Aspasia - Wikipedia

Aspasia - Wikipedia
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5th-century BC partner of Athenian statesman Pericles
For other uses, see
Aspasia (disambiguation)
Marble portrait
herm
identified by an inscription as Aspasia, possibly copied from her grave.
Aspasia
c.
470
– after 428 BC
) was a
metic
woman who lived in
Classical Athens
. Born in
Miletus
, she moved to Athens and began a relationship with the statesman
Pericles
. According to the traditional historical narrative, she worked as a
courtesan
, though modern scholars have questioned the factual basis for this claim, which derives from
ancient comedy
. Though Aspasia is one of the best-attested women from the Greco-Roman world, and the most important woman in the history of fifth-century Athens, almost nothing is certain about her life.
Aspasia's relationship with Pericles began between 452 and 441 BC. Both ancient and modern scholars have variously described her as Pericles's concubine and as his
de jure
or
de facto
wife. They had a son,
Pericles the Younger
; Pericles may also have defended her against a charge of
asebeia
(impiety) recorded in traditional accounts of Aspasia's life. As with her status as a courtesan, this narrative may also stem from Athenian comedy, and several modern scholars have questioned its historicity. After Pericles's death in 429 BC, she is believed to have married the politician
Lysicles
; nothing is known of Aspasia's life after his death in 428 BC.
Athenian writers of
Old Comedy
portrayed Aspasia as a
prostitute
and madam, with improper and excessive control over Pericles; this approach was also adopted by the Roman-era biographer
Plutarch
. Ancient philosophical writers portrayed her as a skilled rhetorician and philosopher; she may have been a model for the character of
Diotima
in the
Symposium
of
Plato
Early modern receptions of Aspasia generally followed this latter approach, though Plutarch's characterisation of her became more prominent in nineteenth-century portrayals of her. From the twentieth century, she has been portrayed as both a sexualised and sexually liberated woman, and as a feminist role model fighting for women's rights in ancient Athens.
Sources
edit
Bust
of Plutarch, the main ancient source for the life of Aspasia
We must make do with the sources that mention her, even when they fundamentally distort reality.
— Nicole Loraux, "Aspasia, Foreigner, Intellectual".
Aspasia was an important figure in the history of fifth-century
Athens
and is one of the women from the Greco-Roman world with the most substantial biographical traditions.
The earliest literary sources to mention Aspasia, written during her lifetime, are from
Athenian comedy
and in the fourth century BC she appears in
Socratic dialogues
After the fourth century, she appears only in brief mentions of complete texts, or in fragments whose full context is now lost,
until the second century AD, when
Plutarch
wrote his
Life of Pericles
, the longest and most complete ancient biographical treatment of Aspasia.
10
Modern biographies of Aspasia are dependent on Plutarch,
11
despite his writing nearly seven centuries after her death.
10
It is difficult to draw any firm conclusions about the real Aspasia from any of these sources: as Robert Wallace puts it, "for us Aspasia herself possesses and can possess almost no historical reality".
12
Aside from her name, father's name, and place of birth, Aspasia's biography is almost entirely unverifiable, and the ancient writings about her are frequently more of a projection of their own (without exception male) preconceptions than they are historical fact.
13
Madeleine Henry's full-length biography covers what is known of Aspasia's life in only nine pages.
14
Life
edit
Early life
edit
Aspasia was born, probably no earlier than 470 BC,
16
in the
Ionian
Greek city of
Miletus
(in modern
Aydın Province
, Turkey), the daughter of a man called Axiochus.
18
scholiast
on
Aelius Aristides
wrongly claims that Aspasia was a
Carian
prisoner of war and a slave;
19
this is perhaps due to confusion with the concubine of
Cyrus the Younger
, also called Aspasia.
20
The circumstances surrounding Aspasia's move to Athens are unknown.
19
One theory, first put forward by Peter Bicknell based on a fourth-century tomb inscription, suggests that Alcibiades of Scambonidae, the grandfather of the famous
Alcibiades
, married Aspasia's sister while he was in exile in Miletus following his
ostracism
, and Aspasia went with him when he returned to Athens.
19
Bicknell speculates that this was motivated by the death of Aspasia's father Axiochus in the upheaval in Miletus following its secession from the
Delian League
in 455/4 BC.
21
Life in Athens
edit
According to the conventional understanding of Aspasia's life, she worked as a courtesan and then ran a brothel.
17
Some scholars have challenged this view. Peter Bicknell notes that the "pejorative epithets applied to her by comic dramatists" are unreliable.
16
Madeleine Henry argues in her biography of Aspasia that "we are not required to believe that Aspasia was a whore because a comic poet says she was", and that the portrayal of Aspasia as involved in the sex trade should "be looked upon with great suspicion".
22
Cheryl Glenn contends that Aspasia actually opened an academy for women that became "a popular salon for the most influential men of the day", including
Socrates
Plato
, and Pericles,
23
and Rebecca Futo Kennedy suggests that the accusations in comedy that she was a brothel-keeper derived from this.
24
Despite these challenges to the traditional narrative, many scholars continue to believe that Aspasia worked as a courtesan or madam.
25
Konstantinos Kapparis argues that the kinds of comic attacks made on Aspasia would not have been acceptable to make about a respectable woman, and that it is therefore likely that Aspasia did have a history as a
sex worker
before she began her relationship with Pericles.
26
Whether or not Aspasia worked as a courtesan, her later life, in which she apparently achieved some degree of power, reputation, and independence, has similarities to the lives of other prominent
hetairai
("courtesans") such as
Phryne
27
Bust of Pericles
In Athens, Aspasia met and began a relationship with the statesman
Pericles
. It is uncertain how they met;
28
if Bicknell's thesis is correct then she may have met him through his connection to Alcibiades' household.
21
Kennedy speculates that when
Cleinias
, the son of the elder Alcibiades, died at the
Battle of Coronea
, Pericles may have become the
kurios
(guardian) of Aspasia.
24
Aspasia's relationship with Pericles began some time between 452 and 441.
29
The exact nature of Pericles and Aspasia's relationship is disputed. Ancient authors variously portrayed her as a prostitute, his concubine, or his wife.
30
Modern scholars are also divided. Rebecca Futo Kennedy argues that they were married;
31
Debra Nails describes Aspasia as "the
de facto
wife of Pericles";
19
Madeleine Henry believes that Pericles' citizenship law of 451/0 made marriage between an Athenian and a
metic
illegal, and suggests a quasi-marital
pallakia
("concubinage") enforced by contract;
32
and Sue Blundell describes Aspasia as a
hetaira
and mistress of Pericles.
33
Aspasia and Pericles had a son,
Pericles the Younger
, born no later than 440/39 BC.
28
At the time of Pericles the Younger's birth, Pericles had two legitimate sons,
Paralus and Xanthippus
. In 430/29, after the death of his two elder sons, Pericles proposed an amendment to his citizenship law of 451/0 which would have made Pericles the Younger able to become a citizen and inherit. Though many scholars believe that this was specifically for Pericles, some have suggested that a more general exception was introduced, in response to the effect of the
Plague of Athens
and
Peloponnesian War
on citizen families.
35
According to Plutarch, Aspasia was prosecuted for
asebeia
(impiety) by the comic poet
Hermippus
36
She was supposedly defended by Pericles and acquitted.
37
Many scholars have questioned whether this trial ever took place, suggesting that the tradition derives from a fictional trial of Aspasia in a play by Hermippus.
12
Vincent Azoulay compares the trial of Aspasia to those of
Phidias
and
Anaxagoras
, both also connected to Pericles, and concludes that "none of the trials for impiety involving those close to Pericles is attested with certainty".
38
In 429 BC, Pericles died. According to ancient sources, Aspasia then married another politician,
Lysicles
, and gave birth to another son, Poristes.
39
As "Poristes" is not otherwise known as a name – it means "supplier" or "provider",
40
and was a euphemism for "thief"
41
– some scholars have argued that the name comes from a misunderstanding of a joke in a comedy.
40
37
24
Henry doubts whether Aspasia had a child with Lysicles,
40
and Kennedy questions whether she married Lysicles at all.
24
Pomeroy, however, suggests that Poristes' unusual name may have been chosen by Lysicles for political reasons, to draw attention to his providing for the people of Athens.
42
Lysicles died a year after Pericles, in 428, and nothing is recorded of Aspasia's life after this point.
19
It is unknown where or when she died.
Legacy
edit
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edit
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In the classical period, two primary schools of thought developed around Aspasia. One tradition, deriving from Old Comedy, emphasises her influence over Pericles and her involvement in the sex trade; the other, which can be traced back to fourth-century philosophy, concentrates on her intellect and rhetorical skill.
43
Some scholars have also proposed that the portrayal of several female characters in Athenian tragedy commented on Aspasia, including Euripides'
Medea
44
and
Phaedra
45
and Sophocles'
Jocasta
46
Comic tradition
edit
The only surviving ancient sources to discuss Aspasia which were written during her life are from comedy. The surviving comic tradition about Aspasia – unlike her male contemporaries – focuses on her sexuality.
47
Aristophanes
, the only writer of Old Comedy for whom complete works survive, refers to Aspasia only once in his surviving corpus, in
Acharnians
48
In a passage parodying the beginning of
Herodotus
Histories
49
Aristophanes jokes that the
Megarian decree
was retaliation for the kidnapping of two
pornai
("prostitutes") from Aspasia.
24
A similar charge, attributed by Plutarch to
Duris of Samos
, that Aspasia was responsible for Athens' involvement in the
Samian War
, may have derived from this.
12
The mention of Aspasia's
pornai
in
Acharnians
is also the earliest known instance of the tradition that she worked as a brothel-keeper.
51
Outside of Aristophanes, mentions of Aspasia are known from the surviving fragments of
Cratinus
and
Eupolis
52
In a fragment of Cratinus'
Cheirons
, Aspasia is described as "Hera-Aspasia, a dog-eyed concubine".
53
Eupolis mentions Aspasia by name in three surviving fragments. In
Proslapatians
, she is compared to
Helen of Troy
– like Aspasia, blamed for starting a war – and in
Philoi
to
Omphale
, who owned
Herakles
as a slave.
54
Eupolis also alluded to Aspasia in
Demes
, where Pericles, having been brought back from the dead, asks after his son; he is informed that he is alive, but is ashamed of having a
porne
as a mother.
55
Aspasia is also known to have been mentioned by
Kallias
, though the scholion to Plato's
Menexenus
which reports this is garbled and it is uncertain what Kallias said about her.
56
She may also have appeared in a play by Hermippus – this is possibly the source of the anecdote told by Plutarch that Aspasia was prosecuted by him for
asebeia
and for supplying free-born women for Pericles to have sex with.
57
Later authors to follow the comic tradition in focusing on Aspasia's sexuality and improper influence over Pericles, for example in
Clearchus'
Erotika
58
Philosophical tradition
edit
In a tradition that can be traced back to the fourth century BC, Aspasia was a skilled rhetorician. In this painting by
Nicolas-André Monsiau
, she speaks while Socrates and Alcibiades listen attentively.
In the fourth century, four philosophers are known to have written Socratic dialogues which feature Aspasia:
Antisthenes
, Plato, Aeschines and
Xenophon
59
Armand D'Angour
has argued that the character of
Diotima
in Plato's
Symposium
, to whom Socrates attributes his understanding of love, is also based on her.
60
In the dialogues by Plato, Xenophon, and Aeschines, Aspasia is portrayed as an educated, skilled rhetorician, and a source of advice for marital concerns.
61
Antisthenes' depiction of Aspasia was apparently more critical, portraying her as controlling Pericles with her femininity.
62
In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, some authors followed Aspasia's more positive portrayal in Socratic literature, distancing her from prostitution and situating her in a tradition of wise women.
Didymus Chalcenterus
wrote about exceptional women in history in his
Symposiaka
, downplaying her sexuality but noting her influence on Socrates' philosophy and Pericles' rhetoric.
58
Both Athenaeus and Maximus of Tyre report that Socrates advised
Callias
to have Aspasia teach his son.
63
In Rome,
Cicero
and
Quintillian
used the conversation between Aspasia and Xenophon in Aeschines' dialogue as a good example of
inductio
64
Modern reception
edit
Aspasia's earliest post-classical portrayal is in the letters of
Héloïse
to
Abelard
65
Héloïse cites Aspasia's conversation with Xenophon and his wife in Aeschines' dialogue, which she probably knew through Cicero's reference to it, and proposes Aspasia as an example for how she should live her own life.
66
In the late medieval and early modern periods, Aspasia appeared in several catalogues, a fashionable genre at the time. She was included in three "medallion books", with an imagined portrait and a brief biography. The first of these was
Guillaume Rouille
's
Promptuarium Iconum
, which derives its depiction of Aspasia from Plutarch and focuses on her relationship with Pericles;
67
in
Giovanni Angelo Canini
's
Iconografia
, Aspasia is depicted wearing a helmet and shield.
68
Aspasia also featured in two catalogues of women in this period as a teacher and philosopher: in
Arcangela Tarabotti
's
Tirannia Paterna
, which portrays her as a teacher of rhetoric, and
Gilles Ménage
's
Historia Mulierum Philosopharum
, in which Aspasia is described as teaching rhetoric to Pericles and Socrates, and philosophy to Socrates.
69
Marie Bouliard
's 1794 portrait of Aspasia
By the eighteenth century, Aspasia was widely enough known to be included in dictionaries and encyclopedias, where depictions of her were largely based on Plutarch.
68
In 1736,
Jean Leconte de Bièvre
published the
Histoire de deux Aspasies
, also based on Plutarch's depiction, which portrayed Aspasia as an educated woman and Pericles' teacher as well as his wife.
70
The eighteenth century also saw the first known image of Aspasia to be created by a woman,
Marie Bouliard
's
Aspasie
71
The painting depicts Aspasia with one breast bared, looking into a handheld mirror and with a scroll in her other hand. Though the bare breast references the eroticised traditions surrounding Aspasia, Madeleine Henry argues that the portrait differs from more pornographic depictions of women, with Aspasia looking into the mirror rather than out at the viewer, and holding a scroll rather than a cosmetic object such as a comb.
72
In the nineteenth century, Plutarch's narrative dominated the interpretation of Aspasia in both novels and paintings.
73
In the visual arts, the sexualised side of Aspasia was represented by
Jean-Léon Gérôme
's painting
Socrates Seeking Alcibiades in the House of Aspasia
, but this pornographised representation was relatively uncommon.
74
Honoré Daumier
's lithograph of
Socrates at the House of Aspasia
depicts Aspasia as a "
lorette
", an ambiguous social position which referred to "loose, vulgar or 'liberated' women".
75
Other artists of the period depicted an Aspasia active in public life, and interacting with the most renowned men of the period. In
Henry Holiday
's painting of
Aspasia on the Pnyx
, she is shown with another woman at the site of the
Athenian assembly
, the center of male public space in the city,
76
while in two paintings by
Nicolas-André Monsiau
she is shown at the centre of discussions with celebrated Athenian intellectuals and politicians.
77
In
Socrates and Aspasia
, she converses with Socrates and Pericles; in
Aspasia in Conversation with the Most Illustrious Men of Athens
Euripides
Sophocles
, Plato, and Xenophon are also among those included.
78
In both of these paintings, Aspasia is speaking and commanding the attention of these men.
79
Melissa Ianetta argues that
Germaine de Staël
's novel
Corinne
models its heroine after Aspasia, placing her in the same tradition of feminine rhetorical skill.
80
An alternative nineteenth-century representation of Aspasia positioned her as a respectable wife. The authors
Walter Savage Landor
and
Elizabeth Lynn Linton
portrayed Aspasia as a good Victorian wife to Pericles in their novels
Pericles and Aspasia
and
Amymone: A Romance of the Days of Pericles
81
Lawrence Alma-Tadema
's painting
Phidias and the Frieze of the Parthenon
also shows Aspasia as a respectable companion to men.
82
By contrast,
Robert Hamerling
's novel
Aspasia
showed her as a proto-feminist with far more agency than these romanticised accounts.
83
The twentieth century saw on the one hand increasing interest in Aspasia separately from her relationships with men, and on the other more prurient concern with her sexuality.
84
The former strand of Aspasia's reception saw the Latvian author, feminist, and politician
Elza Rozenberga
, who took the pseudonym Aspazija, model her campaigning for women's rights after what she saw as Aspasia's example.
85
Aspasia was also taken as a feminist role-model by
Judy Chicago
, who included her as one of the thirty-nine women given a place in her artwork
The Dinner Party
86
Recent novels have tended towards the more explicitly sexualised portrayal of Aspasia, including
Achilles His Armour
by the classicist
Peter Green
87
Madelon Dimont's
Darling Pericles
87
and
Taylor Caldwell
's
Glory and Lightning
, in which Aspasia is raised as a courtesan.
88
The 2018 video game
Assassin's Creed Odyssey
, which features Aspasia in a major role, follows the ancient tradition which portrayed her as a
hetaira
. She is depicted as using her femininity to gain political power by manipulating men and through her connections to other women across the Greek world.
89
Notes
edit
eɪ
Ancient Greek
Ἀσπασία
Greek:
[aspasíaː]
Aspasia's date of birth and death are uncertain. Her birthdate is inferred to be c. 470 BC based on the birthdates of her children;
nothing is known of her life after her supposed relationship with
Lysicles
(429–428 BC).
This date is derived from the birthdates of Aspasia's two sons: Pericles the Younger between 452 and 440, and Poristes in 428 BC.
15
However, some scholars doubt the existence of Aspasia's second son; in that case, Aspasia could have been born some time earlier than 470.
12
Athenaeus
quotes
Heraclides of Pontus
as saying that Aspasia came from Megara; this apparently derives from a misunderstanding of
Aristophanes
Acharnians
17
Pericles and Aspasia's relationship began after Pericles' first marriage, which cannot have ended before 452/1, the earliest possible birthdate for Pericles' second legitimate son,
Paralus
. It must have begun by 441/0, the latest possible date for the conception of Pericles the Younger, who was at least 30 in 410/9 when he was
hellenotamias
29
Pericles the Younger was at least 30 in 410/9, when he was
hellenotamias
, and therefore was born no later than 440/39.
34
Alternatively, Loraux suggests that Aristophanes based his joke on an unknown earlier comic author, who had already implicated Aspasia in starting the Samian War.
50
References
edit
Henry 1995
, p. 17.
Collins English Dictionary
, "
Aspasia
Bicknell 1982
Henry 1995
Loraux 2021
, p. 14.
Henry 1995
, p. 3.
Henry 1995
, p. 6.
Henry 1995
, p. 29.
Henry 1995
, p. 57.
Henry 1995
, p. 9.
Henry 1995
, p. 68.
Wallace 1996
Azoulay 2014
, pp. 104–105.
Pomeroy 1996
, p. 648.
Bicknell 1982
, pp. 244–245.
Bicknell 1982
, p. 245.
Kennedy 2014
, p. 75.
Azoulay 2014
, p. 104.
Nails 2000
, p. 59.
Henry 1995
, p. 132, n. 1.
Bicknell 1982
, p. 247.
Henry 1995
, pp. 138–139, n. 9.
Glenn 1994
, p. 184.
Kennedy 2014
, p. 77.
Kennedy 2014
, pp. 75, 87, n. 1.
Kapparis 2018
, p. 104.
Kapparis 2018
, p. 393.
Henry 1995
, p. 13.
Bicknell 1982
, pp. 243–244.
Azoulay 2014
, p. 105.
Kennedy 2014
, pp. 17, 77.
Henry 1995
, pp. 13–14.
Blundell 1995
, p. 148.
Bicknell 1982
, p. 243.
Kennedy 2014
, p. 17.
Henry 1995
, p. 15.
Nails 2000
, p. 61.
Azoulay 2014
, pp. 124–126.
Henry 1995
, pp. 9–10, 43.
Henry 1995
, p. 43.
Kennedy 2014
, p. 92, n.52.
Pomeroy 1996
, p. 649.
Fornara & Samons 1991
, pp. 163–164.
Diamantakou-Agathou 2020
, p. 241.
Vickers 2000
, p. 15.
Vickers 2014
, p. 45.
Henry 1995
, p. 19.
Henry 1995
, p. 25.
Henry 1995
, pp. 25–26.
Loraux 2021
, p. 26.
Podlecki 1998
, p. 116.
Henry 1995
, pp. 20–24.
Cratinus, fr. 259
K-A
Henry 1995
, pp. 22–23.
Henry 1995
, p. 24.
Podlecki 1998
, p. 112.
Azoulay 2014
, p. 102.
Henry 1995
, p. 66.
Henry 1995
, p. 30.
D'Angour 2019
Kennedy 2014
, p. 151.
Boys-Stone & Rowe 2013
, p. 233.
Pentassuglio 2020
, p. 5.
Henry 1995
, p. 67.
Henry 1995
, p. 83.
Henry 1995
, pp. 83–84.
Henry 1995
, pp. 87–88.
Henry 1995
, p. 89.
Henry 1995
, p. 88–89.
Henry 1995
, pp. 89–90.
Henry 1995
, pp. 91–92.
Henry 1995
, p. 93.
Henry 1995
, p. 96.
Geraths & Kennerly 2016
, p. 198.
Jordan 2012
, p. 72, quoted in
Geraths & Kennerly 2016
, p. 205
Geraths & Kennerly 2016
, p. 206.
Geraths & Kennerly 2016
, pp. 200–202.
Geraths & Kennerly 2016
, p. 202.
Geraths & Kennerly 2016
, pp. 201–202.
Ianetta 2008
Henry 1995
, pp. 99–102.
Henry 1995
, p. 103.
Henry 1995
, p. 106.
Henry 1995
, pp. 113–114.
Henry 1995
, p. 114.
Henry 1995
, p. 121.
Henry 1995
, p. 117.
Henry 1995
, p. 119.
Tuplin 2022
, pp. 217–218.
Bibliography
edit
Azoulay, Vincent (2014) [Published in French 2010].
Pericles of Athens
. Translated by Lloyd, Janet. Princeton University Press.
ISBN
978-0-691-15459-6
Bicknell, Peter J. (1982).
"Axiochus Alkibiadou, Aspasia and Aspasios"
L'Antiquité Classique
51
(3):
240–
250.
doi
10.3406/antiq.1982.2070
Boys-Stone, George; Rowe, Christopher (2013).
The Circle of Socrates: Readings in the First-generation Socratics
. Indianopolis: Hackett.
ISBN
9781603849364
Blundell, Sue (1995).
Women in Ancient Greece
. Harvard University Press.
ISBN
978-0-674-95473-1
D'Angour, Armand
(2019).
Socrates in Love
. Bloomsbury.
ISBN
978-14-08-88391-4
Diamantakou-Agathou, Kaiti (2020).
"From Aspasia to Lysistrata: Literary Versions and Intertextual Diffusions of the Feminine Other in Classical Athens"
(PDF)
Logeion
10
238–
260.
Fornara, Charles W.; Samons, Loren J. (1991).
Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles
. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Geraths, Cory; Kennerly, Michele (2016). "Painted Lady: Aspasia in Nineteenth-Century European Art".
Rhetoric Review
35
(3):
197–
211.
doi
10.1080/07350198.2016.1178688
S2CID
148042837
Glenn, Cheryl (1994). "Sex, Lies, and Manuscript: Refiguring Aspasia in the History of Rhetoric".
College Composition and Communication
45
(2):
180–
199.
doi
10.2307/359005
JSTOR
359005
Henry, Madeleine M. (1995).
Prisoner of History. Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-508712-3
Ianetta, Melissa (2008). "
'She Must Be a Rare One': Aspasia, 'Corinne', and the Improvisatrice Tradition".
PMLA
123
(1):
92–
108.
JSTOR
25501829
Jordan, Nicole (2012).
"A Very Amusing Bit of Blasphemy": Honoré Daumier's Histoire Ancienne
(Thesis). University of Alabama.
Kapparis, Konstantinos (2018).
Prostitution in the Ancient Greek World
. Berlin: De Gruyter.
ISBN
978-3-11-055795-4
Kassel, Rudolf; Austin, Colin, eds. (1983).
Poetae Comici Graeci
. Vol. IV Aristophon – Crobylus. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
ISBN
978-3-11-002405-0
Kennedy, Rebecca Futo
(2014).
Immigrant Women in Athens: Gender, Ethnicity and Citizenship in the Classical City
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-415-73786-9
Loraux, Nicole
(2021) [Published in French 2003]. "Aspasia, Foreigner, Intellectual".
Journal of Continental Philosophy
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32.
doi
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S2CID
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Nails, Debra
(2000).
The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics
. Princeton University Press.
ISBN
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Pentassuglio, Francesca (2020).
Paideutikos eros
: Aspasia as an '
alter
Sokrates'
Archai
30
1–
22.
doi
10.14195/1984-249X_30_15
Podlecki, Anthony J.
(1998).
Perikles and His Circle
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-415-06794-2
Pomeroy, Sarah B.
(1996). "Review: Madeleine M. Henry,
Prisoner of History
".
The American Journal of Philology
117
(4):
648–
651.
doi
10.1353/ajp.1996.0054
JSTOR
1561953
S2CID
161551430
Tuplin, Roz (2022). "
'We do what we must to survive': Female Sex Workers in
Assassin's Creed
". In Draycott, Jane; Cook, Kate (eds.).
Women in Classical Video Games
. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
ISBN
978-1-350-24193-0
Vickers, Michael (2000).
"Alcibiades and Aspasia: Notes on the Hippolytus"
Dialogues d'histoire ancienne
26
(2):
7–
17.
doi
10.3406/dha.2000.2423
Vickers, Michael (2014).
Sophocles and Alcibiades: Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature
. London: Routledge.
ISBN
978-1-84465-123-8
Wallace, Robert (1996).
"Review: Madeleine M. Henry,
Prisoner of History
Bryn Mawr Classical Review
Further reading
edit
Ciempiel, Agata (2008).
"Wise and Devoted or Shrewd and Shameless? The True Face of Aspasia of Miletus"
Scripta Classica
(5):
25–
31.
ISSN
1732-3509
– via Central and Eastern European Online Library.
Deretić, Irina (2021). "Aspasia: Woman in Crises". In Deretić, Irina (ed.).
Women in Times of Crisis
. Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade. pp.
35–
47.
Gale, Xin Liu (2000).
"Historical Studies and Postmodernism: Rereading Aspasia of Miletus"
College English
62
(3):
361–
386.
doi
10.2307/378936
ISSN
0010-0994
JSTOR
378936
Jarratt, Susan; Ong, Rory (1995). "Aspasia: Rhetoric, Gender, and Colonial Ideology". In Lunsford, Andrea A. (ed.).
Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women In The Rhetorical Tradition
. University of Pittsburgh Press.
ISBN
0822971658
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