topical expositions (
Prakaraṇa grantha
) and poetry (
Stotra
).
18
19
However, most of these are likely to have been written by admirers, or pretenders, or scholars with an eponymous name.
20
21
Works known to have been written by Shankara himself are the
Brahmasutrabhasya
18
his commentaries on ten
principal Upanishads
18
20
his commentary on the
Bhagavad Gita
22
and the Updeshsahasri
Upadeśasāhasrī
).
23
24
The authenticity of Shankara as the author of Vivekchudamani (
Vivekacūḍāmaṇi
) has been questioned and mostly rejected by scholarship.
25
26
His authentic works present a harmonizing reading of the
shastras
, with liberating knowledge of the self at its core, synthesizing the inherited
Advaita Vedanta
teachings of his time.
27
web 1
The central concern of Shankara's writings was the liberating knowledge of the true identity of
jivatman (jīvātman)
(individual self) as Atman (
Ātman
Brahman
24
28
emphasizing that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing" the
mahavakyas
(mahāvākyas),
29
without the need of meditating on them. These mahavakyas are found in the Upanishads, which Shankara saw as the authoritative means of knowledge, beyond the ritually oriented Mimansa (
Mīmāṃsā)
-exegesis of the Vedas.
30
31
note 4
note 5
Shankara's Advaita showed influences from
Mahayana Buddhism
, despite Shankara's critiques;
32
33
and Hindu
Vaishnava
opponents have even accused Shankara of being a "crypto-Buddhist,"
34
35
36
note 6
a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on
Atman
Anatman (Anātman)
and
Brahman
37
note 7
Dating
Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara.
38
While the Advaita tradition assigns him to the 5th century BCE, the scholarly-accepted dating places Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE.
30
39
Matha datings
The prominent Advaita-mathas date Shankara to the 5th century BCE. This dating is based on records of the heads of the Shankara's cardinal institutions
Maṭha
s. The exact dates of birth of Adi Shankaracharya believed by several monasteries are Kali 2593 (509 BCE) according to the
Kanchipuram
40
note 8
507 BCE according to
Govardhan Math
43
491 BCE according to Dvarka (
Dvārakā
),
note 9
485 BCE according to
Jyotirmath
, 484 BCE according to
Jagannatha Puri
, and 483 BCE according to
Sringeri
46
The records of the
Sringeri Matha
state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of "Vikramaditya", but it is unclear to which king this name refers.
47
Though some researchers identify the name with
Chandragupta II
(4th century CE), modern scholarship accepts the Vikramaditya as being from the
Chalukya dynasty of Badami
, most likely
Vikramaditya II
(733–746 CE).
47
Scholarly datings
788–820 CE: This was proposed by late 19th and early twentieth century scholars, following K.P. Tiele,
note 10
and was customarily accepted by scholars such as
Max Müller
, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishna.
48
49
Though the 788–820 CE dates are widespread in 20th-century publications, recent scholarship has questioned the 788–820 CE dates.
50
note 11
c.
700
– c.
750
CE: Late 20th-century and early 21st-century scholarship tends to place Shankara's life in the first half of the 8th century.
50
52
note 12
This estimate is based on the probable earliest and latest limits for his lifetime. His works contains traces of debates with Buddhist and
Mimansa
authors from the 5th-7th century, setting the earliest limit at
c.
650 CE
. The latest limit is established by
Vachaspati Mishra
's commentary on Sankara's work, dated first half of the 9th century, thus setting the latest limit for Sankara at
c.
800 CE
53
Other datings
44–12
BCE
: the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE.
54
6th century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir R.G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE.
54
805–897 CE: Venkiteswara not only places Shankara later than most, but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him, and has him live ninety-two years.
54
Traditional and historical views on Shankara
See also:
History of Hinduism
Adi Sankara Keerthi Sthampa Mandapam, Kalady, Kochi
Traditional views of Shankara
Shankara has an unparalleled status in the tradition of
Advaita Vedanta
. Hagiographies from the 14th-17th centuries portray him as a victor who travelled all over India to help restore the study of the Vedas.
55
According to Frank Whaling, some Hindus, particularly those who follow Advaita, view Shankara as someone who defended Hindu dharma in response to Buddhist and Jain challenges and contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.
His teachings and
tradition
are central to
Smartism
and have influenced
Sant Mat
lineages.
56
Tradition portrays him as the one who reconciled the various sects (Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism) with the introduction of the Panchayatna form of
worship
, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi, arguing that all deities were but different forms of the one
Brahman
, the invisible Supreme Being,
17
implying that Advaita Vedanta stood above all other traditions.
57
Historical Shankara and (lack of) early influence (until 10th century)
Scholars have questioned Shankara's early influence in India.
The Buddhist scholar
Richard E. King
states,
Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Shankaracharya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence.
According to numerous scholars, Shankara and other early Advaitins were probably Vaishnavites, or at least teaching in a Vaishnava-oriented milieu, and Shankara may have had a
Pancharatra
background.
58
According to Clark, "Shankara was relatively unknown during his life-time, and probably for several centuries after, as there is no mention of him in Buddhist or Jain sources for centuries; nor is he mentioned by other important philosophers of the ninth and tenth centuries."
According to King and Roodurmun, until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary
Mandana-Mishra
(Maṇḍana Miśra), the latter considered to be the major representative of Advaita.
Mandana-Mishra
, an older contemporary of Shankara,
was a Mimansa scholar and a follower of
Kumarila
Bhatt, but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the
Brahma-siddhi
59
60
The "theory of error" set forth in the
Brahma-siddhi
became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error,
61
and for a couple of centuries he was the most influential Vedanti (Vedāntin).
62
note 13
His student Vachaspati Mishra
(Vachaspati Miśra)
, who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view,
63
wrote the
Bhamati
(Bhāmatī)
, a commentary on Shankara's
Brahma Sutra Bhashya
, and the
Brahmatattva-samiksa
, a commentary on Mandana Mishra's
Brahma-siddhi
. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Mishra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Mishra.
64
web 2
The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach. It sees the
jiva
(jīva) as the source of avidya (avidyā).
web 2
It sees yogic practice and contemplation as the main factor in the attainment of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors.
65
66
The later Advaita Vedanta tradition incorporated Maṇḍana Mishra into the Shankara-fold, by identifying him with Sureshvara
Sureśvara
(9th century),
67
believing that Maṇḍana Mishra became a disciple of Shankara after a public debate which Shankara won.
59
68
According to
Satchidanandendra Sarasvati
, "almost all the later Advaitis were influenced by Mandana Mishra and
Bhaskara
."
69
He argues that most post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Sureshvara - who has had little influence represents Shankara correctly.
70
In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were maintained by the Sureshvara school.
70
note 14
Vaishnavite Vedanta (10th-14th century)
Hajime Nakamura
states that prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta.
71
Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought;
72
Vedanta became a major influence when it was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines.
73
The early Vedanta scholars were from the upper classes of society, well-educated in traditional culture. They formed a social elite, "sharply distinguished from the general practitioners and theologians of Hinduism."
74
Their teachings were "transmitted among a small number of selected intellectuals".
74
Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references to Vishnu or Shiva.
75
It was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the basis of their doctrines,"
76
whereby "its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive."
74
Examples are
Ramanuja
(11th c.), who aligned
bhakti
, "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views,
web 3
and the
Nath
-tradition.
77
Vijayanagara Empire and Vidyaranya (14th century) - creation of legendary (hagiographic) views
In medieval times, Advaita Vedanta position as most influential Hindu
darsana
started to take shape, as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect.
78
It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established.
11
79
Many of Shankara's biographies were created and published in and after the 14th century, such as Vidyaranya's widely cited
Śankara-vijaya
Vidyaranya
, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386
80
and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire,
81
inspired the re-creation of the Hindu
Vijayanagara Empire
of South India. This may have been in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic
Delhi Sultanate
11
79
81
but his efforts were also targeted at Sri Vaishnava groups, especially
Visishtadvaita
, which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire.
82
Furthermore, sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system.
78
Vidyaranya and his brothers, note Paul Hacker and other scholars,
11
wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible.
83
Vidyaranya was an influential Advaitin, and he created legends to turn Shankara, whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity, into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his
digvijaya
("universal conquest," see below) all over India like a victorious conqueror."
83
84
In his
doxography
Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha
("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all
darsanas
, presenting the other
darsanas
as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system.
85
83
The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and
Visishtadvaita
were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance.
86
Bhedabheda wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy."
87
Such was the influence of the
Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha
, that early Indologists also regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads.
86
And Vidyaranya founded a
matha
, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.
83
84
Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,
81
and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish
mathas
to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.
Hagiographies:
Digvijaya
- "The conquests of Shankara" (14th-17th century)
The birthplace of Adi Shankara at
Kalady
Murti of Shankara at his
Samadhi
Mandir, behind
Kedarnath Temple
, in
Kedarnath
, India
Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scanty.
His existing biographies are not historical accurate documents, but politically motivated hagiographies which were all written several centuries after his time and abound in legends and improbable events,
50
creating the popular image of Shankara as "a religious leader who harmonized the major Hindu traditions, visited various temples, and composed hymns."
88
Sources
Main article:
Digvijaya
There are at least fourteen different known
hagiographies
of Adi Shankara's life.
39
These, as well as other hagiographical works on Shankara, were written many centuries to a thousand years after Shankara's death,
89
in Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit languages, and the hagiographies are filled with legends and fiction, often mutually contradictory.
39
note 15
Many of these are called the
Śankara Vijaya
('The conquests (
digvijaya
) of Shankara'), while some are called
Guruvijaya
Sankarabhyudaya
and
Shankaracaryacarita
. Of these, the
Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya
by Citsukha is the oldest hagiography but only available in excerpts, while
Sankaradigvijaya
by Mādhava (17th c.) and
Sankaravijaya
by Anandagiri are the most cited.
39
Other significant hagiographies are the
Cidvilāsīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ
(of Cidvilāsa, c. between the 15th and 17th centuries), and the
Keraļīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ
(of the Kerala region, extant from c. the 17th century).
90
91
Scholars note that one of the most cited Shankara hagiographies, Anandagiri's, includes stories and legends about historically different people, but all bearing the same name of Sri Shankaracarya or also referred to as Shankara but likely meaning more ancient scholars with names such as Vidya-sankara, Sankara-misra and Sankara-nanda.
Some hagiographies are probably written by those who sought to create a historical basis for their rituals or theories.
89
Early life
According to the oldest hagiographies, Shankara was born in the southern Indian state of
Kerala
, in a village named
Kaladi
39
92
sometimes spelled as Kalati or Karati.
93
note 16
His parents were an aged, childless, couple who led a devout life of service to the poor. They named their child Shankara, meaning "giver of prosperity".
94
His father died while Shankara was very young.
39
Shankara's
upanayanam
, the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his father, and was then performed by his mother.
95
Sannyasa
Shankara's hagiographies describe him as someone who was attracted to the life of
Sannyasa
(hermit) from early childhood. His mother disapproved. A story, found in every hagiography, describes Shankara at age eight going to a river with his mother,
Sivataraka
, to bathe, where he is caught by a crocodile.
96
Shankara calls out to his mother to give him permission to become a
Sannyasin
(a religious ascetic)
or else the crocodile will kill him. The mother agrees and Shankara is freed, and leaves his home for education. He reaches a Saivite sanctuary along a river in a north-central state of India, and becomes the disciple of a teacher named
Govinda Bhagavatpada
96
97
The stories in various hagiographies diverge in details about the first meeting between Shankara and his
Guru
, where they met, as well as what happened later.
96
Several texts suggest Shankara's schooling with Govindapada happened along the river
Narmada
in
Omkareshwar
, but a few place it along the River Ganges in Kashi (
Varanasi
) as well as Badari (
Badrinath
in the Himalayas).
97
The hagiographies vary in their description of where he went, who he met and debated and many other details of his life. Most mention Shankara studying the
Vedas
Upanishads
and
Brahmasutra
with Govindapada, and Shankara authoring several key works in his youth, while he was studying with his teacher.
98
It is with his teacher Govinda, that Shankara studied Gaudapadiya Karika, as Govinda was himself taught by Gaudapada.
39
Most also mention a meeting with scholars of the
Mimansa
school of Hinduism namely Kumarila and Prabhakara, as well as Mandana and various Buddhists, in
Shastrartha
(an Indian tradition of public philosophical debates attended by large number of people, sometimes with royalty).
97
Travels (
Digvijaya
) and disciples
Thereafter, the hagiographies about Shankara vary significantly. Different and widely inconsistent accounts of his life include diverse journeys, pilgrimages, public debates, installation of yantras and lingas, as well as the founding of monastic centers in north, east, west, and south India.
97
While the details and chronology vary, most hagiographies present Shankara as traveling widely within India, Gujarat to Bengal, and participating in public philosophical debates with different orthodox schools of
Hindu philosophy
, as well as heterodox traditions such as Buddhists, Jains, Arhatas, Saugatas, and
Charvakas
99
100
The hagiographies credit him with starting several m
atha
(monasteries), but this is uncertain.
99
Ten monastic orders in different parts of India are generally attributed to Shankara's travel-inspired
Sannyasin
schools, each with Advaita notions, of which four have continued in his tradition: Bharati
(Sringeri)
, Sarasvati
(Kanchi)
, Tirtha and Asramin
(Dvaraka)
101
Other monasteries that record Shankara's visit include Giri, Puri, Vana, Aranya, Parvata and Sagara – all names traceable to the
Ashrama
system in Hinduism and Vedic literature.
101
Shankara had a number of disciple scholars during his travels, including
Padmapadacharya
(also called Sanandana, associated with the text
Atma-bodha)
Sureśvaracharya
Totakacharya
Hastamalakacharya
, Chitsukha, Prthividhara, Chidvilasayati, Bodhendra, Brahmendra, Sadananda and others, who authored their own literature on Shankara and Advaita Vedanta.
99
102
Death
According to hagiographies, associated with the four maths, Adi Shankara died at Kedarnath, a Hindu pilgrimage site in the Himalayas, located in the northern Indian state of
Uttarakhand
18
103
Texts say that he was last seen by his disciples behind the Kedarnath temple, walking into the Himalayas until he could no longer be traced. Some texts locate his death in alternate locations such as
Kanchipuram
in Tamil Nadu or in Kerala.
97
According to the hagiographies related to the monastery of Kanchi, Adi Shankara attains siddhi in Kanchi.
104
Hagiographies: attribution of Mathas and Smarta tradition (14-17th century)
See also:
Dashanami Sampradaya
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the founder of the
Daśanāmi Sampradāya
of
Hindu
monasticism
, and the
Panchayatana puja
and
Ṣaṇmata
of the
Smarta tradition
Dashanami Sampradaya and mathas
Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of
renunciation
. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:
web 4
Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values, attitudes and metaphysics.
web 4
In the 14th century an elaborate legend was created, presenting Shankara as an incarnation of
Shiva
to facilitate the adoption of his teachings by previously Shaiva (Śaiva)-oriented
Mathas (
Maṭhas
) in the Vijayanagara Empire.
From the 14th century onwards, hagiographies began to present Shankara as an incarnation of Shiva, portraying him as establishing the
Daśanāmi Sampradaya
105
organizing a section of the
Ekadandi monks
under an umbrella grouping of ten names.
web 4
Several other Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions, however, remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis.
106
107
According to tradition, Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four
mathas
, with the headquarters at
Dvārakā
in the West,
Jagannatha Puri
in the East,
Sringeri
in the South and
Badrikashrama
in the North.
web 4
Each
matha
was headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya.
According to Paul Hacker, the system may have been initiated by
Vidyaranya
(14th c.), who may have founded a
matha
, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself, as part of his campaign to propagate Shankara's Advaita Vedanta.
83
84
Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,
81
and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (
mathas
) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.
Smarta Tradition
Main article:
Smarta Tradition
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher
108
109
and reformer of the
Smartism
sampradaya
, which is one of four major
sampradaya
of
Hinduism
110
109
According to
Alf Hiltebeitel
, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived
smarta
tradition:
Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and
smarta
orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend the
varnasramadharma
theory as defining the path of
karman
, but had developed the practice of
pancayatanapuja
("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's
istadevata
("deity of choice").
111
Panchayatana puja
IAST
Pañcāyatana pūjā
) is a system of
puja
(worship) in the Smarta tradition.
112
It consists of the worship of five deities set in a
quincunx
pattern,
113
the five deities being
Shiva
Vishnu
Devi
Surya
, and an
Ishta Devata
such as
Kartikeya
, or
Ganesha
or any personal god of devotee's preference.
114
115
Sometimes the Ishta Devata is the sixth deity in the mandala.
112
while in the
Shanmata
system,
116
Skanda
, also known as
Kartikeya
and
Murugan
, is added. Panchayatana puja is a practice that became popular in medieval India,
112
and has been attributed to Adi Shankara.
117
However, archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara.
note 17
Neo-Vedanta (19-20th century)
Main article:
Neo-Vedanta
Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th-century, when
neo-Vedantins
and western
Orientalists
elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition,"
119
and became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.
120
21st century
A 108-foot statue of Adi Shankara was unveiled near
Omkareshwar Temple
in
Madhya Pradesh
to commemorate his life and work on 21 September 2023.
121
Another 12-foot statue at Kedarnath was unveiled by Indian Prime Minister
Narendra Modi
on 5 November 2019, is made of chlorite schist and weighs 35 tonnes.
122
123
Adi Shankaracharya Math in
Pashupatinath Temple, Nepal
Works
Further information:
Adi Shankara bibliography
Adi Shankara is highly esteemed in contemporary Advaita Vedanta, and over 300 texts are attributed to his name, including commentaries (
Bhāṣya
), original philosophical expositions (
Prakaraṇa grantha
) and poetry (
Stotra
).
18
19
However, most of these are not authentic works of Shankara, and are likely to be written by his admirers, or scholars whose name was also Shankaracharya.
20
21
Piantelli has published a complete list of works attributed to Adi Sankara, along with issues of authenticity for most.
124
Authentic works
Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (
bhashyas
) on ancient Indian texts. Shankara's masterpiece of commentary is the
Brahmasutrabhashya
(literally, commentary on
Brahma Sutras
). The Brahma Sutras are a fundamental text of the
Vedanta
school of Hinduism.
18
Shankara refers to or cites some passages from works attributed to Gaudapada (the teacher of Shankara's teacher) in his commentaries, revealing a line of influence.
125
According to Flood, of the Upanishadic commentaries only his commentaries on the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
and the
Taittiriya Upanishad
are authentic.
126
Hacker and Mayeda also accept as authentic the commentaries on the
Chandogya Upanishad
, the
Aitareya Upanishad
, the
Kena Upanishad
note 18
the
Isha Upanishad
, the
Katha Upanishad
, and the
Prashna Upanishad
18
20
128
The authenticity of the commentary on the
Mandukya Upanishad
and
Gaudapadas
Madukya-karika has been questioned.
129
128
Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the
Bhagavad Gita
(part of his
Prasthana Trayi
Bhasya).
22
His
Vivarana
(tertiary notes) on the commentary by Vedavyasa on
Yogasutras
as well as those on Apastamba Dharma-sũtras (
Adhyatama-patala-bhasya
) are accepted by scholars as authentic works of Shankara.
129
23
Among the
Stotra
(poetic works), the
Dakshinamurti Stotra
, the
Mohamudgara Stotra(Bhaja govindam)
, the
Shivanandalahari
, the
Carpata-panjarika
, th
e Visnu-satpadi
, the
Harimide
, the
Dasha-shloki
, and the
Krishna-staka
are likely to be authentic.
129
130
Shankara also authored
Upadesasahasri
, his most important original philosophical work.
23
24
24
Of other original
Prakaranas
(प्रकरण, monographs, treatise), seventy-six works are attributed to Shankara. Modern era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upadhyaya accept five and thirty-nine works respectively as authentic.
131
Murti of Shankara at the
SAT Temple
in Santa Cruz, California
Shankara's stotras considered authentic include those dedicated to Krishna (
Vaishnavism
) and one to Shiva (
Shaivism
) – often considered two different sects within Hinduism. Scholars suggest that these
stotra
are not sectarian, but essentially Advaitic and reach for a unified universal view of Vedanta.
130
Shankara's commentary on the
Brahma Sutras
is the oldest surviving. However, in that commentary, he mentions older commentaries like those of Dravida, Bhartrprapancha and others which are either lost or yet to be found.
132
Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic
Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Shankara, but their authenticity is highly doubtful.
20
128
133
Similarly, commentaries on several early and later Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars
134
to be his works, and are likely works of later scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad, Gopalatapaniya Upanishad. However, in Brahmasutra-Bhasya, Shankara cites some of these Upanishads as he develops his arguments, but the historical notes left by his companions and disciples, along with major differences in style and the content of the commentaries on later Upanishad have led scholars to conclude that the commentaries on later Upanishads were not Shankara's work.
128
The authenticity of Shankara being the author of
Vivekacūḍāmaṇi
135
has been questioned,
25
26
though it is "so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider [this work] would be incomplete."
26
note 19
According to Grimes, "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara," while "traditionalists tend to accept it."
136
Nevertheless, Grimes argues that "there is still a likelihood that Śaṅkara is the author of the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi,"
136
noting that "it differs in certain respects from his other works in that it addresses itself to a different audience and has a different emphasis and purpose."
137
Vidyashankara temple at
Sringeri Sharada Peetham
Shringeri
The
Aparokshanubhuti
and
Atma bodha
are also attributed to Shankara, as his original philosophical treatises, but this is doubtful. Paul Hacker has also expressed some reservations that the compendium
Sarva-darsana-siddhanta Sangraha
was completely authored by Shankara, because of difference in style and thematic inconsistencies in parts.
134
Similarly,
Gayatri-bhasya
is doubtful to be Shankara's work.
128
Other commentaries that are highly unlikely to be Shankara's work include those on
Uttaragita
Siva-gita
Brahma-gita
Lalita-shasranama
Suta-samhita
and
Sandhya-bhasya
. The commentary on the Tantric work
Lalita-trisati-bhasya
attributed to Shankara is also unauthentic.
128
Shankara is widely credited with commentaries on other scriptural works, such as the
Vishnu sahasranāma
and the
Sānatsujātiya
138
but both these are considered apocryphal by scholars who have expressed doubts.
128
Hastamalakiya-bhasya
is also widely believed in India to be Shankara's work and it is included in
Samata
-edition of Shankara's works, but some scholars consider it to be the work of Shankara's student.
128
Philosophy and practice
Atma Shatakam (The song of the Self)
I am Consciousness, I am
Bliss
, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
note 20
Without hate, without infatuation, without craving, without greed;
Neither arrogance, nor conceit, never jealous I am;
Neither
dharma
, nor
artha
, neither
kama
, nor
moksha
am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
Without sins, without merits, without elation, without sorrow;
Neither mantra, nor rituals, neither pilgrimage, nor Vedas;
Neither the experiencer, nor experienced, nor the experience am I,
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
Without fear, without death, without discrimination, without caste;
Neither father, nor mother, never born I am;
Neither kith, nor kin, neither teacher, nor student am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
Without form, without figure, without resemblance am I;
Vitality of all senses, in everything I am;
Neither attached, nor released am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
— Adi Shankara, Nirvana Shatakam, Hymns 3–6
140
According to Koller, Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's most important "spiritual tradition" for more than a thousand years.
141
note 21
Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism, namely
Atman
and
Brahman
142
According to Nakamura, Shankara was not an original thinker, but systematised the works of preceding philosophers.
143
The central theme of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the identity of the Self (
Ātman
) and
Brahman
24
28
Moksha
is
attained in this life
by recognizing the identity of
Atman
and
Brahman
24
as mediated by the
Mahavakyas
, especially
Tat Tvam Asi
, "That you are."
Historical context
Further information:
History of India
and
History of Hinduism
Takht-i-Suleiman, Srinugger Srinagar," a photo by Samuel Bourne, 1860's* (BL) by tradition, this is the hill on which Shankaracharya meditated during his round of travels
Shankara lived in the time of the great "Late classical Hinduism",
144
which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE.
144
This era was one of political instability that followed the
Gupta dynasty
and
King Harsha
of the 7th century CE.
145
Power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vassal states".
146
note 22
The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",
146
as reflected in the
Tantric
Mandala
, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.
147
The disintegration of central power also led to regionalisation of religiosity and religious rivalry.
148
note 23
Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"
148
was diminished.
148
Rural and devotional movements arose, along with
Shaivism
Vaisnavism
Bhakti
and
Tantra
148
though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development".
148
Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords,
148
and
Buddhism
Jainism
Islam
and various traditions within Hinduism were competing for members.
149
150
151
Buddhism in particular had emerged as a powerful influence in India's spiritual traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium CE,
145
152
but lost its position after the 8th century, and began to disappear in India.
148
This was reflected in the change of puja-ceremonies at the courts in the 8th century, where Hindu gods replaced the Buddha as the "supreme, imperial deity".
note 24
Systematizer of Advaita
According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".
153
Shankara "was the person who synthesized the
Advaita-vāda
which had previously existed before him".
153
According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works,
154
synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita.
155
According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita
Vedānta
in the 8th century, reforming
Badarayana
's Vedānta tradition.
24
According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta,
154
yet he also notices that it is only since
Deussens
's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India."
Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with
moksha
, "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology,"
following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher."
156
Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic [...] though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."
157
Shankara has been described as influenced by Shaivism and Shaktism, but his works and philosophy suggest greater overlap with Vaishnavism, influence of
Yoga
school of Hinduism, but most distinctly express his Advaitin convictions with a monistic view of spirituality,
24
39
158
and his commentaries mark a turn from realism to idealism.
159
160
Moksha
- liberating knowledge of Brahman
The central theme of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the true identity of
jivatman
(individual self) as
Ātman
Brahman
24
28
note 25
One of Shankara's main concerns was establishing the Upanishads as an independent means of knowledge beyond the ritually oriented
Mimansa
exegesis of the vedas.
31
30
note 4
note 5
According to Shankara, the one unchanging entity (Brahman) alone is real, while changing entities do not have absolute existence. Shankara's primary objective was to explain how
moksha
is
attained in this life
by recognizing the true identity of
jivatman
as
Atman-Brahman
24
as mediated by the
Mahāvākyas
, especially
Tat Tvam Asi
, "That you are." Correct knowledge of
jivatman
and
Atman-Brahman
is the attainment of
Brahman
, immortality,
161
and leads to
moksha
(liberation) from suffering
note 26
and
samsara
, the cycle of rebirth.
162
This is stated by Shankara as follows:
I am other than name, form and action.
My nature is ever free!
I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman.
I am pure Awareness, always non-dual.
— Adi Shankara,
Upadesasahasri
11.7,
162
Pramanas
- means of knowledge
Shankara recognized the means of knowledge,
163
note 27
but his thematic focus was upon
metaphysics
and
soteriology
, and he took for granted the
pramanas
166
that is
epistemology
or "means to gain knowledge, reasoning methods that empower one to gain reliable knowledge".
citation needed
According to Sengaku Mayeda, "in no place in his works [...] does he give any systematic account of them,"
166
taking
Atman-Brahman
to be self-evident (
svapramanaka
) and self-established (
svatahsiddha
), and "an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release."
166
Mayeda notes that Shankara's arguments are "strikingly realistic and not idealistic," arguing that
jnana
is based on existing things (
vastutantra
), and "not upon Vedic injunction (
codanatantra
) nor upon man (
purusatantra
).
166
According to Michael Comans (aka Vasudevacharya), Shankara considered perception and inference as a primary most reliable epistemic means, and where these means to knowledge help one gain "what is beneficial and to avoid what is harmful", there is no need for or wisdom in referring to the scriptures.
167
In certain matters related to metaphysics and ethics, says Shankara, the testimony and wisdom in scriptures such as the Vedas and the Upanishads become important.
168
Merrell-Wolff states that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet he never rests his case on the ancient texts, rather proves each thesis, point by point using the
pramanas
(means of knowledge) of reason and experience.
169
170
Hacker and Phillips note that his insight into rules of reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic steps is "doubtlessly the suggestion" of Shankara in Brahma-sutra-bhasya, an insight that flowers in the works of his companion and disciple Padmapada.
171
Logic versus revelation
Stcherbatsky in 1927 criticized Shankara for demanding the use of logic from
Madhyamika
Buddhists, while himself resorting to revelation as a source of knowledge.
32
note 28
Sircar in 1933 offered a different perspective and stated, "Sankara recognizes the value of the law of contrariety and self-alienation from the standpoint of idealistic logic; and it has consequently been possible for him to integrate appearance with reality."
172
Recent scholarship states that Shankara's arguments on revelation are about
apta vacana
(Sanskrit: आप्तवचन, sayings of the wise, relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
173
174
It is part of his and Advaita Vedanta's epistemological foundation.
173
The Advaita Vedanta tradition considers such testimony epistemically valid, asserting that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.
175
Shankara considered the teachings in the Vedas and Upanishads as
apta vacana
and a valid source of knowledge.
173
He suggests the importance of teacher-disciple relationship on combining logic and revelation to attain
moksha
in his text
Upadeshasahasri
176
Anantanand Rambachan
and others state that Shankara did not rely exclusively on Vedic statements, but also used a range of logical methods and reasoning methodology and other
pramanas
177
178
Anubhava
Anantanand Rambachan
summarizes the widely held view on the role of
anubhava
in Shankara's epistemology as follows, before critiquing it:
According to these [widely represented contemporary] studies, Shankara only accorded a provisional validity to the knowledge gained by inquiry into the words of the
Śruti
(Vedas) and did not see the latter as the unique source (
pramana
) of
Brahmajnana
. The affirmations of the Śruti, it is argued, need to be verified and confirmed by the knowledge gained through direct experience (
anubhava
) and the authority of the Śruti, therefore, is only secondary.
22
Yoga and contemplative exercises
Shankara considered the purity and steadiness of mind achieved in
Yoga
as an aid to gaining
moksha
knowledge, but such yogic state of mind cannot in itself give rise to such knowledge.
179
To Shankara, that knowledge of
Brahman
springs only from inquiry into the teachings of the Upanishads.
180
The method of yoga, encouraged in Shankara's teachings notes Comans, includes withdrawal of mind from sense objects as in Patanjali's system, but it is not complete thought suppression, instead it is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness".
181
Describing Shankara's style of yogic practice, Comans writes:
the type of yoga which Sankara presents here is a method of merging, as it were, the particular (visesa) into the general (samanya). For example, diverse sounds are merged in the sense of hearing, which has greater generality insofar as the sense of hearing is the locus of all sounds. The sense of hearing is merged into the mind, whose nature consists of thinking about things, and the mind is in turn merged into the intellect, which Sankara then says is made into 'mere cognition' (vijnanamatra); that is, all particular cognitions resolve into their universal, which is cognition as such, thought without any particular object. And that in turn is merged into its universal, mere Consciousness (prajnafnaghana), upon which everything previously referred to ultimately depends.
181
Shankara rejected those yoga system variations that suggest complete thought suppression leads to liberation, as well the view that the
Shrutis
teach liberation as something apart from the knowledge of the oneness of the Self. Knowledge alone and insights relating to true nature of things, taught Shankara, is what liberates. He placed great emphasis on the study of the Upanisads, emphasizing them as necessary and sufficient means to gain Self-liberating knowledge. Sankara also emphasized the need for and the role of
Guru
(Acharya, teacher) for such knowledge.
181
Samanvayat Tatparya Linga
Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarks in the opening chapter of his Brahmasutra-Bhasya that the
Anvaya
(theme or purport) of any treatise can only be correctly understood if one attends to the
Samanvayat Tatparya Linga
, that is six characteristics of the text under consideration: (1) the common in
Upakrama
(introductory statement) and
Upasamhara
(conclusions); (2)
Abhyasa
(message repeated); (3)
Apurvata
(unique proposition or novelty); (4)
Phala
(fruit or result derived); (5)
Arthavada
(explained meaning, praised point) and (6)
Yukti
(verifiable reasoning).
182
183
While this methodology has roots in the theoretical works of
Nyaya
school of Hinduism, Shankara consolidated and applied it with his unique exegetical method called
Anvaya-Vyatireka
, which states that for proper understanding one must "accept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics" and "exclude meanings that are incompatible with any".
184
185
The
Mahāvākyas
- true identity as Ātman-Brahman
Moksha
, liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence
Atman-
Brahman
162
161
According to Shankara, the individual jivĀtman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical.
186
The real self is
Sat
, "the Existent," that is,
Ātman-Brahman
187
188
note 29
Whereas the difference between Ātman and non-Ātman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the true identity of jivĀtman as Brahman is revealed by the
shruti
, especially the Upanishadic statement
tat tvam asi
Mahāvākyas
According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the true identity of
jivĀtman
as
Brahman
. In the Advaita Vedānta tradition, four of those statements, the
Mahāvākyas
, which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity.
189
190
They are:
तत्त्वमसि,
tat tvam asi
Chandogya VI.8.7
. Traditionally rendered as "That Thou Art" (that you are),
191
192
193
with
tat
in Ch.U.6.8.7 referring to
sat
, "the Existent"
194
195
196
); correctly translated as "That's how [thus] you are,"
191
193
197
with
tat
in Ch.U.6.12.3, it' original location from where it was copied to other verses,
191
referring to "the very nature of all existence as permeated by [the finest essence]"
198
199
अहं ब्रह्मास्मि,
aham brahmāsmi
Brhadāranyaka I.4.10
, "I am Brahman," or "I am Divine."
200
प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म,
prajñānam brahma
Aitareya V.3
, "
Prajñānam
note 30
is Brahman
."
note 31
अयमात्मा ब्रह्म,
ayamātmā brahma
Mandukya II
, "This Atman is Brahman."
That you are
The longest chapter of Shankara's
Upadesasahasri
, chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (
sat
), and the identity expressed in
Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7
in the
mahavakya
(great sentence) "
tat tvam asi
", "that thou art."
203
204
In this statement, according to Shankara,
tat
refers to
Sat
204
"the Existent"
194
195
205
206
Existence, Being,
207
or Brahman,
208
the Real, the "Root of the world,"
204
note 32
the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists.
195
205
207
"Tvam" refers to one's real I,
pratyagatman
or inner Self,
209
the "direct Witness within everything,"
210
"free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies,"
211
the essence,
Atman
, which the individual at the core is.
212
213
As Shankara states in the
Upadesasahasri
Up.I.174: "Through such sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own
Atman
, the Witness of all the internal organs." Up.I.18.190: "Through such sentences as "[Thou art] the Existent" [...] right knowledge concerning the inner
Atman
will become clearer." Up.I.18.193-194: "In the sentence "Thou art That" [...] [t]he word "That" means inner
Atman
."
214
The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that
Atman
is different from
Brahman
215
According to Nakamura, the non-duality of
atman
and
Brahman
"is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya"
216
c.
600 CE
or earlier).
28
Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to
Brahma Sutra
verse I.1.4:
When the metaphorical or false
atman
is non-existent, [the ideas of my] child, [my] body are sublated. Therefore, when it is realized that 'I am the existent
Brahman, atman
, how can anyduty exist?
217
From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning."
218
Meditation on the
Mahāvākya
In the
Upadesasahasri Shankara
, Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic
mahavyaka
. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing,"
29
and rejects
prasamcaksa
or
prasamkhyana
meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends
parisamkhyana
219
separating
Atman
from everything that is not
Atman
, that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them.
220
Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only
Atman
exists, stating that "all the sentences of the
Upanishads
concerning non-duality of
Atman
should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated."
221
As Mayeda states, "how they [
prasamcaksa
or
prasamkhyana
versus
parisamkhyana
] differ from each other is not known."
222
Prasamkhyana
was advocated by Mandana Misra,
223
the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century.
62
note 13
"According to Mandana, the
mahavakyas
are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about
brahmajnana
. The
Vedanta-vakyas
convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (
prasamkhyana
). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the
mahavakyas
224
Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra.
225
In contrast, the
Vivarana
school founded by Prakasatman (
c.
1200
–1300)
226
follows Shankara closely, arguing that the
mahavakyas
are the direct cause of gaining knowledge.
227
Renouncement of ritualism
Shankara, in his text
Upadesasahasri
, discourages ritual worship such as oblations to
Deva
(God), because that assumes the Self within is different from the
Brahman
note 4
note 5
The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".
229
230
The false notion that
Atman
is different from
Brahman
215
is connected with the novice's conviction that (
Upadeshasahasri
II.1.25)
...I am one [and] He is another; I am ignorant, experience pleasure and pain, am bound and a transmigrator [whereas] he is essentially different from me, the god not subject to transmigration. By worshipping Him with oblation, offerings, homage and the like through the [performance of] the actions prescribed for [my] class and stage of life, I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence. How am I he?
231
Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-
Brahman
," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like.
232
According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer,"
233
"so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own
Atman
, the witness of all internal organs,"
234
and not from any actions.
235
note 33
With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of
Atman
] with the highest
Atman
."
237
However, Shankara also asserts that Self-knowledge is realized when one's mind is purified by an ethical life that observes
Yamas
such as
Ahimsa
(non-injury, non-violence to others in body, mind and thoughts) and
Niyamas
. Rituals and rites such as
yajna
(a fire ritual), asserts Shankara, can help draw and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge.
238
He emphasizes the need for ethics such as
Akrodha
and
Yamas
during
Brahmacharya
, stating the lack of ethics as causes that prevent students from attaining knowledge.
238
239
Īśvara
Shankara, while rejecting empirical reality due to his position of nonduality, still attributes value to the universe as it identifies with
Īśvara
. He sometimes blurs the distinction between
Īśvara
and
Brahman
, using various terms for both. However, he generally separates
Īśvara
, associated with the universe and its attributes, from the absolute nondual Brahman. Drawing from the Upanishads, Shankara sees
Īśvara
as the universe's material and intelligent cause, emanating it through the power of
maya
, thereby making the universe sentient and self-aware. In relation to the
Mandukya Upanishad
, Shankara compares the universe's unmanifest state to
Īśvara
in a deep dreamless cosmic state.
240
Shankara's conception of Brahman as the cause of the world does not invoke creation in the literal sense but
vivartta
(manifoldness without transformation), distinct from
satkaryavada
(actual transformation). Shankara argues that insentient matter cannot act purposefully and rejects any actual transformation of Brahman.
241
Influences of Mahayana Buddhism
See also:
Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta
Shankara's Vedanta shows similarities with
Mahayana Buddhism
; opponents have even accused Shankara of being a "crypto-Buddhist,"
35
34
36
note 6
a qualification which is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, given the differences between these two schools. According to Shankara, a major difference between Advaita and Mahayana Buddhism are their views on Atman and Brahman.
37
According to both Loy and Jayatilleke, more differences can be discerned.
242
243
Suthren Hirst and others have also noted that Shankara's advaita may stem from a Vaishnavite advaita tradition.
244
Similarities and influences
Despite Shankara's criticism of certain schools of Mahayana Buddhism, Shankara's philosophy shows strong similarities with the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy which he attacks.
32
According to S.N. Dasgupta,
Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists. His
Brahman
was very much like the
sunya
of Nagarjuna [...] The debts of Shankara to the self-luminosity of the Vijnanavada Buddhism can hardly be overestimated. There seems to be much truth in the accusations against Shankara by
Vijnana Bhiksu
and others that he was a hidden Buddhist himself. I am led to think that Shankara's philosophy is largely a compound of
Vijnanavada
and
Sunyavada
Buddhism with the Upanisad notion of the permanence of self superadded.
33
According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a
via negativa
neti neti
). Mudgal concludes therefore that
... the difference between
Sunyavada
(Mahayana) philosophy of Buddhism and
Advaita
philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind.
245
Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its
Maya
and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism.
246
247
Ramanuja
, the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedānta, accused Adi Shankara of being a
Prachanna Bauddha
, that is, a "crypto-Buddhist",
34
35
and someone who was undermining theistic
Bhakti
devotionalism.
247
The non-Advaita scholar
Bhaskara
of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.
247
Differences
The qualification of "crypto-Buddhist" is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on
Atman
Anatta
and
Brahman
37
note 7
There are differences in the conceptual means of "liberation."
Nirvana
, a term more often used in Buddhism, is the liberating 'blowing out' of craving, aided by the realization and acceptance that there is no Self (
anatman
) as the center of perception, craving, and delusion.
Moksha
, a term more common in Hinduism, is the similar liberating release from craving and ignorance, yet aided by the realization and acceptance that one's inner Self is not a personal 'ego-self', but a Universal Self.
242
248
Films
Shankaracharya
(1927), Indian silent film about Shankara by Kali Prasad Ghosh.
249
Jagadguru Shrimad Shankaracharya
(1928), Indian silent film by Parshwanath Yeshwant Altekar.
249
Jagadguru Shankaracharya
(1955), Indian Hindi film by Sheikh Fattelal.
249
In 1977
Jagadguru Aadisankaran
, a Malayalam film directed by
P. Bhaskaran
was released in which
Murali Mohan
plays the role of Adult Aadi Sankaran and
Master Raghu
plays childhood.
In 1983 a film directed by
G.V. Iyer
named
Adi Shankaracharya
was premiered, the first film ever made entirely in
Sanskrit
language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya's works were compiled.
citation needed
The movie received the Indian
National Film Awards
for
Best Film
Best Screenplay
Best Cinematography
and
Best Audiography
250
251
On 15 August 2013,
Jagadguru Adi Shankara
was released in an Indian Telugu-language biographical film written and directed by J. K. Bharavi and was later dubbed in Kannada with the same title, by Upendra giving narration for the Kannada dubbed version
See also
Dakshinamurti Stotra
Dwarka Kalika Pitha (West), Dwarka, Gujarat
Adi Shri Gauḍapādāchārya
Govardhan Peetham (East), Puri, Odisha
Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya
Jnana Yoga
Jyotirmath Peetham (North), Jyotirmath, Badrikashram, Uttarakhand
Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu
Pātañjalayogaśāstravivaraṇa
Śānkarasmṛti (Laghudharmaprakrāśikā)
Self-consciousness (Vedanta)
Shivananda Lahari
Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
Soundarya Lahari
Shri Sringeri Sharada Peetham (South), Sringeri, Karnataka
Swami Vivekananda
Vairagya
Vivekachudamani
Eka shloki
Notes
Modern scholarship places Shankara in the earlier part of the 8th century CE (c. 700–750).(
Koller 2013
, p. 99,
Comans 2000
, p. 163,
Mayeda 2015
) Earlier generations of scholars proposed 788–820 CE.(
Comans 2000
, p. 163,
Mayeda 2015
The cardinal Advaita matha's assign his dates as early as 509–477 BCE.
Adi
means "first", to distinguish him from other Shankaras.
He is also known as Shankara Bhagavatpada (
Śaṅkara Bhagavatpāda
), Shankara Bhagavatpadacharya (
Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya
) or
Shankaracharya
, sometimes spelled Sankaracharya.
Shankara, himself, had renounced all religious ritual acts.
228
For an example of Shankara's reasoning "why rites and ritual actions should be given up", see Karl Potter on p. 220;
Elsewhere, Shankara's
Bhasya
on various Upanishads repeat "give up rituals and rites", see for example
Shankara's Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
pp. 348–350, 754–757
Compare
Mookerji 2011
on
Svādhyāya
(Vedic learning).
Mookerji (2011
, pp. 29–31) notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the
Ŗik
(words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of
dharma
and
Parabrahman
Mookerji (2011
, pp. 29, 34) concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of
their meaning
was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation."
Mookerji (2011
, p. 35) refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts,
akshara-praptī
, is followed by
artha
bodha
, perception of their meaning." (
Artha
may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context. See:
Sanskrit English Dictionary
University of Cologne, Germany (2009); Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4,
ISBN
81-208-0310-8
, Motilal Banarsidass, pp 610 (note 17).) According to
Mookerji (2011
, p. 36), "the realization of
Truth
" and the knowledge of
paramatman
as revealed to the
rishis
is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.
King (1995
, p. 183): "It is well-known that Sankara was criticized by later (rival) Vedantins as a crypto-Buddhist (
pracchana bauddha
).
Atman versus anatman:
Isaeva 1993
, pp. 60, 145–154)
KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge,
ISBN
978-81-208-0619-1
, p. 246–249, from note 385 onwards
Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press,
ISBN
978-0-7914-2217-5
, p. 64: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of
Ātman
is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."
Edward Roer (Translator),
Shankara's Introduction
at
Google Books
Katie Javanaud (2013),
Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?
, Philosophy Now
John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN
978-81-208-0158-5
, p. 63: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
The successive heads of the Kanchi and all other major Hindu Advaita tradition monasteries have been called
Shankaracharya
leading to some confusion, discrepancies and scholarly disputes. The chronology stated in Kanchi Matha texts recognizes five major Shankaras: Adi, Kripa, Ujjvala, Muka and Abhinava. According to the Kanchi Matha tradition, it is "Abhinava Shankara" that western scholarship recognizes as the Advaita scholar Shankara, while the monastery continues to recognize its 509 BCE chronology.
40
41
Also, as per astronomical details given in books Shankara Satpatha, Shankara Vijaya, Brihat Shakara Vijaya and Prachina Shankara Vijaya, it is believed that Shankaracharya was born in 509 BCE.
citation needed
According to Kanhi Peetham, having established his divine mission, the incomparable Sankara attained his BrahmTbhava (identity with Brahman) at Kanchi, in the precincts of Sri Kamakshi, in his 32nd year, in 2625 Kali, in the cyclic year Raktakshi, corresponding to 476 B.C.
42
Arun Kumar Upadhyay: "The copper-plate of King Sudhanwa, said to have been issued to Sankara and now in the possession of Government on behalf of Dwärká Mutt, bears the date as Yudhisthira Saka 2663, Åsvin Sukla 15. This gives us 476 B.C. as the relevant year of his death. The copper-plate seems to have been issued to Sankara right towards the end of his career. King Sudhanwa is referred to not only by Jinavijaya but also by biographers like Madhava and Sadánanda."
44
Citsukha's Brhat-Sankara Vijaya also gives us the year of 2663 of Yudhi. Saka i.e., 476 B.C. as the year of Sankara's passing away.
45
Tiele based this dating on Yajnesvara Sastri's treatise
Aryavidya-sudhakar
("The Moon of Noble Knowledge"), who in turn cited Bhatta Nilakantha's work
Sankara-mandara-saurabha
("The fragrance of Sankara's paradise tree").
48
The date 788–820 is also among those considered acceptable by
Swami Tapasyananda
, though he raises a number of questions.
51
Koller 2013
, p. 99: "the best recent scholarship argues that he was born in 700 and died in 750 CE."
King 2002
, p. 128: "Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence."
Potter (2006
, pp. 6–7): "...these modern interpreters are implying that most Advaitins after Samkara's time are confused and basically mistaken, and that 99% of the extant classical interpretive literature on Samkara's philosophy is off the mark. This is clearly a remarkably radical conclusion. Yet, there is good reason to think that it may well be true.
The hagiographies of Shankara mirror the pattern of synthesizing facts, fiction and legends as with other ancient and medieval era Indian scholars. Some hagiographic poems depict Shankara as a reincarnation of deity
Shiva
, much like other Indian scholars are revered as reincarnation of other deities; for example, Mandana-misra is depicted as an embodiment of deity
Brahma
, Citsukha of deity
Varuna
, Anandagiri of
Agni
, among others. See
Isaeva (1993
, pp. 69–72).
This may be present day
Kalady
in central Kerala. The house he was born in is still maintained as
Melpazhur Mana
Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the
Gupta Empire
period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from
Ajmer
) has been dated to belong to the
Kushan Empire
era (pre-300 CE).
118
The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.
118
According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE embed the
pancayatana
architecture very commonly, from
Odisha
to
Karnataka
to
Kashmir
; and the temples containing fusion deities such as
Harihara
(half Shiva, half Vishnu) are set in Panchayatana worship style.
113
Kena Upanishad has two commentaries that are attributed to Shankara – Kenopnishad Vakyabhasya and Kenopnishad Padabhasya; scholars contest whether both are authentic, several suggesting that the Vakyabhasya is unlikely to be authentic.
127
See also IndiaDivine.org,
Authorship of Vivekachudamani
and arshabodha.org,
Sri Sankara's Vivekachudamani
, pp. 3–4,
The Question of Authorship of Vivekachudamani
Swami Vivekananda translates
Shivoham, Shivoham
as "I am he, I am he".
139
This includes also the dualistic Vaishna bhakti traditions, which have also commented on the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras, but take a different stance.
Michaels (2004
, p. 41):
In the east the
Pala Empire
(770–1125 CE),
in the west and north the
Gurjara-Pratihara
(7th–10th century),
in the southwest the
Rashtrakuta Dynasty
(752–973),
in the Dekkhan the
Chalukya dynasty
(7th–8th century),
and in the south the
Pallava dynasty
(7th–9th century) and the
Chola dynasty
(9th century).
McRae (2003)
: This resembles the development of
Chinese Chán
during the
An Lu-shan rebellion
and the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)
, during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.
Inden (1998
, p. 67): "Before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa ... This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland) ... Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."
Brahman is not to be confused with the personalised godhead
Brahma
The suffering created by the workings of the mind entangled with physical reality
Mayeda refers to statements from Shankara regarding epistemology (
pramana-janya
) in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri, and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra-bhasya.
164
165
NB: some manuscripts list Upadesasahasri verse 1.18.133 as 2.18.133, while Mayeda lists it as 1.18.133, because of interchanged chapter numbering. See Upadesa Sahasri: A Thousand Teachings, S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949),
ISBN
978-81-7120-059-7
, Verse 2.8.133, p. 258; Karl H Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 3, Princeton University Press,
ISBN
978-0-691-61486-1
, p. 249
Shcherbatsky 1927
, pp. 44–45: "Shankara accuses them of disregarding all logic and refuses to enter in a controversy with them. The position of Shankara is interesting because, at heart, he is in full agreement with the Madhyamikas, at least in the main lines, since both maintain the reality of the One-without-a-second, and the mirage of the manifold. But Shankara, as an ardent hater of Buddhism, would never confess that. He therefore treats the Madhyamika with great contempt [...] on the charge that the Madhyamika denies the possibility of cognizing the Absolute by logical methods (pramana).
Vachaspati Mishra
in the
Bhamati
rightly interprets this point as referring to the opinion of the Madhyamikas that logic is incapable to solve the question about what existence or non-existence really are. This opinion Shankara himself, as is well known, shares. He does not accept the authority of logic as a means of cognizing the Absolute, but he deems it a privilege of the Vedantin to fare without logic, since he has Revelation to fall back upon. From all his opponents, he requires strict logical methods."
Highest self:
Shankara,
Upadesasahasri
I.18.3: "I am ever-free, the existent" (
Sat
). I.18.6: "The two [contradictory] notions "I am the Existent-
Brahman
" and "I act," have
Atman
as their witness. It is considered more reasonable to give up only [that one] of the two [notions] which arises from ignorance. I.18.7: "The notion, "I am the Existent," arises from right means of knowledge [while] the other notion has its origin in fallacious means of knowledge."
252
Sivananda 1993
, p. 219: "Brahman (the Absolute) is alone real; this world is unreal; and the Jiva or individual soul is non-different from Brahman."
Deutsch 1973
, p. 54: "[the] essential status [of the individual human person] is that of unqualified reality, of identity with the Absolute [...] the self (
jiva
) is only misperceived: the self is really Brahman."
Koller 2013
, pp. 100–101: "Atman, which is identical to Brahman, is ultimately the only reality and [...] the appearance of plurality is entirely the work of ignorance [...] the self is ultimately of the nature of Atman/Brahman [...] Brahman alone is ultimately real."
Bowker 2000
: "There is only Brahman, which is necessarily undifferentiated. It follows that there cannot even be a difference, or duality, between the human subject, or self, and Brahman, for Brahman must be that very self (since Brahman is the reality underlying all appearance). The goal of human life and wisdom must, therefore, be the realization that the self (ātman) is Brahman."
Menon 2012
: "The experiencing self (jīva) and the transcendental self of the Universe (ātman) are in reality identical (both are Brahman), though the individual self seems different as space within a container seems different from space as such. These cardinal doctrines are represented in the anonymous verse "brahma satyam jagan mithya; jīvo brahmaiva na aparah" (Brahman is alone True, and this world of plurality is an error; the individual self is not different from Brahman)."
Hacker (1995
, p. 88) notes that Shankara uses two groups of words to denote 'atman': "One group - principally
jiva
vijnanatman
, and
sarira
- expresses the illusory aspect of the soul [...] But in addition there are the two expressions
atman
and
pratyagatman
. These also designate the individual soul, but in its real aspect."
Mayeda (1992
, pp. 11, 14) uses the word
pratyagatman
Sivananda (1993
, p. 219),
Deutsch (1973
, p. 54), and
Menon (2012)
use the term
jiva
when referring to the identity of
atman
and
Brahman
"Consciousness",
201
web 5
"intelligence",
202
200
"wisdom"
"the Absolute",
201
web 5
"infinite",
web 5
"the Highest truth"
web 5
While the Vedanta tradition equates
sat
("the Existent") with Brahman, the Chandogya Upanishad itself does not refer to Brahman.
195
193
Deutsch & Dalvi (2004
, p. 8): "Although the text does not use the term
brahman
, the Vedanta tradition is that the Existent (
sat
) referred to is no other than Brahman."
Up.I.18.219: "The renunciation of all actions becomes the means for discriminating the meaning of the word "Thou" since there is an [Upanisadic] teaching, "Having become calm, self-controlled [..., one sees
Atman
there in oneself]" (Bhr. Up. IV, 4, 23)."
236
Vaishnava:
Mayeda 1992
, p. 4: "But his doctrine is far removed from Saivism and Saktism. It can be ascertained from his works that he had some faith in, or was favorable to, Vaishnavism.[13]" P.8 note 13 refers to Nakamura,
Vedanta Tetsugaku no Hatten
p.531, and Paul Hacker (1965),
Relations of early Advaitins to Vaishnavism.
Clark 2006
, p. 148: "Sankara, despite being projected as an incarnation of Siva in the hagiographies, was almost certainly a vaisnava, as were his immediate disciples."
Clark 2006
, p. 167: "... it may be that he is best described as a refomed Pancaratrin or Bhagavata, Sankara-Bhagavat or Sankara-Bhagavatpada indeed being one of the names he uses to describe himself."
Clark 2006
, p. 169: "It is apparent that Sankara was a vaisnava who seems to have been significantly informed by Pancaratra—as were Ramanuja and Madhva—yet Sankara's hagiographers project him as an 'orthodox' (Vedic) saiva. In the following chapter, it is proposed that Sankara's early hagiographies projected him as a Saiva in the image of their Viayanagara patrons who, beginning in the mid-fourteenth century, patronised what was essentially a 'reformed', 'orthodox' saiva tradition that included advaita saa matha-s and Vedic scholarship."
Nelson 2007
, p. 313: "Indeed, as Hacker has shown, there is good evidence that Shankara and his early followers came from strong Vaishnava backgrounds."
See also J.G. Suthren Hirst (2005),
Samkara's Advaita Vedanta
Suthren Hirst 2005
, p. 28: "In this respect, it is telling that Samkara uses Visnu's relation to his image in a range of contexts, for example, to illustrate the use of Om in meditating on brahman, yet never mentions the lingam, the equivalent aniconic form of Siva. He refers specifically to the salagrama, the small round polished stone from the river Gandaki in which Visnu is worshipped. He also appears to sanction the temple-going and other activities of worship practised by Bhagavata Vaisnavas, though he disagrees with the Pañcaratra theology he discusses alongside this (BSBh 2.2.42–45). No such approbation is given of Saiva practices, the discussion of their theology being much briefer and linked with the refutation of Vaisesika and similar views (BSBh 2.2.37). In addition, his references to release by stages (kramamukti) have a Vaisnava background traceable to the earlier commentator on the Brahma sutras. These factors suggest at least familiarity with a Vaisnava milieu, which we will need to take into account in understanding his thought."
Suthren Hirst 2005
, p. 130: "... the very frequency of Samkara's references to Visnu and his images cannot be ignored, though their context has to be carefully considered. Other Vaisnava clues are linked with quotations from the Katha Upanisad on the highest place of Visnu, moderate criticism of the Vaisnava Bhagavatas (unclearly distinguished from Pañcaratras) and expansion of passages in the Gita, itself a Vaisnava text. In the following, then, I am not arguing that Samkara is explicating Advaita for a specific Vaisnava community. Rather, I am suggesting that he draws on familiarity with a Vaisnava environment to help his pupils realize the truth of non-duality, a truth to which he himself may well have been drawn from a similar starting point."
Folk-hero and digvijana:
Sundaresan (2000
, p. 154): "It should also be noted that the more scholastic focus on Sankara as a composer of bhasyas is limited to the core of the monastic tradition. In the popular perception, Sankara's fame has more to do with his reputation as a religious leader who harmonized the major Hindu traditions, visited various temples, and composed hymns."
Frank Whaling (1979),
Sankara and Buddhism
, Journal of Indian Philosophy Vol. 7, No. 1 (MARCH 1979), pp. 1-42: "Hindus of the Advaita persuasion (and others too) have seen in Sankara the one who restored the Hindu
dharma
against the attacks of the Buddhists (and Jains) and in the process helped to drive Buddhism out of India."
King (2001
, p. 129-130): "...even at a popular level, Hindus have been educated to believe that Sankara was a central figure in their cultural and intellectual history. Thus, Advaita has gained a significant degree of generalized cultural power in modern India as an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture without necessarily being able to depend upon widespread adoption of or adherence to its fundamental belief system or traditions by Hindus."
Hacker (1995
, p. 29): "By means of legends, which he [Vidyaranya] created, he made of Sankara, who's philosophy he followed but who could never become popular with his elevated, exacting thoughts, a divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his
digvijaya
("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror, and whom therefor the Hindu, in his struggles with the poweful drive of Islam, could look up to."
Kulke & Rothermund (1998
, p. 177): "His brother Vidyaranya empgasized Shankara's philosophy which provided a unified ideology of Hinduism. It may be that he invented the story of Shankara's great tour of India and the establishment of the four great monasteries in the four corners of the country. If he did not invent it, he at last saw to it that it would gain universal currency and that the Shankaracaryas, as the abbots of the monasteries were called, would emerge as the guardians of the Hindu faith. The fact that Vidyaranya's monastery at Sringeri was supposed to be one of Shankara's four original establishments, coupled with its position close to the old Hoysala capital, was certainly of great importance for the legitimation of the new rulers favoured by Vidyaranya's blessing."
According to
Isayeva (1993
, pp. 4–5), Paul Deussen (1845–1919) laid the fundament for the study of Shankara in the west. In 1883 he published an overview of Shankara's teachings, and in 1887 a translation of Shankara's
Brahmasutrabhasya
. Thereafter studies by others followed.
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permanent dead link
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ISSN
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JSTOR
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Whaling, Frank (1979). "Shankara and Buddhism".
Journal of Indian Philosophy
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Saanen 2nd Conversation with Swami Venkatesananda 26 July 1969
Further reading
Fort, Andrew O. (1998).
Jivanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta
. SUNY Press.
ISBN
978-0-791-43904-3
Fuller, C. J. (2004).
The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India
. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
ISBN
978-0-691-12048-5
Hirst, J. S. (2005). "A Questioning Approach: Learning from Shankara's Pedagogic Techniques".
Contemporary Education Dialogue
(2):
137–
169.
doi
10.1177/097318490500200202
Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (1954). "Śaṁkara's Arguments against the Buddhists".
Philosophy East and West
(4):
291–
306.
doi
10.2307/1397287
JSTOR
1397287
Nakamura, Hajime (1990) [1950].
A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One
. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
(Reprint)
Navone, J. J. (1956). "Sankara and the Vedic Tradition".
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research
17
(2):
248–
255.
doi
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JSTOR
2104222
Olivelle, Patrick (1992).
The Samnyasa Upanisads
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0195070453
Pandey, S. L. (2000). "Pre-Sankara Advaita". In Chattopadhyana (ed.).
History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization
. Vol. II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
Reigle, David (2001).
"The Original Sankaracarya"
(PDF)
Fohat
(3):
57–
60,
70–
71.
Rukmani, T.S.
(2003).
"Dr. Richard de Smet and Sankara's Advaita"
Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies
16
doi
10.7825/2164-6279.1295
Sankaracharya (1910).
The Works of Sri Sankaracharya
. Srirangam: Sri Vani Vilas Press.
20 vols.
Whaling, Frank (1979). "Śankara and Buddhism".
Journal of Indian Philosophy
(1):
1–
42.
doi
10.1007/BF02561251
JSTOR
23440361
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Adi Shankara
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