Cobalt - Wikipedia

Cobalt - Wikipedia
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This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see
Cobalt (disambiguation)
Chemical element with atomic number 27 (Co)
Cobalt,
27
Co
Cobalt
Pronunciation
oʊ
Appearance
Hard lustrous bluish gray metal
Standard atomic weight
°(Co)
58.933
194
0.000
003
58.933
0.001
abridged
Cobalt in the
periodic table
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium
Scandium
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium
Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon
Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson
Co
Rh
iron
cobalt
nickel
Atomic number
27
Group
group 9
Period
period 4
Block
d-block
Electron configuration
Ar
] 3d
4s
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 15, 2
Physical properties
Phase
at
STP
solid
Melting point
1768
​(1495 °C, ​2723 °F)
Boiling point
3200 K ​(2927 °C, ​5301 °F)
Density
(at 20° C)
8.834 g/cm
when liquid (at
m.p.
7.75 g/cm
Heat of fusion
16.06
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization
377 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity
24.81 J/(mol·K)
Specific heat capacity
420.987 J/(kg·K)
Vapor pressure
(Pa)
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
at
(K)
1790
1960
2165
2423
2755
3198
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
common:
+2, +3
−3,
−1,
0,
+1,
+4,
+5
Electronegativity
Pauling scale: 1.88
Ionization energies
1st: 760.4 kJ/mol
2nd: 1648 kJ/mol
3rd: 3232 kJ/mol
more
Atomic radius
empirical: 125
pm
Covalent radius
Low spin: 126±3 pm
High spin: 150±7 pm
Spectral lines
of cobalt
Other properties
Natural occurrence
primordial
Crystal structure
hexagonal close-packed
(hcp) (
hP2
Lattice constants
= 250.71 pm
= 407.00 pm (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion
12.9
10
−6
/K (at 20 °C)
Thermal conductivity
100 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity
62.4 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering
Ferromagnetic
Young's modulus
209 GPa
Shear modulus
75 GPa
Bulk modulus
180 GPa
Speed of sound
thin rod
4720 m/s (at 20 °C)
Poisson ratio
0.31
Mohs hardness
5.0
Vickers hardness
1043 MPa
Brinell hardness
470–3000 MPa
CAS Number
7440-48-4
History
Naming
from the
kobelt
ore, possibly named after
Kobolds
Discovery
and first isolation
Georg Brandt
(1735)
Isotopes of cobalt
Main isotopes
Decay
Isotope
abun­dance
half-life
1/2
mode
pro­duct
56
Co
synth
77.24 d
56
Fe
57
Co
synth
271.81 d
57
Fe
58
Co
synth
70.84 d
58
Fe
59
Co
100%
stable
60
Co
trace
5.2714 y
60
Ni
Category: Cobalt
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talk
edit
references
Cobalt
is a
chemical element
; it has
symbol
Co
and
atomic number
27. As with
nickel
, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural
meteoric iron
. The
free element
, produced by reductive
smelting
, is a hard, lustrous, somewhat brittle, gray
metal
Cobalt-based blue pigments (
cobalt blue
) have been used since antiquity for jewelry and paints, and to impart a distinctive blue tint to glass. The color was long thought to be due to the metal
bismuth
. Miners had long used the name
kobold
ore
German
for
goblin
ore
) for some of the blue pigment-producing
minerals
. They were so named because they were poor in known metals and gave off poisonous
arsenic
-containing fumes when smelted.
In 1735, such ores were found to be reducible to a new metal (the first discovered since ancient times), which was ultimately named for the
kobold
Today, cobalt is usually produced as a by-product of
copper
and nickel mining, but sometimes also from one of a number of metallic-lustered ores such as
cobaltite
(CoAsS). The
Copperbelt
in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
(DRC) and
Zambia
yields most of the global cobalt production. World production in 2016 was 116,000 tonnes (114,000 long tons; 128,000 short tons) according to
Natural Resources Canada
, and the DRC alone accounted for more than 50%.
10
In 2024, production exceeded 300,000 tons, of which DRC accounted for more than 80%.
11
Cobalt is primarily used in
lithium-ion batteries
, and in the manufacture of
magnetic
, wear-resistant and high-strength
alloys
. The compounds cobalt silicate and
cobalt(II) aluminate
(CoAl
, cobalt blue) give a distinctive deep blue color to
glass
ceramics
inks
paints
and
varnishes
. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable
isotope
, cobalt-59.
Cobalt-60
is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a
radioactive tracer
and for the production of high-energy
gamma rays
. Cobalt is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst when refining crude oil. This is to purge it of sulfur, which is very polluting when burned and causes
acid rain
12
Cobalt is the active center of a group of
coenzymes
called
cobalamins
, also known as
Vitamin B
12
, which is an essential
vitamin
for all animals. Cobalt in inorganic form is also a
micronutrient
for
bacteria
algae
, and
fungi
The name cobalt derives from a type of ore considered a nuisance by 16th century German silver miners, which in turn may have been named from a spirit or goblin held superstitiously responsible for it; this spirit is considered equitable to the
kobold
(a
household spirit
) by some, or categorized as a
gnome
(mine spirit) by others.
Characteristics
edit
A block of
electrolytically
refined cobalt (99.9% purity) cut from a large plate
Cobalt is a
ferromagnetic
metal with a
specific gravity
of 8.9. The
Curie temperature
is 1,115 °C (2,039 °F)
13
and the magnetic moment is 1.6–1.7
Bohr magnetons
per
atom
14
Cobalt has a
relative permeability
two-thirds that of
iron
15
Metallic
cobalt occurs as two
crystallographic structures
hcp
and
fcc
. The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is 450 °C (842 °F), but in practice the energy difference between them is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common.
16
17
18
Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that is protected from
oxidation
by a
passivating
oxide
film. It is attacked by
halogens
and
sulfur
. Heating in
oxygen
produces
Co
which loses oxygen at 900 °C (1,650 °F) to give the
monoxide
CoO.
19
The metal reacts with
fluorine
(F
) at 520 K to give
CoF
; with
chlorine
(Cl
),
bromine
(Br
) and
iodine
(I
), producing equivalent binary
halides
. It does not react with
hydrogen gas
) or
nitrogen gas
) even when heated, but it does react with
boron
carbon
phosphorus
arsenic
and sulfur.
20
At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with
mineral acids
, and very slowly with moist, but not dry, air.
citation needed
Compounds
edit
See also:
Category:Cobalt compounds
Cobalt tool tip
Common
oxidation states
of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation states ranging from −3 to
+5
are also known. A common oxidation state for simple compounds is +2 (cobalt(II)). These salts form the pink-colored
metal aquo complex
[Co(H
O)
2+
in water. Addition of chloride gives the intensely blue
[CoCl
2−
In a borax bead
flame test
, cobalt shows deep blue in both oxidizing and reducing flames.
21
Oxygen and chalcogen compounds
edit
Several
oxides
of cobalt are known. Green
cobalt(II) oxide
(CoO) has
rocksalt
structure. It is readily oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt(III) hydroxide (Co(OH)
). At temperatures of 600–700 °C, CoO oxidizes to the blue
cobalt(II,III) oxide
(Co
), which has a
spinel structure
Black
cobalt(III) oxide
(Co
) is also known.
22
Cobalt oxides are
antiferromagnetic
at low
temperature
: CoO (
Néel temperature
291 K) and Co
(Néel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to
magnetite
(Fe
), with a mixture of +2 and +3 oxidation states.
23
The principal
chalcogenides
of cobalt are the black
cobalt(II) sulfides
, CoS
pyrite
structure),
Co
spinel structure
), and CoS (
nickel arsenide
structure).
: 1118
Halides
edit
Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
Four
dihalides
of cobalt(II) are known:
cobalt(II) fluoride
(CoF
, pink),
cobalt(II) chloride
(CoCl
, blue),
cobalt(II) bromide
(CoBr
, green),
cobalt(II) iodide
(CoI
, blue-black). These halides exist in anhydrous and hydrated forms. Whereas the anhydrous dichloride is blue, the hydrate is red.
24
The reduction potential for the reaction
Co
3+
+ e
Co
2+
is +1.92 V, beyond that for
chlorine
to chloride, +1.36 V. Consequently,
cobalt(III) chloride
would spontaneously reduce to cobalt(II) chloride and chlorine. Because the reduction potential for fluorine to fluoride is so high, +2.87 V,
cobalt(III) fluoride
is one of the few simple stable cobalt(III) compounds. Cobalt(III) fluoride, which is used in some fluorination reactions, reacts vigorously with water.
19
Coordination compounds
edit
The inventory of complexes is very large. Starting with higher oxidation states, complexes of Co(IV) and Co(V) are rare. Examples are found in
caesium hexafluorocobaltate(IV)
(Cs
CoF
) and potassium
percobaltate
(K
CoO
).
19
Cobalt(III) forms a wide variety of
coordination complexes
with ammonia and amines, which are called
ammine complexes
. Examples include
[Co(NH
3+
[Co(NH
Cl]
2+
chloropentamminecobalt(III)
), and
cis
- and
trans
[Co(NH
Cl
. The corresponding
ethylenediamine
complexes are also well known. Analogues are known where the halides are replaced by
nitrite
hydroxide
carbonate
, etc.
Alfred Werner
worked extensively on these complexes in his Nobel-prize winning work.
25
The robustness of these complexes is demonstrated by the
optical resolution
of
tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)
[Co(en)
3+
).
26
Cobalt(II) forms a wide variety of complexes, but mainly with weakly basic ligands. The pink-colored cation
hexaaquocobalt(II)
[Co(H
O)
2+
is found in several routine cobalt salts such as the nitrate and sulfate. Upon addition of excess chloride, solutions of the
hexaaquo complex
converts to the deep blue
CoCl
2−
, which is tetrahedral.
citation needed
Softer
ligands like
triphenylphosphine
form complexes with Co(II) and Co(I), examples being bis- and tris(triphenylphosphine)cobalt(I) chloride,
CoCl
(PPh
and
CoCl(PPh
. These Co(I) and Co(II) complexes represent a link to the organometallic complexes described below.
citation needed
Organometallic compounds
edit
Structure of tetrakis(1-norbornyl)cobalt(IV)
Main article:
Organocobalt chemistry
Cobaltocene
is a
structural analog
to
ferrocene
, with cobalt in place of iron. Cobaltocene is much more sensitive to oxidation than ferrocene.
27
Cobalt carbonyl (
Co
(CO)
) is a
catalyst
in
carbonylation
and
hydrosilylation
reactions.
28
Vitamin B
12
(see
below
) is an organometallic compound found in nature and is the only
vitamin
that contains a metal atom.
29
An example of an alkylcobalt complex in the otherwise uncommon +4 oxidation state of cobalt is the homoleptic complex
tetrakis(1-norbornyl)cobalt(IV)
(Co(1-norb)
), a transition metal-alkyl complex that is notable for its resistance to
β-hydrogen elimination
30
in accord with
Bredt's rule
. The cobalt(III) and cobalt(V) complexes
[Li(THF)
[Co(1-norb)
and
[Co(1-norb)
[BF
are also known.
31
Isotopes
edit
Main article:
Isotopes of cobalt
59
Co is the only stable cobalt
isotope
and the only isotope that exists naturally on Earth. Twenty-two
radioisotopes
have been characterized: the most stable,
60
Co
, has a
half-life
of 5.2714 years;
57
Co has a half-life of 271.81 days;
56
Co has a half-life of 77.24 days; and
58
Co has a half-life of 70.84 days. All the other
radioactive
isotopes of cobalt have half-lives shorter than 18 hours, and in most cases shorter than 1 second. This element also has 4
meta states
, all of which have half-lives shorter than 15 minutes.
32
The isotopes of cobalt range from
50
Co to
78
Co. The primary
decay mode
for isotopes with atomic masses less than that of the only stable isotope,
59
Co, is
electron capture
and the primary mode of decay in isotopes with atomic mass greater than that is
beta decay
. The primary
decay products
below
59
Co are element 26 (iron) isotopes; above that the decay products are element 28 (nickel) isotopes.
32
The
59
Co nucleus is detectable using
nuclear magnetic resonance
33
and has a magnetic
quadrupole moment
. Among all NMR active nuclei,
59
Co has the largest chemical shift range and the chemical shift can be correlated with the
spectrochemical series
34
Resonances are observed over a range of 20000 ppm, the width of the signals being up to 20 kHz. A widely used standard is potassium hexacyanocobaltate (0.1M
Co(CN)
in
), which, due to its high symmetry, has a rather small line width. Systems of low symmetry can yield broadened signals to an extent that renders the signals unobservable in fluid phase NMR, but still observable in
solid state NMR
Etymology
edit
See also:
Gnome § Cobalt ore
Many different stories about the origin of the word "cobalt" have been proposed. In one version the element
cobalt
was named after "
kobelt
", the name which 16th century German silver miners had given to a nuisance type of ore which occurred that was corrosive and issued poisonous gas.
35
36
Although such ores had been used for blue pigmentation since antiquity, the Germans at that time did not have the technology to
smelt
the ore into metal (cf.
§ History
below).
37
The authority on such
kobelt
ore (Latinized as
cobaltum
or
cadmia
38
39
) at the time was
Georgius Agricola
35
37
He was also the oft-quoted authority on the mine spirits called "
kobel
" (Latinized as
cobalus
or pl.
cobali
) in a separate work.
40
41
42
Agricola did not make a connection between the similarly named ore and spirit. However, a causal connection (ore blamed on "kobel") was made by a contemporary,
44
and a word origin connection (word "formed" from
cobalus
) made by a late 18th century writer.
45
Later, Grimms' dictionary (1868) noted the
kobalt/kobelt
ore was blamed on the mountain spirit (
Bergmännchen
de
) which was also held responsible for "stealing the silver and putting out an ore that caused poor mining atmosphere (
Wetter
46
) and other health hazards".
36
Grimms' dictionary entries equated the word "kobel" with "kobold", and listed it as a mere variant
diminutive
48
but the latter is defined in it as a
household spirit
47
Some more recent commentators prefer to characterize the ore's namesake
kobelt
(recté
kobel
) as a
gnome
49
52
The early 20th century
Oxford English Dictionary
(1st edition, 1908) upheld Grimm's etymology.
53
However, by around the same time in Germany, the alternate etymology not endorsed by Grimm (
kob/kof
"house, chamber" +
walt
"power, ruler") was being proposed as more convincing.
54
55
Somewhat later,
Paul Kretschmer
(1928) explained that while this "house ruler" etymology was the proper one that backed the original meaning of kobold as household spirit, a corruption later occurred introducing the idea of "mine demon" to it.
56
The present edition of the
Etymologisches Wörterbuch
(25th ed., 2012) under "kobold" lists the latter, not Grimm's etymology, but still maintains, under its entry for "kobalt", that the cobalt ore may have gotten its name from "a type of mine spirit/demon" (
daemon metallicus
) while stating that this is "apparently" the kobold.
57
Joseph William Mellor
(1935) also stated that cobalt may derive from
kobalos
κόβαλος
), though other theories had been suggested.
58
Alternate theories
edit
Several alternative etymologies that have been suggested, which may not involve a spirit (kobel or kobold) at all. Karl Müller-Fraureuth conjectured that
kobelt
derived from
Kübel
, a bucket used in mining, frequently mentioned by Agricola,
54
namely the
kobel/köbel
(Latinized as
modulus
).
59
Another theory given by the
Etymologisches Wörterbuch
derives the term from
kōbathium
57
or rather
cobathia
κωβάθια
, "arsenic sulfide"
60
) which occurs as noxious fumes.
37
An etymology from Slavonic
kowalti
was suggested by
Emanuel Merck
(1902).
61
58
W. W. Skeat
and J. Berendes construed
κόβαλος
as "parasite", i.e. as an ore parasitic to
nickel
58
but this explanation is faulted for its anachronism since nickel was not discovered until 1751.
62
63
History
edit
Early Chinese blue and white porcelain, manufactured
c.
1335
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to
glass
glazes
, and
ceramics
. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture, Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the ruins of
Pompeii
, destroyed in 79 AD, and in China, dating from the
Tang dynasty
(618–907 AD) and the
Ming dynasty
(1368–1644 AD).
64
Cobalt has been used to color glass since the
Bronze Age
. The excavation of the
Uluburun shipwreck
yielded an ingot of blue glass, cast during the 14th century BC.
65
66
Blue glass from Egypt was either colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass is from the
eighteenth dynasty of Egypt
(1550–1292 BC). The Egyptians sourced this cobalt from cobaltiferous alums found in Egypt's Western Oases.
67
One possible origin of the word
cobalt
is the 16th century German "
kobald
", a type of ore. The first attempts to smelt those ores for copper or silver failed, yielding simply powder (cobalt(II) oxide) instead. Because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic, smelting the ore oxidized the arsenic into the highly toxic and volatile
arsenic oxide
, adding to the notoriety of the ore.
68
Paracelsus
Georgius Agricola
, and
Basil Valentine
all referred to such silicates as "cobalt".
69
Swedish chemist
Georg Brandt
(1694–1768) is credited with discovering cobalt
c.
1735
, showing it to be a previously unknown element, distinct from bismuth and other traditional metals. Brandt called it a new "semi-metal",
70
71
naming it for the mineral from which he had extracted it.
72
: 153
He showed that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue color in glass, which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. Cobalt became the first metal to be discovered since the pre-historical period. All previously known metals (iron, copper, silver, gold, zinc, mercury, tin, lead and bismuth) had no recorded discoverers.
73
During the 19th century, a significant part of the world's production of
cobalt blue
(a pigment made with cobalt compounds and alumina) and
smalt
cobalt glass
powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics and painting) was carried out at the Norwegian
Blaafarveværket
74
75
The first mines for the production of smalt in the 16th century were located in Norway, Sweden,
Saxony
and Hungary. With the discovery of cobalt ore in
New Caledonia
in 1864, the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the discovery of ore deposits in
Ontario
, Canada, in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the
Katanga Province
in the
Congo
in 1914, mining operations shifted again.
68
When the
Shaba conflict
started in 1978, the copper mines of Katanga Province nearly stopped production.
76
77
The impact on the world cobalt economy from this conflict was smaller than expected: cobalt is a rare metal, the pigment is highly toxic, and the industry had already established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials. In some cases, industry was able to change to cobalt-free alternatives.
76
77
In 1938,
John Livingood
and
Glenn T. Seaborg
discovered the radioisotope
cobalt-60
78
This isotope was famously used at
Columbia University
in the 1950s to establish
parity
violation in radioactive
beta decay
79
80
After World War II, the US wanted to guarantee the supply of cobalt ore for military uses (as the Germans had been doing) and prospected for cobalt within the US. High purity cobalt was highly sought after for its use in jet engines and gas turbines.
81
An adequate supply of the ore was found in Idaho near
Blackbird canyon
. Calera Mining Company started production at the site.
82
Cobalt demand has further accelerated in the 21st century as an essential constituent of materials used in rechargeable batteries, superalloys, and catalysts.
81
It has been argued that cobalt will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.
83
Occurrence
edit
The stable isotope of cobalt is produced in
supernovae
through the
r-process
84
It comprises
0.0029% of the Earth's crust
where is frequently associated with
nickel
. Both are characteristic components of
meteoric iron
, though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron
alloys
may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to remain as the free (but alloyed) metal.
85
In the ocean cobalt typically reacts with chlorine.
Cobalt in compound form occurs in copper and nickel minerals. It is the major metallic component that combines with
sulfur
and arsenic in the sulfidic
cobaltite
(CoAsS),
safflorite
(CoAs
),
glaucodot
(Co,Fe)AsS
), and
skutterudite
(CoAs
) minerals.
19
The mineral
cattierite
is similar to
pyrite
and occurs together with
vaesite
in the copper deposits of
Katanga Province
86
When it reaches the atmosphere,
weathering
occurs; the sulfide minerals oxidize and form pink
erythrite
("cobalt glance":
Co
(AsO
·8H
) and
spherocobaltite
(CoCO
).
87
88
Small amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soils, plants, and animals.
89
Free cobalt (the
native metal
) was reported
90
from samples in the
Kola Superdeep Borehole
and in
Moon rocks
from the
Luna 24
mission, possibly as a result of impacts.
91
92
Cobalt is also a constituent of
tobacco smoke
93
The
tobacco plant
readily absorbs and accumulates
heavy metals
like cobalt from the surrounding soil in its leaves. These are subsequently inhaled during
tobacco smoking
94
Production
edit
Cobalt production
Cobalt ore
Cobalt mine production (2022) and reserves in tonnes according to
USGS
95
Country
Production
Reserves
DR Congo
130,000
4,000,000
Indonesia
10,000
600,000
Russia
8,900
250,000
Australia
5,900
1,500,000
Canada
3,900
220,000
Cuba
3,800
500,000
Philippines
3,800
260,000
Madagascar
3,000
100,000
Papua New Guinea
3,000
47,000
Turkey
2,700
36,000
Morocco
2,300
13,000
China
2,200
140,000
United States
800
69,000
Other countries
5,200
610,000
World total
190,000
8,300,000
See also:
Cobalt extraction
The main ores of cobalt are
cobaltite
erythrite
glaucodot
and
skutterudite
(see above), but most cobalt is obtained by reducing the cobalt
by-products
of nickel and copper mining and
smelting
96
97
Since cobalt is generally produced as a by-product, the supply of cobalt depends to a great extent on the economic feasibility of copper and nickel mining in a given market. Demand for cobalt was projected to grow 6% in 2017.
98
Primary cobalt deposits are rare, such as those occurring in
hydrothermal deposits
, associated with
ultramafic rocks
, typified by the Bou-Azzer district of
Morocco
. At such locations, cobalt ores are mined exclusively, albeit at a lower concentration, and thus require more downstream processing for cobalt extraction.
99
100
Several methods exist to separate cobalt from copper and nickel, depending on the concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore. One method is
froth flotation
, in which
surfactants
bind to ore components, leading to an enrichment of cobalt ores. Subsequent
roasting
converts the ores to
cobalt sulfate
, and the copper and the iron are oxidized to the oxide.
Leaching
with water extracts the sulfate together with the
arsenates
. The residues are further leached with
sulfuric acid
, yielding a solution of copper sulfate. Cobalt can also be leached from the
slag
of copper smelting.
101
The products of the above-mentioned processes are transformed into the cobalt oxide (Co
). This oxide is reduced to metal by the
aluminothermic reaction
or reduction with carbon in a
blast furnace
19
World production trend
Extraction
edit
See also:
Cobalt extraction
World cobalt production, 1944
The
United States Geological Survey
estimates world reserves of cobalt at 11,000,000 metric tons.
102
The
Democratic Republic of the Congo
(DRC) currently produces 63% of the world's cobalt. This market share may reach 73% by 2025 if planned expansions by mining producers like
Glencore
Plc take place as expected.
Bloomberg New Energy Finance
has estimated that by 2030, global demand for cobalt could be 47 times more than it was in 2017.
103
Democratic Republic of the Congo
edit
See also:
Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Miners collecting cobalt in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Changes that Congo made to mining laws in 2002
further explanation needed
attracted new investments in Congolese copper and cobalt projects.
104
In 2005, the top producer of cobalt was the copper deposits in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
's
Katanga Province
. Formerly Shaba province, the area had almost 40% of global reserves, reported the
British Geological Survey
in 2009.
105
The
Mukondo Mountain
project, operated by the
Central African Mining and Exploration Company
(CAMEC) in Katanga Province, may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world. It produced an estimated one-third of the total global cobalt production in 2008.
106
In July 2009, CAMEC announced a long-term agreement to deliver its entire annual
production
of cobalt concentrate from Mukondo Mountain to Zhejiang Galico Cobalt & Nickel Materials of China.
107
In 2016, Chinese ownership of cobalt production in the Congo was estimated at over 10% of global cobalt supply, forming a key input to the Chinese cobalt refining industry and granting China substantial influence over the global cobalt supply chain.
108
Chinese control of Congolese cobalt has raised concern in Western nations which have sought to reduce supply chain reliance upon China and have expressed concern regarding labor and human rights violations in cobalt mines in the DRC.
109
110
Glencore's
Mutanda Mine
shipped 24,500 tons of cobalt in 2016, 40% of Congo DRC's output and nearly a quarter of global production. After oversupply, Glencore closed Mutanda for two years in late 2019.
104
111
Glencore's
Katanga Mining
project is resuming as well and should produce 300,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons of cobalt by 2019, according to Glencore.
98
In February 2018, global asset management firm
AllianceBernstein
defined the DRC as economically "the
Saudi Arabia
of the electric vehicle age", due to its cobalt resources, as essential to the
lithium-ion batteries
that drive
electric vehicles
112
On 9 March 2018, President
Joseph Kabila
updated the 2002 mining code, increasing royalty charges and declaring cobalt and
coltan
"strategic metals".
113
114
The 2002 mining code was effectively updated on 4 December 2018.
115
In February 2025, the DRC implemented a four-month suspension of cobalt exports, citing an oversupply of the metal amid a price decline to its lowest level in 21 years. Cobalt, a key byproduct of copper mining, is an essential material in battery technology. The DRC accounts for approximately 75 percent of the global supply. Within the country, the
China Molybdenum Company
(CMOC) dominates the industry, contributing roughly 40 percent of the world's cobalt production. Over the past year, CMOC has significantly increased its output, doubling production from two of its mines in the DRC from 56,000 tonnes to 114,000 tonnes.
citation needed
Labor conditions
edit
See also:
Conflict minerals
Artisanal mining
supplied 17% to 40% of the DRC production as of 2016.
116
Some 100,000 cobalt miners in Congo DRC use hand tools to dig hundreds of feet, with little planning and fewer safety measures, say workers and government and NGO officials, as well as
The Washington Post
reporters' observations on visits to isolated mines. The lack of safety precautions frequently causes injuries or death.
117
Mining pollutes the vicinity and exposes local wildlife and indigenous communities to toxic metals thought to cause birth defects and breathing difficulties, according to health officials.
118
Child labor
is used in mining cobalt from African
artisanal mines
116
119
Human rights activists have highlighted this and
investigative journalism
reporting has confirmed it.
120
121
This revelation prompted cell phone maker
Apple Inc.
, on 3 March 2017, to stop buying ore from suppliers such as
Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt
who source from artisanal mines in the DRC, and begin using only suppliers that are verified to meet its workplace standards.
122
123
In 2023, Apple announced it would convert to using recycled cobalt by 2025.
124
There is a push globally by the
EU
and major car manufacturers (OEM) for global production of cobalt to be sourced and –produced sustainably, responsibly and traceability of the supply chain. Mining companies are adopting and practising
ESG
initiatives in line with
OECD
Guidance and putting in place evidence of zero to low carbon footprint activities in the supply chain production of
lithium-ion batteries
. These initiatives are already taking place with major mining companies, artisanal and small-scale mining companies (ASM). Car manufacturers and battery manufacturer supply chains: Tesla, VW, BMW, BASF and Glencore are participating in several initiatives, such as the Responsible Cobalt Initiative
125
and Cobalt for Development
126
study. In 2018 BMW Group in partnership with BASF, Samsung SDI and Samsung Electronics have launched a pilot project in the DRC over one pilot mine, to improve conditions and address challenges for artisanal miners and the surrounding communities.
The political and ethnic dynamics of the region have in the past caused outbreaks of violence and years of armed conflict and displaced populations. This instability affected the price of cobalt and also created perverse incentives for the combatants in the
First
and
Second Congo Wars
to prolong the fighting, since access to diamond mines and other valuable resources helped to finance their military goals—which frequently amounted to genocide—and also enriched the fighters themselves. While DR Congo has in the 2010s not recently been invaded by neighboring military forces, some of the richest mineral deposits adjoin areas where Tutsis and Hutus still frequently clash, unrest continues although on a smaller scale and refugees still flee outbreaks of violence.
127
Cobalt extracted from small Congolese artisanal mining endeavors in 2007 supplied a single Chinese company, Congo DongFang International Mining. A subsidiary of Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, one of the world's largest cobalt producers, Congo DongFang supplied cobalt to some of the world's largest battery manufacturers, who produced batteries for ubiquitous products like the Apple
iPhones
. Because of accused labour violations and environmental concerns,
LG Chem
subsequently audited Congo DongFang in accordance with OECD guidelines. LG Chem, which also produces battery materials for car companies, imposed a code of conduct on all suppliers that it inspects.
128
In December 2019, International Rights Advocates, a human rights NGO, filed
a landmark lawsuit
against Apple,
Tesla
Dell
Microsoft
and
Google
company
Alphabet
for "knowingly benefiting from and aiding and abetting the cruel and brutal use of young children" in mining cobalt.
129
The companies in question denied their involvement in
child labour
130
In 2024 the court ruled that the suppliers facilitate force labor but the US tech companies are not liable because they don't operate as a shared enterprise with the suppliers and that the "alleged injuries are not fairly traceable" to any of the defendants' conduct.
131
The book
Cobalt Red
132
133
alleges that workers including children suffer injuries, amputations, and death as the result of the hazardous working conditions and mine tunnel collapses during artisanal mining of cobalt in the DRC.
134
Since child and slave labor have been repeatedly reported in cobalt mining, primarily in the artisanal mines of DR Congo, technology companies seeking an ethical supply chain have faced shortages of this raw material and
135
the price of cobalt metal reached a nine-year high in October 2017, more than US$30 a pound, versus US$10 in late 2015.
136
After oversupply, the price dropped to a more normal $15 in 2019.
137
138
As a reaction to the issues with artisanal cobalt mining in DR Congo a number of cobalt suppliers and their customers have formed the Fair Cobalt Alliance (FCA) which aims to end the use of child labor and to improve the working conditions of cobalt mining and processing in the DR Congo. Members of FCA include
Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt
Sono Motors
, the Responsible Cobalt Initiative,
Fairphone
Glencore
and Tesla, Inc.
139
140
Canada
edit
In 2017, some exploration companies were planning to survey old silver and cobalt mines in the area of
Cobalt, Ontario
, where significant deposits are believed to lie.
141
Cobalt mined in Canada is a by-product of
nickel
mining. Even so, in 2023 the country produced more than 5,000 tons of cobalt (43% is mined in
Newfoundland and Labrador
, the rest in
Ontario
Manitoba
and
Quebec
). Exports of cobalt and cobalt products totaled $568 million in 2023.
142
Cuba
edit
Canada's
Sherritt International
processes cobalt ores in nickel deposits from the
Moa mines
in
Cuba
, and the island has several others mines in
Mayarí
Camagüey
, and
Pinar del Río
. Continued investments by Sherritt International in Cuban nickel and cobalt production while acquiring mining rights for 17–20 years made the communist country third for cobalt reserves in 2019, before Canada itself.
143
Indonesia
edit
Starting from smaller amounts in 2021, Indonesia began producing cobalt as a byproduct of
nickel production
. By 2022, the country had become the world's second-largest cobalt producer, with
Benchmark Mineral Intelligence
forecasting Indonesian output to make up 20 percent of global production by 2030.
144
Cobalt production increased from 1,300 tons to 20,500 tons between 2015 and 2024 due to the Indonesian government's strategic initiative to develop a robust domestic
supply chain
for
electric vehicles
. An export ban in 2020 has ensured an influx of foreign investment in
nickel
and cobalt processing in the country.
11
Applications
edit
In 2016, 116,000 tonnes (128,000 short tons) of cobalt was used.
10
Cobalt has been used in the production of high-performance alloys.
96
97
It is also used in some rechargeable batteries.
Alloys
edit
Cobalt-based
superalloys
have historically consumed most of the cobalt produced.
96
97
The temperature stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades for
gas turbines
and aircraft
jet engines
, although nickel-based
single-crystal
alloys surpass them in performance.
145
Cobalt-based alloys are also
corrosion
- and wear-resistant, making them, like
titanium
, useful for making orthopedic
implants
that do not wear down over time. The development of wear-resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the
stellite
alloys, containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon. Alloys with
chromium
and
tungsten carbides
are very hard and wear-resistant.
146
Special cobalt-chromium-
molybdenum
alloys like
Vitallium
are used for
prosthetic
parts (hip and knee replacements).
147
Cobalt alloys are also used for
dental
prosthetics as a useful substitute for nickel, which may be allergenic.
148
Some
high-speed steels
also contain cobalt for increased heat and wear resistance. The special alloys of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known as
Alnico
, and of samarium and cobalt (
samarium–cobalt magnet
) are used in
permanent magnets
149
It is also alloyed with 95%
platinum
for jewelry, yielding an alloy suitable for fine casting, which is also slightly magnetic.
150
In addition to structural and magnetic roles, cobalt alloys are critical in aerospace-grade electrical components. They are used in connectors, thermal switches, and microsensors that must endure extreme temperatures, vibration, and radiation—conditions typical in satellites, fighter aircraft, and hypersonic systems.
151
These alloys maintain conductivity and mechanical integrity even under fluctuating mission-critical loads.
152
Batteries
edit
Lithium cobalt oxide
(LiCoO
, aka "LCO"), first sold commercially in 1991 by Sony, was widely used in
lithium-ion battery
cathodes until the 2010s. The material is composed of cobalt oxide layers with the lithium
intercalated
. These LCO batteries continue to dominate the market for consumer electronics. Batteries for electric cars however have shifted to lower cobalt technologies.
153
In 2018 most cobalt in batteries was used in a mobile device,
154
a more recent application for cobalt is rechargeable batteries for electric cars. This industry increased five-fold in its demand for cobalt from 2016 to 2020, which made it urgent to find new raw materials in more stable areas of the world.
155
Demand is expected to continue or increase as the prevalence of electric vehicles increases.
156
Exploration in 2016–2017 included the area around Cobalt, Ontario, an area where many silver mines ceased operation decades ago.
155
Cobalt for electric vehicles increased 81% from the first half of 2018 to 7,200 tonnes in the first half of 2019, for a battery capacity of 46.3 GWh.
157
158
As of August 2020 battery makers have gradually reduced the cathode cobalt content from 1/3 (
NMC
111) to 1/5 (NMC 442) to currently 1/10 (NMC 811) and have also introduced the cobalt free
lithium iron phosphate
cathode into the battery packs of electric cars such as the
Tesla Model 3
159
160
Research was also conducted by the European Union into the possibility of eliminating cobalt requirements in lithium-ion battery production.
161
162
In September 2020, Tesla outlined their plans to make their own, cobalt-free battery cells.
163
Nickel–cadmium
164
(NiCd) and
nickel metal hydride
165
(NiMH) batteries also included cobalt to improve the oxidation of nickel in the battery.
164
Lithium iron phosphate batteries officially surpassed ternary cobalt batteries in 2021 with 52% of installed capacity. Analysts estimate that its market share will exceed 60% in 2024.
166
Catalysts
edit
Several cobalt compounds are oxidation
catalysts
. Cobalt acetate is used to convert
xylene
to
terephthalic acid
, the precursor of the bulk polymer
polyethylene terephthalate
. Typical catalysts are the cobalt
carboxylates
(known as cobalt soaps). They are also used in paints,
varnishes
, and inks as "drying agents" through the oxidation of
drying oils
167
168
However, their use is being phased out due to toxicity concerns.
169
The same carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion between steel and rubber in steel-belted radial tires. In addition they are used as accelerators in
polyester resin
systems.
170
171
172
Cobalt-based catalysts are used in reactions involving
carbon monoxide
. Cobalt is also a catalyst in the
Fischer–Tropsch process
for the
hydrogenation
of carbon monoxide into liquid fuels.
173
Hydroformylation
of
alkenes
often uses
cobalt octacarbonyl
as a catalyst.
174
The
hydrodesulfurization
of
petroleum
uses a catalyst derived from cobalt and molybdenum. This process helps to clean petroleum of sulfur impurities that interfere with the refining of liquid fuels.
168
Pigments and coloring
edit
Cobalt blue glass
Cobalt-colored glass
Before the 19th century, cobalt was predominantly used as a pigment. It has been used since the Middle Ages to make
smalt
, a blue-colored glass. Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of roasted mineral
smaltite
quartz
and
potassium carbonate
, which yields a dark blue silicate glass, which is finely ground after the production.
175
Smalt was widely used to color glass and as pigment for paintings.
176
In 1780,
Sven Rinman
discovered
cobalt green
, and in 1802
Louis Jacques Thénard
discovered
cobalt blue
177
Cobalt pigments such as cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate),
cerulean
blue (cobalt(II) stannate), various hues of
cobalt green
(a mixture of
cobalt(II) oxide
and
zinc oxide
), and cobalt violet (
cobalt phosphate
) are used as artist's pigments because of their superior chromatic stability.
178
179
Radioisotopes
edit
Cobalt-60
(Co-60 or
60
Co) is useful as a gamma-ray source because it can be produced in predictable amounts with high
activity
by bombarding cobalt with
neutrons
. It produces
gamma rays
with energies of 1.17 and 1.33
MeV
32
180
Cobalt is used in
external beam radiotherapy
, sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste, radiation treatment of
foods for sterilization
(cold
pasteurization
),
181
industrial radiography
(e.g. weld integrity radiographs), density measurements (e.g. concrete density measurements), and tank fill height switches. The metal has the unfortunate property of producing a fine dust, causing problems with
radiation protection
. Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not discarded properly, and one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984, when a
discarded radiotherapy unit containing cobalt-60 was mistakenly disassembled
in a junkyard in Juarez, Mexico.
182
183
Cobalt-60 has a radioactive half-life of 5.27 years. Loss of potency requires periodic replacement of the source in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by
linear accelerators
in modern radiation therapy.
184
Cobalt-57
(Co-57 or
57
Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests, as a radiolabel for vitamin B
12
uptake, and for the
Schilling test
. Cobalt-57 is used as a source in
Mössbauer spectroscopy
and is one of several possible sources in
X-ray fluorescence
devices.
185
186
Nuclear weapon designs
could intentionally incorporate
59
Co, some of which would be activated in a
nuclear explosion
to produce
60
Co. The
60
Co, dispersed as
nuclear fallout
, is sometimes called a
cobalt bomb
187
188
Magnetic materials
edit
Due to the ferromagnetic properties of cobalt, it is used in the production of various magnetic materials.
189
It is used in creating permanent magnets like
Alnico
magnets, known for their strong magnetic properties used in
electric motors
sensors
, and
MRI
machines.
190
191
It is also used in production of magnetic alloys like
cobalt steel
, widely used in
magnetic recording
media such as
hard disks
and
tapes
192
Cobalt's ability to maintain magnetic properties at high temperatures makes it valuable in magnetic recording applications, ensuring reliable
data storage devices
193
Cobalt also contributes to specialized magnets such as
samarium-cobalt
magnets, which are vital in electronics for components like
sensors
and
actuators
194
Other uses
edit
Cobalt is used in
electroplating
for its attractive appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation.
195
It is also used as a base primer coat for
porcelain
enamels
196
Biological role
edit
Cobalt is essential to the
metabolism
of all animals. It is a key constituent of
cobalamin
, also known as vitamin B
12
, the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an
ultratrace element
197
198
Bacteria
in the stomachs of
ruminant
animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B
12
, a compound which can only be produced by bacteria or
archaea
. A minimal presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the health of
grazing
animals, and an uptake of 0.20 mg/kg a day is recommended, because they have no other source of vitamin B
12
199
Proteins based on cobalamin use
corrin
to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B
12
features a reactive C-Co bond that participates in the reactions.
200
In humans, B
12
has two types of
alkyl
ligand
methyl
and adenosyl.
MeB
12
promotes methyl (−CH
) group transfers. The adenosyl version of B
12
catalyzes rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an oxygen atom of an alcohol, or an amine.
Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase
(MUT) converts
MMl-CoA
to
Su-CoA
, an important step in the extraction of energy from proteins and fats.
201
Although far less common than other
metalloproteins
(e.g. those of zinc and iron), other cobaltoproteins are known besides B
12
. These proteins include
methionine aminopeptidase 2
, an enzyme that occurs in humans and other mammals that does not use the corrin ring of B
12
, but binds cobalt directly. Another non-corrin cobalt enzyme is
nitrile hydratase
, an enzyme in bacteria that metabolizes
nitriles
202
Cobalt deficiency
edit
In humans, consumption of cobalt-containing vitamin B
12
meets all needs for cobalt. For cattle and sheep, which meet vitamin B
12
needs via synthesis by resident bacteria in the rumen, there is a function for inorganic cobalt. In the early 20th century, during the development of farming on the
North Island Volcanic Plateau
of New Zealand, cattle suffered from what was termed "bush sickness". It was discovered that the volcanic soils lacked the cobalt salts essential for the cattle food chain.
203
204
The "coast disease" of sheep in the
Ninety Mile Desert
of the
Southeast
of
South Australia
in the 1930s was found to originate in nutritional deficiencies of trace elements cobalt and copper. The cobalt deficiency was overcome by the development of "cobalt bullets", dense pellets of
cobalt oxide
mixed with clay given orally for lodging in the animal's
rumen
clarification needed
205
204
206
Cobalamin
Cobalt-deficient sheep
Health issues
edit
Main article:
Cobalt poisoning
Cobalt
Hazards
GHS
labelling
207
Pictograms
Signal word
Danger
Hazard statements
H302
H317
H319
H334
H341
H350
H360F
H412
Precautionary statements
P273
P280
P301+P312
P302+P352
P305+P351+P338
P308+P313
NFPA 704
(fire diamond)
Chemical compound
The
LD
50
value for soluble cobalt salts has been estimated to be between 150 and 500 mg/kg.
208
In the US, the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) has designated a
permissible exposure limit
(PEL) in the workplace as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.1 mg/m
. The
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) has set a
recommended exposure limit
(REL) of 0.05 mg/m
, time-weighted average. The
IDLH
(immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 20 mg/m
209
Chronic cobalt ingestion has caused serious health problems at doses far less than the lethal dose. In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize
beer foam
in Canada led to a peculiar form of toxin-induced
cardiomyopathy
, which came to be known as
beer drinker's cardiomyopathy
210
211
Cobalt metal is suspected of causing
cancer
(i.e., possibly
carcinogenic
IARC Group 2B
) as per the
International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) Monographs.
212
It causes respiratory problems when inhaled.
213
It also causes skin problems when touched; after nickel and chromium, cobalt is a major cause of
contact dermatitis
214
Notes
edit
The thermal expansion of cobalt is
anisotropic
: the
coefficients
for each crystal axis are (at 20 °C): α
10.9
10
−6
/K, α
17.9
10
−6
/K, and α
average
= α
/3 =
12.9
10
−6
/K.
Grimm's dictionary more specifically calls it "spectral mountain manikin" (
gespenstisches Bergmännchen)
, elsewhere ("Kobold" II) it is notes
kobold
also refers to
Berggeist
in bergmännisch (miners' lingo).
Grimm derived and
kobold
from Greek
kobalos
, as aforestated; the OED concurred that
kobold
kobelt
(ore),
kobel
(mine spirit) were the same word.
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edit
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; see
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Grimms
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Deutsches Wörterbuch
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Kobalt
Wothers, Peter
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Agricola, Georgius
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"Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus"
Georgii Agricolae De ortu & causis subterraneorum lib. 5. De natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra lib. 4. De natura fossilium lib. 10. De ueteribus & nouis metallis lib. 2. Bermannus, siue De re metallica dialogus lib.1. Interpretatio Germanica uocum rei metallicæ, addito Indice fœcundissimo
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cobaltum nostri uocant, Græci cadmiam
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cobaltum
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Agricola, Georgius
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. Translated by
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and
Lou Henry Hoover
. London: The Mining Magazine. pp. 112–113.
Describes (and tabulates) German form
kobelt
; In two volumes:
Second Part
, Books IX–XII, contiguous pagination.
Agricola, Georgius
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"37"
. In Johannes Sigfridus (ed.).
Georgii Agricolae De Animantibus subterraneis
. Witebergæ: Typis Meisnerianis. pp.
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Agricola, Georgius
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"Animantium nomina latina, graega, q'ue germanice reddita, quorum author in Libro de subterraneis animantibus meminit"
Georgii Agricolae Kempnicensis Medici Ac Philosophi Clariss. De Re Metallica Libri XII.: Quibus Officia, Instrumenta, Machinae, Ac Omnia Denique Ad Metallicam Spectantia, Non Modo Luculentissime describuntur; sed & per effigies, suis locis insertas ... ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possint
. Basel: Sumptibus & Typis Emanuelis König. p. [762].
Dæmonum
Dæmon subterraneus trunculentus
: bergterufel;
mitis
bergmenlein/kobel/guttel
This passage from the separate work,
de animantibus
is translated in footnote by the
Agricola & Hoovers trr. (1912)
p. 217, n26
: "the Germans as well as the Greeks call
cobalos
".
Agricola & Hoovers trr. (1912)
, p. 214, n21.
Lutheran reformist
theologian
Johannes Mathesius
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ore believed caused by a demon known to the masses as
kobel
. Quoted in English by the Hoovers,
43
excerpted by Wothers.
37
Johann Beckmann
(Eng. tr. 1797), who did explicitly comment on the derivation of the word for "cobalt" ore as formed from
kobel
(Agricola's
cobalus
) has been cited by chemist
Peter Wothers
on this topic.
37
"New and complete dictionary of the German language for Englishmen" s.v. "
Das Wetter
": "4. Air and vapours, damps, steams... among Miners", Küttner, Carl Gottlob; Nicholson, William, edd. (1813), vol. 3.
Grimms
Hildebrand, Rudolf
(1868).
Deutsches Wörterbuch
, Band 5, s.v. "
Kobold
" at "III. 3) nebenformen"
Grimms dictionary states that
kobalt
and
kobold
are "the same word at its original source (
ursprünglich
)".
36
Also, Grimm's entry in "kobold", III. ursprung, nebenformen, 3) a) lists
kobel
as a diminutive
Nebenname
47
Actually, among "gnomes and goblins".
35
37
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The
kobel
was aka "bergmenlin" (mod. standard spelling
Bergmännlein, Bergmännchen
) according to Agricola's gloss.
41
Grimms dictionary also says the ores are caused by
Bergmännchen
sprites, but it thinks the miners call this "kobold", not distinguishable from "kobel". Lecouteux's dictionary defines "Bergmännchen" as "mine spirit" and admits "kobel" but not "kobld" as synonym.
50
More recently, literature is found that does not hesitate to call the
Bergmännchen
a "gnome".
51
"cobalt"
Oxford English Dictionary
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Murray, James A. H.
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Further reading
edit
Harper, E. M.; Kavlak, G.; Graedel, T. E. (2012). "Tracking the metal of the goblins: Cobalt's cycle of use".
Environmental Science & Technology
46
(2):
1079–
86.
Bibcode
2012EnST...46.1079H
doi
10.1021/es201874e
PMID
22142288
S2CID
206948482
Narendrula, R.; Nkongolo, K. K.; Beckett, P. (2012). "Comparative soil metal analyses in Sudbury (Ontario, Canada) and Lubumbashi (Katanga, DR-Congo)".
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
88
(2):
187–
92.
Bibcode
2012BuECT..88..187N
doi
10.1007/s00128-011-0485-7
PMID
22139330
S2CID
34070357
Pauwels, H.; Pettenati, M.; Greffié, C. (2010). "The combined effect of abandoned mines and agriculture on groundwater chemistry".
Journal of Contaminant Hydrology
115
1–
4):
64–
78.
Bibcode
2010JCHyd.115...64P
doi
10.1016/j.jconhyd.2010.04.003
PMID
20466452
Bulut, G. (2006). "Recovery of copper and cobalt from ancient slag".
Waste Management & Research
24
(2):
118–
24.
Bibcode
2006WMR....24..118B
doi
10.1177/0734242X06063350
PMID
16634226
S2CID
24931095
Jefferson, J. A.; Escudero, E.; Hurtado, M. E.; Pando, J.; Tapia, R.; Swenson, E. R.; Prchal, J.; Schreiner, G. F.; Schoene, R. B.; Hurtado, A.; Johnson, R. J. (2002). "Excessive erythrocytosis, chronic mountain sickness, and serum cobalt levels".
Lancet
359
(9304):
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8.
doi
10.1016/s0140-6736(02)07594-3
PMID
11844517
S2CID
12319751
Løvold, T. V.; Haugsbø, L. (1999). "Cobalt mining factory--diagnoses 1822-32".
Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening
119
(30):
4544–
6.
PMID
10827501
Bird, G. A.; Hesslein, R. H.; Mills, K. H.; Schwartz, W. J.; Turner, M. A. (1998). "Bioaccumulation of radionuclides in fertilized Canadian Shield lake basins".
The Science of the Total Environment
218
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83.
Bibcode
1998ScTEn.218...67B
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10.1016/s0048-9697(98)00179-x
PMID
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Nemery, B. (1990).
"Metal toxicity and the respiratory tract"
The European Respiratory Journal
(2):
202–
19.
doi
10.1183/09031936.93.03020202
PMID
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Kazantzis, G. (1981).
"Role of cobalt, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, platinum, selenium, and titanium in carcinogenesis"
Environmental Health Perspectives
40
143–
61.
Bibcode
1981EnvHP..40..143K
doi
10.1289/ehp.8140143
PMC
1568837
PMID
7023929
Kerfoot, E. J.; Fredrick, W. G.; Domeier, E. (1975). "Cobalt metal inhalation studies on miniature swine".
American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal
36
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PMID
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External links
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Cobalt
Look up
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"Cobalt"
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. VI (9th ed.). 1878. pp.
81–
83.
Cobalt
at
The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Centers for Disease and Prevention – Cobalt
usgs.gov
(Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025):
Cobalt
Periodic table
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
He
Li
Be
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
Cs
Ba
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
s-block
f-block
d-block
p-block
Cobalt compounds
Cobalt(I)
HCo(CO)
Cobalt(II)
Co(N
CoBr
Co(CN)
CoCO
CoC
CoCl
Co(ClO
Co(ClO
CoF
Co(HCO
CoI
Co(NO
Co
(PO
Co(OAc)
CoGeO
CoO
Co(OH)
CoS
Co(OCN)
Co(SCN)
CoSO
CoSe
Co
CoH
Co(C
CoC
24
48
CoC
36
70
Cobalt(0,III)
CoSi
CoGe
Cobalt(II,III)
Co
Cobalt(III)
CoCl
[Co(NH
]Cl
Co(NO
Co
CoF
Co(OH)
LiCoO
Cobalt(III,IV)
Na
CoO
Cobalt(IV)
CoF
Cs
CoF
CoC
28
44
Cobalt(V)
Na
CoO
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