ChatGPT - Wikipedia

ChatGPT - Wikipedia
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Generative AI chatbot by OpenAI
ChatGPT
Developer
OpenAI
Initial release
November 30, 2022
(3 years ago)
2022-11-30
Stable release
April 23, 2026
(1 day ago)
2026-04-23
Engine
GPT-5.5
Platform
Cloud computing platforms
Available in
59 languages
Type
Chatbot
Large language model
Generative pre-trained transformer
License
Proprietary
service
Website
chatgpt
.com
Part of a series on
OpenAI
Products
ChatGPT
Deep Research
GPTs
DALL-E
Sora
Whisper
Models
GPT-3
GPT-4
GPT-4o
GPT-4.5
GPT-4.1
GPT-5
GPT-5.1
GPT-5.2
GPT-5.4
GPT-5.5
o1
o3
o4-mini
People
Sam Altman
Greg Brockman
Jessica Livingston
Peter Thiel
Elon Musk
Andrej Karpathy
Concepts
Hallucination
Large language model
Word embedding
Training
ChatGPT
is a
generative artificial intelligence
chatbot
OpenAI
. It was released in November 2022. It uses
large language models
—specifically
generative pre-trained transformers
(GPTs)—to generate text, speech, and images in response to user
prompts
. It is credited with accelerating the
AI boom
, an ongoing period marked by rapid investment and public attention toward the field of
artificial intelligence
(AI).
OpenAI operates the service on a
freemium model
. Users can interact with ChatGPT through text, audio, and image
prompts
ChatGPT was quickly adopted, reaching 100 million monthly active users two months after its release and 900 million weekly active users in February 2026.
It has been lauded for its potential to transform numerous professional fields, and has instigated public debate about the nature of creativity and the future of
knowledge work
The chatbot has also been criticized for its limitations and potential for unethical use. It can generate plausible-sounding but incorrect or nonsensical answers, known as
hallucinations
Biases
in its
training data
have been reflected in its responses. The chatbot can facilitate
academic dishonesty
, generate misinformation, and create malicious code. The
ethics
of its development, particularly the use of
copyrighted
content as training data, have also drawn controversy.
Training
ChatGPT is based on
GPT foundation models
that have been
fine-tuned
for conversational assistance. The fine-tuning process involved
supervised learning
and
reinforcement learning from human feedback
(RLHF).
Both approaches employed human trainers to improve model performance. In the case of supervised learning, the trainers acted as both the user and the
AI
assistant. In the reinforcement learning stage, human trainers first ranked responses generated by the model in previous conversations.
These rankings were used to create "reward models" that were used to fine-tune the model further by using several iterations of
proximal policy optimization
Training workflow of InstructGPT, used in the original version of ChatGPT
10
11
To build a safety system against harmful content (e.g.,
sexual abuse
violence
racism
sexism
), OpenAI used outsourced
Kenyan
workers, earning around $1.32 to $2
per hour, to
label
such content. These labels were used to train a model to detect such content in the future. The laborers were exposed to toxic and traumatic content; one worker described the assignment as "torture". OpenAI's outsourcing partner was
Sama
, a training-data company based in
San Francisco
, California.
12
13
ChatGPT users can opt-out of their chat data being used to train upcoming models.
14
ChatGPT's training data includes
software manual pages
, information about
internet phenomena
such as
bulletin board systems
, multiple programming languages, and the text of
Wikipedia
15
16
Features
ChatGPT is a
chatbot
and AI assistant built on
large language model
(LLM) technology.
17
It is designed to generate human-like text and can carry out a wide variety of tasks. These include, among many others, writing and
debugging
computer programs, composing music, scripts, fairy tales, and essays, answering questions (sometimes at a level exceeding that of an average human test-taker),
18
and generating business concepts.
19
ChatGPT is frequently used for
translation
and
summarization
tasks,
20
21
and can simulate interactive environments such as a
Linux
terminal,
15
a multi-user chat room,
15
or simple text-based games such as
tic-tac-toe
15
Users interact with ChatGPT through conversations which consist of text, audio, and image inputs and outputs.
22
The user's inputs to these conversations are referred to as prompts.
23
An optional "Memory" feature allows users to tell ChatGPT to memorize specific information. Another option allows ChatGPT to recall old conversations.
24
GPT-based moderation classifiers are used to reduce the risk of harmful outputs being presented to users.
25
In March 2023, OpenAI added support for
plugins
for ChatGPT.
26
This includes both plugins made by OpenAI, such as
web browsing
and
code interpretation
, and external plugins from developers such as
Expedia
OpenTable
, and
Zapier
27
From October to December 2024, ChatGPT Search was deployed.
28
It allows ChatGPT to search the web in an attempt to make more accurate and up-to-date responses.
29
30
It increased OpenAI's direct competition with major search engines.
31
OpenAI allows businesses to tailor how their content appears in the ChatGPT Search results and influence what sources are used.
31
In December 2024, OpenAI launched a new feature allowing users to call ChatGPT with a telephone for up to 15 minutes per month for free.
32
In September 2025, OpenAI added a feature called Pulse, which generates a daily analysis of a user's chats and connected apps such as
Gmail
and
Google Calendar
33
In October 2025, OpenAI launched
ChatGPT Atlas
, a browser integrating the ChatGPT assistant directly into web navigation, to compete with existing browsers such as
Google Chrome
. It has an additional feature called "agentic mode" that allows it to take online actions for the user.
34
Paid tier
ChatGPT was initially free to the public and remains free in a limited capacity.
35
In February 2023, OpenAI launched a premium service, ChatGPT Plus, that costs
US$20
per month.
36
What was offered on the paid plan versus the free tier changed as OpenAI has continued to update ChatGPT, and a Pro tier at $200/mo was introduced in December 2024.
37
38
The Pro launch coincided with the release of the
o1
model.
38
In August 2025, ChatGPT Go was offered in India for ₹399 per month. The plan has higher limits than the free version.
39
Mobile apps
In May-July 2023, OpenAI began offering ChatGPT
iOS
and
Android
apps.
40
ChatGPT can also power Android's assistant.
41
An app for
Windows
launched on the
Microsoft Store
on October 15, 2024.
42
Infrastructure
ChatGPT initially used a
Microsoft Azure
infrastructure which was powered by a
supercomputer
that
Microsoft
built specifically for OpenAI, equipped with thousands of
GPUs
manufactured by
Nvidia
, costing hundreds of millions of dollars. Following ChatGPT's success, Microsoft upgraded the OpenAI infrastructure in 2023.
43
TrendForce estimated that 30,000 Nvidia GPUs (each costing approximately $10,000–15,000) were used to power ChatGPT in 2023.
44
45
Scientists at the
University of California, Riverside
, estimated in 2023 that a series of 5 to 50 prompts to ChatGPT needs approximately 0.5 liters (0.11 imp gal; 0.13 U.S. gal) of water for Microsoft servers' cooling.
46
Languages
OpenAI met Icelandic President
Guðni Th. Jóhannesson
in 2022. In 2023, OpenAI worked with a team of 40 Icelandic volunteers to fine-tune ChatGPT's Icelandic conversation skills as a part of
Iceland
's attempts to preserve the
Icelandic language
47
ChatGPT (based on GPT-4) was better able to translate Japanese to English when compared to
Bing
Bard
, and
DeepL Translator
in 2023.
20
In December 2023, the Albanian government decided to use ChatGPT for the rapid translation of European Union documents and the analysis of required changes needed for Albania's accession to the EU.
48
Several studies have shown that ChatGPT can outperform
Google Translate
in some mainstream translation tasks. However, as of 2024, no machine translation services match human expert performance.
49
50
In August 2024, a representative of the Asia Pacific wing of
OpenAI
made a visit to Taiwan, during which a demonstration of ChatGPT's Chinese abilities was made.
51
ChatGPT's
Mandarin Chinese
abilities were lauded, but the ability of the AI to produce content in Mandarin Chinese in a Taiwanese accent was found to be "less than ideal" due to differences between mainland Mandarin Chinese and
Taiwanese Mandarin
52
GPT Store
Main article:
GPT Store
In November 2023, OpenAI released GPT Builder, a tool allowing users to customize ChatGPT's behavior for a specific use case.
53
The customized systems are referred to as
GPTs
. In January 2024, OpenAI launched the
GPT Store
, a marketplace for
GPTs
54
55
53
At launch, OpenAI included more than 3 million GPTs created by GPT Builder users in the GPT Store.
56
ChatGPT Apps
In September 2025, OpenAI added support for
Model Context Protocol
(MCP) to ChatGPT apps. When enabled in developer mode, this allows for improved third-party access to ChatGPT tools and servers.
57
Deep Research
Main article:
ChatGPT Deep Research
In February 2025, OpenAI released Deep Research, a feature that generates reports based on extensive web searches. It was initially based on the reasoning model
o3
and took 5 to 30 minutes per report.
58
Images
Screenshot of ChatGPT showing a generated image representing the online encyclopedia
Wikipedia
as a glowing digital library
In October 2023, OpenAI's image generation model
DALL-E 3
was integrated into ChatGPT. The integration used ChatGPT to write prompts for DALL-E guided by conversations with users.
59
60
In March 2025, OpenAI updated ChatGPT to generate images using
GPT Image
instead of DALL-E. One of the most significant improvements was in the generation of text within images, which is especially useful for branded content. However, this ability is noticeably worse in non-Latin alphabets. The model can also generate new images based on existing ones provided in the prompt. These images are generated with
C2PA
metadata, which can be used to verify that they are AI-generated. OpenAI has emplaced additional safeguards to prevent what the company deems to be harmful image generation.
61
Agents
In 2025, OpenAI added several features to make ChatGPT more
agentic
(capable of autonomously performing longer tasks). In January,
Operator
was released. It was capable of autonomously performing tasks through web browser interactions, including filling forms, placing online orders, scheduling appointments, and other browser-based tasks. It was controlling a software environment inside a
virtual machine
with limited internet connectivity and with safety restrictions.
62
It struggled with complex user interfaces.
62
63
In May 2025, OpenAI introduced an agent for coding named
Codex
. It is capable of writing software, answering codebase questions, running tests, and proposing
pull requests
. It is based on a fine-tuned version of
OpenAI o3
. It has two versions, one running in a virtual machine in the cloud, and one where the agent runs in the cloud, but performs actions on a local machine connected via API.
64
In July 2025, OpenAI released ChatGPT agent, an AI agent that can perform multi-step tasks.
65
66
Like Operator, it controls a virtual computer. It also inherits from Deep Research's ability to gather and summarize significant volumes of information. The user can interrupt tasks or provide additional instructions as needed.
65
67
In September 2025, OpenAI partnered with
Stripe, Inc.
to release Agentic Commerce Protocol, enabling purchases through ChatGPT. At launch, the feature was limited to purchases on
Etsy
from US users with a payment method linked to their OpenAI account. OpenAI takes an undisclosed cut from the merchant's payment.
68
69
ChatGPT Health
On January 7, 2026, OpenAI introduced a feature called "ChatGPT Health", whereby ChatGPT can discuss the user's health in a way that is separate from other chats.
70
71
The feature is not available for users in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, or the
European Economic Area
71
and is available on a waitlist basis everywhere else.
70
To implement the feature, OpenAI partnered with data connectivity infrastructure company b.well.
72
Introduction of advertisements
An advertisement for
The Times
on ChatGPT.
On 17 January 2026, OpenAI announced that it would start testing advertisements in its free version for logged-in, adult US users. This aims to bring in more revenue, as OpenAI has committed to spend $1.4 trillion on AI infrastructure over the next eight years.
73
Limitations
The training data of
large language models
only covers a period up to the
cut-off date
, so ChatGPT lacks knowledge of recent events.
74
But it can search the web for up-to-date information.
74
Training data also suffers from
algorithmic bias
75
The
reward model
of ChatGPT, designed around human oversight, can be over-optimized and thus hinder performance, in an example of an optimization pathology known as
Goodhart's law
76
These limitations may be revealed when ChatGPT responds to prompts including descriptors of people. In one instance, ChatGPT generated a
rap
in which women and scientists of color were asserted to be inferior to white male scientists.
75
77
Hallucination
Main article:
Hallucination (artificial intelligence)
When prompted to "summarize an article" with a fake URL that contains meaningful keywords, even with no Internet connection, the chatbot generates a response that seems valid at first glance. It guesses the content from the last portion of the fake URL "chatgpt-prompts-to-avoid-content-filters.html".
Nonsense and
misinformation
presented as fact by ChatGPT and other LLMs is often called
hallucination
. A 2023 analysis estimated that ChatGPT hallucinates around 3% of the time.
78
The term "hallucination" as applied to LLMs is distinct from
its meaning in psychology
, and the phenomenon in chatbots is more similar to
confabulation
or
bullshitting
79
80
Journalists and scholars have commented on ChatGPT's tendency to output false information.
81
When
CNBC
asked ChatGPT for the lyrics to "
Ballad of Dwight Fry
", ChatGPT supplied invented lyrics rather than the actual lyrics.
82
Jailbreaking
See also:
Prompt engineering
and
Adversarial machine learning
ChatGPT is designed to reject prompts that may violate its content policy. Despite this, users may
jailbreak
ChatGPT with
prompt engineering
techniques to bypass these restrictions.
83
An early workaround in 2023 involved prompting ChatGPT to assume the persona of DAN ("Do Anything Now"), a character that answers queries that would otherwise be rejected by the content policy.
84
Security
OpenAI CEO
Sam Altman
In March 2023, a
bug
allowed some users to see the titles of other users' conversations. OpenAI CEO
Sam Altman
said that users were unable to see the contents of the conversations. Shortly after the bug was fixed, users could not see their conversation history.
85
86
87
88
Later reports showed the bug was much more severe than initially believed, with OpenAI reporting that it had leaked users' "first and last name,
email address
, payment address, the last four digits (only) of a
credit card
number, and credit card expiration date".
89
90
In January 2026,
Marcel Bucher
reported in
Nature
losing all his ChatGPT history after turning off data consent.
91
Watermarking
Main article:
Artificial intelligence content detection
Scott Aaronson
developed a
watermarking
tool that makes the text generated by ChatGPT easier to detect by subtly altering how the text is generated. The watermarking was claimed to be 99.9% effective on sufficiently long passages and was found not to degrade performance. It was of particular interest for teachers seeking to mitigate cheating. In surveys, respondents favored the release of such a tool by a four-to-one margin, but nearly 30% of users declared that they would use ChatGPT less often if it watermarked outputs and while rival chatbots did not. OpenAI has not deployed the tool.
92
93
Age restrictions
Users must attest to being over the age of thirteen and further attest to parental consent if under the age of eighteen.
94
95
In September 2025, following the suicide of a 16-year-old, OpenAI said it planned to add restrictions for users under 18, including the blocking of graphic sexual content and the prevention of flirtatious talk.
95
Model versions
The following table lists the main model versions of ChatGPT, describing the significant changes included with each version (models discontinued in ChatGPT may still be available through the API):
Main model versions of ChatGPT with descriptions
Version
Release date
Status in ChatGPT
Description
GPT-3.5
November 2022
Discontinued
The first model used in ChatGPT.
96
GPT-4
March 2023
Discontinued
Larger than GPT-3.5 OpenAI later added the ability to analyze images.
97
better source needed
GPT-4o
May 2024
Discontinued
Capable of processing text, image, audio, and video, GPT-4o is faster and more capable than GPT-4.
98
Was accused of being particularly sycophantic. Its removal from ChatGPT led to backlash from users attached to its personality.
99
100
The variant GPT-4o mini replaced GPT-3.5 in the July 2024 version of ChatGPT.
101
o1
December 2024
Discontinued
An early
reasoning model
(one that can reason through a problem before answering). Slower, but can solve more complex problems, particularly in math, coding and science.
102
GPT-4.5
February 2025
Discontinued
Particularly large GPT model.
103
GPT-4.1
April 2025
Discontinued
Primarily intended for coding. Particularly long context window of 1 million tokens (around 3,000 pages of text).
104
o3
April 2025
Legacy support
Can analyze images and has access to tools such as web search and a
Python
code execution environment.
105
GPT-5
August 2025
Discontinued
GPT-5 can either answer quickly like earlier GPT models or reason before answering like o1 or o3.
106
Rather than a single model, GPT-5 consists of a network of models with different levels of capability, with a router selecting one based on the complexity of the task and other factors.
107
GPT-5.1
November 2025
Discontinued
Allows users to select alternative personalities, such as "friendly", "efficient" or "cynical".
108
GPT-5.2
December 2025
Legacy support
Released in a context of competitive pressure from Google with
Gemini
109
GPT-5.4
March 2026
Active
Focused on enterprise use, with an improved ability to autonomously operate computers and interact with external tools. Needs fewer tokens to solve problems.
110
GPT-5.5
April 2026
Active
Some OpenAI models have smaller variants called "mini" or "nano", such as GPT-5 mini. Once a user reaches usage limits, ChatGPT may transition to the "mini" version. "Thinking" and "pro" are variants with deeper reasoning that may only be available through paid subscriptions.
111
Reception
ChatGPT was widely assessed in December 2022 as having some unprecedented and powerful capabilities.
Kevin Roose
of
The New York Times
called it "the best
artificial intelligence
chatbot ever released to the general public".
112
Samantha Lock of
The Guardian
noted that it was able to generate "impressively detailed" and "human-like" text.
113
In
The Atlantic
magazine's "Breakthroughs of the Year" for 2022,
Derek Thompson
included ChatGPT as part of "the generative-AI eruption" that "may change our mind about how we work, how we think, and what human creativity is".
114
Kelsey Piper
of
Vox
wrote that "ChatGPT is the general public's first hands-on introduction to how powerful modern AI has gotten" and that ChatGPT is "smart enough to be useful despite its flaws".
115
Paul Graham
of
Y Combinator
tweeted: "The striking thing about the reaction to ChatGPT is not just the number of people who are blown away by it, but who they are. These are not people who get excited by every shiny new thing. Something big is happening."
116
A 2023
Time
cover
: "The
AI Arms Race
Is Changing Everything"
In February 2023,
Time
magazine placed a screenshot of a conversation with ChatGPT on its cover, writing that "The
AI Arms Race
Is Changing Everything" and "The AI Arms Race Is On. Start Worrying".
117
Percentage of US adults who have ever used ChatGPT, according to Pew Research. As of March 2025, 58% of those under 30 have used the chatbot.
118
ChatGPT gained one million users in five days
119
and 100 million in two months.
120
It was the fastest-growing internet application in history until the release of
Threads
by Meta.
120
OpenAI engineers said they had not expected ChatGPT to be very successful and were surprised by the coverage it received.
121
122
In February 2026, ChatGPT reached 900 million weekly active users.
Google responded by hastening the release of its own chatbot. Their leaders emphasized their earlier caution regarding public deployment was due to the trust the public places in
Google Search
123
In December 2022, Google executives sounded a "code red" alarm, fearing that ChatGPT's question-answering ability posed a threat to Google Search, Google's core business.
124
Google's
Bard
(now Gemini) launched on February 6, 2023, one day before Microsoft's announcement of
Bing Chat
(now Microsoft Copilot).
125
A 2023 study reported that GPT-4 obtained a better score than 99% of humans on the
Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking
126
127
In December 2023, ChatGPT became the first non-human to be included in
Nature
s 10
, an annual
listicle
curated by
Nature
of people considered to have made significant impact in science.
128
129
Celeste Biever wrote in a
Nature
article that "ChatGPT broke the
Turing test
".
130
Stanford researchers reported that GPT-4 "passes a rigorous Turing test, diverging from average human behavior chiefly to be more cooperative."
131
132
In art
In January 2023, after being sent a song ChatGPT wrote in the style of
Nick Cave
133
Cave responded on
The Red Hand Files
134
saying the act of writing a song is "a blood and guts business [...] that requires something of me to initiate the new and fresh idea. It requires my humanness." He went on to say, "With all the love and respect in the world, this song is bullshit, a grotesque mockery of what it is to be human, and, well, I don't much like it."
133
135
In politics
In 2023, Australian MP
Julian Hill
advised the national parliament that the growth of AI could cause "mass destruction". During his speech, which was partly written by the program, he warned that it could result in cheating, job losses, discrimination, disinformation, and uncontrollable military applications.
136
Conservative commentators have accused ChatGPT of bias toward left-leaning perspectives.
137
138
139
An August 2023 study in the journal
Public Choice
found a "significant and systematic political bias toward the
Democrats
in the US,
Lula
in Brazil, and the
Labour Party
in the UK."
140
In response to accusations from conservative pundits that ChatGPT was
woke
, OpenAI said in 2023 it had plans to update ChatGPT to produce "outputs that other people (ourselves included) may strongly disagree with". ChatGPT also provided an outline of how human reviewers are trained to reduce inappropriate content and to attempt to provide political information without affiliating with any political position.
139
According to Brian Hood, in April 2023, ChatGPT erroneously claimed that he was jailed for bribery. In fact, he acted as a whistleblower. He sent a concerns notice to OpenAI as the first official step in filing a defamation case.
141
A movement named QuitGPT emerged in February 2026 on
Reddit
, criticizing OpenAI's ties with the Trump administration, such as a $25 million donation from OpenAI's president
Greg Brockman
and his wife to a Trump Super PAC in 2025.
142
143
144
145
Regional responses
Countries where ChatGPT is available
146
Percentage of respondents who answered "weekly" to "How often, if at all, do you typically use each of the following generative AI chatbots or tools for any purpose?"
147
ChatGPT has never been publicly available in
China
because OpenAI prevented Chinese users from accessing their site.
148
149
150
shadow market
has emerged for Chinese users to get access to foreign software tools.
151
The release of ChatGPT prompted a wave of investment in China, resulting in the development of more than 200 large language models.
152
: 95
In February 2025, OpenAI identified and removed influence operations, termed "Peer Review" and "Sponsored Discontent", used to attack overseas
Chinese dissidents
153
154
155
In late March 2023, the Italian data protection authority banned ChatGPT in
Italy
and opened an investigation. Italian regulators assert that ChatGPT was exposing minors to age-inappropriate content, and that OpenAI's use of ChatGPT conversations as training data could violate Europe's
General Data Protection Regulation
156
157
In April 2023, the ChatGPT ban was lifted in Italy. OpenAI said it has taken steps to effectively clarify and address the issues raised; an age verification tool was implemented to ensure users are at least 13 years old. Additionally, users can access its privacy policy before registration.
158
In May 2024, OpenAI removed accounts involving the use of ChatGPT by state-backed
influence operations
such as China's
Spamouflage
, Russia's
Doppelganger
, and Israel's
Ministry of Diaspora Affairs and Combating Antisemitism
159
160
In June 2025, OpenAI reported increased use of ChatGPT for China-origin influence operations.
161
In October 2025, OpenAI banned accounts suspected to be linked to the Chinese government for violating the company's national security policy.
155
In February 2026, OpenAI banned accounts linked to a Chinese government
transnational repression
campaign targeting
dissidents
162
In July 2023, the
US Federal Trade Commission
(FTC) issued a
civil investigative demand
to OpenAI to investigate whether the company's
data security
and
practices to develop ChatGPT were
unfair
or
harmed consumers
163
164
165
In July 2023, the FTC launched an investigation into OpenAI over allegations that the company scraped public data and published false and defamatory information. The FTC asked OpenAI for comprehensive information about its technology and privacy safeguards, as well as any steps taken to prevent the recurrence of situations in which its chatbot generated false and derogatory content about people.
166
In August 2024, the FTC voted unanimously to ban marketers from using fake user reviews created by generative AI chatbots (including ChatGPT) and
influencers
paying for
bots
to increase
follower counts
167
Reception by American tech personas
Over 20,000 signatories including
Yoshua Bengio
, Elon Musk, and Apple co-founder
Steve Wozniak
, signed
a March 2023 open letter
calling for an immediate pause of giant AI experiments like ChatGPT, citing "profound risks to society and humanity".
168
Geoffrey Hinton
, one of the "fathers of AI", voiced concerns that future AI systems may surpass human intelligence.
169
170
A May 2023
statement
by hundreds of AI scientists, AI industry leaders, and other public figures demanded that
"[m]itigating
the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority".
171
Other AI researchers spoke more optimistically about the advances.
Juergen Schmidhuber
said that in 95% of cases, AI research is about making "human lives longer and healthier and easier." He added that while AI can be used by bad actors, it "can also be used against the bad actors."
172
Andrew Ng
argued that "it's a mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI—and that regulators who do will only benefit vested interests."
173
Yann LeCun
dismissed doomsday warnings of AI-powered misinformation and existential threats to the human race.
174
This section is an excerpt from
Artificial intelligence and copyright
edit
In the 2020s, the
rapid advancement
of
deep learning
-based
generative artificial intelligence
models raised questions about the copyright status of AI-generated works, and about whether
copyright infringement
occurs when such are trained or used. This includes
text-to-image models
such as
Stable Diffusion
and
large language models
such as ChatGPT. As of 2023, there were several pending U.S. lawsuits challenging the use of copyrighted data to train AI models, with defendants arguing that this falls under
fair use
175
Popular deep learning models are trained on mass amounts of media
scraped
from the Internet, often utilizing copyrighted material.
176
When assembling training data, the sourcing of copyrighted works may infringe on the
copyright holder
's exclusive right to control reproduction, unless covered by exceptions in relevant copyright laws. Additionally, using a model's outputs might violate copyright, and the model creator could be accused of
vicarious liability
and held responsible for that copyright infringement.
citation needed
Applications
See also:
Applications of artificial intelligence
Academic research
In a 2023
blinded study
in
npj Digital Medicine
, researchers tasked with identifying whether
abstracts
were authentic or generated by ChatGPT were fooled around one-third of the time by the AI-generated abstracts.
177
178
In January 2023,
Nature
reported that at least four academic pre-prints or published papers had listed ChatGPT as a co-author.
Nature
cites several experts in academic published who says that listing ChatGPT as an author violates publishing guidelines, since ChatGPT lacks the ability to take responsibility for any research and cannot give consent to any terms of use.
179
Scientific journals have had different reactions to ChatGPT. Some, including
Nature
and
JAMA Network
, require full disclosure of any use of text-generating tools, and prohibit listing a chatbot as a co-author. In January 2023,
Science
banned chatbot-generated text in all its journals.
180
As of July 2025,
Science
expects authors to release in full how AI-generated content is used and made in their work.
181
Many authors argue that the use of ChatGPT in academia for teaching and review is problematic due to its tendency to hallucinate.
182
183
184
Robin Bauwens, an assistant professor at
Tilburg University
, found that a ChatGPT-generated
peer review
report on his article mentioned nonexistent studies.
185
Chris Granatino, a librarian at
Seattle University
, noted that while ChatGPT can generate content that seemingly includes legitimate citations, in most cases those citations are not real or largely incorrect.
186
Computer science
In December 2022, the question-and-answer website
Stack Overflow
banned the use of ChatGPT for generating answers to questions, citing the factually ambiguous nature of its responses.
187
In January 2023, the
International Conference on Machine Learning
banned any undocumented use of ChatGPT or other large language models to generate any text in submitted papers.
188
ChatGPT was able in 2023 to provide useful code for solving numerical algorithms in limited cases. In one study, it produced solutions in
C++
Python
, and
MATLAB
for problems in
computational physics
. However, there were important shortfalls like violating basic linear algebra principles around solving singular matrices and producing matrices with incompatible sizes.
189
Another study analyzed ChatGPT's responses to 517 questions about
software engineering
or
computer programming
posed on
Stack Overflow
for correctness, consistency, comprehensiveness, and concision. It found that 52% of the responses contained inaccuracies and 77% were verbose.
190
191
Another study, focused on the performance of GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 between March and June 2024, found that performance on objective tasks like identifying prime numbers and generating
executable
code was highly variable.
192
When compared to similar chatbots at the time, the GPT-4 version of ChatGPT was the most accurate at coding.
193
Computer security
Check Point Research and others noted that ChatGPT could write
phishing
emails and
malware
, especially when combined with
OpenAI Codex
. CyberArk researchers demonstrated that ChatGPT could be used to create
polymorphic malware
that could evade security products while requiring little effort by the attacker.
194
195
From the launch of ChatGPT in the fourth quarter of 2022 to the fourth quarter of 2023, there was a 1,265% increase in malicious
phishing
emails and a 967% increase in credential phishing. In an industry survey, cybersecurity professionals argued that it was attributable to cybercriminals' increased use of generative artificial intelligence (including ChatGPT).
196
In July 2024,
Futurism
reported that GPT-4o in ChatGPT would sometimes link "scam news sites that deluge the user with fake software updates and virus warnings"; these pop-ups can be used to coerce users into downloading malware or
potentially unwanted programs
197
Education
This section is an excerpt from
ChatGPT in education
edit
Output from ChatGPT generating an essay draft
ChatGPT's adoption in education was rapid, but it was initially banned by several institutions. The potential benefits include enhancing personalized learning, improving student productivity, assisting with brainstorming, summarization, and supporting language literacy skills.
198
Students have generally reported positive perceptions, but specific views from educators and students vary widely.
198
Opinions are especially varied on what constitutes appropriate use of ChatGPT in education. Efforts to ban chatbots like ChatGPT in schools focus on preventing cheating, but enforcement faces challenges due to
AI detection
inaccuracies and widespread accessibility of chatbot technology. Beyond just cheating, educators also worry that overreliance on the tool may foster superficial learning habits, erode critical thinking, and propagate misinformation.
198
In response, many educators are now exploring ways to thoughtfully integrate generative AI into assessments.
199
200
Books about ChatGPT in an Osaka bookstore
Culture
During the first three months after ChatGPT became available to the public, hundreds of books appeared on
Amazon
that listed it as author or co-author and featured illustrations made by other AI models such as
Midjourney
201
202
Irene Solaiman
said she was worried about increased
Anglocentrism
203
Between March and April 2023,
Il Foglio
published one ChatGPT-generated article a day on its website, hosting a special contest for its readers in the process.
204
In June 2023, hundreds of people attended a "ChatGPT-powered church service" at St. Paul's Church in
Fürth
, Germany. Theologian and philosopher Jonas Simmerlein, who presided, said that it was "about 98 percent from the machine".
205
206
The ChatGPT-generated avatar told the people, "Dear friends, it is an honor for me to stand here and preach to you as the first artificial intelligence at this year's convention of Protestants in Germany". Reactions to the ceremony were mixed.
207
The Last Screenwriter
, a 2024 film created and directed by
Peter Luisi
, was written using ChatGPT, and was marketed as "the first film written entirely by AI".
208
The Guardian
questioned whether any content found on the Internet after ChatGPT's release "can be truly trusted" and called for government regulation.
209
This has led to concern over the rise of
AI slop
whereby "meaningless content and writing thereby becomes part of our culture, particularly on social media, which we nonetheless try to understand or fit into our existing cultural horizon."
210
Financial markets
Many companies adopted ChatGPT and similar chatbot technologies into their product offers. In 2023, these changes yielded significant increases in company valuations.
211
212
Reuters attributed this surge to ChatGPT's role in turning
AI
into
Wall Street
's buzzword.
212
Despite decades of using AI, Wall Street professionals report that consistently beating the market with AI, including recent large language models, is challenging due to limited and noisy financial data.
213
Medicine
See also:
Artificial intelligence in healthcare
ChatGPT can provide health information to users
214
and assist professionals with diagnosis and staying up to date with clinical guidelines.
215
It can be used to summarize medical journal articles for researchers. In medical education, it can explain concepts, generate case scenarios, and be used by students preparing for licensing examinations.
216
A February 2023 study in
PLOS Digital Health
found that ChatGPT 3.5 was capable of passing the
United States Medical Licensing Examination
217
218
ChatGPT has also passed the Specialty Certificate Examination in Dermatology.
215
However, ChatGPT shows inconsistent responses, lack of specificity, lack of control over patient data, and a limited ability to take additional context (such as regional variations) into consideration.
216
219
The
hallucinations
characteristic of LLMs pose particular danger in medical contexts, and ChatGPT's ability to come up with false or faulty citations was highly criticized.
216
220
According to a 2024 study in the
International Journal of Surgery
, concerns include "research fraud, lack of originality, ethics, copyright, legal difficulties".
216
Mental health
See also:
Artificial intelligence in mental health
and
Chatbot psychosis
According to a September 2025 article in
Lancet Psychiatry
, many individuals use ChatGPT and comparable chatbots for mental health and emotional support despite a warning from OpenAI against using ChatGPT as a therapist. The study notes a lack of research on efficacy, poor consistency in dangerous situations, limited regulation and liability, and poor transparency from OpenAI.
221
A July 2025 study in the journal
Digital Health
found that users reported employing ChatGPT to manage mental health concerns "due to perceived therapist-like qualities (e.g. emotional support, accurate understanding, and constructive feedback) and machine-like benefits (e.g. constant availability, expansive cognitive capacity, lack of negative reactions, and perceived objectivity)." The study calls for improved
AI literacy
and mandatory disclosure from AI providers to address ethical concerns such as privacy, bias, the lack of liability, and emotional over-reliance.
222
Law
ChatGPT has been used to assist in bill writing in the US
223
224
and Brazil.
224
225
In an American civil lawsuit, attorneys were
sanctioned
for filing a
legal motion
generated by ChatGPT containing fictitious legal decisions.
226
Judges in the US
227
228
and Pakistan have endorsed using ChatGPT to investigate legal questions during a case.
229
230
The use of ChatGPT has also led to errors in courtrooms.
231
In the UK, a judge expressed concern about
self-representing litigants
wasting time by submitting documents containing significant hallucinations.
232
233
234
See also
Artificial general intelligence
– Type of AI with wide-ranging abilities
Ethics of artificial intelligence
Intelligent agent
– Software agent which acts autonomously
List of chatbots
Reasoning model
List of large language models
Lists of open-source artificial intelligence software
Portals
Language
Technology
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Biswas, Som (April 1, 2023).
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Radiology
307
(2) e223312.
doi
10.1148/radiol.223312
ISSN
0033-8419
PMID
36728748
S2CID
256501098
Liebrenz, Michael; Schleifer, Roman; Buadze, Anna; Bhugra, Dinesh; Smith, Alexander (February 2023).
"Generating scholarly content with ChatGPT: ethical challenges for medical publishing"
The Lancet Digital Health
(3):
e105–
e106.
doi
10.1016/s2589-7500(23)00019-5
ISSN
2589-7500
PMID
36754725
S2CID
256655912
Bartholomew, Jem; Mehta, Dhrumil.
"How the media is covering ChatGPT"
Columbia Journalism Review
. Retrieved
May 30,
2023
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