Bioinspiration & Biomimetics - IOPscience

Bioinspiration & Biomimetics - IOPscience
Bioinspiration & Biomimetics
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Bioinspiration & Biomimetics
publishes research that discovers and uses principles from natural systems to create physical models, engineering systems and technological designs.
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The following article is
Open access
A comprehensive review of dexterous robotic hands: design, implementation, and evaluation
Yu-Ying Lin
et al
2025
Bioinspir. Biomim.
20
041003
View article
, A comprehensive review of dexterous robotic hands: design, implementation, and evaluation
PDF
, A comprehensive review of dexterous robotic hands: design, implementation, and evaluation
Dexterous robotic hands have been a central focus in robotics research, aiming to replicate the versatility and functionality of the human hand. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the latest advancements in the literature on dexterous robotic hands, covering both hardware designs and implementation methods. We categorize robotic hand dexterity into potential dexterity, grasp dexterity, and manipulation dexterity, offering a systematic framework for evaluating robotic hand performance. Various dexterous hands are then organized based on their number of digits, transmission mechanisms, actuation methods, and sensing technologies, with their dexterity compared using different evaluation criteria. Finally, we introduce various dexterous grasping and manipulation methods, including analytical approaches, machine-learning techniques, and sampling-based methods.
The following article is
Open access
Soft robotics: what’s next in bioinspired design and applications of soft robots?
Cecilia Laschi
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
011501
View article
, Soft robotics: what’s next in bioinspired design and applications of soft robots?
PDF
, Soft robotics: what’s next in bioinspired design and applications of soft robots?
The field of soft robotics has shown unprecedented growth in research efforts, scientific achievements, and technological advancements. Bioinspiration and biomimetics have played an instrumental role in the birth and growth of soft robotics. What is next for this field? To promote soft robotics research to the next level and have a broader impact in robotics and engineering fields, in this roadmap, we argue that two research directions should be strengthened (i) more structured, formal methods and tools for designing and developing soft robots and bioinspired robots (ii) more concrete applications of bioinspired soft robots in diverse sectors of human activities. This article provides a roadmap for the design of bioinspired soft robots, the integration of soft robot systems, and their applications in industry and services. Scientists and experts describe the state-of-the art and the perspectives of bioinspired, model-informed design of soft robots, outlining the challenges in developing complex soft robotic systems, and applications of soft robots in diverse fields.
The following article is
Open access
Electromechanical enhancement of live jellyfish for ocean exploration
Simon R Anuszczyk and John O Dabiri 2024
Bioinspir. Biomim.
19
026018
View article
, Electromechanical enhancement of live jellyfish for ocean exploration
PDF
, Electromechanical enhancement of live jellyfish for ocean exploration
The vast majority of the ocean’s volume remains unexplored, in part because of limitations on the vertical range and measurement duration of existing robotic platforms. In light of the accelerating rate of climate change impacts on the physics and biogeochemistry of the ocean, the need for new tools that can measure more of the ocean on faster timescales is becoming pressing. Robotic platforms inspired or enabled by aquatic organisms have the potential to augment conventional technologies for ocean exploration. Recent work demonstrated the feasibility of directly stimulating the muscle tissue of live jellyfish via implanted microelectronics. We present a biohybrid robotic jellyfish that leverages this external electrical swimming control, while also using a 3D printed passive mechanical attachment to streamline the jellyfish shape, increase swimming performance, and significantly enhance payload capacity. A six-meter-tall, 13 600 l saltwater facility was constructed to enable testing of the vertical swimming capabilities of the biohybrid robotic jellyfish over distances exceeding 35 body diameters. We found that the combination of external swimming control and the addition of the mechanical forebody resulted in an increase in swimming speeds to 4.5 times natural jellyfish locomotion. Moreover, the biohybrid jellyfish were capable of carrying a payload volume up to 105% of the jellyfish body volume. The added payload decreased the intracycle acceleration of the biohybrid robots relative to natural jellyfish, which could also facilitate more precise measurements by onboard sensors that depend on consistent platform motion. While many robotic exploration tools are limited by cost, energy expenditure, and varying oceanic environmental conditions, this platform is inexpensive, highly efficient, and benefits from the widespread natural habitats of jellyfish. The demonstrated performance of these biohybrid robots suggests an opportunity to expand the set of robotic tools for comprehensive monitoring of the changing ocean.
The following article is
Open access
Biohybrid robots: recent progress, challenges, and perspectives
Victoria A Webster-Wood
et al
2023
Bioinspir. Biomim.
18
015001
View article
, Biohybrid robots: recent progress, challenges, and perspectives
PDF
, Biohybrid robots: recent progress, challenges, and perspectives
The past ten years have seen the rapid expansion of the field of biohybrid robotics. By combining engineered, synthetic components with living biological materials, new robotics solutions have been developed that harness the adaptability of living muscles, the sensitivity of living sensory cells, and even the computational abilities of living neurons. Biohybrid robotics has taken the popular and scientific media by storm with advances in the field, moving biohybrid robotics out of science fiction and into real science and engineering. So how did we get here, and where should the field of biohybrid robotics go next? In this perspective, we first provide the historical context of crucial subareas of biohybrid robotics by reviewing the past 10+ years of advances in microorganism-bots and sperm-bots, cyborgs, and tissue-based robots. We then present critical challenges facing the field and provide our perspectives on the vital future steps toward creating autonomous living machines.
The following article is
Open access
Deep dive into model-free reinforcement learning for underwater locomotion: theory and practice
Yusheng Jiao
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
022001
View article
, Deep dive into model-free reinforcement learning for underwater locomotion: theory and practice
PDF
, Deep dive into model-free reinforcement learning for underwater locomotion: theory and practice
Aquatic animals and underwater robots operate in a complex physical world and must coordinate their bodies to achieve behavioral objectives such as navigation and predation. With recent developments in deep reinforcement learning (RL), it is now possible for scientists and engineers to synthesize sensorimotor strategies (policies) for specific tasks using physically simulated bodies and environments. However, beyond solving individual control problems, these methods offer an exciting framework for understanding the organization of an animal sensorimotor system in connection with its morphology and physical interaction with the environment, as well as for deriving general design rules for bioinspired underwater robots. Although algorithms and code implementing both learning agents and environments are increasingly available, the basic assumptions and modeling choices that go into the formulation of an embodied feedback control problem using deep RL may not be immediately apparent. In this tutorial, we provide a self-contained introduction to model-free RL for embodied agents in underwater environments, with a focus on
actor-critic
methods. We first present the mathematical formulation of RL, highlighting where physical modeling choices enter. We then discuss the practical aspects of implementing actor-critic algorithms. Drawing on recent examples of RL-controlled swimmers, we provide guidelines for choosing observations, actions, and rewards consistent with biological behavior, and we outline how RL can be used as a tool to explore hypotheses about the feedback control underlying animal and robotic behavior.
The following article is
Open access
From nature to robots: a comprehensive survey on lizard-inspired robotics for ground and space exploration
Gargi Das
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
021001
View article
, From nature to robots: a comprehensive survey on lizard-inspired robotics for ground and space exploration
PDF
, From nature to robots: a comprehensive survey on lizard-inspired robotics for ground and space exploration
Lizards are among the most biomechanically versatile animals, exhibiting a broad range of physical and behavioral adaptations, such as adhesion, agile locomotion, vertical climbing, righting reflexes, and various tail-assisted aerial maneuvers. These features have inspired a growing body of biomimetic technologies spanning robotics, medical devices, and control algorithms. This survey provides a comprehensive overview of lizard-inspired design principles and their applications in engineering systems. Starting from biological foundations, we review key physical and behavioral traits and map them to their engineered analogs, including soft adhesion mechanisms, metaheuristic control algorithms, and multi-modal locomotion systems. Special attention is given to lizard righting strategies in the development of self-righting robotic platforms. The survey also extends to the extraterrestrial relevance of lizard-inspired systems, highlighting studies of lizard behavior under altered gravity conditions. Applications in space robotics are explored through gecko-inspired adhesive grippers, locomotion analogies for planetary rovers, and dynamic parallels between lizard biomechanics and free-floating space manipulators. Despite the growing body of work, a comprehensive synthesis uniting terrestrial and extraterrestrial biomimetic insights has been lacking. This review aims to bridge that gap by mapping the trajectory of lizard-inspired biomechanics from biological foundations to robotic implementations, highlighting key achievements, interdisciplinary linkages, and frontiers for future exploration.
Animal thermoregulation: a review of insulation, physiology and behaviour relevant to temperature control in buildings
D J McCafferty
et al
2018
Bioinspir. Biomim.
13
011001
View article
, Animal thermoregulation: a review of insulation, physiology and behaviour relevant to temperature control in buildings
PDF
, Animal thermoregulation: a review of insulation, physiology and behaviour relevant to temperature control in buildings
Birds and mammals have evolved many thermal adaptations that are relevant to the bioinspired design of temperature control systems and energy management in buildings. Similar to many buildings, endothermic animals generate internal metabolic heat, are well insulated, regulate their temperature within set limits, modify microclimate and adjust thermal exchange with their environment. We review the major components of animal thermoregulation in endothermic birds and mammals that are pertinent to building engineering, in a world where climate is changing and reduction in energy use is needed. In animals, adjustment of insulation together with physiological and behavioural responses to changing environmental conditions fine-tune spatial and temporal regulation of body temperature, while also minimizing energy expenditure. These biological adaptations are characteristically flexible, allowing animals to alter their body temperatures to hourly, daily, or annual demands for energy. They exemplify how buildings could become more thermally reactive to meteorological fluctuations, capitalising on dynamic thermal materials and system properties. Based on this synthesis, we suggest that heat transfer modelling could be used to simulate these flexible biomimetic features and assess their success in reducing energy costs while maintaining thermal comfort for given building types.
The following article is
Open access
Underwater legged robotics: review and perspectives
G Picardi
et al
2023
Bioinspir. Biomim.
18
031001
View article
, Underwater legged robotics: review and perspectives
PDF
, Underwater legged robotics: review and perspectives
Nowadays, there is a growing awareness on the social and economic importance of the ocean. In this context, being able to carry out a diverse range of operations underwater is of paramount importance for many industrial sectors as well as for marine science and to enforce restoration and mitigation actions. Underwater robots allowed us to venture deeper and for longer time into the remote and hostile marine environment. However, traditional design concepts such as propeller driven remotely operated vehicles, autonomous underwater vehicles, or tracked benthic crawlers, present intrinsic limitations, especially when a close interaction with the environment is required. An increasing number of researchers are proposing legged robots as a bioinspired alternative to traditional designs, capable of yielding versatile multi-terrain locomotion, high stability, and low environmental disturbance. In this work, we aim at presenting the new field of underwater legged robotics in an organic way, discussing the prototypes in the state-of-the-art and highlighting technological and scientific challenges for the future. First, we will briefly recap the latest developments in traditional underwater robotics from which several technological solutions can be adapted, and on which the benchmarking of this new field should be set. Second, we will the retrace the evolution of terrestrial legged robotics, pinpointing the main achievements of the field. Third, we will report a complete state of the art on underwater legged robots focusing on the innovations with respect to the interaction with the environment, sensing and actuation, modelling and control, and autonomy and navigation. Finally, we will thoroughly discuss the reviewed literature by comparing traditional and legged underwater robots, highlighting interesting research opportunities, and presenting use case scenarios derived from marine science applications.
The following article is
Open access
Bioinspired medical needles: a review of the scientific literature
Zola Fung-A-Jou
et al
2023
Bioinspir. Biomim.
18
041002
View article
, Bioinspired medical needles: a review of the scientific literature
PDF
, Bioinspired medical needles: a review of the scientific literature
Needles are commonly used in medical procedures. However, current needle designs have some disadvantages. Therefore, a new generation of hypodermic needles and microneedle patches drawing inspiration from mechanisms found in nature (i.e. bioinspiration) is being developed. In this systematic review, 80 articles were retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed and classified based on the strategies for needle-tissue interaction and propulsion of the needle. The needle-tissue interaction was modified to reduce grip for smooth needle insertion or enlarge grip to resist needle retraction. The reduction of grip can be achieved passively through form modification and actively through translation and rotation of the needle. To enlarge grip, interlocking with the tissue, sucking the tissue, and adhering to the tissue were identified as strategies. Needle propelling was modified to ensure stable needle insertion, either through external (i.e. applied to the prepuncturing movement of the needle) or internal (i.e. applied to the postpuncturing movement of the needle) strategies. External strategies include free-hand and guided needle insertion, while friction manipulation of the tissue was found to be an internal strategy. Most needles appear to be using friction reduction strategies and are inserted using a free-hand technique. Furthermore, most needle designs were inspired by insects, specifically parasitoid wasps, honeybees, and mosquitoes. The presented overview and description of the different bioinspired interaction and propulsion strategies provide insight into the current state of bioinspired needles and offer opportunities for medical instrument designers to create a new generation of bioinspired needles.
The following article is
Open access
Fire ant rafts offer principles and rules for synthetic programmable morphing matter
Franck J Vernerey and Brian N Cox 2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
023001
View article
, Fire ant rafts offer principles and rules for synthetic programmable morphing matter
PDF
, Fire ant rafts offer principles and rules for synthetic programmable morphing matter
We examine fire-ant rafts as a model system of biological active matter composed of cohesive agents that interact through simple local rules to produce emergent collective dynamics. A hallmark of these rafts is treadmilling, a process enabled by the continuous cycling of ants through a multi-phase system, comprising in a minimal representation a solid-like network phase and a dilute motile phase that can migrate outside the network. Treadmilling requires the breaking of detailed balance in the fluxes between the phases, a signature of out-of-equilibrium systems. By combining experimental data with discrete agent-based simulations and a new continuum model, we show that simple rules governing the actions of single ants, based only on the positions, velocities and local forces an ant perceives and defining its next actions within a phase and triggering conditions for transition between phases, suffice to replicate the complex behavior of treadmilling and shape morphing of the raft as emergent phenomena. We also show that two principles hold empirically in the network phase: homeostasis of area density, a constraint that couples ant activity level to shape morphing in a very simple way; and the invariance of the network topology over relevant timescales, which supports global geometrical stability in the face of chaotic ant motions. Refined by evolution over very long times, the principles and rules governing fire ant rafts suggest design possibilities for achieving stable shape morphing in decentralized systems of synthetic programmable matter.
Dyadic interactions, feedback rule changes, and deliberative decisions underlie honeybee inflight group coordination
Md Saiful Islam
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026020
View article
, Dyadic interactions, feedback rule changes, and deliberative decisions underlie honeybee inflight group coordination
PDF
, Dyadic interactions, feedback rule changes, and deliberative decisions underlie honeybee inflight group coordination
Understanding the interaction architectures that individual insects implement in group flight contributes to mathematics, biology, and robotics, including enabling dynamic aerial swarming. This study analyzes 1000 trajectories of flying honeybees in crowded conditions approaching a stimulus and finds a dominant flight coordination architecture of ‘dyadic’ interactions and a new three-zone decision-making process. The experiment measures individual insect positions via an optical tracking system recording honeybees returning to a robotically-actuated hive entrance. Neighborhood analysis through three methods (cross-correlation, distance threshold, and average distance threshold) reveals the dominant interaction is dyadic, consisting of transient leader–follower behaviors embedded in the larger collective. The followers’ update rules are then tested against three regulation candidates (control strategies by which the follower adjusts its motion: optic flow, relative velocity, and ‘optical expansion rate’) to minimize root mean square error. The results show that in each dyad, the follower proceeds through a three-stage process involving a change to feedback rules that is separated by an intermediate unregulated period. An insect initially maintains a consistent (less than 8% variation) optical expansion rate until the inter-agent distance is as small as 10 cm. The regulation candidates then undergo large variations during an observation/decision zone lasting an average of 1.04 s. 79% of followers entering the decision zone then re-engage to track the same initial leader while 21% disengage. Upon re-engagement, the follower regulates inter-agent relative velocity, consistent with a closed-loop feedback proportional–integral controller regulating velocity tracking error. Proportional gain showed low variability across individuals, while derivative gain was found negligible and integral gain varied by individual. These findings highlight an alternative swarm architecture incorporating individual decision-making, feedback regulation target changes, and the presence of three interaction timescales.
The following article is
Open access
Topology-driven mechanical performance in architected cellular materials: insights from bioinspired glass sponge lattices
Hassan Beigi-Rizi
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026019
View article
, Topology-driven mechanical performance in architected cellular materials: insights from bioinspired glass sponge lattices
PDF
, Topology-driven mechanical performance in architected cellular materials: insights from bioinspired glass sponge lattices
Architected lattice materials inspired by biological structures are frequently described as bioinspired, yet the underlying functional principles governing their mechanical response are not always explicitly isolated. The hexactinellid sponge
Euplectella aspergillum
exhibits a distinctive skeletal organization based on a periodic square unit subdivided into four sub-squares, where two opposite regions are reinforced by paired diagonal struts while the remaining corners remain non-reinforced. This alternating reinforcement pattern introduces spatial heterogeneity in stiffness and connectivity at the unit-cell scale. While related geometries have been examined under compression and bending, their tensile elasto-plastic behavior and the specific mechanical role of this architectural coupling remain insufficiently understood. In this study, we isolate and quantify the contributions of (i) diagonal reinforcement and (ii) spatial cell alternation under uniaxial tension. PLA-based lattice variants were fabricated using fused filament fabrication to decouple these structural variables and were benchmarked against the full EA-sponge derived topology. Quasi-static tensile experiments, supported by linear elastic finite-element analysis, demonstrate that all configurations exhibit stretch-dominated elastic scaling. However, significant differences emerge in post-yield behavior. Fully plain and fully reinforced lattices show early strain localization and structurally brittle fracture modes, whereas alternating architectures promote stress redistribution and delay the formation of continuous failure bands. The EA-sponge topology, characterized by its checkerboard alternation and geometrically offset diagonals, exhibits the most stable structural elasto-plastic response, combining stiffness retention with progressive, non-catastrophic fracture behavior. These findings demonstrate that tensile performance is governed primarily by structural connectivity and spatial organization rather than relative density or material properties alone, establishing a topology-driven design principle derived from biological organization.
The following article is
Open access
Sweep angle effects of flow over a seal whisker-inspired undulated cylinder
Trevor K Dunt
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026018
View article
, Sweep angle effects of flow over a seal whisker-inspired undulated cylinder
PDF
, Sweep angle effects of flow over a seal whisker-inspired undulated cylinder
Flow over a seal whisker-inspired undulated cylinder at swept back angles is computationally investigated, comparing the vortex shedding, forces, and wake characteristics to those of an equivalent smooth geometry. Numerous prior studies have demonstrated that undulated cylinders can reduce mean drag and unsteady lift oscillations; however, none have isolated the effects of the sweep angle resulting from whisker positioning in flow. Inspired by the active control seals exert over their whiskers while navigating and sensing in unsteady aquatic environments, this study investigates how such orientation influences the hydrodynamic performance of the geometry. Simulations are performed of flow across a rigid, infinite-span, undulated cylinder at sweep angles from 0
to 60
and at Reynolds numbers of 250 and 500. At zero sweep, the undulated cylinder breaks up coherent two-dimensional vortices, having the effect of reducing drag by 11.4% and root mean square lift by 90.8% compared to a smooth elliptical cylinder. With sweep added, the prominence of spanwise vortex breakup and force suppression is reduced, approximating flow over smooth ellipse geometry as sweep increases. At low sweep angles of 15
and 30
, lift is still suppressed by 72.4% and 47.6% while drag results in a smaller difference of 5.7% and 1.6% reduction from a smooth ellipse. These results reinforce that sweep angle is a significant parameter both mechanically and biologically in the flow physics of whisker-inspired undulated geometries.
The following article is
Open access
Aerodynamic performance of autorotating seeds: scaling by size
Alberto Lolli
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026017
View article
, Aerodynamic performance of autorotating seeds: scaling by size
PDF
, Aerodynamic performance of autorotating seeds: scaling by size
This study investigates the aerodynamics of a bio-inspired samara seed through high-fidelity numerical simulations, employing an overset mesh method to fully resolve its six-degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) motion. Coupled fluid and rigid body dynamics was solved using OpenFOAM v2406. A rigid 3D-printed seed prototype reproducing the samara of
Acer campestre
and its geometrically scaled versions (0.5x and 2x) were analyzed to explore the effects of scaling on passive flight dynamics. The simulations captured the full 6-DOF behavior, including the transition from uniformly accelerated vertical free-fall to steady autorotation. Key aerodynamic quantities such as descent velocity, angular velocity, coning and pitch angles, and the surrounding flow field structure were evaluated and compared. Simulation results are found to agree with scaling laws derived from the literature. Autorotation was found to be robust across scales, but strongly dependent on drop height and aerodynamic efficiency. The larger prototype (2x) exhibited the highest aerodynamic performance, while the small seed (0.5x) showed a reduced lift and, consequently, a comparatively higher descent velocity. Moreover, the 2x prototype, provided a greater surface area, thus offering potential functional benefits for applications to environmental sensing. Flow visualizations confirmed the formation of coherent leading-edge vortices, which contribute to lift generation and flight stability. The drop height necessary to establish steady autorotation increases with the size of the seed. These results suggest the existence of practical and biological limits for effective autorotational flight and offer design insights for passive bio-inspired flying systems that balance scalability, deployment constraints, and aerodynamic performance.
The following article is
Open access
Polysectoid: a hyperredundant soft-bodied robot for modeling the role of parapodia in undulation and peristalsis
Huy Pham
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026016
View article
, Polysectoid: a hyperredundant soft-bodied robot for modeling the role of parapodia in undulation and peristalsis
PDF
, Polysectoid: a hyperredundant soft-bodied robot for modeling the role of parapodia in undulation and peristalsis
Biological inspiration offers new and innovative solutions to exploring challenging terrains, and implementations in bio-inspired robotics in turn offers insights to biological form and function. In particular, annelids (segmented worms), such as
Nereis
sp. (bristleworms), are useful subjects for their multi-modal locomotion through differing environments. This research aims to mimic key anatomical features of nereid worms in order to develop a new bio-inspired soft robot, named ‘Polysectoid’, that effectively moves through challenging terrains using both peristalsis and undulation. The muscles of the tendon-driven soft robots are longitudinal, and the robot has protruding structures mimicking parapodia and chaetae. Taking advantage of these features for both undulation and peristalsis required a new structural design to achieve both large bending motion and large diameter changes. Thus, the robot’s body is constructed of many long strips of flexible polymer, connected with custom 3D-printed channel pieces. We compare effectiveness and efficiency of movements of the resulting robot on substrates with different textures and in confined spaces. Parapodia and chaetae improve robot performance, with different effects on different gaits and substrates. Peristalsis with long parapodia allows Polysectoid to stay on a straightforward trajectory even without steering control. On the other hand, undulation allows the robot to navigate well in tight spaces, such as sandwiched between parallel surfaces, even when the distance between the parallel substrates was reduced to 66% of the robot’s diameter. This type of undulatory motion could have novel applications in inspections of confined spaces. As a detailed physical model, this design provides a platform to further examine the biomechanics of annelid-inspired locomotion and cascading neural pattern generator-based networks.
From shallow waters to Mariana Trench: a survey of bio-inspired underwater soft robots
Jie Wang
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
021002
View article
, From shallow waters to Mariana Trench: a survey of bio-inspired underwater soft robots
PDF
, From shallow waters to Mariana Trench: a survey of bio-inspired underwater soft robots
Sample Exploring the ocean environment holds profound significance in areas such as resource exploration and ecological protection. Underwater robots struggle with extreme water pressure and often cause noise and damage to the underwater ecosystem, while bio-inspired soft robots draw inspiration from aquatic creatures to address these challenges. These bio-inspired approaches enable robots to withstand high water pressure, minimize drag, operate with efficient manipulation and sensing systems, and interact with the environment in an eco-friendly manner. Consequently, bio-inspired soft robots have emerged as a promising field for ocean exploration. This paper reviews recent advancements in underwater bio-inspired soft robots, analyses their design considerations when facing different desired functions, bio-inspirations, ambient pressure, temperature, light, and biodiversity, and finally explores the progression from bio-inspired principles to practical applications in the field and suggests potential directions for developing the next generation of underwater soft robots.
The following article is
Open access
Deep dive into model-free reinforcement learning for underwater locomotion: theory and practice
Yusheng Jiao
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
022001
View article
, Deep dive into model-free reinforcement learning for underwater locomotion: theory and practice
PDF
, Deep dive into model-free reinforcement learning for underwater locomotion: theory and practice
Aquatic animals and underwater robots operate in a complex physical world and must coordinate their bodies to achieve behavioral objectives such as navigation and predation. With recent developments in deep reinforcement learning (RL), it is now possible for scientists and engineers to synthesize sensorimotor strategies (policies) for specific tasks using physically simulated bodies and environments. However, beyond solving individual control problems, these methods offer an exciting framework for understanding the organization of an animal sensorimotor system in connection with its morphology and physical interaction with the environment, as well as for deriving general design rules for bioinspired underwater robots. Although algorithms and code implementing both learning agents and environments are increasingly available, the basic assumptions and modeling choices that go into the formulation of an embodied feedback control problem using deep RL may not be immediately apparent. In this tutorial, we provide a self-contained introduction to model-free RL for embodied agents in underwater environments, with a focus on
actor-critic
methods. We first present the mathematical formulation of RL, highlighting where physical modeling choices enter. We then discuss the practical aspects of implementing actor-critic algorithms. Drawing on recent examples of RL-controlled swimmers, we provide guidelines for choosing observations, actions, and rewards consistent with biological behavior, and we outline how RL can be used as a tool to explore hypotheses about the feedback control underlying animal and robotic behavior.
The following article is
Open access
Soft robotics: what’s next in bioinspired design and applications of soft robots?
Cecilia Laschi
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
011501
View article
, Soft robotics: what’s next in bioinspired design and applications of soft robots?
PDF
, Soft robotics: what’s next in bioinspired design and applications of soft robots?
The field of soft robotics has shown unprecedented growth in research efforts, scientific achievements, and technological advancements. Bioinspiration and biomimetics have played an instrumental role in the birth and growth of soft robotics. What is next for this field? To promote soft robotics research to the next level and have a broader impact in robotics and engineering fields, in this roadmap, we argue that two research directions should be strengthened (i) more structured, formal methods and tools for designing and developing soft robots and bioinspired robots (ii) more concrete applications of bioinspired soft robots in diverse sectors of human activities. This article provides a roadmap for the design of bioinspired soft robots, the integration of soft robot systems, and their applications in industry and services. Scientists and experts describe the state-of-the art and the perspectives of bioinspired, model-informed design of soft robots, outlining the challenges in developing complex soft robotic systems, and applications of soft robots in diverse fields.
The following article is
Open access
From nature to robots: a comprehensive survey on lizard-inspired robotics for ground and space exploration
Gargi Das
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
021001
View article
, From nature to robots: a comprehensive survey on lizard-inspired robotics for ground and space exploration
PDF
, From nature to robots: a comprehensive survey on lizard-inspired robotics for ground and space exploration
Lizards are among the most biomechanically versatile animals, exhibiting a broad range of physical and behavioral adaptations, such as adhesion, agile locomotion, vertical climbing, righting reflexes, and various tail-assisted aerial maneuvers. These features have inspired a growing body of biomimetic technologies spanning robotics, medical devices, and control algorithms. This survey provides a comprehensive overview of lizard-inspired design principles and their applications in engineering systems. Starting from biological foundations, we review key physical and behavioral traits and map them to their engineered analogs, including soft adhesion mechanisms, metaheuristic control algorithms, and multi-modal locomotion systems. Special attention is given to lizard righting strategies in the development of self-righting robotic platforms. The survey also extends to the extraterrestrial relevance of lizard-inspired systems, highlighting studies of lizard behavior under altered gravity conditions. Applications in space robotics are explored through gecko-inspired adhesive grippers, locomotion analogies for planetary rovers, and dynamic parallels between lizard biomechanics and free-floating space manipulators. Despite the growing body of work, a comprehensive synthesis uniting terrestrial and extraterrestrial biomimetic insights has been lacking. This review aims to bridge that gap by mapping the trajectory of lizard-inspired biomechanics from biological foundations to robotic implementations, highlighting key achievements, interdisciplinary linkages, and frontiers for future exploration.
Insect-inspired passive mechanisms in hovering flapping wing micro air vehicles: a review
Jinjing Hao and Jianghao Wu 2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
011001
View article
, Insect-inspired passive mechanisms in hovering flapping wing micro air vehicles: a review
PDF
, Insect-inspired passive mechanisms in hovering flapping wing micro air vehicles: a review
Micro air vehicles (MAVs) operating at ultracompact scales under low Reynolds number regimes confront inherent aerodynamic constraints. While fixed and rotary-wing systems suffer efficiency losses from dominant viscous forces, flapping-wing MAVs (FWMAVs) circumvent these constraints through unsteady aerodynamic mechanisms. However, the challenge of integrating propulsion, actuation, and control within restricted volumes of FWMAVs necessitates biohybrid solutions leveraging insect-derived passive mechanisms. These mechanisms exploit inherent dynamic properties and natural physical interactions rather than programmed controllers or auxiliary power sources, effectively addressing fundamental engineering challenges through mechanical simplification and energy demand reduction. This review systematically examines passive mechanisms in hovering FWMAVs across biological foundations and engineered implementations. First, strategies for replicating insect wing motion patterns are introduced. Then, the intrinsic properties of flapping wings as well as effects on aerodynamic performance and flight stability are discussed. Further, comparative evaluations are presented between conventional FWMAVs and emerging beyond-natural designs combining biological principles with engineered innovations. Finally, research frontiers in passive mechanisms applications are discussed, whose implementation will help to expand FWMAVs’ operational envelopes and enhance mission versatility.
Phase-difference on seal whisker surface induces hairpin vortices in the wake to suppress force oscillation
Geng Liu
et al
2019
Bioinspir. Biomim.
14
066001
View article
, Phase-difference on seal whisker surface induces hairpin vortices in the wake to suppress force oscillation
PDF
, Phase-difference on seal whisker surface induces hairpin vortices in the wake to suppress force oscillation
Seals are able to use their uniquely shaped whiskers to track hydrodynamic trails generated 30 s ago and detect hydrodynamic velocities as low as 245
m s
−1
. The high sensibility has long thought to be related to the wavy shape of the whiskers. This work revisited the hydrodynamics of a seal whisker model in a uniform flow, and discovered a new mechanism of seal whiskers in reducing self-induced noises, which is different from the long thought-of effect of the wavy shape. It was reported that the major and minor axes of the elliptical cross-sections of seal whisker are out of phase by approximately 180 degrees. Three-dimensional numerical simulations of laminar flow (Reynolds number range: 150–500) around seal-whisker-like cylinders were performed to examine the effect of the phase-difference on hydrodynamic forces and wake structures. It was found that the phase-difference induced hairpin vortices in the wake over a wide range of geometric and flow parameters (wavelength, wavy amplitude and Reynolds number), therefore substantially reducing lift-oscillations and self-induced noises. The formation mechanism of the hairpin vortices was analyzed and is discussed in details. The results provide valuable insights into an innovative vibration reduction and hydrodynamic sensing mechanism.
Decentralized control with cross-coupled sensory feedback between body and limbs in sprawling locomotion
Shura Suzuki
et al
2019
Bioinspir. Biomim.
14
066010
View article
, Decentralized control with cross-coupled sensory feedback between body and limbs in sprawling locomotion
PDF
, Decentralized control with cross-coupled sensory feedback between body and limbs in sprawling locomotion
Quadrupeds achieve rapid and highly adaptive locomotion owing to the coordination between their legs and other body parts such as their trunk, head, and tail, i.e. body–limb coordination. Therefore, a better understanding of the mechanism underlying body–limb coordination could provide informative insights into the improvement of legged robot mobility. Sprawling locomotion is a walking gait with lateral bending exhibited in primitive legged vertebrates such as salamanders and newts. Because primitive animals are anticipated to possess the essence of quadruped motor control, their locomotion helps better understand body–limb coordination mechanisms. Previous studies modeled neural networks in salamanders and employed it to control robots and investigate and emulate sprawling locomotion. However, these models predefined the relationship between the legs and the trunk, such that how body–limb coordination is attained is largely unknown. In this article, we demonstrate that sensory feedback facilitates body–limb coordination in sprawling locomotion and improves mobility through mathematical modeling and robot simulations. Our proposed model has cross-coupled sensory feedback, that is, bidirectional feedback from body to limb and limb to body, which leads to an appropriate relationship between the legs and the trunk without any predefined relationship. Resulting gaits are similar to the sprawling locomotion of salamanders and achieve high speed and energy efficiency that are at the same level as those of a neural network model, such as conventional models, optimizing the relationship between the legs and the trunk. Furthermore, sensory feedback contributes to the adaptability toward leg failure, and the bidirectionality of feedback facilitates parameter tuning for stable locomotion. These results suggest that cross-coupled sensory feedback facilitates sprawling locomotion and potentially plays an important role in the body–limb coordination mechanism.
Competition and cooperation among chimney swifts at roost entry
Meera B Parikh
et al
2019
Bioinspir. Biomim.
14
055005
View article
, Competition and cooperation among chimney swifts at roost entry
PDF
, Competition and cooperation among chimney swifts at roost entry
Chimney swifts (
Chaetura pelagica
) are highly aerial, small, insectivorous birds well known for roosting
en masse
in chimneys during their autumn migration. These roosting events require hundreds to thousands of birds to enter a small opening (here 0.64 m
) within a short amount of time (15–30 min). Thus, these entry events pose a complex navigational and behavioral challenge as birds identify their entry route, cooperate with other birds present to form an entry flock, and compete with other birds at the time of chimney entry. We used six synchronized cameras to capture and reconstruct the 3D flight trajectories of swifts before and during chimney entry. Navigation into the chimney is consistent with use of a relative retinal expansion velocity cue, which results in an entry/non-entry decision point about 1.5 m above the chimney, or 0.4 s at typical entry speeds. Entries were highly clustered with 91 of 136 entries occurring within 1 s of another entry. We observed both synchronous (entry within 0.2 s) and sequential entry behavior (entry separated by ~0.4 s). Birds entering the chimney flew in close proximity to other birds (median minimum distance 0.51 m; 1.7 wingspans). In cases where two birds appeared to attempt a near-simultaneous entry, the bird either slightly to the rear or with a velocity vector bringing it closer to the current position of the other bird tended to make an avoidance maneuver and abandon its entry attempt. Overall, these results show how groups of animals execute complex landing and collision avoidance maneuvers in a natural setting without central control authority.
Organismal aggregations exhibit fluidic behaviors: a review
Nicholas M Smith
et al
2019
Bioinspir. Biomim.
14
031001
View article
, Organismal aggregations exhibit fluidic behaviors: a review
PDF
, Organismal aggregations exhibit fluidic behaviors: a review
Groups of organisms such as flocks, swarms, herds, and schools form for a variety of motivations linked to survival and proliferation. Their size, locomotive domain, population, and the environmental stimuli guiding motion make challenging the study of member interactions and global behaviors. In this review, we borrow principles and analogies from fluids to describe the characteristics of organismal aggregations, which may inspire new tools for the analysis of collective motion. Examples of fluid resemblance include open channel flow, droplet formation, and particle-laden flow. We show how the properties of density, viscosity, and surface tension have strong parallels in the structure and behavior of aggregations of contrasting scale and domain. In certain cases, aggregations are sufficiently fluid-like that values can be assigned to such properties. We highlight how organisms engaging in collective motion can flow, roll, and change phase. Finally, we present limitations and exceptions for the application of fluidic principles to the motion of living groups.
Evidence for multiple dynamic climbing gait families
Jason M Brown
et al
2019
Bioinspir. Biomim.
14
036001
View article
, Evidence for multiple dynamic climbing gait families
PDF
, Evidence for multiple dynamic climbing gait families
While numerous gait families have been defined and studied for legged systems traversing level ground (e.g. walking, running, bounding, etc), formal distinctions have yet to be developed for dynamic gaits in the vertical regime. Recognition and understanding of different gait families has clear implications to control strategy, efficiency, and stability. While several climbing robotic systems have been described as achieving ‘running’ behaviors on vertical surfaces, the question of whether distinct dynamic gaits exist and what differentiates these gaits has not been rigorously explored. In this paper, by applying definitions developed in the horizontal regime to simulation and experimental data, we show evidence of three distinct dynamic climbing gaits families and discuss the implications of these gaits on the development of more advanced climbing robots.
The following article is
Open access
Aerodynamic Performance and Flow Structure Analysis of a Swallow-Inspired NACA2415 Airfoil
Tekeoglu et al
View accepted manuscript
, Aerodynamic Performance and Flow Structure Analysis of a Swallow-Inspired NACA2415 Airfoil
PDF
, Aerodynamic Performance and Flow Structure Analysis of a Swallow-Inspired NACA2415 Airfoil
This study investigates the aerodynamic characteristics of a swallow-inspired wing based on a NACA 2415 airfoil at Reynolds numbers of 7.5×10
and 1.25×10
using experimental force measurements and flow-visualization techniques. The bioinspired wing model was designed according to the top-view geometry of a swallow wing and tested in a low-speed open-suction wind tunnel together with a rectangular wing of identical planform area and airfoil profile to provide a baseline comparison. Aerodynamic measurements were conducted over an angle-of-attack range between −6
and 24
to determine lift, drag and moment coefficients as well as aerodynamic efficiency. In addition to force measurements, smoke-wire and TiO
based flow visualization techniques were used to examine the flow topology around the test models. The results show that the swallow-inspired wing exhibits improved aerodynamic performance compared with the rectangular configuration under both Reynolds number conditions. At Re=1.25×10
, the bioinspired wing achieved a maximum lift coefficient of 0.694 at an angle of attack of 9
, while the minimum drag coefficient was approximately 7.48×10
-3
. The aerodynamic efficiency reached a maximum L/D ratio of 42.9 at an angle of attack of 2
. Similar aerodynamic trends were observed at Re=7.5×10
, although slightly reduced lift and aerodynamic efficiency were recorded due to stronger viscous effects at lower Reynolds numbers. The pitching moment coefficient varied approximately linearly with angle of attack, with a slope of −7.8×10
−3
per degree and a zero-lift moment value of −7.47×10
-3
, indicating stable longitudinal aerodynamic behavior. Flow visualization results revealed a gradual transition from attached laminar flow to separated turbulent flow, suggesting smoother stall development and improved flow stability for the bioinspired configuration. These findings highlight the aerodynamic advantages of swallow-inspired wing geometries and their potential to enhance aerodynamic efficiency in low Reynolds number flight.
Preparation and Motion Study of a Micro Soft Robot Mimicking the Cownose Ray Driven by External Magnetic Field
Gao et al
View accepted manuscript
, Preparation and Motion Study of a Micro Soft Robot Mimicking the Cownose Ray Driven by External Magnetic Field
PDF
, Preparation and Motion Study of a Micro Soft Robot Mimicking the Cownose Ray Driven by External Magnetic Field
In narrow, unstructured underwater environments such as target monitoring and minimally invasive medical procedures, micro soft robots exhibit unique advantages due to their flexible movement capabilities and small size. At the same time, bionic design of a micro soft robot, can significantly improve their swimming performance. However, limited by their small size, these robots are difficult to power internally and usually adopt a wireless power supply design. This study designs and fabricates a magnetically responsive, bionic micro soft robot based on the swimming principle of the cownose ray. The robot is made of a mixture of neodymium iron boron (NdFeB) and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) in a certain proportion. Then, a three-dimensional Helmholtz coil is used to generate an oscillating harmonic magnetic field, allowing for swimming experiments on the robot to explore the influence of magnetic field parameters on its swimming performance. The experimental results show that the swimming speed is fastest at B = 5 mT and f = 11 Hz, reaching 5.25 mm/s, about 0.5 body lengths per second. Additionally, by adjusting the current direction and frequency of the coil, the robot can execute various swimming modes, including straight swimming, turning swimming, and directional swimming. By employing a stepwise adjustment method, the impact of response errors on the robot's trajectory can be effectively reduced. This study demonstrates the feasibility of a magnetically driven micro soft robot, laying the foundation for the application of wirelessly driven robots in underwater narrow spaces.
The following article is
Open access
Model suggests that swing leg dynamic decoupling is crucial for explaining bipedal walking dynamics
Renjewski et al
View accepted manuscript
, Model suggests that swing leg dynamic decoupling is crucial for explaining bipedal walking dynamics
PDF
, Model suggests that swing leg dynamic decoupling is crucial for explaining bipedal walking dynamics
Understanding the dynamics of bipedal walking is essential for advancements in biomechanics and robotics. This study examines the impact of swing-leg dynamics on overall gait mechanics using an augmented inverted pendulum model that incorporates a swing leg and an upper-body segment (HAT). We hypothesized that the HAT segment compensates for swing-leg dynamics, thereby minimizing their effect on ground reaction forces (GRFs). Contrary to expectations, our findings reveal that the trunk contributes minimally to this compensation, leading to significant GRF modulation during active swing-leg propulsion. However, introducing an initial velocity to the swing leg during terminal stance markedly reduces these modulations, aligning simulated GRFs with experimental data for human walking. This result highlights the need to dynamically decouple the swing leg from upper-body dynamics to achieve efficient, human-like locomotion. The presented model provides a framework for optimizing bipedal gait designs in humanoid robotics and advancing our understanding of human biomechanics.
Aerodynamic Optimization of a Two-Segment Flapping Wing Via Kinematic Timing Design
Yang et al
View accepted manuscript
, Aerodynamic Optimization of a Two-Segment Flapping Wing Via Kinematic Timing Design
PDF
, Aerodynamic Optimization of a Two-Segment Flapping Wing Via Kinematic Timing Design
Flapping-wing aircraft often experience pronounced negative-lift excursions during stroke transitions, which degrade their aerodynamic stability and energy utilization, thereby hindering practical deployment. To address this issue, an albatross-inspired two-segment flapping-wing configuration was investigated with a dwell (waiting) phase introduced at stroke reversal as a kinematic timing design strategy. A three-phase kinematic model (upstroke–dwell–downstroke) was established and simulated using the XFlow lattice Boltzmann solver. Numerical simulations were conducted at flapping frequencies of 3–5 Hz with varying dwell-time ratios, and the resulting aerodynamic loads and vortex structures are analyzed. The results showed that incorporating a dwell phase reduced negative-lift fluctuations; the peak negative lift decreased as the dwell-time ratio increased up to 1/6 of the cycle and then approached a plateau. At a dwell-time ratio of 1/6, the peak negative lift was reduced by approximately 37% relative to the no-dwell case, whereas further extension of the dwell phase induced oscillations in the lift history. Overall, properly designed dwell timings provide quantitative guidance for motion sequencing and aerodynamic optimization in multi-segment flapping-wing systems.
The following article is
Open access
Experimental study of soil penetration strategies for earthworm-like robots
Brodoline et al
View accepted manuscript
, Experimental study of soil penetration strategies for earthworm-like robots
PDF
, Experimental study of soil penetration strategies for earthworm-like robots
Earthworm-like robots represent a promising alternative to conventional soil investigation tools currently used in geotechnics. Their limited invasiveness and ability to navigate in three-dimensions underground are highly desirable properties. Despite the multitude of existing strategies developed for exploring underground soils, the energy improvement is difficult to compare due to various soil conditions and robot tip design. In this study, we present an experimental comparison between burrowing strategies bio-inspired by the motion of earthworms in a fine, dry sand. Results showed that a high aspect ratio of the tip during burrowing, compared to smaller aspects ratios reduces energy consumption. An aspect ratio of 4 reduced the energy required to reach a depth of 200mm by 65%, with respect to the aspect ratio of 1. Additionally, asymmetric geometries did not improve the penetration energy during vertical burrowing while led to energy reduction of nearly 40% for horizontal penetration. Active strategy by vacuuming showed a high reduction in penetration energy by nearly 70% at 200mm, while fluidization strategy using low pressurized air provided limited advantages. The results highlight the importance of considering both bio-inspired passive and active strategies in the design of burrowing robots to exploit their potential and reach deep soil via three-dimensional motion. This approach should be coupled with online soil characterization tools to tune the strategy by need.
More Accepted manuscripts
The following article is
Open access
Aerodynamic Performance and Flow Structure Analysis of a Swallow-Inspired NACA2415 Airfoil
Kadriye Nur Tekeoglu
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
View article
, Aerodynamic Performance and Flow Structure Analysis of a Swallow-Inspired NACA2415 Airfoil
PDF
, Aerodynamic Performance and Flow Structure Analysis of a Swallow-Inspired NACA2415 Airfoil
This study investigates the aerodynamic characteristics of a swallow-inspired wing based on a NACA 2415 airfoil at Reynolds numbers of 7.5×10
and 1.25×10
using experimental force measurements and flow-visualization techniques. The bioinspired wing model was designed according to the top-view geometry of a swallow wing and tested in a low-speed open-suction wind tunnel together with a rectangular wing of identical planform area and airfoil profile to provide a baseline comparison. Aerodynamic measurements were conducted over an angle-of-attack range between −6
and 24
to determine lift, drag and moment coefficients as well as aerodynamic efficiency. In addition to force measurements, smoke-wire and TiO
based flow visualization techniques were used to examine the flow topology around the test models. The results show that the swallow-inspired wing exhibits improved aerodynamic performance compared with the rectangular configuration under both Reynolds number conditions. At Re=1.25×10
, the bioinspired wing achieved a maximum lift coefficient of 0.694 at an angle of attack of 9
, while the minimum drag coefficient was approximately 7.48×10
-3
. The aerodynamic efficiency reached a maximum L/D ratio of 42.9 at an angle of attack of 2
. Similar aerodynamic trends were observed at Re=7.5×10
, although slightly reduced lift and aerodynamic efficiency were recorded due to stronger viscous effects at lower Reynolds numbers. The pitching moment coefficient varied approximately linearly with angle of attack, with a slope of −7.8×10
−3
per degree and a zero-lift moment value of −7.47×10
-3
, indicating stable longitudinal aerodynamic behavior. Flow visualization results revealed a gradual transition from attached laminar flow to separated turbulent flow, suggesting smoother stall development and improved flow stability for the bioinspired configuration. These findings highlight the aerodynamic advantages of swallow-inspired wing geometries and their potential to enhance aerodynamic efficiency in low Reynolds number flight.
The following article is
Open access
Model suggests that swing leg dynamic decoupling is crucial for explaining bipedal walking dynamics
Daniel Renjewski and Tengman Wang 2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
View article
, Model suggests that swing leg dynamic decoupling is crucial for explaining bipedal walking dynamics
PDF
, Model suggests that swing leg dynamic decoupling is crucial for explaining bipedal walking dynamics
Understanding the dynamics of bipedal walking is essential for advancements in biomechanics and robotics. This study examines the impact of swing-leg dynamics on overall gait mechanics using an augmented inverted pendulum model that incorporates a swing leg and an upper-body segment (HAT). We hypothesized that the HAT segment compensates for swing-leg dynamics, thereby minimizing their effect on ground reaction forces (GRFs). Contrary to expectations, our findings reveal that the trunk contributes minimally to this compensation, leading to significant GRF modulation during active swing-leg propulsion. However, introducing an initial velocity to the swing leg during terminal stance markedly reduces these modulations, aligning simulated GRFs with experimental data for human walking. This result highlights the need to dynamically decouple the swing leg from upper-body dynamics to achieve efficient, human-like locomotion. The presented model provides a framework for optimizing bipedal gait designs in humanoid robotics and advancing our understanding of human biomechanics.
The following article is
Open access
Topology-driven mechanical performance in architected cellular materials: insights from bioinspired glass sponge lattices
Hassan Beigi-Rizi
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026019
View article
, Topology-driven mechanical performance in architected cellular materials: insights from bioinspired glass sponge lattices
PDF
, Topology-driven mechanical performance in architected cellular materials: insights from bioinspired glass sponge lattices
Architected lattice materials inspired by biological structures are frequently described as bioinspired, yet the underlying functional principles governing their mechanical response are not always explicitly isolated. The hexactinellid sponge
Euplectella aspergillum
exhibits a distinctive skeletal organization based on a periodic square unit subdivided into four sub-squares, where two opposite regions are reinforced by paired diagonal struts while the remaining corners remain non-reinforced. This alternating reinforcement pattern introduces spatial heterogeneity in stiffness and connectivity at the unit-cell scale. While related geometries have been examined under compression and bending, their tensile elasto-plastic behavior and the specific mechanical role of this architectural coupling remain insufficiently understood. In this study, we isolate and quantify the contributions of (i) diagonal reinforcement and (ii) spatial cell alternation under uniaxial tension. PLA-based lattice variants were fabricated using fused filament fabrication to decouple these structural variables and were benchmarked against the full EA-sponge derived topology. Quasi-static tensile experiments, supported by linear elastic finite-element analysis, demonstrate that all configurations exhibit stretch-dominated elastic scaling. However, significant differences emerge in post-yield behavior. Fully plain and fully reinforced lattices show early strain localization and structurally brittle fracture modes, whereas alternating architectures promote stress redistribution and delay the formation of continuous failure bands. The EA-sponge topology, characterized by its checkerboard alternation and geometrically offset diagonals, exhibits the most stable structural elasto-plastic response, combining stiffness retention with progressive, non-catastrophic fracture behavior. These findings demonstrate that tensile performance is governed primarily by structural connectivity and spatial organization rather than relative density or material properties alone, establishing a topology-driven design principle derived from biological organization.
The following article is
Open access
Sweep angle effects of flow over a seal whisker-inspired undulated cylinder
Trevor K Dunt
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026018
View article
, Sweep angle effects of flow over a seal whisker-inspired undulated cylinder
PDF
, Sweep angle effects of flow over a seal whisker-inspired undulated cylinder
Flow over a seal whisker-inspired undulated cylinder at swept back angles is computationally investigated, comparing the vortex shedding, forces, and wake characteristics to those of an equivalent smooth geometry. Numerous prior studies have demonstrated that undulated cylinders can reduce mean drag and unsteady lift oscillations; however, none have isolated the effects of the sweep angle resulting from whisker positioning in flow. Inspired by the active control seals exert over their whiskers while navigating and sensing in unsteady aquatic environments, this study investigates how such orientation influences the hydrodynamic performance of the geometry. Simulations are performed of flow across a rigid, infinite-span, undulated cylinder at sweep angles from 0
to 60
and at Reynolds numbers of 250 and 500. At zero sweep, the undulated cylinder breaks up coherent two-dimensional vortices, having the effect of reducing drag by 11.4% and root mean square lift by 90.8% compared to a smooth elliptical cylinder. With sweep added, the prominence of spanwise vortex breakup and force suppression is reduced, approximating flow over smooth ellipse geometry as sweep increases. At low sweep angles of 15
and 30
, lift is still suppressed by 72.4% and 47.6% while drag results in a smaller difference of 5.7% and 1.6% reduction from a smooth ellipse. These results reinforce that sweep angle is a significant parameter both mechanically and biologically in the flow physics of whisker-inspired undulated geometries.
The following article is
Open access
Experimental study of soil penetration strategies for earthworm-like robots
Ilya Brodoline
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
View article
, Experimental study of soil penetration strategies for earthworm-like robots
PDF
, Experimental study of soil penetration strategies for earthworm-like robots
Earthworm-like robots represent a promising alternative to conventional soil investigation tools currently used in geotechnics. Their limited invasiveness and ability to navigate in three-dimensions underground are highly desirable properties. Despite the multitude of existing strategies developed for exploring underground soils, the energy improvement is difficult to compare due to various soil conditions and robot tip design. In this study, we present an experimental comparison between burrowing strategies bio-inspired by the motion of earthworms in a fine, dry sand. Results showed that a high aspect ratio of the tip during burrowing, compared to smaller aspects ratios reduces energy consumption. An aspect ratio of 4 reduced the energy required to reach a depth of 200mm by 65%, with respect to the aspect ratio of 1. Additionally, asymmetric geometries did not improve the penetration energy during vertical burrowing while led to energy reduction of nearly 40% for horizontal penetration. Active strategy by vacuuming showed a high reduction in penetration energy by nearly 70% at 200mm, while fluidization strategy using low pressurized air provided limited advantages. The results highlight the importance of considering both bio-inspired passive and active strategies in the design of burrowing robots to exploit their potential and reach deep soil via three-dimensional motion. This approach should be coupled with online soil characterization tools to tune the strategy by need.
The following article is
Open access
Aerodynamic performance of autorotating seeds: scaling by size
Alberto Lolli
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026017
View article
, Aerodynamic performance of autorotating seeds: scaling by size
PDF
, Aerodynamic performance of autorotating seeds: scaling by size
This study investigates the aerodynamics of a bio-inspired samara seed through high-fidelity numerical simulations, employing an overset mesh method to fully resolve its six-degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) motion. Coupled fluid and rigid body dynamics was solved using OpenFOAM v2406. A rigid 3D-printed seed prototype reproducing the samara of
Acer campestre
and its geometrically scaled versions (0.5x and 2x) were analyzed to explore the effects of scaling on passive flight dynamics. The simulations captured the full 6-DOF behavior, including the transition from uniformly accelerated vertical free-fall to steady autorotation. Key aerodynamic quantities such as descent velocity, angular velocity, coning and pitch angles, and the surrounding flow field structure were evaluated and compared. Simulation results are found to agree with scaling laws derived from the literature. Autorotation was found to be robust across scales, but strongly dependent on drop height and aerodynamic efficiency. The larger prototype (2x) exhibited the highest aerodynamic performance, while the small seed (0.5x) showed a reduced lift and, consequently, a comparatively higher descent velocity. Moreover, the 2x prototype, provided a greater surface area, thus offering potential functional benefits for applications to environmental sensing. Flow visualizations confirmed the formation of coherent leading-edge vortices, which contribute to lift generation and flight stability. The drop height necessary to establish steady autorotation increases with the size of the seed. These results suggest the existence of practical and biological limits for effective autorotational flight and offer design insights for passive bio-inspired flying systems that balance scalability, deployment constraints, and aerodynamic performance.
The following article is
Open access
Polysectoid: a hyperredundant soft-bodied robot for modeling the role of parapodia in undulation and peristalsis
Huy Pham
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
21
026016
View article
, Polysectoid: a hyperredundant soft-bodied robot for modeling the role of parapodia in undulation and peristalsis
PDF
, Polysectoid: a hyperredundant soft-bodied robot for modeling the role of parapodia in undulation and peristalsis
Biological inspiration offers new and innovative solutions to exploring challenging terrains, and implementations in bio-inspired robotics in turn offers insights to biological form and function. In particular, annelids (segmented worms), such as
Nereis
sp. (bristleworms), are useful subjects for their multi-modal locomotion through differing environments. This research aims to mimic key anatomical features of nereid worms in order to develop a new bio-inspired soft robot, named ‘Polysectoid’, that effectively moves through challenging terrains using both peristalsis and undulation. The muscles of the tendon-driven soft robots are longitudinal, and the robot has protruding structures mimicking parapodia and chaetae. Taking advantage of these features for both undulation and peristalsis required a new structural design to achieve both large bending motion and large diameter changes. Thus, the robot’s body is constructed of many long strips of flexible polymer, connected with custom 3D-printed channel pieces. We compare effectiveness and efficiency of movements of the resulting robot on substrates with different textures and in confined spaces. Parapodia and chaetae improve robot performance, with different effects on different gaits and substrates. Peristalsis with long parapodia allows Polysectoid to stay on a straightforward trajectory even without steering control. On the other hand, undulation allows the robot to navigate well in tight spaces, such as sandwiched between parallel surfaces, even when the distance between the parallel substrates was reduced to 66% of the robot’s diameter. This type of undulatory motion could have novel applications in inspections of confined spaces. As a detailed physical model, this design provides a platform to further examine the biomechanics of annelid-inspired locomotion and cascading neural pattern generator-based networks.
The following article is
Open access
Delfly Flex: A Flapping Wing Micro Air Vehicle with a Bio-Inspired Unibody Composed of Compliant Joints
Sunyi Wang
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
View article
, Delfly Flex: A Flapping Wing Micro Air Vehicle with a Bio-Inspired Unibody Composed of Compliant Joints
PDF
, Delfly Flex: A Flapping Wing Micro Air Vehicle with a Bio-Inspired Unibody Composed of Compliant Joints
Flying insects’ thorax houses the flight muscles that provide efficient, multi-axis wing actuation. Such bio-inspiration is essential for developing future flapping wing micro air vehicles (FWMAVs) that combine advanced maneuverability with design simplicity, low weight, and high power efficiency. In this work, we propose a novel unibody with distributed compliant joints that mimic the multiple degrees of actuation freedom of an insect thorax, yielding a compact multifunctional structural component capable of active pitch and yaw for the 24.6-gram FWMAV: Delfly Flex. All of these functions are achieved within a single 3.73-gram 3D-printed integrated airframe. To design this unibody, we provide an analytical framework that guides compliant joint geometry using differential flexure beam analysis, along with an optimal joint orientation analysis for seamless integration into the unibody. To ensure sufficient structural endurance, we investigate various resin materials and printing configurations, resulting in a robust resin-printed unibody that incorporates two compliant joints and wing-root stabilizers. This single structure replaces the conventional multi-component FWMAV body composed of rigid-hinge-based dihedral pitch & yaw mechanisms attached to a rod-like fuselage. We characterize the flight capabilities of Delfly Flex through tethered experiments measuring force and moment generation. The results show thrust generation and yaw moment arms equivalent to its predecessor, while the pitch moment arm is approximately 50% smaller due to the concentrated mass distribution inherent to the unibody design. Free-flight experiments further validate the concept, demonstrating controlled pitch and yaw maneuvers enabled by compliant beams as thin as 0.4mm. Combined with simplified assembly and more than 10% mass reduction, this unibody concept opens pathways toward future designs with increased deformability and expanded control authority. Overall, this study highlights the synergy between aero-mechanical design and additive manufacturing, achieving enhanced body intelligence through insect-thorax-inspired FWMAV structures.
The following article is
Open access
Resin Models of Drosophila Strain Sensors Highlight Mechanical Pre-Filtering of Sensory Inputs
Gesa F Dinges
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
View article
, Resin Models of Drosophila Strain Sensors Highlight Mechanical Pre-Filtering of Sensory Inputs
PDF
, Resin Models of Drosophila Strain Sensors Highlight Mechanical Pre-Filtering of Sensory Inputs
Locomotion can be modified and reinforced through the utilization of sensory feedback. A type of sensory structure, commonly found in the legs of insects, is strain sensors called campaniform sensilla (CS). These are embedded in the rigid cuticle and commonly found in groups and fields, some of which contain a variety of CS sizes and orientations. The CS groups and fields on the legs are consistent across individuals of the same species, but the topography of the local cuticle and the number of sensilla may vary. In order to investigate the effect of these variations on force encoding, we utilize a previously published physical modeling approach to begin to address three questions: i) How might the cuticular contour (i.e., deviation in elevation from the local cuticle patch) amplify and reorient the strain that CS encode? ii) How might the absence of some CS impact the strain encoded by the remaining CS in that field? and iii) How might these two mechanisms impact how a field encodes the direction of loading on a limb? Using 3D printed resin mechanical models of a Drosophila CS field with 11 CS, we measured the displacement at each sensillum’s location via a corresponding strain gauge rosette (i.e., nonparallel strain gauges). We 3D printed additional “block” models that flattened the contour and further ”reduced” models that omitted some caps from the field. Comparing the realistic, block, and reduced models revealed that, as predicted, raised cuticular contouring can rotate the directional sensitivity of a single CS. Removing some caps from the field changed the magnitude, but rarely the directional sensitivity, of cap strain. Both contour and cap removal alter the population response to different loading directions. These results suggest that inter-individual differences could greatly impact strain sensing in vivo and provide concrete hypotheses for future biological experiments. We conclude by discussing implications for motor control and robotics, as well as limitations and improvements to our method.
The following article is
Open access
When Animals Turn Inside Out: The Eversion of Bloodworms
Soohwan Kim
et al
2026
Bioinspir. Biomim.
View article
, When Animals Turn Inside Out: The Eversion of Bloodworms
PDF
, When Animals Turn Inside Out: The Eversion of Bloodworms
Bloodworms, Glycera dibranchiata, possess an eversible proboscis that normally remains concealed within their bodies but explosively everts if the worm attacks or burrows. How does the bloodworm evert quickly and reliably? In this experimental study, we characterized bloodworm kinematics, pressure, and material properties to estimate the criteria for safe eversion without rupture of the proboscis. We predicted the proboscis can withstand pressures 50 times higher and bending strains up to three times higher than the respective values observed. We also presented a dimensional analysis of eversion, finding that everting animals, from frogs to snails to sharks, do not satisfy Froude's law for equivalence of velocities. Our findings may help inspire the development of pressure-driven soft robots with efficient retraction capabilities.
More Open Access articles
Software techniques for two- and three-dimensional kinematic measurements of biological and biomimetic systems
Tyson L Hedrick 2008
Bioinspir. Biomim.
034001
View article
, Software techniques for two- and three-dimensional kinematic measurements of biological and biomimetic systems
PDF
, Software techniques for two- and three-dimensional kinematic measurements of biological and biomimetic systems
Researchers studying aspects of locomotion or movement in biological and biomimetic systems commonly use video or stereo video recordings to quantify the behaviour of the system in question, often with an emphasis on measures of position, velocity and acceleration. However, despite the apparent simplicity of video analysis, it can require substantial investment of time and effort, even when performed with adequate software tools. This paper reviews the underlying principles of video and stereo video analysis as well as its automation and is accompanied by fully functional and freely available software implementation.
A survey on dielectric elastomer actuators for soft robots
Guo-Ying Gu
et al
2017
Bioinspir. Biomim.
12
011003
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, A survey on dielectric elastomer actuators for soft robots
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, A survey on dielectric elastomer actuators for soft robots
Conventional industrial robots with the rigid actuation technology have made great progress for humans in the fields of automation assembly and manufacturing. With an increasing number of robots needing to interact with humans and unstructured environments, there is a need for soft robots capable of sustaining large deformation while inducing little pressure or damage when maneuvering through confined spaces. The emergence of soft robotics offers the prospect of applying soft actuators as artificial muscles in robots, replacing traditional rigid actuators. Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) are recognized as one of the most promising soft actuation technologies due to the facts that: i) dielectric elastomers are kind of soft, motion-generating materials that resemble natural muscle of humans in terms of force, strain (displacement per unit length or area) and actuation pressure/density; ii) dielectric elastomers can produce large voltage-induced deformation. In this survey, we first introduce the so-called DEAs emphasizing the key points of working principle, key components and electromechanical modeling approaches. Then, different DEA-driven soft robots, including wearable/humanoid robots, walking/serpentine robots, flying robots and swimming robots, are reviewed. Lastly, we summarize the challenges and opportunities for the further studies in terms of mechanism design, dynamics modeling and autonomous control.
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Biohybrid robots: recent progress, challenges, and perspectives
Victoria A Webster-Wood
et al
2023
Bioinspir. Biomim.
18
015001
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, Biohybrid robots: recent progress, challenges, and perspectives
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, Biohybrid robots: recent progress, challenges, and perspectives
The past ten years have seen the rapid expansion of the field of biohybrid robotics. By combining engineered, synthetic components with living biological materials, new robotics solutions have been developed that harness the adaptability of living muscles, the sensitivity of living sensory cells, and even the computational abilities of living neurons. Biohybrid robotics has taken the popular and scientific media by storm with advances in the field, moving biohybrid robotics out of science fiction and into real science and engineering. So how did we get here, and where should the field of biohybrid robotics go next? In this perspective, we first provide the historical context of crucial subareas of biohybrid robotics by reviewing the past 10+ years of advances in microorganism-bots and sperm-bots, cyborgs, and tissue-based robots. We then present critical challenges facing the field and provide our perspectives on the vital future steps toward creating autonomous living machines.
Vibration isolation by exploring bio-inspired structural nonlinearity
Zhijing Wu
et al
2015
Bioinspir. Biomim.
10
056015
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, Vibration isolation by exploring bio-inspired structural nonlinearity
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, Vibration isolation by exploring bio-inspired structural nonlinearity
Inspired by the limb structures of animals/insects in motion vibration control, a bio-inspired limb-like structure (LLS) is systematically studied for understanding and exploring its advantageous nonlinear function in passive vibration isolation. The bio-inspired system consists of asymmetric articulations (of different rod lengths) with inside vertical and horizontal springs (as animal muscle) of different linear stiffness. Mathematical modeling and analysis of the proposed LLS reveal that, (a) the system has very beneficial nonlinear stiffness which can provide flexible quasi-zero, zero and/or negative stiffness, and these nonlinear stiffness properties are adjustable or designable with structure parameters; (b) the asymmetric rod-length ratio and spring-stiffness ratio present very beneficial factors for tuning system equivalent stiffness; (c) the system loading capacity is also adjustable with the structure parameters which presents another flexible benefit in application. Experiments and comparisons with existing quasi-zero-stiffness isolators validate the advantageous features above, and some discussions are also given about how to select structural parameters for practical applications. The results would provide an innovative bio-inspired solution to passive vibration control in various engineering practice.
A biomimetic robotic jellyfish (Robojelly) actuated by shape memory alloy composite actuators
Alex Villanueva
et al
2011
Bioinspir. Biomim.
036004
View article
, A biomimetic robotic jellyfish (Robojelly) actuated by shape memory alloy composite actuators
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, A biomimetic robotic jellyfish (Robojelly) actuated by shape memory alloy composite actuators
An analysis is conducted on the design, fabrication and performance of an underwater vehicle mimicking the propulsion mechanism and physical appearance of a medusa (jellyfish). The robotic jellyfish called Robojelly mimics the morphology and kinematics of the
Aurelia aurita
species. Robojelly actuates using bio-inspired shape memory alloy composite actuators. A systematic fabrication technique was developed to replicate the essential structural features of
A. aurita
. Robojelly's body was fabricated from RTV silicone having a total mass of 242 g and bell diameter of 164 mm. Robojelly was able to generate enough thrust in static water conditions to propel itself and achieve a proficiency of 0.19 s
−1
while the
A. aurita
achieves a proficiency of around 0.25 s
−1
. A thrust analysis based on empirical measurements for a natural jellyfish was used to compare the performance of the different robotic configurations. The configuration with best performance was a Robojelly with segmented bell and a passive flap structure. Robojelly was found to consume an average power on the order of 17 W with the actuators not having fully reached a thermal steady state.
GoQBot: a caterpillar-inspired soft-bodied rolling robot
Huai-Ti Lin
et al
2011
Bioinspir. Biomim.
026007
View article
, GoQBot: a caterpillar-inspired soft-bodied rolling robot
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, GoQBot: a caterpillar-inspired soft-bodied rolling robot
Rolling locomotion using an external force such as gravity has evolved many times. However, some caterpillars can curl into a wheel and generate their own rolling momentum as part of an escape repertoire. This change in body conformation occurs well within 100 ms and generates a linear velocity over 0.2 m s
−1
, making it one of the fastest self-propelled wheeling behaviors in nature. Inspired by this behavior, we construct a soft-bodied robot to explore the dynamics and control issues of ballistic rolling. This robot, called GoQBot, closely mimics caterpillar rolling. Analyzing the whole body kinematics and 2D ground reaction forces at the robot ground anchor reveals about 1
of acceleration and more than 200 rpm of angular velocity. As a novel rolling robot, GoQBot demonstrates how morphing can produce new modes of locomotion. Furthermore, mechanical coupling of the actuators improves body coordination without sensory feedback. Such coupling is intrinsic to soft-bodied animals because there are no joints to isolate muscle-generated movements. Finally, GoQBot provides an estimate of the mechanical power for caterpillar rolling that is comparable to that of a locust jump. How caterpillar musculature produces such power in such a short time is yet to be discovered.
Tunabot Flex: a tuna-inspired robot with body flexibility improves high-performance swimming
Carl H White
et al
2021
Bioinspir. Biomim.
16
026019
View article
, Tunabot Flex: a tuna-inspired robot with body flexibility improves high-performance swimming
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, Tunabot Flex: a tuna-inspired robot with body flexibility improves high-performance swimming
Tunas are flexible, high-performance open ocean swimmers that operate at high frequencies to achieve high swimming speeds. Most fish-like robotic systems operate at low frequencies (≤3 Hz) resulting in low swim speeds (≤1.5 body lengths per second), and the cost of transport (COT) is often one to four orders of magnitude higher than that of tunas. Furthermore, the impact of body flexibility on high-performance fish swimming remains unknown. Here we design and test a research platform based on yellowfin tuna (
Thunnus albacares
) to investigate the role of body flexibility and to close the performance gap between robotic and biological systems. This single-motor platform, termed Tunabot Flex, measures 25.5 cm in length. Flexibility is varied through joints in the tail to produce three tested configurations. We find that increasing body flexibility improves self-propelled swimming speeds on average by 0.5 body lengths per second while reducing the minimum COT by 53%. The most flexible configuration swims 4.60 body lengths per second with a tail beat frequency of 8.0 Hz and a COT measuring 18.4 J kg
−1
−1
. We then compare these results in addition to the midline kinematics, stride length, and Strouhal number with yellowfin tuna data. The COT of Tunabot Flex’s most flexible configuration is less than a half-order of magnitude greater than that of yellowfin tuna across all tested speeds. Tunabot Flex provides a new baseline for the development of future bio-inspired underwater vehicles that aim to explore a fish-like, high-performance space and close the gap between engineered robotic systems and fish swimming ability.
Biomimetics: process, tools and practice
P E Fayemi
et al
2017
Bioinspir. Biomim.
12
011002
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, Biomimetics: process, tools and practice
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, Biomimetics: process, tools and practice
Biomimetics applies principles and strategies abstracted from biological systems to engineering and technological design. With a huge potential for innovation, biomimetics could evolve into a key process in businesses. Yet challenges remain within the process of biomimetics, especially from the perspective of potential users. We work to clarify the understanding of the process of biomimetics. Therefore, we briefly summarize the terminology of biomimetics and bioinspiration. The implementation of biomimetics requires a stated process. Therefore, we present a model of the problem-driven process of biomimetics that can be used for problem-solving activity. The process of biomimetics can be facilitated by existing tools and creative methods. We mapped a set of tools to the biomimetic process model and set up assessment sheets to evaluate the theoretical and practical value of these tools. We analyzed the tools in interdisciplinary research workshops and present the characteristics of the tools. We also present the attempt of a utility tree which, once finalized, could be used to guide users through the process by choosing appropriate tools respective to their own expertize. The aim of this paper is to foster the dialogue and facilitate a closer collaboration within the field of biomimetics.
Advantages of aquatic animals as models for bio-inspired drones over present AUV technology
Frank E Fish 2020
Bioinspir. Biomim.
15
025001
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, Advantages of aquatic animals as models for bio-inspired drones over present AUV technology
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, Advantages of aquatic animals as models for bio-inspired drones over present AUV technology
Robotic systems are becoming more ubiquitous, whether on land, in the air, or in water. In the aquatic realm, aquatic drones including ROVs (remotely operated vehicles) and AUVs (autonomous underwater vehicles) have opened new opportunities to investigate the ocean depths. However, these technologies have limitations related to shipboard support, programing, and functionality in complex marine environments. A new form of AUV is being developed to become operational. These drones are based on animal designs and capabilities. Biological AUVs (BAUVs) promise to improve performance in the varied environments of the ocean. Comparison of animal swimming performance with conventional AUVs and BAUVs demonstrates that natural systems still have swimming capabilities beyond the current state of AUV technology. However, the performances of aquatic animals with respect to swimming speed, efficiency, maneuverability, and stealth can serve as benchmarks to direct the development of bio-inspired AUV technology with enhanced capabilities.
Variable stiffness soft robotic gripper: design, development, and prospects
Yu Shan
et al
2024
Bioinspir. Biomim.
19
011001
View article
, Variable stiffness soft robotic gripper: design, development, and prospects
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, Variable stiffness soft robotic gripper: design, development, and prospects
The advent of variable stiffness soft robotic grippers furnishes a conduit for exploration and manipulation within uncharted, non-structured environments. The paper provides a comprehensive review of the necessary technologies for the configuration design of soft robotic grippers with variable stiffness, serving as a reference for innovative gripper design. The design of variable stiffness soft robotic grippers typically encompasses the design of soft robotic grippers and variable stiffness modules. To adapt to unfamiliar environments and grasp unknown objects, a categorization and discussion have been undertaken based on the contact and motion manifestations between the gripper and the things across various dimensions: points contact, lines contact, surfaces contact, and full-bodies contact, elucidating the advantages and characteristics of each gripping type. Furthermore, when designing soft robotic grippers, we must consider the effectiveness of object grasping methods but also the applicability of the actuation in the target environment. The actuation is the propelling force behind the gripping motion, holding utmost significance in shaping the structure of the gripper. Given the challenge of matching the actuation of robotic grippers with the target scenario, we reviewed the actuation of soft robotic grippers. We analyzed the strengths and limitations of various soft actuation, providing insights into the actuation design for soft robotic grippers. As a crucial technique for variable stiffness soft robotic grippers, variable stiffness technology can effectively address issues such as poor load-bearing capacity and instability caused by the softness of materials. Through a retrospective analysis of variable stiffness theory, we comprehensively introduce the development of variable stiffness theory in soft robotic grippers and showcase the application of variable stiffness grasping technology through specific case studies. Finally, we discuss the future prospects of variable stiffness grasping robots from several perspectives of applications and technologies.
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2006-present
Bioinspiration & Biomimetics
doi: 10.1088/issn.1748-3190
Online ISSN: 1748-3190
Print ISSN: 1748-3182