Computing - Wikipedia

Computing - Wikipedia
Jump to content
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Activity involving calculations or computing machinery
This article is about the activity involving computing machinery. For the magazines, see
Computing (magazine)
"Compute" redirects here. For other uses, see
Compute (disambiguation)
ENIAC
, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer
Data visualization
and
computer simulation
are important computing applications. This is a
3D visualization
of a
neural network
simulation.
Computing
is any goal-oriented activity that requires, benefits from, or creates
computing machinery
It includes the study and experimentation of
algorithmic
processes, and the development of both
hardware
and
software
. Computing encompasses scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include
computer engineering
computer science
cybersecurity
data science
information systems
information technology
, and
software engineering
The term
computing
is also
synonymous
with
counting
and
calculating
. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by
mechanical computing machines
, and before that, to
human computers
History
edit
Main article:
History of computing
For a chronological guide, see
Timeline of computing
The history of computing predates the
history of computing hardware
and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before
numeral systems
. The earliest known tool for use in computation is the
abacus
, and it is thought to have been invented in
Babylon
circa between 2700 and 2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today.
The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by
C. E. Wynn-Williams
Claude Shannon
's 1938 paper "
A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits
" then introduced the idea of using electronics for
Boolean algebraic
operations.
The concept of a
field-effect transistor
was proposed by
Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
in 1925.
John Bardeen
and
Walter Brattain
, while working under
William Shockley
at
Bell Labs
, built the first working
transistor
, the
point-contact transistor
, in 1947.
In 1953, the
University of Manchester
built the first
transistorized computer
, the
Manchester Baby
However, early
junction transistors
were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs, the first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface.
Subsequently, a team demonstrated a working
MOSFET
at Bell Labs 1960.
10
11
The MOSFET made it possible to build
high-density integrated circuits
12
13
leading to what is known as the
computer revolution
14
or
microcomputer revolution
15
Computers
edit
Main articles:
Computer
Outline of computers
, and
Glossary of computer terms
A computer is a machine that manipulates
data
according to a set of instructions called a
computer program
16
The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable
source code
form enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an
algorithm
17
Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to
machine instructions
according to the
CPU
type.
18
The execution
process
carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the
semantics
of the instructions.
Computer hardware
edit
Main article:
Computer hardware
Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including the
central processing unit
memory
, and
input/output
19
Computational logic
and
computer architecture
are key topics in the field of computer hardware.
20
21
Computer software
edit
Main article:
Computer software
Computer software, or just
software
, is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of
programs, procedures, algorithms,
as well as its
documentation
concerned with the operation of a data processing system.
citation needed
Program software performs the
function
of the
program
it implements, either by directly providing
instructions
to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The
term
was coined to contrast with the old term
hardware
(meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible.
22
Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.
System software
edit
Main article:
System software
System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes
operating systems
utility software
device drivers
window systems
, and
firmware
. Frequently used development tools such as
compilers
linkers
, and
debuggers
are classified as system software.
23
System software
and
middleware
manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software.
Application software
edit
Main article:
Application software
Application software, also known as an
application
or an
app
, is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include
enterprise software
accounting software
office suites
graphics software
, and
media players
. Many application programs deal principally with
documents
24
Apps may be
bundled
with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user.
Application software applies the power of a particular
computing platform
or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as
Microsoft Office
, are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on. For example, a
geography
application for
Windows
or an
Android
application for
education
or
Linux gaming
. Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application are known as
killer applications
25
Computer networks
edit
Main article:
Computer network
A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers
interconnected
by communication channels that allow the sharing of resources and information.
26
When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data,
communications protocol
used, scale,
topology
, and organizational scope.
Communications protocols
define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for
network programming
. One well-known communications protocol is
Ethernet
, a hardware and
link layer
standard that is ubiquitous in
local area networks
. Another common protocol is the
Internet Protocol Suite
, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e., for
data communication
between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.
27
Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of
electrical engineering
, telecommunications,
computer science
, information technology, or
computer engineering
, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.
28
Internet
edit
Main article:
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected
computer networks
that use the standard
Internet Protocol Suite
(TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked
hypertext
documents of the
World Wide Web
and the
infrastructure
to support email.
29
Computer programming
edit
Main articles:
Computer programming
and
Software engineering
Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a
programming language
, which is an
artificial language
that is often more restrictive than
natural languages
, but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine.
30
Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development.
31
However, the term
programmer
may apply to a range of program quality, from
hacker
to
open source contributor
to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the
proof of concept
to launch a new
killer application
32
Computer programmer
edit
Main articles:
Programmer
Software engineer
, and
Software developer
A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term
computer programmer
can refer to a specialist in one area of
computer programming
or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst.
33
A programmer's primary computer language (
C++
Java
Lisp
Python
, etc.) is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with
Web
. The term
programmer
can be used to refer to a
software developer
, software engineer,
computer scientist
, or
software analyst
. However, members of these
professions
typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming.
34
Computer industry
edit
Main articles:
Computer Industry
and
Software industry
The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and
computer networking
infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including
system administration
and maintenance.
35
The software industry includes businesses engaged in
development
maintenance
, and
publication
of software. The industry also includes software
services
, such as
training
documentation
, and consulting.
citation needed
Sub-disciplines of computing
edit
Computer engineering
edit
Main article:
Computer engineering
Computer engineering is a
discipline
that integrates several fields of
electrical engineering
and
computer science
required to develop computer hardware and software.
36
Computer engineers usually have training in
electronic engineering
(or electrical engineering),
software design
, and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual
microprocessors
, personal computers, and
supercomputers
, to
circuit design
. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates.
37
Software engineering
edit
Main article:
Software engineering
Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software.
38
39
40
It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968
NATO Software Engineering Conference
, and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived
software crisis
at the time.
41
42
43
Software development
, a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the
Software Engineering Body of Knowledge
(SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015.
44
Computer science
edit
Main articles:
Computer science
and
Computer scientist
Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the
scientific
and practical approach to
computation
and its applications. A
computer scientist
specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.
45
Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in
computer systems
, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as
computational complexity theory
, which studies fundamental properties of
computational problems
, are highly abstract, while others, such as
computer graphics
, emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example,
programming language theory
studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of
computer programming
investigates the use of
programming languages
and
complex systems
. The field of
human–computer interaction
focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.
46
Cybersecurity
edit
Main article:
Computer security
The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes
information and data privacy
, preventing
disruption
of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data.
47
Data science
edit
Main article:
Data science
Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.
48
Data mining
big data
statistics
machine learning
and
deep learning
are all interwoven with data science.
49
Information systems
edit
Main article:
Information system
Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute
data
50
51
52
The
ACM
's
Computing Careers
describes IS as:
A majority of IS [degree] programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but the emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required.
53
The study of IS bridges business and
computer science
, using the theoretical foundations of information and
computation
to study various business models and related
algorithmic
processes within a computer science discipline.
54
55
56
The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society
57
58
while IS emphasizes functionality over design.
59
Information technology
edit
Main article:
Information technology
Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and
telecommunications equipment
to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data,
60
often in the context of a business or other enterprise.
61
The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several
industries
are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software,
electronics
semiconductors
, internet, telecom equipment,
e-commerce
, and
computer services
62
63
Research and emerging technologies
edit
Further information:
List of unsolved problems in computer science
DNA-based computing
and
quantum computing
are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of
quantum algorithms
. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes
DNA origami
on photolithography
64
and
quantum antennae
for transferring information between ion traps.
65
By 2011, researchers had
entangled
14
qubits
66
67
Fast
digital circuits
, including those based on
Josephson junctions
and
rapid single flux quantum
technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of
nanoscale superconductors
68
Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which have already been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with
CPU
and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of
RAM
from CPU by
optical interconnects
69
IBM
has created an
integrated circuit
with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP).
70
One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of
system on a chip
(SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.
71
Another field of research is
spintronics
. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage without heat buildup.
72
Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine
photonics
and spintronics.
73
74
There is also research ongoing on combining
plasmonics
, photonics, and electronics.
75
Cloud computing
edit
Main article:
Cloud computing
Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of
software as a service
platform as a service
, and
infrastructure as a service
, depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling.
76
It allows individual users or small businesses to benefit from
economies of scale
One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy sources, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.
77
However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.
78
Quantum computing
edit
Main article:
Quantum computing
Quantum computing is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science,
information theory
, and
quantum physics
. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics.
79
Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses
qubits
. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as
quantum entanglement
, and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations.
80
Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in
molecular modeling
. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.
81
See also
edit
Artificial intelligence
Computational science
Computational thinking
Computer algebra
Confidential computing
Creative computing
Data-centric computing
Electronic data processing
Enthusiast computing
Index of history of computing articles
Instruction set architecture
Internet of things
Lehmer sieve
Liquid computing
List of computer term etymologies
Mobile computing
Outline of computers
Outline of computing
Scientific computing
Spatial computing
Ubiquitous computing
Unconventional computing
Urban computing
Virtual reality
References
edit
"Computing Classification System"
Digital Library
. Association for Computing Machinery.
"Computing Careers & Disciplines: A Quick Guide for Prospective Students and Career Advisors (2nd edition, ©2020)"
CERIC
. 17 January 2020
. Retrieved
4 July
2022
"The History of Computing"
mason.gmu.edu
. Retrieved
12 April
2019
Wynn-Williams, C. E.
(2 July 1931), "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena",
Proceedings of the Royal Society A
132
(819):
295–
310,
Bibcode
1931RSPSA.132..295W
doi
10.1098/rspa.1931.0102
Lee, Thomas H. (2003).
The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits
(PDF)
Cambridge University Press
ISBN
978-1-139-64377-1
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 9 December 2019
. Retrieved
16 September
2019
Puers, Robert; Baldi, Livio; Voorde, Marcel Van de; Nooten, Sebastiaan E. van (2017).
Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes
John Wiley & Sons
. p. 14.
ISBN
978-3-527-34053-8
Lavington, Simon (1998),
A History of Manchester Computers
(2 ed.), Swindon: The British Computer Society, pp.
34–
35
Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016).
Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century
John Wiley & Sons
. pp.
165–
167.
ISBN
978-0-470-50892-3
Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957).
"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"
Journal of the Electrochemical Society
104
(9): 547.
doi
10.1149/1.2428650
KAHNG, D. (1961). "Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device".
Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories
583–
596.
doi
10.1142/9789814503464_0076
ISBN
978-981-02-0209-5
{{
cite journal
}}
ISBN / Date incompatibility (
help
Lojek, Bo (2007).
History of Semiconductor Engineering
. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321.
ISBN
978-3-540-34258-8
"Who Invented the Transistor?"
Computer History Museum
. 4 December 2013
. Retrieved
20 July
2019
Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology".
Scientific American
229
(2):
48–
59.
Bibcode
1973SciAm.229b..48H
doi
10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48
ISSN
0036-8733
JSTOR
24923169
Fossum, Jerry G.
; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013).
Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs
Cambridge University Press
. p. vii.
ISBN
978-1-107-43449-3
Malmstadt, Howard V.; Enke, Christie G.; Crouch, Stanley R. (1994).
Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation
American Chemical Society
. p. 389.
ISBN
978-0-8412-2861-0
The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.
"Definition of computer"
PCMAG
. Retrieved
5 February
2024
Denny, Jory (16 October 2020).
"What is an algorithm? How computers know what to do with data"
The Conversation
. Retrieved
5 February
2024
Butterfield, Andrew; Ngondi, Gerard Ekembe NgondiGerard Ekembe; Kerr, Anne (21 January 2016), Butterfield, Andrew; Ngondi, Gerard Ekembe; Kerr, Anne (eds.),
"computer"
A Dictionary of Computer Science
, Oxford University Press,
doi
10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001
ISBN
978-0-19-968897-5
, retrieved
5 February
2024
{{
citation
}}
: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (
link
"Common CPU components – The CPU – Eduqas – GCSE Computer Science Revision – Eduqas – BBC Bitesize"
www.bbc.co.uk
. Retrieved
5 February
2024
Paulson, Laurence (28 February 2018).
"Computational logic: its origins and applications"
Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
474
(2210).
arXiv
1712.04375
Bibcode
2018RSPSA.47470872P
doi
10.1098/rspa.2017.0872
PMC
5832843
PMID
29507522
Paulson, Lawrence C. (February 2018).
"Computational logic: its origins and applications"
Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
474
(2210) 20170872.
arXiv
1712.04375
Bibcode
2018RSPSA.47470872P
doi
10.1098/rspa.2017.0872
PMC
5832843
PMID
29507522
"Wordreference.com: WordNet 2.0"
. Princeton University, Princeton, NJ
. Retrieved
19 August
2007
Rouse, Margaret (March 2019).
"system software"
WhatIs.com
. TechTarget.
"Basic Computer Terms"
web.pdx.edu
. Retrieved
18 April
2024
Morris (Aff1), Jeremy Wade; Elkins (Aff1), Evan (October 2015).
"The Fibreculture Journal: 25 | FCJ-181 There's a History for That: Apps and Mundane Software as Commodity"
The Fibreculture Journal
(FCJ-181)
. Retrieved
5 February
2024
{{
cite journal
}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
link
"Computer network definition"
. Archived from
the original
on 21 January 2012
. Retrieved
12 November
2011
"TCP/IP: What is TCP/IP and How Does it Work?"
Networking
. Retrieved
14 March
2024
Dhavaleswarapu, Ratna. (2019).
The Pallid Image of Globalization in Kiran Desai's The Inheritance of Loss
. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
"Internet | Description, History, Uses & Facts"
Encyclopedia Britannica
. 3 June 2024
. Retrieved
7 June
2024
McGee, Vanesha (8 November 2023).
"What is Coding and What Is It Used For?"
ComputerScience.org
. Retrieved
23 June
2024
Nagl, Manfred, ed. (1995).
Graph-Theoretic Concepts in Computer Science
. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 1017.
doi
10.1007/3-540-60618-1
ISBN
978-3-540-60618-5
ISSN
0302-9743
Parsons, June (2022). "New Perspectives Computer Concepts Comprehensive | 21st Edition".
Cengage
. 21st edition.
ISBN
978-0-357-67481-9
"Become a Programmer Analyst at PERI Software Solutions – The Middlebury Sites Network"
sites.middlebury.edu
. Retrieved
6 March
2025
"5 Skills Developers Need Beyond Writing Code"
. 23 January 2019.
Bresnahan, Timothy F.; Greenstein, Shane (March 1999).
"Technological Competition and the Structure of the Computer Industry"
The Journal of Industrial Economics
47
(1):
1–
40.
doi
10.1111/1467-6451.00088
ISSN
0022-1821
IEEE Computer Society
ACM
(12 December 2004).
Computer Engineering 2004: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineering
(PDF)
. p. iii. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 12 June 2019
. Retrieved
17 December
2012
Computer System engineering has traditionally been viewed as a combination ofboth electronic engineering (EE) and computer science (CS).
Trinity College Dublin.
"What is Computer System Engineering"
. Retrieved
21 April
2006
, "Computer engineers need not only to understand how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture. Consider the car. A modern car contains many separate computer systems for controlling such things as the engine timing, the brakes and the air bags. To be able to design and implement such a car, the computer engineer needs a broad theoretical understanding of all these various subsystems & how they interact.
Abran, Alain; Moore, James W.; Bourque, Pierre; Dupuis, Robert; Tripp, Leonard L. (2004).
Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge
. IEEE. p. 1.
ISBN
978-0-7695-2330-9
ACM (2006).
"Computing Degrees & Careers"
. ACM. Archived from
the original
on 17 June 2011
. Retrieved
23 November
2010
Laplante, Phillip (2007).
What Every Engineer Should Know about Software Engineering
. Boca Raton: CRC.
ISBN
978-0-8493-7228-5
. Retrieved
21 January
2011
Sommerville, Ian (2008).
Software Engineering
(7 ed.). Pearson Education. p. 26.
ISBN
978-81-7758-530-8
. Retrieved
10 January
2013
Peter, Naur
Randell, Brian
(7–11 October 1968).
Software Engineering: Report of a conference sponsored by the NATO Science Committee
(PDF)
. Garmisch, Germany: Scientific Affairs Division, NATO
. Retrieved
26 December
2008
Randell, Brian
(10 August 2001).
"The 1968/69 NATO Software Engineering Reports"
Brian Randell's University Homepage
. The School of the Computer Sciences, Newcastle University
. Retrieved
11 October
2008
The idea for the first NATO Software Engineering Conference, and in particular that of adopting the then practically unknown term
software engineering
as its (deliberately provocative) title, I believe came originally from Professor
Fritz Bauer
"Software Engineering – Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge (SWEBOK)"
. International Organization for Standardization. ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015
. Retrieved
21 May
2019
"WordNet Search – 3.1"
. Wordnetweb.princeton.edu
. Retrieved
14 May
2012
"The Interaction Design Foundation - What is Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)?"
Schatz, Daniel; Bashroush, Rabih; Wall, Julie (2017).
"Towards a More Representative Definition of Cyber Security"
The Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law
12
(2).
doi
10.15394/jdfsl.2017.1476
Dhar, Vasant (2013).
"Data science and prediction"
Communications of the ACM
56
(12):
64–
73.
doi
10.1145/2500499
ISSN
0001-0782
Cao, Longbing (31 May 2018).
"Data Science: A Comprehensive Overview"
ACM Computing Surveys
50
(3):
1–
42.
arXiv
2007.03606
doi
10.1145/3076253
ISSN
0360-0300
S2CID
207595944
"Definition of Application Landscape"
. Software Engineering for Business Information Systems (sebis). 21 January 2009. Archived from
the original
on 5 March 2011
. Retrieved
14 January
2011
Denning, Peter (July 1999). "COMPUTER SCIENCE: THE DISCIPLINE".
Encyclopaedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition)
The Domain of Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines
Jessup, Leonard M.; Valacich, Joseph S. (2008).
Information Systems Today
(3rd ed.). Pearson Publishing. pp. –, 416.
"Computing Degrees & Careers " Information Systems"
. Association for Computing Machinery. Archived from
the original
on 6 July 2018
. Retrieved
6 July
2018
Davis, Timothy; Geist, Robert; Matzko, Sarah; Westall, James (March 2004). "τ'εχνη: A First Step".
Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education
125–
129.
ISBN
1-58113-798-2
In 1999, Clemson University established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... All students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer science
Khazanchi, Deepak; Bjorn Erik Munkvold (Summer 2000).
"Is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline"
ACM SIGMIS Database
31
(3):
24–
42.
doi
10.1145/381823.381834
ISSN
0095-0033
S2CID
52847480
From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields
"Bachelor of Information Sciences (Computer Science)"
Massey University
. 24 February 2006. Archived from
the original
on 19 June 2006.
Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects
Polack, Jennifer (December 2009). "Planning a CIS Education Within a CS Framework".
Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges
25
(2):
100–
106.
ISSN
1937-4771
Hayes, Helen; Onkar Sharma (February 2003). "A decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors".
Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges
18
(3):
217–
227.
ISSN
1937-4771
In 1988, a degree program in Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach
Freeman, Peter; Hart, David (August 2004).
"A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems"
Communications of the ACM
47
(8):
19–
21.
doi
10.1145/1012037.1012054
ISSN
0001-0782
S2CID
14331332
Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with ... Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically.
Daintith, John, ed. (2009), "IT",
A Dictionary of Physics
, Oxford University Press,
ISBN
978-0-19-923399-1
, retrieved
1 August
2012
(subscription required)
"Free on-line dictionary of computing (FOLDOC)"
. Archived from
the original
on 15 April 2013
. Retrieved
9 February
2013
Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (January 2011), "Information technology",
A Dictionary of Media and Communication
(first ed.), Oxford University Press,
ISBN
978-0-19-956875-8
, retrieved
1 August
2012
(subscription required)
On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments- "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the broad field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be concrete use, but without the reinforcement of definition...the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position."
Anthony Ralston (2000).
Encyclopedia of computer science
. Nature Pub. Group.
ISBN
978-1-56159-248-7
. Retrieved
12 May
2013
Kershner, Ryan J.; Bozano, Luisa D.; Micheel, Christine M.; Hung, Albert M.; Fornof, Ann R.; Cha, Jennifer N.; Rettner, Charles T.; Bersani, Marco; Frommer, Jane; Rothemund, Paul W. K.; Wallraff, Gregory M. (2009). "Placement and orientation of individual DNA shapes on lithographically patterned surfaces".
Nature Nanotechnology
(9):
557–
561.
Bibcode
2009NatNa...4..557K
CiteSeerX
10.1.1.212.9767
doi
10.1038/nnano.2009.220
PMID
19734926
supplementary information: DNA origami on photolithography
Harlander, M. (2011). "Trapped-ion antennae for the transmission of quantum information".
Nature
471
(7337):
200–
203.
arXiv
1011.3639
Bibcode
2011Natur.471..200H
doi
10.1038/nature09800
PMID
21346764
S2CID
4388493
"Atomic antennas transmit quantum information across a microchip"
ScienceDaily
(Press release). 26 February 2011.
Monz, Thomas (2011). "14-Qubit Entanglement: Creation and Coherence".
Physical Review Letters
106
(13) 130506.
arXiv
1009.6126
Bibcode
2011PhRvL.106m0506M
doi
10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.130506
PMID
21517367
S2CID
8155660
"World record: Calculations with 14 quantum bits"
www.nanowerk.com
Saw-Wai Hla et al.,
Nature Nanotechnology
31 March 2010
"World's smallest superconductor discovered"
Archived
28 May 2010 at the
Wayback Machine
. Four pairs of certain molecules have been shown to form a nanoscale superconductor, at a dimension of 0.87
nanometers
. Access date 31 March 2010
Tom Simonite, "Computing at the speed of light",
Technology Review
Wed., August 4, 2010
MIT
Sebastian Anthony (Dec 10,2012), "IBM creates first commercially viable silicon nanophotonic chip"
, accessdate=2012-12-10
Open Compute: Does the data center have an open future?
accessdate=2013-08-11
"Putting electronics in a spin"
. 8 August 2007
. Retrieved
23 November
2020
"Merging spintronics with photonics"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 6 September 2019
. Retrieved
6 September
2019
Lalieu, M. L. M.; Lavrijsen, R.; Koopmans, B. (10 January 2019).
"Integrating all-optical switching with spintronics"
Nature Communications
10
(1): 110.
arXiv
1809.02347
Bibcode
2019NatCo..10..110L
doi
10.1038/s41467-018-08062-4
ISSN
2041-1723
PMC
6328538
PMID
30631067
Farmakidis, Nikolaos; Youngblood, Nathan; Li, Xuan; Tan, James; Swett, Jacob L.; Cheng, Zengguang; Wright, C. David; Pernice, Wolfram H. P.; Bhaskaran, Harish (1 November 2019).
"Plasmonic nanogap enhanced phase-change devices with dual electrical-optical functionality"
Science Advances
(11) eaaw2687.
arXiv
1811.07651
Bibcode
2019SciA....5.2687F
doi
10.1126/sciadv.aaw2687
ISSN
2375-2548
PMC
6884412
PMID
31819898
"The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing"
(PDF)
U.S. Department of Commerce
. September 2011.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 9 October 2022.
Berl, A.; Gelenbe, E.; Girolamo, M. Di; Giuliani, G.; Meer, H. De; Dang, M. Q.; Pentikousis, K. (September 2010).
"Energy-Efficient Cloud Computing"
The Computer Journal
53
(7):
1045–
1051.
doi
10.1093/comjnl/bxp080
ISSN
1460-2067
Kaufman, L. M. (July 2009). "Data Security in the World of Cloud Computing".
IEEE Security & Privacy
(4):
61–
64.
Bibcode
2009ISPri...7d..61H
doi
10.1109/MSP.2009.87
ISSN
1558-4046
S2CID
16233643
Steane, Andrew (1 February 1998). "Quantum computing".
Reports on Progress in Physics
61
(2):
117–
173.
arXiv
quant-ph/9708022
Bibcode
1998RPPh...61..117S
doi
10.1088/0034-4885/61/2/002
ISSN
0034-4885
S2CID
119473861
Horodecki, Ryszard; Horodecki, Paweł; Horodecki, Michał; Horodecki, Karol (17 June 2009). "Quantum entanglement".
Reviews of Modern Physics
81
(2):
865–
942.
arXiv
quant-ph/0702225
Bibcode
2009RvMP...81..865H
doi
10.1103/RevModPhys.81.865
S2CID
59577352
Baiardi, Alberto; Christandl, Matthias; Reiher, Markus (3 July 2023).
"Quantum Computing for Molecular Biology*"
ChemBioChem
24
(13) e202300120.
arXiv
2212.12220
doi
10.1002/cbic.202300120
PMID
37151197
External links
edit
Computing
at Wikipedia's
sister projects
Definitions
from Wiktionary
Media
from Commons
Textbooks
from Wikibooks
Resources
from Wikiversity
FOLDOC: the Free On-Line Dictionary Of Computing
Computer science
This template follows roughly the 2012
ACM Computing Classification System
Hardware
Printed circuit board
Peripheral
Integrated circuit
Very-large-scale integration
System on a chip
(SoC)
Energy consumption
(green computing)
Electronic design automation
Hardware acceleration
Processor
Size
Form
Systems
organization
Computer architecture
Computational complexity
Dependability
Embedded system
Real-time computing
Cyber-physical system
Fault tolerance
Wireless sensor network
Networks
Network architecture
Network protocol
Network components
Network scheduler
Network performance evaluation
Network service
Software
organization
Interpreter
Middleware
Virtual machine
Operating system
Software quality
Software
notations
tools
Programming paradigm
Programming language
Compiler
Domain-specific language
Modeling language
Software framework
Integrated development environment
Software configuration management
Software library
Software repository
Software
development
Control flow
Software development process
Requirements analysis
Software design
Software construction
Software deployment
Software engineering
Software maintenance
Programming team
Open source
model
Theory of
computing
Model of computation
Stochastic
Formal language
Automata theory
Computability theory
Computational complexity theory
Logic
Semantics
Algorithms
Algorithm design
Analysis of algorithms
Algorithmic efficiency
Randomized algorithm
Computational geometry
Mathematics
of
computing
Discrete mathematics
Probability
Statistics
Mathematical software
Information theory
Mathematical analysis
Numerical analysis
Theoretical computer science
Computational problem
Information
systems
Database
management
Information storage
Enterprise information
Social information
Geographic information
Decision support
Process control
Multimedia information
Data mining
Digital library
Computing platform
Digital marketing
World Wide Web
Information retrieval
Security
Cryptography
Formal methods
Security hacker
Security
services
Intrusion detection system
Hardware security
Network security
Information security
Application security
Human-
centered
computing
Interaction design
Augmented reality
Virtual reality
Social computing
Ubiquitous computing
Visualization
Human–computer interaction
Mobile computing
Concurrency
Concurrent computing
Parallel computing
Distributed computing
Multithreading
Multiprocessing
Artificial
intelligence
Computational intelligence
Natural language processing
Knowledge representation and reasoning
Computer vision
Automated planning and scheduling
Search methodology
Control method
Philosophy of
Distributed
Machine
learning
Supervised
Unsupervised
Reinforcement
Multi-task
Cross-validation
Graphics
Animation
Rendering
Photograph manipulation
Graphics processing unit
Image compression
Solid modeling
Applied
computing
Quantum computing
E-commerce
Enterprise software
Computational mathematics
Computational physics
Computational chemistry
Computational biology
Computational social science
Computational engineering
Differentiable computing
Computational healthcare
Digital art
Electronic publishing
Cyberwarfare
Electronic voting
Video games
Word processing
Operations research
Educational technology
Document management
Outline
Glossaries
Category
Retrieved from "
Category
Computing
Hidden categories:
CS1 errors: ISBN date
CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN
CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list
CS1: long volume value
Pages containing links to subscription-only content
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles with short description
Short description is different from Wikidata
Use dmy dates from February 2024
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022
Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch
Computing
Add topic