Burundi - Wikipedia

Burundi - Wikipedia
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Coordinates
3°30′S
30°00′E
 / 
3.500°S 30.000°E
 /
-3.500; 30.000
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Country in East Africa
Republic of Burundi
Repuburika y’Uburundi
Kirundi
République du Burundi
French
Flag
Coat of arms
Motto:
"Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Amajambere"
Kirundi
"Unité, Travail, Progrès"
French
"Union, Work, Progress"
(English)
Anthem:
Burundi bwacu
(Kirundi)
"Our Burundi"
Show globe
Show map of Africa
Location of Burundi (dark blue)
in
Africa
(light blue)
Capital
Gitega
3°30′S
30°00′E
 / 
3.500°S 30.000°E
 /
-3.500; 30.000
Largest city
Bujumbura
Official languages
Kirundi
French
Recognised national languages
Kirundi
Ethnic groups
100%
Barundi
85%
Hutu
14%
Tutsi
1%
Twa
~1% other
Religion
(2020)
93.4%
Christianity
63.7%
Catholicism
25.2%
Protestantism
4.5% other
Christian
4.3%
traditional faiths
2.1%
Islam
0.2%
other
none
Demonym
Burundian
Government
Unitary dominant-party
presidential republic
under an
authoritarian
dictatorship
President
Évariste Ndayishimiye
Prime Minister
Nestor Ntahontuye
Vice President
Prosper Bazombanza
Legislature
Parliament
Upper house
Senate
Lower house
National Assembly
Establishment history
Kingdom of Urundi
1680–1966
• Part of
German East Africa
1890–1916
• Part of
Ruanda-Urundi
1916–1962
• Independence from
Belgium
1 July 1962
• Republic
28 November 1966
Burundian Civil War
21 October 1993 – 15 May 2005
Current constitution
17 May 2018
Area
• Total
27,834 km
(10,747 sq mi)
142nd
• Water (%)
10
Population
• 2024 estimate
14,151,540
78th
• Density
565/km
(1,463.3/sq mi) (
25th
GDP
PPP
2025 estimate
• Total
$13.980 billion
161st
• Per capita
$1,020
185th
GDP
(nominal)
2025 estimate
• Total
$6.750 billion
157th
• Per capita
$489
186th
Gini
(2020)
37.5
10
medium inequality
HDI
(2023)
0.439
11
low
187th
Currency
Burundian franc
(FBu) (
BIF
Time zone
UTC
+2
CAT
Calling code
+257
ISO 3166 code
BI
Internet TLD
.bi
Burundi
officially the
Republic of Burundi
is a
landlocked country
in
East Africa
. It is located in the
Great Rift Valley
at the junction between the
African Great Lakes
region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million people.
13
It is bordered by
Rwanda
to the north,
Tanzania
to the east and southeast, and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
to the west;
Lake Tanganyika
lies along its southwestern border. The political
capital city
is
Gitega
and the economic capital and largest city is
Bujumbura
14
The
Twa
Hutu
and
Tutsi
peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years. For more than 200 of those years, Burundi was an independent
kingdom
. In 1885, it became part of the German colony of
German East Africa
15
After the
First World War
and
Germany's defeat
, the
League of Nations
mandated the territories of Burundi and neighboring Rwanda to Belgium in a combined territory called
Rwanda-Urundi
. After the
Second World War
, this transformed into a
United Nations
Trust Territory
Burundi gained independence in 1962 and initially retained the
monarchy
. However, a
coup d'état in 1966
replaced the monarchy with a
one-party
republic, and for the next 27 years, Burundi was ruled by a series of ethnic Tutsi dictators and notably experienced a
genocide of its Hutu population
in 1972. In July 1993,
Melchior Ndadaye
became Burundi's first Hutu president following the country's
first multi-party presidential election
. His assassination three months later during a
coup attempt
provoked the 12-year
Burundian Civil War
. In 2000, the Arusha Agreement was adopted, which was largely integrated in a new constitution in 2005. Since the 2005 post-war elections, the country's dominant party has been the Hutu-led
National Council for the Defense of Democracy – Forces for the Defense of Democracy
(CNDD–FDD), widely accused of
authoritarian
governance and perpetuating the country's
poor human rights record
Burundi remains primarily a rural society, with just 13.4% of the population living in urban areas in 2019.
16
Burundi is densely populated, and many young people emigrate in search of opportunities elsewhere. Roughly 81% of the population are of
Hutu
ethnic origin, 18% are
Tutsi
, and fewer than 1% are
Twa
17
The
official languages
of Burundi are
Kirundi
French
, and English—Kirundi being officially recognized as the sole
national language
18
English was made an official language in 2014.
19
One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi's land is used mostly for
subsistence agriculture
and grazing.
Deforestation
soil erosion
, and
habitat loss
are major ecological concerns.
20
As of 2005
[update]
, the country was almost completely deforested. Less than 6% of its land was covered by trees, with over half of that being for commercial plantations.
21
Burundi is the poorest country in the world by
nominal GDP per capita
and is one of the
least developed countries
22
23
It faces widespread
poverty
corruption
instability
authoritarianism
and
illiteracy
Burundi is a member of the
African Union
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
United Nations
East African Community
(EAC),
OIF
and the
Non-Aligned Movement
Etymology
edit
Modern Burundi takes its name from the precolonial Kingdom of Burundi (Urundi), a polity that had emerged by the 16th century.
16
24
The colonial capital,
Usumbura
, was officially renamed Bujumbura at independence in 1962.
25
16
History
edit
Main articles:
History of Burundi
and
Ruanda-Urundi
Burundi is one of the few countries in Africa, along with its neighbor Rwanda among others (such as
Botswana
Lesotho
, and
Eswatini
), to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre-colonial era African state. The early history of Burundi, and especially the role and nature of the country's three dominant ethnic groups, the Twa, Hutu and Tutsi, is highly debated amongst academics.
26
Kingdom of Burundi
edit
Main article:
Kingdom of Burundi
The first evidence of the Burundian state dates back to the late
16th century
where it emerged on the eastern foothills of the
Rift Valley
. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours. The Kingdom of Burundi or Urundi, in the Great Lakes region was a polity ruled by a traditional monarch with several princes beneath him; succession struggles were common.
The
king
, known as the
mwami
headed a princely aristocracy (
ganwa
) which owned most of the land and required a tribute, or tax, from predominantly Hutu farmers and Tutsi herders. The Kingdom of Burundi was characterized by a hierarchical political authority and
tributary economic exchange
27
In the mid-18th century, the Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land, production, and distribution with the development of the
ubugabire
—a
patron-client relationship
in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and
land tenure
. By this time, the royal court was made up of the Tutsi-Banyaruguru. They had higher social status than other
pastoralists
such as the Tutsi-Hima. Lower levels of society consisted generally of Hutu people, with Twa at the bottom. The system had some fluidity, however. Some Hutu people belonged to the
nobility
and in this way also had a say in the functioning of the state.
28
The classification of Hutu or Tutsi was not merely based on ethnic criteria alone. Hutu farmers that managed to acquire wealth and livestock were regularly granted the higher social status of Tutsi, some even made it to become close advisors of the
ganwa
. On the other hand, there are also reports of Tutsi that lost all their
cattle
and subsequently lost their higher status and were called Hutu. Thus, the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi was also a
socio-cultural
concept, instead of a purely ethnic one.
29
30
There were also many reports of
marriages
between Hutu and Tutsi people.
31
In general, regional ties and power struggles played a far more determining role in Burundi's politics than ethnicity.
30
Colonial rule
edit
Main articles:
German East Africa
and
Ruanda-Urundi
From 1884, the
German East Africa Company
was active in the African Great Lakes region. As a result of heightened tensions and border disputes between the German East Africa Company, the
British Empire
and the
Sultanate of Zanzibar
, the
German Empire
was called upon to put down the
Abushiri revolts
and protect the empire's interests in the region. The German East Africa Company transferred its rights to the German Empire in 1891, in this way establishing the German colony of
German East Africa
, which included Burundi (Urundi), Rwanda (Ruanda), and the mainland part of
Tanzania
(formerly known as
Tanganyika
).
32
The German Empire stationed armed forces in Rwanda and Burundi during the late 1880s. The location of the present-day city of
Gitega
served as an administrative centre for the Ruanda-Urundi region.
33
During the
First World War
, the
East African Campaign
greatly affected the African Great Lakes region. The
Belgian
and
British
colonial forces of the
allied powers
launched a
coordinated attack
on the German colony. The German army stationed in Burundi was forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the Belgian army and by 17 June 1916, Burundi and Rwanda were occupied. The
Force Publique
and the British
Lake Force
then started a thrust to capture
Tabora
, an administrative centre of central German East Africa. After the war, as outlined in the
Treaty of Versailles
, Germany was forced to cede "control" of the Western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium.
34
35
On 20 October 1924,
Ruanda-Urundi
, which consisted of modern-day Rwanda and Burundi, became a Belgian
League of Nations
mandate territory
, with
Usumbura
as its capital. In practical terms it was considered part of the
Belgian colonial empire
. Burundi, as part of Ruanda-Urundi, continued its kingship
dynasty
despite the presence of European authorities.
16
36
The Belgians, however, preserved many of the kingdom's institutions; the Burundian monarchy succeeded in surviving into the post-colonial period.
Following the
Second World War
, Ruanda-Urundi was classified as a
United Nations Trust Territory
under Belgian administrative authority.
16
During the 1940s, a series of policies caused divisions throughout the country. On 4 October 1943, powers were split in the legislative division of Burundi's government between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms. Chiefdoms were in charge of land, and lower sub-chiefdoms were established. Native authorities also had powers.
36
In 1948, Belgium allowed the region to form
political parties
34
These factions contributed to Burundi gaining its independence from Belgium, on 1 July 1962.
Independence
edit
Flag of the
Kingdom of Burundi
(1962–1966)
Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura
On 20 January 1959,
King
Mwami Mwambutsa IV
requested Burundi's independence from Belgium and dissolution of the Ruanda-Urundi union.
37
In the following months, Burundian political parties began to advocate for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi.
37
The first and largest of these political parties was the
Union for National Progress
(UPRONA).
Burundi's push for independence was influenced by the
Rwandan Revolution
and the accompanying instability and ethnic conflict that occurred there. As a result of the Rwandan Revolution, many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi from 1959 to 1961.
38
39
40
Burundi's first
elections
took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA, a multi-ethnic unity party led by
Prince Louis Rwagasore
won just over 80% of the electorate's votes. In the wake of the elections, on 13 October, the 29-year-old
Prince Rwagasore was assassinated
, robbing Burundi of its most popular and well-known nationalist.
34
41
The country claimed independence on 1 July 1962,
34
and legally changed its name from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi.
42
Burundi became a
constitutional monarchy
with Mwami Mwambutsa IV, Prince Rwagasore's father, serving as the country's king.
39
On 18 September 1962 Burundi joined the
United Nations
43
In 1963, King Mwambutsa appointed a Hutu prime minister,
Pierre Ngendandumwe
, but he was assassinated on 15 January 1965 by a Rwandan Tutsi employed by the US Embassy. The assassination occurred in the broader context of the
Congo Crisis
during which
Western
anti-communist countries were confronting the communist
People's Republic of China
as it attempted to make Burundi a logistics base for communist insurgents battling in Congo.
44
Parliamentary elections in May 1965
brought a majority of Hutu into the parliament, but when King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi prime minister, some Hutu felt this was unjust and ethnic tensions were further increased. In October 1965, an attempted
coup d'état
led by the Hutu-dominated police was carried out but failed. The Tutsi dominated army, then led by Tutsi officer Captain
Michel Micombero
39
purged Hutu from their ranks and carried out reprisal attacks which ultimately claimed the lives of up to 5,000 people in a precursor to the
1972 Burundian Genocide
45
King Mwambutsa, who had fled the country during the October coup of 1965, was deposed by a
coup in July 1966
and his teenage son,
Prince Ntare V
, claimed the throne. In November that same year, the Tutsi Prime Minister, then-Captain Michel Micombero, carried out another
coup
, this time deposing Ntare, abolishing the monarchy and declaring the nation a
republic
, though his one-party government was effectively a
military dictatorship
34
As president, Micombero became an advocate of
African socialism
and received support from the People's Republic of China. He imposed a staunch regime of law and order and sharply repressed Hutu militarism.
Genocides
edit
Further information:
Burundian genocide (1972)
and
Burundian genocide (1993)
An estimated total of 250,000 people died in Burundi from the various conflicts between 1962 and 1993.
46
Since Burundi's independence in 1962, two
genocides
have taken place in the country: the 1972 mass killings of Hutus by the Tutsi-dominated army,
47
and the mass killings of Tutsis in 1993 by the Hutu majority. Both were described as genocides in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented in 2002 to the
United Nations Security Council
48
In late April 1972, two events led to the outbreak of the
First Burundian Genocide
. On 27 April 1972, a rebellion led by
Hutu
members of the
gendarmerie
broke out in the lakeside towns of
Rumonge
and
Nyanza-Lac
and the rebels declared the short-lived
Martyazo Republic
49
50
The rebels attacked both Tutsi and any Hutu who refused to join their rebellion.
51
During this initial Hutu outbreak, anywhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed.
52
At the same time, King
Ntare V of Burundi
returned from exile, heightening political tension in the country. On 29 April 1972, the 24-year-old Ntare V was murdered. In subsequent months, the Tutsi-dominated government of
Michel Micombero
used the army to combat Hutu rebels and commit genocide, murdering targeted members of the Hutu majority. The total number of casualties was never established, but contemporary estimates put the number of people killed between 80,000 and 210,000.
53
54
In addition, several hundred thousand Hutu were estimated to have fled the killings into
Zaïre
Rwanda
and
Tanzania
54
55
Following the civil war and genocide, Micombero became mentally distraught and withdrawn. In 1976, Colonel
Jean-Baptiste Bagaza
, a Tutsi, led a
bloodless coup
to topple Micombero and set about promoting reform. His administration drafted a new constitution in 1981, which maintained Burundi's status as a
one-party state
39
In August 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state. During his tenure, Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms.
Major
Pierre Buyoya
, a Tutsi,
overthrew Bagaza in 1987
, suspended the constitution and dissolved political parties. He reinstated military rule by a
Military Committee for National Salvation
(CSMN).
39
Anti-Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by the remnants of the 1972 UBU, which had re-organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981, led to
killings of Tutsi peasants
in the northern communes of
Ntega
and Marangara in August 1988. The government put the death toll at 5,000,
citation needed
some international NGOs
who?
believed this understated the deaths.
The new regime did not unleash the harsh reprisals of 1972. Its effort to gain public trust was eroded when it decreed an
amnesty
for those who had called for, carried out, and taken credit for the killings. Analysts have called this period the beginning of the "culture of
impunity
." Other analysts put the origins of the "culture of impunity" earlier, in 1965 and 1972, when a small number of identifiable Hutus unleashed massive killings of Tutsis.
citation needed
In the aftermath of the killings, a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to
Pierre Buyoya
, asking for more representation of the Hutu in the administration. They were arrested and jailed. A few weeks later, Buyoya appointed a new government, with an equal number of Hutu and Tutsi ministers. He appointed
Adrien Sibomana
(Hutu) as
prime minister
. Buyoya also created a commission to address issues of national unity.
39
In 1992, the government created a new constitution that provided for a multi-party system,
39
but later a
civil war
broke out.
Civil war and early democracy project
edit
In June 1993,
Melchior Ndadaye
, leader of the Hutu-dominated
Front for Democracy in Burundi
(FRODEBU), won the
first democratic election
. He became the first Hutu head of state, leading a pro-Hutu government. Though he attempted to smooth the country's bitter ethnic divide, his reforms antagonised soldiers in the Tutsi-dominated army, and he was assassinated amidst a failed military coup in October 1993, after only three months in office. The ensuing
Burundian Civil War
(1993–2005) saw persistent violence between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi majority army. It is estimated that some 300,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed in the years following the assassination.
56
In early 1994, the parliament elected
Cyprien Ntaryamira
(Hutu) to the office of president. He and
Juvénal Habyarimana
, the president of Rwanda, both Hutus, died together
when their airplane was shot down
in April 1994. More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda. Speaker of Parliament,
Sylvestre Ntibantunganya
(Hutu), was appointed as president in October 1994. A
coalition government
involving 12 of the 13 parties was formed. A feared general massacre was averted, but violence broke out. A number of Hutu refugees in Bujumbura,
citation needed
the then-capital, were killed. The mainly Tutsi
Union for National Progress
withdrew from the government and parliament.
In 1996,
Pierre Buyoya
(Tutsi) again took power through a
coup d'état
. He suspended the constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998. This was the start of his second term as president, after his first term from 1987 to 1993. In response to rebel attacks, the government forced much of the population to move to
refugee camps
citation needed
Under Buyoya's rule, long peace talks started, mediated by
South Africa
. Both parties signed agreements in
Arusha
Tanzania
and
Pretoria
, South Africa, to share power in Burundi. The agreements took four years to plan.
Belligerents of the
Second Congo War
. Burundi backed the rebels.
On 28 August 2000, a
transitional government
for Burundi was planned as a part of the
Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement
. The transitional government was placed on a trial basis for five years. After several aborted ceasefires, a 2001 peace plan and power-sharing agreement has been relatively successful. A
ceasefire
was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi-controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy).
57
In 2003, FRODEBU leader
Domitien Ndayizeye
(Hutu) was elected president.
citation needed
In early 2005, ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi's government. Throughout the year, elections for parliament and president occurred.
58
Pierre Nkurunziza
(Hutu), once a leader of a rebel group, was elected president in 2005. As of 2008
[update]
, the Burundian government was talking with the Hutu-led
Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces
(NLF)
59
to bring peace to the country.
60
Peace agreements
edit
Main article:
Arusha Accords (Burundi)
African leaders began a series of peace talks between the warring factions following a request by the United Nations Secretary General
Boutros Boutros-Ghali
for them to intervene in the humanitarian crisis. Talks were initiated under the aegis of former Tanzanian President
Julius Nyerere
in 1995; following his death, South African President
Nelson Mandela
took the helm. As the talks progressed, South African President
Thabo Mbeki
and United States President
Bill Clinton
also contributed to the accords.
61
The main objective was to transform the structure of both the Burundian government and military to bridge the ethnic gap between the Tutsi and Hutu. A two step approach was formulated. First, a transitional power-sharing government would be established, with the presidents holding office for three year elected terms. The second objective was to restructure the
armed forces
with equal representation between both ethnic groups.
62
As the protracted nature of the
peace talks
demonstrated, the mediators and negotiating parties confronted several obstacles. First, the Burundian officials perceived the goals as "unrealistic" and viewed the treaty as ambiguous, contradictory and confusing. Officials also believed the treaty would be irrelevant without an accompanying ceasefire. This would require separate and direct talks with the rebel groups. The main Hutu party was skeptical of the offer of a power-sharing government; they alleged that they had been deceived by the Tutsi in past agreements.
citation needed
In 2000,
63
then president
Domitien Ndayizeye
signed the treaty, as well as 13 of the 19 warring Hutu and Tutsi factions. Disagreements persisted over which group would preside over the nascent government, and when the ceasefire would begin. The spoilers of the peace talks were the hardliner Tutsi and Hutu groups who refused to sign the accord; as a result, violence intensified. Three years later at a summit of African leaders in
Tanzania
, the Burundian president and the main opposition Hutu group signed an accord to end the conflict; the signatory members were granted ministerial posts within the government. However, smaller militant Hutu groups – such as the
Forces for National Liberation
– remained active.
64
UN involvement
edit
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Between 1993 and 2003, many rounds of peace talks, overseen by regional leaders in
Tanzania
South Africa
and
Uganda
, gradually established power-sharing agreements to satisfy the majority of the contending groups. Initially the
South African Protection Support Detachment
was deployed to protect Burundian leaders returning from
exile
. These forces became part of the
African Union Mission to Burundi
, deployed to help oversee the installation of a
transitional government
. In June 2004, the UN stepped in and took over peacekeeping responsibilities as a signal of growing international support for the already markedly advanced peace process in Burundi.
65
The mission's mandate, under
Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter
, has been to monitor cease-fire, carry out disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former military personnel, support humanitarian assistance and refugee and IDP return, assist with elections, protect international staff and Burundian civilians, monitor Burundi's troublesome borders, including halting illicit arms flows, and assist in carrying out institutional reforms including those of the Constitution, judiciary, armed forces and police. The mission has been allotted 5,650 military personnel, 120 civilian police and about 1,000 international and local civilian personnel. The mission has been functioning well. It has greatly benefited from the transitional government, which has functioned and is in the process of transitioning to one that will be popularly elected.
65
The main difficulty in the early stages was continued resistance to the peace process by the last Hutu nationalist rebel group. This organisation continued its violent conflict on the outskirts of the capital despite the UN's presence. By June 2005, the group had stopped fighting and its representatives were brought back into the political process. All political parties have accepted a formula for inter-ethnic power-sharing: no political party can gain access to government offices unless it is ethnically integrated.
65
The focus of the UN's mission had been to enshrine the power-sharing arrangements in a popularly voted constitution, so that elections may be held and a new government installed. Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration were done in tandem with elections preparations. In February 2005, the
constitution
was approved with over 90% of the popular vote. In May, June and August 2005, three separate elections were also held at the local level for the Parliament and the presidency.
While there are still some difficulties with
refugee
returns and securing adequate food supplies for the war-weary population, the mission managed to win the trust and confidence of a majority of the formerly warring leaders, as well as the population at large.
65
It was involved with several "quick effect" projects, including rehabilitating and building schools, orphanages, health clinics and rebuilding infrastructure such as water lines.
The 2005
constitution
formalised a complex power-sharing architecture that has been described as "associational" in its logic, as it aims to provide guarantees of representation for the Tutsi minority without entrenching the ethnic cleavage at the centre of Burundian politics.
66
This institutional design provides an original contribution from Burundian negotiators and constitution makers to institutional options to manage ethnic conflict.
citation needed
Post-conflict reconstruction
edit
View of the economic capital city Bujumbura in 2006
Reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006. The UN shut down its peacekeeping mission and re-focused on helping with reconstruction.
67
Toward achieving
economic reconstruction
, Rwanda,
D.R.Congo
and Burundi relaunched the regional
Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries
67
In addition, Burundi, along with Rwanda, joined the
East African Community
in 2007.
However, the terms of the September 2006 ceasefire between the government and the last remaining armed opposition group, the
FLN
(Forces for National Liberation, also called NLF or FROLINA), was not fully implemented, and senior FLN members subsequently left the truce monitoring team, claiming that their security was threatened.
68
In September 2007, rival FLN factions clashed in the capital, killing twenty fighters and causing residents to flee. Rebel raids were reported in other parts of the country.
67
The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and the release of political prisoners.
69
In late 2007 and early 2008, FLN combatants attacked government-protected camps where former combatants were living. The homes of rural residents were also pillaged.
69
A 2007
Amnesty International
report
69
mentions the country's shortcomings on human rights. Civilians are victims of repeated acts of violence done by the FLN. The latter also recruits
child soldiers
. The rate of violence against women is high. Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state. There is an urgent need for reform of the judicial system.
Genocide
war crimes
and
crimes against humanity
continued to go unpunished.
citation needed
In late March 2008, the FLN sought for the parliament to adopt a law guaranteeing them 'provisional immunity' from arrest. This would cover ordinary crimes, but not grave violations of international humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity .
69
Even though the government has granted this in the past to people, the FLN has been unable to obtain the provisional immunity. On 17 April 2008, the FLN bombarded Bujumbura. The Burundian army fought back and the FLN suffered heavy losses. A new ceasefire was signed on 26 May 2008. In August 2008, President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader
Agathon Rwasa
, with the mediation of
Charles Nqakula
, South Africa's Minister for Safety and Security. This was the first direct meeting since June 2007. Both agreed to meet twice a week to establish a commission to resolve any disputes that might arise during the peace negotiations.
70
The UN has attempted to evaluate the impact of its peacebuilding initiatives. In the early 2010s, the UN peacekeeping mission in Burundi sought to assess the success of its Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration program by counting the number of arms that had been collected, given the prevalence of arms in the country. However, these evaluations failed to include data from local populations, which are significant in impact evaluations of peacebuilding initiatives.
71
As of 2012, Burundi was participating in African Union peacekeeping missions, including the
mission to Somalia
against Al-Shabaab militants.
72
In 2014, the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
was established, initially for four years and then extended for another four in 2018.
73
74
2015 civil unrest
edit
Main article:
Burundian unrest (2015–2018)
In April 2015 protests broke out after the ruling party announced President
Pierre Nkurunziza
would seek a third term in office.
75
Protestors claimed Nkurunziza could not run for a third term in office but the country's constitutional court agreed with Nkurunziza (although some of its members had fled the country at the time of its vote).
76
An attempted coup d'état on 13 May
failed to depose Nkurunziza.
77
78
He returned to Burundi, began purging his government, and arrested several of the coup leaders.
79
80
81
82
83
Following the attempted coup, however, protests continued; over 100,000 people had fled the country by 20 May, causing a humanitarian emergency. There are reports of continued and widespread abuses of human rights, including unlawful killings, torture, disappearances, and restrictions on freedom of expression.
84
85
Despite calls by the
United Nations
, the
African Union
, the United States, France,
South Africa
, Belgium, and various other governments to refrain, the ruling party
held parliamentary elections on 29 June
, but these were boycotted by the opposition.
On 30 September 2016, the
United Nations Human Rights Council
established the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi through resolution 33/24. Its mandate is to "conduct a thorough investigation into human rights violations and abuses committed in Burundi since April 2015, to identify alleged perpetrators and to formulate recommendations."
86
On 29 September 2017 the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi called on Burundian government to put an end to serious
human rights violations
. It further stressed that, "The Burundian government has so far refused to cooperate with the Commission of Inquiry, despite the Commission's repeated requests and initiatives."
87
The violations the Commission documented include
arbitrary arrests
and detentions, acts of
torture
and cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment
extrajudicial executions
enforced disappearances
rape
and other forms of sexual violence."
87
Present day
edit
Gitega
became the capital of Burundi in 2019.
In a
constitutional referendum
in May 2018, Burundians voted by 79.08% to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034.
88
89
However, much to the surprise of most observers, Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term, paving the way for a new president to be elected in the
2020 general election
90
On 20 May 2020,
Evariste Ndayishimiye
, a candidate who was hand-picked as Nkurunziza's successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45% of the vote.
91
Shortly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55.
90
There was some speculation that his death was COVID-19 related, though this is unconfirmed.
92
As per the constitution,
Pascal Nyabenda
, the president of the national assembly, led the government until Ndayishimiye's inauguration on 18 June 2020.
90
91
In December 2021, a
large prison fire killed dozens
in the capital city of
Gitega
93
In November 2022, in challenges to the
COVID-19 pandemic
and the
Russian invasion of Ukraine
, Burundi's economic growth increased slightly to 3 percent, according to an assessment of the
International Monetary Fund
Currently, Burundi remains as one of the world's poorest countries, based on an estimated
gross national income
(GNI) of $298 per capita.
94
The
fall of Goma
in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
(DRC) in January 2025 was the largest escalation of the
conflict in Kivu
since 2012 and raised concerns that the Rwandan-backed
M23 rebel campaign
could turn into a larger regional war due to the presence of troops from Rwanda and Burundi in the
Kivu
provinces. Thousands of soldiers had been deployed to assist the
Congolese army
in
South Kivu
by Burundi, which has a Hutu-dominated government and previously accused Rwanda of backing a
2015 coup attempt
, adding to concern for the potential of a larger regional war.
95
96
Government
edit
Main articles:
Politics of Burundi
and
Elections in Burundi
Pierre Nkurunziza
, President of Burundi from 2005 to 2020
Burundi's political system is that of a
presidential
representative democratic
republic based upon a multi-party state. The president of Burundi is the
head of state
and
head of government
. There are currently 21
registered parties in Burundi
34
On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup leader
Pierre Buyoya
established a constitution,
97
which provided for a multi-party political process and reflected multi-party competition.
98
Six years later, on 6 June 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening
National Assembly
's seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the
Arusha Accord
, Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000.
99
Legislative branch
edit
Burundi's legislative branch is a
bicameral
assembly, consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the
Transitional Senate
. As of 2004
[update]
, the Transitional National Assembly consisted of 170 members, with the Front for Democracy in Burundi holding 38% of seats, and 10% of the assembly controlled by UPRONA. Fifty-two seats were controlled by other parties. Burundi's constitution mandates representation in the Transitional National Assembly to be consistent with 60% Hutu, 40% Tutsi, and 30% female members, as well as three Batwa members.
34
Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote and serve five-year terms.
100
The transitional senate has fifty-one members, and three seats are reserved for former presidents. Due to stipulations in Burundi's constitution, 30% of Senate members must be female. Members of the senate are elected by electoral colleges, which consist of members from each of Burundi's provinces and communes.
34
For each of Burundi's eighteen provinces, one Hutu and one Tutsi senator are chosen. One term for the Transitional Senate is five years.
100
Together, Burundi's legislative branch elect the president to a five-year term.
100
Burundi's president appoints officials to his council of ministers, which is also part of the executive branch.
99
The president can also pick fourteen members of the Transitional Senate to serve on the council of ministers.
34
Members of the council of ministers must be approved by two-thirds of Burundi's legislature. The president also chooses two vice-presidents.
100
Following the 2015 election, the president of Burundi was
Pierre Nkurunziza
. The first vice president was Therence Sinunguruza, and the second vice president was
Gervais Rufyikiri
101
On 20 May 2020,
Evariste Ndayishimiye
, a candidate who was hand-picked as Nkurunziza's successor by the CNDD-FDD, won
the election
with 71.45% of the vote.
citation needed
Shortly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55. As per the constitution,
Pascal Nyabenda
, the president of the national assembly, led the government until Ndayishimiye's inauguration on 18 June 2020.
102
103
The
Cour Suprême
(Supreme Court) is Burundi's highest court. There are three Courts of Appeals directly below the Supreme Court. Tribunals of First Instance are used as judicial courts in each of Burundi's provinces as well as 123 local tribunals.
99
Administrative divisions
edit
Main articles:
Provinces of Burundi
Communes of Burundi
, and
Collines of Burundi
Map of the provinces of Burundi as of 2025
Burundi's provinces and communes were created on Christmas Day in 1959 by a Belgian colonial decree. They replaced the pre-existing system of chieftains.
104
In 2000, the province encompassing Bujumbura was separated into two provinces,
Bujumbura Rural
and
Bujumbura Mairie
105
In 2015, the province of
Rumonge
was created from portions of Bujumbura Rural and Bururi.
106
From 2015 to 2025, Burundi was divided into eighteen
provinces
107
119
communes
34
and 2,638
collines
(hills).
108
In July 2022, the government of Burundi announced a complete overhaul of the country's territorial subdivisions. The proposed change would reduce the number of provinces from eighteen to five, and the communes from 119 to 42. The change was approved by both the
National Assembly
and the
Senate
and took effect with the parliamentary elections in July 2025.
104
109
With the new administrative division, the country is now made up of five provinces:
Buhumuza
Bujumbura
Burunga
Butanyerera
and
Gitega
. These provinces are further subdivided into 42 communes, 451 zones and 3044
collines
and
quartiers
110
Human rights
edit
See also:
Human rights in Burundi
and
LGBT rights in Burundi
In April 2009, the government of Burundi changed the law to criminalise
homosexuality
. Persons found guilty of consensual same-sex relations risk three months to two years in prison and/or a fine of 50,000 to 100,000 Burundian francs.
111
Amnesty International has condemned the action, calling it a violation of Burundi's obligations under international and regional human rights law, and against the constitution, which guarantees the right to privacy.
112
Embassy of Burundi in Brussels
Burundi officially left the
International Criminal Court
(ICC) on 27 October 2017, the first country in the world to do so.
113
The move came after the UN accused the country of various crimes and human rights violations, such as extrajudicial killings, torture and sexual violence, in a September 2017 report.
113
The ICC announced on 9 November 2017 that human rights violations from the time Burundi was a member would still be prosecuted.
114
115
Censorship of the government remain at risk in the country. Burundi's government has been repeatedly criticised for the multiple arrests and trials of journalist
Jean-Claude Kavumbagu
for his reporting.
116
Amnesty International
(AI) named him a
prisoner of conscience
and called for his "immediate and unconditional release."
Geography
edit
Main articles:
Geography of Burundi
and
Climate of Burundi
Map of Burundi
One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi is landlocked and has an
equatorial climate
. Burundi is a part of the
Albertine Rift
, the western extension of the
East African Rift
117
The country lies on a rolling
plateau
in the centre of Africa. Burundi is bordered by
Rwanda
to the north,
Tanzania
to the east and southeast, and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
to the west. It lies within the
Albertine Rift montane forests
Central Zambezian miombo woodlands
, and
Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic
ecoregions
118
The average elevation of the central plateau is 1,707 m (5,600 ft), with lower elevations at the borders. The highest peak,
Mount Heha
at 2,685 m (8,810 ft),
119
lies to the southeast of the largest city and economic capital, Bujumbura. The source of the
Nile River
is in
Bururi
province, where the eastern slope of the central mountain region in the country gives rise to the Rwanda River, one of the sources of the Nile River.
117
This source is linked from Lake Victoria to its headwaters via the
Ruvyironza River
120
Lake Victoria
is also an important water source, which serves as a fork to the
Kagera River
121
122
Another major lake is
Lake Tanganyika
, located in much of Burundi's southwestern corner.
123
In Burundi
forest cover
is around 11% of the total land area, equivalent to 279,640 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020.
citation needed
In 1990, forest cover comprised only 276,480 hectares (ha) of total land cover. Burundi did not meet its target of increasing forests to 20% of land use by the year 2000, due to pressures of deforestation for logging, firewood, and agriculture.
124
In 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under
public ownership
125
126
In the north, along the
Congo-Nile ridge
is the
Bururi Forest Nature Reserve
(RNFB), a 3,300 ha protected forest area. The area is home to chimpanzee and a number of important birds in the region. The RNFB also offers ecological benefits, including the absorption of seasonal flood waters.
127
Other forest reserves include the
Monge Forest Natural Reserve
, established in the southwestern part of the country in 1989. But, illegal farming and
desertification
threaten the existence of these dense forest areas in the country.
128
In addition to the expansion of subsistence agriculture and fuelwood collection,
illegal logging
threatens Burundi's forests.
117
129
There are two
national parks
Kibira National Park
to the northwest (a small region of rainforest, adjacent to
Nyungwe Forest National Park
in Rwanda), and
Ruvubu National Park
to the northeast (along the
Rurubu River
, also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu). Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations.
130
Kibira National Park contain mountain forest, and supplies nearly two thirds of the water that fill Burundi's largest dam.
131
The
Miombo Woodlands
which stretch across parts of Burundi are the location of intense illegal logging activity, focused on extracting hardwoods for export to
China
132
Despite the 2024 Maputo Agreement to expand the protection of the area and ban the extraction of certain timber, Burundi's key ports have served as export hubs for illegally harvested timber from the region; specifically for illegal timber from the DRC.
133
134
The extent of the issue of illegal logging is likely underestimated, as governments and researchers attempt to better account for the flow of illegal timber through international trade networks.
135
Wildlife
edit
Main article:
Wildlife of Burundi
Economy
edit
Main article:
Economy of Burundi
See also:
List of companies based in Burundi
Historical development of GDP per capita
Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantly agricultural, accounting for 50% of GDP in 2017
136
and employing more than 90% of the population.
Subsistence agriculture
accounts for 90% of agriculture.
137
Burundi's primary exports are coffee and tea, which account for 90% of foreign exchange earnings, though exports are a relatively small share of GDP. Other agricultural products include cotton,
maize
sorghum
, sweet potatoes, bananas,
manioc
(tapioca); beef, milk and hides. Even though
subsistence farming
is highly relied upon, many people do not have the resources to sustain themselves. This is due to large population growth and no coherent policies governing land ownership. In 2014, the average farm size was about one acre.
Burundi is one of the world's poorest countries, owing in part to its landlocked geography,
16
lack of access to education and the proliferation of
HIV/AIDS
. Approximately 80% of Burundi's population lives in poverty.
138
Famines and food shortages have occurred throughout Burundi, most notably in the 20th century,
36
and according to the
World Food Programme
, 56.8% of children under age five suffer from chronic
malnutrition
139
Burundi's export earnings – and its ability to pay for imports – rests primarily on weather conditions and international coffee and tea prices.
The purchasing power of most Burundians has decreased as wage increases have not kept up with inflation. As a result of deepening poverty, Burundi will remain heavily dependent on aid from bilateral and multilateral donors. Foreign aid represents 42% of Burundi's national income, the second highest rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Burundi joined the East African Community in 2009, which should boost its regional trade ties, and also in 2009 received $700 million in debt relief. Government corruption is hindering the development of a healthy private sector as companies seek to navigate an environment with ever-changing rules.
16
Studies since 2007 have shown Burundians to have extremely poor levels of
satisfaction with life
; the
World Happiness Report 2018
rated them the world's least happy.
140
141
Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika
Some of Burundi's natural resources include
uranium
nickel
cobalt
copper
and
platinum
142
Besides agriculture, other industries include: the assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing, and light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, and soap.
In regards to
telecommunications infrastructure
, Burundi is ranked second to last in the
World Economic Forum
's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Burundi ranked number 147 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 144 in 2013.
143
Lack of access to financial services is a serious problem for the majority of the population, particularly in densely populated rural areas: only 2% of the total population holds bank accounts and fewer than 0.5% use bank lending services.
Microfinance
, however, plays a larger role, with 4% of Burundians being members of microfinance institutions – a larger share of the population than that reached by banking and postal services combined. 26 licensed microfinance institutions (MFIs) offer savings, deposits, and short- to medium-term credit. The dependence of the sector on donor assistance is limited.
144
Burundi is part of the
East African Community
and a potential member of the planned
East African Federation
. Burundi economy has declined since 1990s and Burundi is behind all neighbouring countries.
Burundi was ranked 127th in the
Global Innovation Index
in 2025.
145
146
Currency
edit
Main article:
Burundian franc
Burundi's currency is the
Burundian franc
. It is nominally subdivided into 100
centimes
, though coins have never been issued in centimes in independent Burundi; centime coins were circulated only when Burundi used the
Belgian Congo franc
Monetary policy is controlled by the
central bank
Bank of the Republic of Burundi
Transport
edit
Main article:
Transport in Burundi
Bicycles are a popular means of transport in Burundi.
Burundi's transport network is limited and underdeveloped. According to a 2012
DHL Global Connectedness Index
, Burundi is the least globalised of 140 surveyed countries.
147
Bujumbura International Airport
is the only airport with a paved runway and as of May 2017 it was serviced by four airlines (
Brussels Airlines
Ethiopian Airlines
Kenya Airways
and
RwandAir
).
Kigali
is the city with the most daily flight connections to Bujumbura. The country has a road network but as of 2005
[update]
less than 10% of the country's roads were paved and as of 2012
[update]
private bus companies were the main operators of buses on the international route to Kigali; however, there were no bus connections to the other neighbouring countries (Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo).
148
Bujumbura is connected by a passenger and cargo ferry (the
MV Mwongozo
) to
Kigoma
in Tanzania.
149
There is a
long-term plan
to link the country via rail to Kigali and then onward to Kampala and Kenya.
Demographics
edit
Main articles:
Demographics of Burundi
and
Languages of Burundi
Largest cities or towns in Burundi
Source:
150
Rank
Name
Province
Pop.
Bujumbura
Bujumbura Mairie
374,809
Gitega
Gitega
135,467
Ngozi
Ngozi
39,884
Rumonge
Bururi
35,931
Cibitoke
Cibitoke
23,885
Kayanza
Kayanza
21,767
Bubanza
Bubanza
20,031
Karuzi
Karuzi
10,705
Kirundo
Kirundo
10,024
10
Muyinga
Muyinga
9,609
Men in colourful clothing with drums
As of October 2021, Burundi was estimated by the
United Nations
to have a population of 12,346,893,
151
152
compared to only 2,456,000 in 1950.
153
The
population growth rate
is 2.5 percent per year, more than double the average global pace, and a Burundian woman has on average 5.10 children, more than double the international
fertility rate
154
Burundi had the tenth highest
total fertility rate
in the world, just behind Somalia, in 2021.
16
Many Burundians have migrated to other countries as a result of the civil war. In 2006, the United States accepted approximately 10,000 Burundian refugees.
155
Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society, with just 13% of the population living in urban areas in 2013.
16
The population density of around 315 people per square kilometre (753 per sq mi) is the second highest in
Sub-Saharan Africa
34
Roughly 85% of the population are of
Hutu
ethnic origin, 15% are
Tutsi
and fewer than 1% are indigenous
Twa
17
Non-Africans in Burundi include approximately 3,000 Europeans and 2,000 South Asians.
156
Languages
edit
Main article:
Languages of Burundi
The
official languages
of Burundi are
Kirundi
French
, and
. English was made an official language in 2014.
19
Virtually the entire population speaks Kirundi, and just under 10% speak French.
157
Religion
edit
Main article:
Religion in Burundi
Sources estimate the Christian population at 80–90%, with Roman Catholics representing the largest group at 60–65%.
Protestant
and
Anglican
practitioners constitute the remaining 15–25%. An estimated 5% of the population adheres to traditional indigenous religious beliefs. Muslims constitute 2–5%, the majority of whom are
Sunnis
and live in urban areas.
16
158
159
Health
edit
Main article:
Health in Burundi
Burundi has the worst hunger and malnourishment rates of all 120 countries ranked in the
Global Hunger Index
154
The civil war in 1962 put a stop on the medical advancements in the country.
160
Burundi, again, went into a violent cycle in 2015, jeopardising the citizens of Burundi's medical care.
161
Like other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Burundi uses indigenous medicine in addition to
biomedicine
. In the 1980s, Burundi's health authorities asked the United Nations Development Program for support to develop quality control for and begin new research on pharmaceuticals from medicinal plants.
160
At the same time, the Burundi Association of Traditional Practitioners (ATRADIBU) was founded, which teamed up with the governments agency to set up the Centre for Research and Promotion of Traditional Medicine in Burundi (CRPMT).
160
The recent influx of international aid has supported the work of biomedical health systems in Burundi. However, international aid workers have traditionally stayed away from indigenous medicine in Burundi.
160
As of 2015, roughly 1 out of 10 children in Burundi die before the age of 5 from preventable and treatable illnesses such as pneumonia, diarrhoea, and malaria.
161
The current violence in Burundi has limited the country's access to medication and hospital equipment. The life expectancy in Burundi, as of 2015, was 60.1 years.
162
In 2013, Burundi spent 8% of their GDP on healthcare.
162
While Burundi's
fertility
rate is 6.1 children per women, the country's infant
death rate
is 61.9 deaths for every 1,000 live births.
162
Common diseases in Burundi include malaria and typhoid fever.
162
Culture
edit
Main articles:
Culture of Burundi
Tourism in Burundi
, and
Music of Burundi
Drums from
Gitega
Burundi's culture is based on local tradition and the influence of neighbouring countries, though cultural prominence has been hindered by
civil unrest
. Since farming is the main industry, a typical Burundian meal consists of
sweet potatoes
corn
rice
and
peas
. Due to the expense, meat is eaten only a few times per month.
When several Burundians of close acquaintance meet for a gathering they drink
impeke
, a beer, together from a large container to symbolise unity.
163
Notable Burundians include: the footballers
Mohamed Tchité
Gaël Bigirimana
Youssouf Ndayishimiye
; the professor of Economics
Léonce Ndikumana
, the philanthropist
Deogratias Niyizonkiza
, the writer and model
Esther Kamatari
, the humanitarian activist
Marguerite Barankitse
, the journalist and chief editor
Antoine Kaburahe
and the singer
Jean-Pierre Nimbona
, popularly known as Kidumu (who is based in
Nairobi
, Kenya).
Crafts are an important art form in Burundi and are attractive gifts to many tourists. Basket weaving is a popular craft for local artisans,
164
as well as other crafts such as masks, shields, statues and pottery.
165
Drumming is an important part of the cultural heritage. The world-famous
Royal Drummers of Burundi
, who have performed for over 40 years, are noted for traditional drumming using the
karyenda
, amashako, ibishikiso and ikiranya drums.
166
Dance often accompanies drumming performance, which is frequently seen in celebrations and family gatherings. The abatimbo, which is performed at official ceremonies and rituals and the fast-paced abanyagasimbo are some famous Burundian dances. Some musical instruments of note are the flute,
zither
ikembe
, indonongo,
umuduri
, inanga and the inyagara.
165
Football in Burundi
The country's
oral tradition
is strong, relaying history and life lessons through storytelling, poetry and song. Imigani, indirimbo, amazina and ivyivugo are literary genres in Burundi.
167
Basketball and track and field are noted sports. Martial arts are popular, as well. There are five major judo clubs: Club Judo de l'Entente Sportive, in Downtown, and four others throughout the city.
168
Association football
is a popular pastime throughout the country, as are
mancala
games.
Most Christian holidays are celebrated, with Christmas being the largest.
169
Burundian Independence Day is celebrated annually on 1 July.
170
In 2005, the Burundian government declared
Eid al-Fitr
, an Islamic holiday, to be a public holiday.
171
Media
edit
See also:
Mass media in Burundi
Education
edit
Main article:
Education in Burundi
This section needs to be
updated
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
June 2018
Carolus Magnus School in Burundi
In 2012, the adult
literacy
rate in Burundi was estimated to be 74.71% for men and women between the ages of 15 and 24, while the youth literacy rate was much higher at 92.58%.
172
Burundi has a comparatively high literacy rate to other countries in the region, which is only about 10% lower than the global average.
172
Ten percent of Burundian boys are allowed a secondary education.
173
Burundi has one public university,
University of Burundi
. There are museums in the cities, such as the
Burundi Geological Museum
in
Bujumbura
and the
Burundi National Museum
and the
Burundi Museum of Life
in
Gitega
In 2010 a new elementary school was opened in the small village of Rwoga that is funded by the pupils of Westwood High School, Quebec, Canada.
174
175
As of 2022, Burundi invested the equivalent of 5% of its GDP in education.
172
Science and technology
edit
A 2013 government planning document identified training researchers as an area of policy importance. Researcher density (in head counts) grew from 40 to 55 researchers per million inhabitants between 2011 and 2018. Still, with six scientific publications per million inhabitants, Burundi still has one of the lowest publication rate in Central and East Africa.
176
Some 97.5% of publications involved foreign co-authorship between 2017 and 2019, with Ugandans figuring among the top five partners.
176
The amount of funding available to each researcher more than doubled from PPP$14,310 (2005 currency value) to PPP$22,480, since the domestic research effort has also risen since 2012, from 0.11% to 0.21% of GDP.
176
Between 2011 and 2019, Burundi scientists produced several articles on HIV, tropical communicable diseases, and tuberculosis in country, aligned with the country's
sustainable development goals
176
With regard to
material sciences
, Burundi's publication intensity doubled from 0.6 to 1.2 articles per million inhabitants between 2012 and 2019, placing it in the top 15 for sub-Saharan Africa for this strategic technology.
176
Medical sciences
remain the main focus of research: medical researchers accounted for 4% of the country's scientists in 2018 but 41% of scientific publications between 2011 and 2019.
176
Burundi ranked 181 of 195 countries on the
Global Health Security Index
in 2021.
177
This ranking sheds light on the low number of research staff and small
laboratory
network that the country currently has. The country also lacks lab capacity for testing of five critical diseases, as outlined by the
WHO
178
Despite being low on the index, Burundi is home to a research university, the National Veterinary Laboratory, and an Institute on Nutritional Sciences.
179
178
See also
edit
Geography of Burundi
Africa Great Lakes region
Rift Valley
Outline of Burundi
Culture of Burundi
Wildlife of Burundi
National Defence Force (Burundi)
Burundi portal
Notes
edit
Including ~3,000 Europeans and ~2,000 South Asians
bə-
RUUN
-dee
or
bə-
RUN
-dee
Kirundi
Repuburika y'Uburundi
12
[u.βu.ɾǔː.ndi]
Swahili
Jamuhuri ya Burundi
[ɓuˈruⁿdi]
French
République du Burundi
[buʁundi,
byʁyndi]
References
edit
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Bibliography
edit
Eggers, Ellen K. (2006).
Historical Dictionary of Burundi
(3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press.
ISBN
0-8108-5302-7
Howard, Lise Morjé (2007).
UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars
doi
10.1017/CBO9780511840593
ISBN
978-0-521-88138-8
Lemarchand, Rene (1996).
Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-56623-0
Further reading
edit
Abdallah, Ahmedou Ould
Burundi on the Brink, 1993–95: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy
Allen, J. A.; et al. (2003).
Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara
. New York, New York: Taylor and Francis Group.
ISBN
1-85743-183-9
Bentley, Kristina and Southall, Roger
An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa, and Burundi
Chrétien, Jean-Pierre
The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History
Daley, Patricia
Gender and Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region
Gates, Henry Lewis; Anthony Appiah (1999).
Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience
. New York, New York: Basic Civitas Books.
ISBN
0-465-00071-1
Ewusi, Kale and Akwanga, Ebenezer
Burundi's Negative Peace: The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad
Jennings, Christian
Across the Red River: Rwanda, Burundi and the Heart of Darkness
Kayoya, Michel
My Father's Footsteps
Sur les traces de mon père
) East African Publishing House, 1973
Kayoya, Michel
Entre deux mondes
(Between two worlds) Lavigerie Éditeurs, Bujumbura: 1971. Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide.
Kidder, Tracy,
Strength in What Remains
(A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US)
Krueger, Robert; Kathleen Tobin Krueger (2007).
From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide
. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.
ISBN
978-0-292-71486-1
Melady, Thomas Patrick
Burundi: The Tragic Years
Nivonzima, David and Fendell, Len
Unlocking Horns: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi
Uvin, Peter
Life After Violence: A People's Story of Burundi
Watt, Nigel
Burundi: The Biography of a Small African Country
Weinstein, Warren (2006).
Historical Dictionary of Burundi
. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press.
ISBN
0-8108-0962-1
1st. edition.
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