Copper - Wikipedia

Copper - Wikipedia
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For other uses, see
Copper (disambiguation)
Chemical element with atomic number 29 (Cu)
Copper,
29
Cu
Copper
Appearance
Red-orange metallic luster
Standard atomic weight
°(Cu)
63.546
0.003
63.546
0.003
abridged
Copper in the
periodic table
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium
Scandium
Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium
Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon
Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson
Cu
Ag
nickel
copper
zinc
Atomic number
29
Group
group 11
Period
period 4
Block
d-block
Electron configuration
Ar
] 3d
10
4s
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 1
Physical properties
Phase
at
STP
solid
Melting point
1357.77
​(1084.62 °C, ​1984.32 °F)
Boiling point
2835 K ​(2562 °C, ​4643 °F)
Density
(at 20° C)
8.935 g/cm
(at
STP
8,944 g/L
when liquid (at
m.p.
8.02 g/cm
Heat of fusion
13.26
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization
300.4 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity
24.440 J/(mol·K)
Specific heat capacity
384.603 J/(kg·K)
Vapor pressure
(Pa)
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
at
(K)
1509
1661
1850
2089
2404
2834
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
common:
+2
−2,
−1,
0,
+1,
+3,
+4
Electronegativity
Pauling scale: 1.90
Ionization energies
1st: 745.5 kJ/mol
2nd: 1957.9 kJ/mol
3rd: 3555 kJ/mol
more
Atomic radius
empirical: 128
pm
Covalent radius
132±4 pm
Van der Waals radius
140 pm
Spectral lines
of copper
Other properties
Natural occurrence
primordial
Crystal structure
face-centered cubic
(fcc) (
cF4
Lattice constant
= 361.50 pm (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion
16.64
10
−6
/K (at 20 °C)
Thermal conductivity
401 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity
16.78 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering
diamagnetic
Molar magnetic susceptibility
−5.46
10
−6
cm
/mol
Young's modulus
110–128 GPa
Shear modulus
48 GPa
Bulk modulus
140 GPa
Speed of sound
thin rod
(annealed)
3810 m/s (at
r.t.
Poisson ratio
0.34
Mohs hardness
3.0
Vickers hardness
343–369 MPa
Brinell hardness
235–878 MPa
CAS Number
7440-50-8
History
Naming
after
Cyprus
, principal mining place in Roman era (
Cyprium
Discovery
Middle East
9000 BC
Symbol
"Cu": from Latin
cuprum
Isotopes of copper
Main isotopes
10
Decay
Isotope
abun­dance
half-life
1/2
mode
pro­duct
63
Cu
69.2%
stable
64
Cu
synth
12.70 h
64
Ni
64
Zn
65
Cu
30.9%
stable
67
Cu
synth
61.83 h
67
Zn
Category: Copper
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Copper
is a
chemical element
; it has
symbol
Cu
(from
Latin
cuprum
) and
atomic number
29. It is a soft, malleable, and
ductile
metal with very high
thermal
and
electrical conductivity
. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a
pinkish-orange color
. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a
building material
, and as a constituent of various metal
alloys
, such as
sterling silver
used in
jewelry
cupronickel
used to make marine hardware and
coins
, and
constantan
used in
strain gauges
and
thermocouples
for temperature measurement.
Copper is one of the few
native metals
, meaning metals that occur naturally in a directly usable, unalloyed metallic form. This led to very early human use in several regions, from
c.
8000 BC
. Thousands of years later, it was the first metal to be
smelted
from sulfide ores,
c.
5000 BC
; the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold,
c.
4000 BC
; and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal,
tin
, to create
bronze
c.
3500 BC
11
Commonly encountered compounds are copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as
azurite
malachite
, and
turquoise
, and have been used widely and historically as pigments.
Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green
patina
of compounds called
verdigris
. Copper is sometimes used in
decorative art
, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as
bacteriostatic agents
fungicides
, and
wood preservatives
Copper is essential to all
aerobic organisms
. It is particularly associated with oxygen metabolism. For example, it is found in the respiratory enzyme complex
cytochrome c oxidase
, in the oxygen carrying
hemocyanin
, and in several
hydroxylases
12
Adult humans contain between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight.
13
Etymology
The name of the metal derives from
aes cyprium
meaning "metal of
Cyprus
" in Latin. In
Late Latin
this became
cuprum
Old English
adopted this as
Coper
and
copper
, first used in the 12th century, derives from that word.
14
Characteristics
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by
continuous casting
etched
to reveal
crystallites
Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange
incandescence
color.
Physical
Copper,
silver
, and
gold
are in
group 11
of the periodic table; these three metals have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d-
electron shell
and are characterized by high
ductility
and electrical and thermal conductivity. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through
metallic bonds
. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a
covalent
character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low
hardness
and high ductility of
single crystals
of copper.
15
At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the
crystal lattice
, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained
polycrystalline
form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms.
16
The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity (
59.6
10
/m
) and high thermal conductivity, second highest (second only to silver) among pure metals at room temperature.
17
This is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak in a soft metal.
15
Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver.
18
Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish
tarnish
when exposed to air. This is due to the low
plasma frequency
of the metal, which lies in the red part of the visible spectrum, causing it to absorb the higher-frequency green and blue colors.
19
As with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal in the presence of an
electrolyte
galvanic corrosion
will occur.
20
Chemical
Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the
rust
that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying metal from further corrosion (
passivation
). A green layer of
verdigris
(copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings
21
and the
Statue of Liberty
22
Copper
tarnishes
when exposed to some
sulfur
compounds, with which it reacts to form various
copper sulfides
23
Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right)
The East Tower of the
Royal Observatory, Edinburgh
; the original copper was installed in 1894 and the refurbished copper in 1994
Isotopes
Main article:
Isotopes of copper
There are 29
isotopes
of copper.
63
Cu
and
65
Cu
are stable, with
63
Cu
comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; both have a
spin
of
24
The other isotopes are
radioactive
, with the most stable being
67
Cu
with a
half-life
of 61.83 hours.
24
Ten
metastable isomers
have been characterized;
68m
Cu
is the longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a
mass number
above 64 decay by
, whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by
64
Cu
, which has a half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways.
25
26
62
Cu
and
64
Cu
have significant applications.
62
Cu
is used in
62
Cu
-PTSM as a
radioactive tracer
for
positron emission tomography
27
Occurrence
See also:
List of copper ores
Copper is produced in massive stars
28
and is present in the Earth's crust in a proportion of about 50
parts per million
(ppm).
29
In nature, copper occurs in a variety of minerals, including
native copper
, copper sulfides such as
chalcopyrite
bornite
digenite
covellite
, and
chalcocite
, copper
sulfosalts
such as
tetrahedite-tennantite
, and
enargite
, copper carbonates such as
azurite
and
malachite
, and as copper(I) or copper(II) oxides such as
cuprite
and
tenorite
, respectively.
17
The largest mass of elemental copper yet discovered weighed 420 tonnes and was found in 1857 on the
Keweenaw Peninsula
in Michigan, US.
29
Native copper is a
polycrystal
, with the largest single crystal ever described measuring
4.4 × 3.2 × 3.2 cm
30
Copper is the 26th most abundant element in
Earth's crust
, representing 50 ppm compared with 75 ppm for
zinc
, and 14 ppm for
lead
31
Typical background concentrations of copper do not exceed
1 ng/m
in the atmosphere;
150 mg/kg
in soil;
30 mg/kg
in vegetation; 2 μg/L in freshwater and
0.5 μg/L
in seawater.
32
Production
See also:
List of countries by copper production
Chuquicamata
, in Chile, is one of the world's largest
open pit
copper
mines
Most copper is mined or
extracted
as copper sulfides from large
open pit mines
in
porphyry copper
deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include
Chuquicamata
, in Chile,
Bingham Canyon Mine
, in Utah, United States, and
El Chino Mine
, in New Mexico, United States. According to the
British Geological Survey
, in 2005, Chile was the top producer of copper with at least one-third of the world share followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru.
17
Chile, the world's largest copper producer, supplies the US with 70% of refined copper and alloy imports through 2024. Together with Canada (17%) and Peru (7%), they account for 94% of U.S. copper imports.
33
34
Copper can also be recovered through the
in-situ leach
process. Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method.
35
The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage.
36
An alternative source of copper for
collection
currently being researched are
polymetallic nodules
, which are located at the depths of the
Pacific Ocean
approximately 3000–6500 meters below sea level. These nodules contain other valuable metals such as
cobalt
and
nickel
37
Reserves and prices
World production trend
Copper has been in use for at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and
smelted
has been extracted since 1900.
38
As with many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast, with around 10
14
tons in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, which is about 5 million years' worth at the current rate of extraction. However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable with present-day prices and technologies. Estimates of copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate.
39
Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world.
38
Price of Copper 1959–2022
The price of copper is
volatile
40
After a peak in 2022 the price unexpectedly fell.
41
And by May 2024, the price on the
London Metal Exchange
has reached an all-time high above $11,000 per ton.
42
The global market for copper is one of the most
commodified
and
financialized
of the
commodity markets
, and has been so for decades.
43
: 213
The top exporters of raw copper were Zambia ($6.95B) and Chile ($2.16B), followed by Democratic Republic of the Congo ($1.41B). Raw copper's top importers were China ($6.13B), Switzerland ($3.15B), and India ($2.05B).
44
Copper demand
In 2024, global copper production was estimated at roughly 22.8–22.9 million metric tons.
45
46
Copper demand is increasing due to the ongoing
energy transition to electricity
47
China accounts for over half the demand.
48
Extraction
Main article:
Copper extraction
Scheme of flash smelting process
The great majority of copper ores are
sulfides
. Common ores are the sulfides
chalcopyrite
(CuFeS
),
bornite
(Cu
FeS
) and, to a lesser extent,
covellite
(CuS) and
chalcocite
(Cu
S).
49
These ores occur at the level of <1% Cu. Concentration of the ore is required, which begins with
comminution
followed by
froth flotation
. The remaining concentrate is smelted, which can be described with two simplified equations:
50
Cuprous sulfide is oxidized to cuprous oxide:
2 Cu
S + 3 O
→ 2 Cu
O + 2 SO
Cuprous oxide reacts with cuprous sulfide to convert to
blister copper
upon heating:
2 Cu
O + Cu
S → 6 Cu + 2 SO
This give crude copper, about 98% Cu by weight, which is purified by electrolysis giving Cu at up to 99.99% purity. During the electrolysis small amounts of
silver
and gold may be precipitated into a sludge that can be reprocessed to recover the precious metals.
51
: 798
Aside from sulfides, another family of ores are oxides. Approximately 15% of the world's copper supply derives from these oxides. The beneficiation process for oxides involves extraction with sulfuric acid solutions followed by electrolysis. In parallel with the above method for "concentrated" sulfide and oxide ores, copper is recovered from
mine tailings
and heaps. A variety of methods are used including leaching with sulfuric acid, ammonia, ferric chloride. Biological methods are also used.
50
52
A potential source of copper is polymetallic nodules, which have an estimated concentration 1.3%.
53
54
Flowchart of copper refining
(Ingot casting plant of Uralelektromed)
Blister copper
Smelting
Reverberatory furnace
Slag
removal
Copper casting of
ingots
Casting wheel
Ingot removal machine
Ingots take-off
Rail cars
Transportation to the tank house
Recycling
According to the
International Resource Panel
's
Metal Stocks in Society report
, the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35–55 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30–40 kg per capita). In 2001, a typical automobile contained 20–30 kg of copper.
50
By 2014, the copper and copper alloy content of
internal combustion engine
vehicles decreased to 16.8 kg, but increased again to 24.5 kg by 2023.
55
At the same time, a battery
electric vehicle
already contains around 91 kg of copper and copper alloys.
56
Like
aluminium
, copper is recyclable without any loss of quality, both from raw state and from manufactured products.
57
An estimated 80% of all copper ever mined is still in use today.
58
In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium.
59
As of 2023
[update]
, recycled copper supplies about one-third of global demand.
60
The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to extract copper but requires fewer steps. High-purity scrap copper is melted in a
furnace
and then
reduced
and cast into
billets
and
ingots
61
Lower-purity scrap is melted to form
black copper
(70–90% pure, containing impurities such as iron, zinc, tin, and nickel), followed by oxidation of impurities in a
converter
to form blister copper (96–98% pure), which is then
refined
as before.
62
: 202
Environmental impacts
Acid mine drainage
from the disused
Parys Mountain
copper mines
Copper mining is energy intensive.
63
64
The extraction generates a substantial waste stream, including potentially toxic dust and heavy metal contamination near sites where it is refined.
65
Since most copper ores are sulfides, smelting is required. Smelting generates
sulfur dioxide
, a precursor to atmospheric
sulfuric acid
, unless it is captured.
50
About 15% of copper comes from low grade (dilute) ore bodies. Processing is achieved by
hydrometallurgy
, requiring acidic extractants, which remains in the waste streams after electrolytic deposition of the copper.
50
Alloys
Copper alloys are widely used in the production of coinage; seen here are two examples – post-1964 American
dimes
, which are composed of the alloy
cupronickel
66
and a pre-1968
Canadian dime
, which is composed of an alloy of 80 percent silver and 20 percent copper.
67
See also:
List of copper alloys
Numerous copper
alloys
have been formulated, many with important uses.
Brass
is an alloy of copper and
zinc
Bronze
usually refers to copper–
tin
alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as
aluminium bronze
. Copper-tin bronzes with various additional metals have been used to create
bells
for centuries; the composition of the alloy directly affects the tone and mechanical characteristics of the instrument.
68
Copper is one of the most important constituents of silver and
karat
gold solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.
69
Some lead-free
solders
consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals.
70
The alloy of copper and
nickel
, called
cupronickel
, is used in low-denomination coins, often for the outer cladding. The US five-cent coin (currently called a
nickel
) consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel in homogeneous composition. Prior to the introduction of cupronickel, which was widely adopted by countries in the latter half of the 20th century,
71
alloys of copper and
silver
were also used, with the United States using an alloy of 90% silver and 10% copper until 1965, when circulating silver was removed from all coins with the exception of the half dollar—these were debased to an alloy of 40% silver and 60% copper between 1965 and 1970.
72
The alloy of 90% copper and 10% nickel, remarkable for its resistance to corrosion, is used for various objects exposed to seawater, though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes found in polluted harbors and estuaries.
73
Alloys of copper with aluminium (about 7%) have a golden color and are used in decorations.
29
Shakudō
is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing a low percentage of gold, typically 4–10%, that can be
patinated
to a dark blue or black color.
74
Compounds
A sample of
copper(I) oxide
Main article:
Copper compounds
Copper forms a rich variety of compounds, usually with
oxidation states
+1 and +2, which are often called
cuprous
and
cupric
, respectively.
75
Copper compounds promote or catalyse numerous chemical and biological processes.
76
Binary compounds
As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements, the principal examples being oxides, sulfides, and
halides
. Both
cuprous
and
cupric oxides
are known. Numerous
copper sulfides
are known,
77
being mainly of interest as ores. The stoichiometrically simplest examples
copper(I) sulfide
Cu
) and
copper monosulfide
CuS
).
78
Cuprous
chloride
bromide
, and
iodide
are known, but
copper(I) fluoride
remains elusive. Cupric
fluoride
chloride
, and
bromide
are also well characterized. Attempts to prepare copper(II) iodide yield only copper(I) iodide and iodine.
75
2 Cu
2+
+ 4 I
→ 2 CuI + I
Coordination chemistry
Copper(II) gives a deep blue coloration in the presence of ammonia ligands. The one used here is
tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate
Copper forms
coordination complexes
with
ligands
. In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as
[Cu(H
O)
2+
. This complex exhibits the fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and detaching) for any transition
metal aquo complex
. Adding aqueous
sodium hydroxide
causes the precipitation of light blue solid
copper(II) hydroxide
79
A simplified equation is:
Pourbaix diagram for copper in uncomplexed media (anions other than OH- not considered). Ion concentration 0.001 m (mol/kg water). Temperature 25 °C.
Cu
2+
+ 2 OH
→ Cu(OH)
Aqueous ammonia
results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming
tetraamminecopper(II)
Cu(H
O)
(OH)
+ 4 NH
[Cu(H
O)
(NH
2+
+ 2 H
O + 2 OH
Many other
oxyanions
form complexes; these include
copper(II) acetate
copper(II) nitrate
, and
copper(II) carbonate
Copper(II) sulfate
forms a blue crystalline penta
hydrate
, the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a
fungicide
called the
Bordeaux mixture
80
Ball-and-stick model
of the complex [Cu(NH
(H
O)
2+
, illustrating the
octahedral coordination geometry
common for copper(II)
Polyols
, compounds containing more than one alcohol
functional group
, generally interact with cupric salts. For example, copper salts are used to test for
reducing sugars
. Specifically, using
Benedict's reagent
and
Fehling's solution
the presence of the sugar is signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I) oxide.
81
Schweizer's reagent and related complexes with
ethylenediamine
and other
amines
dissolve
cellulose
82
Amino acids
form very stable
chelate complexes
with copper(II).
83
Organocopper chemistry
Main article:
Organocopper compound
Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper(I) oxide and have
many uses in chemistry
. They are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with
Grignard reagents
terminal alkynes
or
organolithium reagents
84
in particular, the last reaction described produces a
Gilman reagent
. These can undergo
substitution
with
alkyl halides
to form
coupling products
; as such, they are important in the field of
organic synthesis
Copper(I) acetylide
is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the
Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling
85
and the
Sonogashira coupling
86
Conjugate addition
to
enones
87
and
carbocupration
of alkynes
88
can also be achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with
alkenes
and
carbon monoxide
, especially in the presence of amine ligands.
89
Copper(III) and copper(IV)
Copper(III) is most often found in oxides. A simple example is potassium
cuprate
, KCuO
, a blue-black solid.
90
The most extensively studied copper(III) compounds are the
cuprate superconductors
Yttrium barium copper oxide
(YBa
Cu
) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centres. Like oxide,
fluoride
is a highly
basic
anion
91
and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Both copper(III) and even copper(IV) fluorides are known,
CuF
and
Cs
CuF
, respectively.
75
Some copper proteins form
oxo complexes
, which, in extensively studied synthetic analog systems, feature copper(III).
92
93
With
tetrapeptides
, purple-colored copper(III) complexes are stabilized by the deprotonated
amide
ligands.
94
Complexes of copper(III) are also found as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds, for example in the
Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction
95
96
97
Biological role
Main article:
Copper in biology
Biochemistry
Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain within the
thylakoid membrane
. A central link in this chain is
plastocyanin
, a blue copper protein.
The biological role for copper commenced with the appearance of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere.
98
Copper proteins
have diverse roles in biological electron transport and oxygen transportation, processes that exploit the easy interconversion of Cu(I) and Cu(II).
99
Copper is essential in the aerobic
respiration
of all
eukaryotes
. In
mitochondria
, it is found in
cytochrome c oxidase
, which is the last protein in
oxidative phosphorylation
which stores energy in
ATP
. The copper atoms are alternatively reduced and oxidized during the electron transfer to oxygen.
100
: 383
Copper is also found in many
superoxide dismutases
, proteins that catalyze the decomposition of
superoxides
by converting it (by
disproportionation
) to oxygen and
hydrogen peroxide
Cu
2+
-SOD + O
→ Cu
-SOD + O
(reduction of copper; oxidation of superoxide)
Cu
-SOD + O
+ 2H
→ Cu
2+
-SOD + H
(oxidation of copper; reduction of superoxide)
The protein
hemocyanin
is the oxygen carrier in most
mollusks
and some
arthropods
such as the
horseshoe crab
Limulus polyphemus
).
101
Because hemocyanin is blue, these organisms have blue blood rather than the red blood of iron-based
hemoglobin
. Structurally related to hemocyanin are the
laccases
and
tyrosinases
. Instead of reversibly binding oxygen, these proteins hydroxylate substrates, illustrated by their role in the formation of
lacquers
102
Several copper proteins, such as the "blue copper proteins", do not interact directly with substrates; hence they are not enzymes. These proteins relay electrons by the process called
electron transfer
102
A unique tetranuclear copper center has been found in
nitrous-oxide reductase
103
Copper levels are closely regulated in both
prokaryotic
and
eukaryotic
cells to balance critical physiological need but avoid toxicity.
Nutrition
Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef and lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources include lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, avocados, and wheat bran.
Copper is an essential
trace element
in plants and animals, but not all microorganisms. The human body contains copper at a level of about 1.4 to 2.1 mg per kg of body mass.
104
Absorption and regulation
Copper is absorbed in the gut, then transported to the liver bound to
albumin
105
After processing in the liver, copper is distributed to other tissues in a second phase, which involves the protein
ceruloplasmin
, carrying the majority of copper in blood. Ceruloplasmin also carries the copper that is excreted in milk, and is particularly well-absorbed as a copper source.
106
Copper in the body normally undergoes
enterohepatic circulation
(about 5 mg a day, vs. about 1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the body), and the body is able to excrete some excess copper, if needed, via
bile
, which carries some copper out of the liver that is not then reabsorbed by the intestine.
107
108
Copper levels and transport are tightly regulated processes. At least two copper-specific
chaperones
have been isolated.
109
Dietary recommendations
The
U.S. Institute of Medicine
updated the estimated average requirements (EARs) and recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for copper in 2001. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated
Adequate Intake
(AI) is used instead. The AIs for copper are: 200 μg of copper for 0–6-month-old males and females, and 220 μg of copper for 7–12-month-old males and females. For both sexes, the RDAs for copper are: 340 μg of copper for 1–3 years old, 440 μg of copper for 4–8 years old, 700 μg of copper for 9–13 years old, 890 μg of copper for 14–18 years old and 900 μg of copper for ages 19 years and older. For pregnancy, 1,000 μg. For lactation, 1,300 μg.
110
As for safety, the Institute of Medicine also sets
tolerable upper intake levels
(ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of copper, the UL is set at 10 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as
Dietary Reference Intakes
111
The
European Food Safety Authority
(EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For women and men ages 18 and older, the AIs are set at 1.3 and 1.6 mg/day, respectively. AIs for pregnancy and lactation is 1.5 mg/day. For children ages 1–17 years, the AIs increase with age from 0.7 to 1.3 mg/day. These AIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs.
112
The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 5 mg/day, which is half the U.S. value.
113
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). In 2019, 100% of the Daily Value was revised to 0.9 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA.
114
115
Deficiency
Main article:
Copper deficiency
Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake,
copper deficiency
can produce
anemia
-like symptoms,
neutropenia
, bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth, increased incidence of infections, osteoporosis, hyperthyroidism, and abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism.
116
Conversely,
Wilson's disease
is genetic disease that causes an accumulation of copper in body tissues.
117
A minimum dietary value for healthy growth in
European rabbits
has been reported to be at least 3
ppm
in the diet.
118
However, higher concentrations of copper (100 ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm) in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence
feed conversion efficiency
, growth rates, and carcass dressing percentages.
119
Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels, low ceruloplasmin, and low red blood cell superoxide dismutase levels; these are not sensitive to marginal copper status. The "cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets" has been stated as another factor in deficiency, but the results have not been confirmed by replication.
120
Toxicity
Main article:
Copper toxicity
Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and excretion. No retention of copper is expected to occur at the 5 mg/day level.
121
Research has shown a link between copper level regulation in the body and several neurological diseases, especially
Alzheimer's disease
. The studies suggest the issue is an age-related breakdown of internal regulation mechanism rather than an exposure toxicity.
122
Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity in humans, resulting in irreversible liver failure.
123
Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins also cause regulation failure, leading to
Wilson's disease
with copper accumulation,
cirrhosis
of the liver, and psychiatric symptoms.
123
Bioleaching
Bacteria have been used to extract copper in industrial scale
bioleaching
systems. Microbe solutions percolate through crushed ore converting insoluble copper sulfides to soluble copper sulfates;
electrowinning
extracts high purity copper from the resulting solution.
124
: 628
Human exposure
In the US, the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) has designated a
permissible exposure limit
(PEL) for copper dust in the workplace as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 1 mg/m
and 0.1mg/m
for copper fumes
125
The
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) has set a
recommended exposure limit
(REL) of 1 mg/m
, time-weighted average. The
IDLH
(immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 100 mg/m
126
Copper is a constituent of
tobacco smoke
127
128
History
Prehistoric
Copper Age
Main article:
Copper Age
A corroded copper
ingot
from
Zakros
Crete
, shaped in the form of an animal skin (
oxhide
) typical in that era
Copper ore (
chrysocolla
) in
Cambrian
sandstone from
Chalcolithic
mines in the
Timna Valley
, southern
Israel
Copper artifacts from the
Old Copper Complex
of North America, ~9500–5400 years before present
Copper occurs naturally as
native metallic copper
and was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record. The history of native copper use dates to 9000 BC in the Middle East;
129
a native copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC.
130
Evidence suggests that gold and
meteoric iron
(but not smelted iron) were the only metals used by humans before copper.
131
The history of copper metallurgy is thought to follow this sequence: first,
cold working
of native copper, then
annealing
smelting
, and, finally, casting. The earliest archaeological support of
smelting
(hot metallurgy) in Eurasia is found in the
Balkans
and
Carpathian Mountains
, as evidenced by findings of copper objects made by metal casting and smelting dated to around
6,200 ~ 5,000 BCE,
with the invention of copper
metallurgy
132
133
134
135
Production of cold worked non-smelted copper in the
Old Copper Complex
in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6500 and 3000 BC.
136
137
138
A copper spearpoint found in Wisconsin has been dated to 6500 BC.
136
Copper usage by the indigenous peoples of the Old Copper Complex from the
Great Lakes region
of North America has been radiometrically dated to as far back as 7500 BC.
136
139
140
Indigenous peoples of North America around the
Great Lakes
may have also been mining copper during this time, making it one of the oldest known examples of
copper extraction
in the world.
141
There is evidence from prehistoric lead pollution from lakes in Michigan that people in the region began mining copper
c.
6000 BC
141
136
Evidence suggests that utilitarian copper objects fell increasingly out of use in the Old Copper Complex of North America during the Bronze Age and a shift towards an increased production of ornamental copper objects occurred.
142
The earliest evidence of
lost-wax casting
copper comes from an amulet found in
Mehrgarh
, Pakistan, and is dated to 4000 BC.
143
Investment casting
was invented in 4500–4000 BC in Southeast Asia
129
Smelting was probably discovered in China before 2800 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD.
144
Carbon dating
has established mining at
Alderley Edge
in
Cheshire
, UK, at 2280 to 1890 BC.
145
Replica of
Ötzi
's copper axe from the
Chalcolithic
Era
Ötzi the Iceman
, a male dated from 3300 to 3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of
arsenic
in his hair suggest an involvement in copper smelting.
146
Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; in particular, copper smelting likely led to the discovery of
iron smelting
146
Bronze Age
Main article:
Bronze Age
Copper was used in blue pigments like this "
Egyptian blue
faience
saucer and stand from the Bronze Age,
New Kingdom of Egypt
(1400–1325 BC).
Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC.
147
Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general use.
148
Bronze artifacts from the
Vinča culture
date to 4500 BC.
149
Sumerian
and
Egyptian
artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC.
150
Egyptian blue
, or cuprorivaite (calcium copper silicate), is a synthetic pigment that contains copper and started being used in
ancient Egypt
around 3250 BC.
151
The manufacturing process of Egyptian blue was known to the Romans, but by the fourth century AD the pigment fell out of use and the secret to its manufacturing process became lost. The Roman
Vitruvius
said in the first century BC that the blue pigment was made from copper minerals or bronze, lime, and a
flux
like
natron
, and this basic recipe has been confirmed in modern times.
152
The
Bronze Age
began in Southeastern Europe around 3700–3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 2000–1000 BC in the Near East, and 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the
Neolithic
period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the
Chalcolithic
period (copper-stone), when copper tools were used with stone tools. The term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world, the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire.
150
Ancient and post-classical
In
alchemy
the symbol for copper was also the symbol for the
goddess
and planet
Venus
Chalcolithic copper mine in
Timna Valley
Negev Desert
, Israel
In Greece, copper was known by the name
chalkos
(χαλκός). It was an important resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it was known as
aes Cyprium
aes
being the generic Latin term for copper alloys and
Cyprium
from
Cyprus
, where much copper was mined. The phrase was simplified to
cuprum
, hence the English
copper
Aphrodite
Venus
in Rome) represented copper in mythology and alchemy because of its lustrous beauty and its ancient use in producing mirrors; Cyprus, the source of copper, was sacred to the goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven metals known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper, both because of the connection to the goddess and because Venus was the brightest heavenly body after the Sun and Moon and so corresponded to the most lustrous and desirable metal after gold and silver.
153
Copper was the most extensively used metal among natives of North America, with evidence for use going back 7000 years.
154
Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on
Isle Royale
with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600 AD.
155
Copper, probably from pure nuggets found in the
Great Lakes
area, was worked by repeated hammering and annealing in the North American city of
Cahokia
(near modern-day Missouri) around 1000–1300 AD.
156
There are several exquisite copper plates, known as the
Mississippian copper plates
, that have been found in North America in the area around Cahokia, dating from this time period (1000–1300 AD).
156
Mississippian copper plates
from North America were produced in this style from around 800 to 1600 AD.
In South America, a copper mask dated to 1000 BC found in the Argentinian Andes is the oldest known copper artifact discovered in the Andes.
157
Peru has been considered the origin for early copper
metallurgy in pre-Columbian America
, but the copper mask from Argentina suggests that the
Cajón del Maipo
of the southern Andes was another important center for early copper workings in South America.
157
Copper metallurgy in Peru dates to around 500 BC, with larger scale production beginning around 900 AD as part of the rise of the
Sican culture
in northern Peru. The production continued through a series of conquests by the
Chimor
and
Inca
cultures, ending with the Spanish conquest in 1532.
158
In Sub-Saharan Africa, throughout the period from the first mines around 2000 BC in
Agades
until the early 1800s, copper was viewed as more precious and prestigious than either gold or silver. Copper was widely traded in Africa and fulfilled a number of religious, political, and social functions. By contrast, local deposit of gold were ignored until contact with Portuguese and Arab traders.
159
160
161
The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important.
Julius Caesar
had his own coins made from brass, while
Octavianus Augustus Caesar
's coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t,
Roman copper mining and smelting activities
reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the
Industrial Revolution
; the
provinces
most intensely mined were those of
Hispania
, Cyprus and in Central Europe.
162
163
The gates of the
Temple of Jerusalem
used
Corinthian bronze
, a copper, silver, and gold alloy treated with
depletion gilding
, which successively removes oxidized copper to create a gold surface coat. The process was most prevalent in
Alexandria
, where alchemy, inspired by the chemical treatment resulting in gold appearance, is thought to have begun.
164
Modern
18th-century copper
kettle
from Norway made from Swedish copper
The
Great Copper Mountain
was a mine in
Falun
, Sweden, that operated from the 10th century to 1992. It satisfied two-thirds of Europe's copper consumption in the 17th century and helped fund many of Sweden's wars during that time.
165
It was referred to as the nation's treasury; Sweden had a
copper backed currency
166
Chalcography
of the city of
Vyborg
at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. The year 1709 carved on the printing plate.
Copper is used in roofing,
21
currency, and for photographic technology known as the
daguerreotype
. Copper was used in
Renaissance
sculpture, and was used to construct the
Statue of Liberty
; copper continues to be used in construction of various types.
Copper plating
and
copper sheathing
were widely used to protect the under-water hulls of ships, a technique pioneered by the British Admiralty in the 18th century.
167
The
Norddeutsche Affinerie
in Hamburg was the first modern
electroplating
plant, starting its production in 1876.
168
During the rise in demand for copper for the Age of Electricity, from the 1880s until the Great Depression of the 1930s, the United States produced one third to half the world's newly mined copper.
169
Major districts included the Keweenaw district of northern Michigan, primarily native copper deposits, which was eclipsed by the vast sulphide deposits of
Butte, Montana
, in the late 1880s, which itself was eclipsed by porphyry deposits of the Southwest United States, especially at
Bingham Canyon, Utah
, and
Morenci, Arizona
. Introduction of open pit steam shovel mining and innovations in smelting, refining, flotation concentration and other processing steps led to mass production. Early in the twentieth century,
Arizona
ranked first, followed by
Montana
, then
Utah
and
Michigan
170
Flash smelting
was developed by
Outokumpu
in Finland and first applied at
Harjavalta
in 1949; the energy-efficient process accounts for 50% of the world's primary copper production.
171
The
Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries
, formed in 1967 by Chile, Peru, Zaire, and Zambia, operated in the copper market as
OPEC
does in oil, though it never achieved the same influence, particularly because the second-largest producer, the United States, was never a member; it was dissolved in 1988.
172
In 2008, China became the world's largest importer of copper.
43
: 187
Applications
See also:
Copper in renewable energy
Copper fittings for soldered plumbing joints
The major applications of copper are electrical wire (60%), roofing and plumbing (20%), and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is used mostly as a pure metal, but when greater hardness is required, it is put into such alloys as
brass
and
bronze
(5% of total use).
29
For more than two centuries, copper paint has been used on boat hulls to control the growth of plants and shellfish.
173
A small part of the copper supply is used for nutritional supplements and fungicides in agriculture.
80
174
Pure copper's ductility, weakness and high friction between copper chips and cutting tools makes
machining
of copper difficult; alloys are preferred for good
machinability
175
Copper
cookware
can react with acidic or alkaline foods, leaving a metallic taste, but is useful for whipping egg-whites.
176
Wire and cable
Main article:
Copper wire and cable
Despite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred
electrical conductor
in nearly all categories of electrical wiring except overhead
electric power transmission
where
aluminium
is often preferred.
177
178
Copper wire is used in
power generation
power transmission
electric power distribution
telecommunications
electronics
circuitry, and countless types of
electrical equipment
179
Electrical wiring
is the most important market for the copper industry.
180
This includes structural power wiring, power distribution cable, appliance wire, communications cable, automotive wire and cable, and magnet wire. Roughly half of all copper mined is used for electrical wire and cable conductors.
181
Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of beneficial properties, such as its high
electrical conductivity
tensile strength
ductility
creep (deformation)
resistance,
corrosion
resistance, low
thermal expansion
, high
thermal conductivity
, ease of
soldering
, and ease of installation.
182
: 5.3
For a short period from the late 1960s to the late 1970s, copper wiring was replaced by
aluminium wiring
in many housing construction projects in America but improper design resulted in fire hazards.
183
184
The safety issues have since been solved by use of larger sizes of aluminium wire (#8AWG and up), and properly designed aluminium wiring is still being installed in place of copper. For example, the
Airbus A380
uses aluminum wire in place of copper wire for electrical power transmission.
185
Electronics and related devices
Copper electrical
busbars
distributing power to a large building
Integrated circuits
and
printed circuit boards
increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity;
heat sinks
and
heat exchangers
use copper because of its superior heat dissipation properties.
Electromagnets
vacuum tubes
cathode-ray tubes
, and
magnetrons
in microwave ovens use copper, as do
waveguides
for microwave radiation.
186
Electric motors
Copper's superior
conductivity
enhances the efficiency of electrical
motors
187
This is important because motors and motor-driven systems account for 43–46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry.
188
Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a
coil
increases the efficiency of the motor.
Copper motor rotors
, a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives,
189
190
are enabling general-purpose
induction motors
to meet and exceed
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA)
premium efficiency
standards.
191
Architecture
Main article:
Copper in architecture
Copper roof on the
Minneapolis City Hall
, coated with
patina
Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable,
corrosion resistant
, and weatherproof architectural material.
Roofs
flashings
rain gutters
downspouts
domes
spires
, vaults, and
doors
have been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years. Copper's architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior
wall cladding
, building
expansion joints
radio frequency shielding
, and
antimicrobial
and decorative indoor products such as attractive handrails, bathroom fixtures, and counter tops. Some of copper's other important benefits as an architectural material include low
thermal movement
, light weight,
lightning protection
, and recyclability.
192
193
194
195
The metal's distinctive natural green
patina
has long been coveted by architects and designers. The final patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion, thereby protecting the underlying metal against further weathering.
196
197
198
It can be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in various amounts, depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-containing acid rain.
199
200
201
202
Architectural copper and its alloys can also be
'finished'
to take on a particular look, feel, or color. Finishes include mechanical surface treatments, chemical coloring, and coatings.
203
Copper has excellent
brazing
and
soldering
properties and can be
welded
; the best results are obtained with
gas metal arc welding
204
Antibiofouling
Main articles:
Copper alloys in aquaculture
and
Copper sheathing
Copper is
biostatic
, meaning bacteria and many other forms of life will not grow on it. For this reason it has long been used to line parts of ships to protect against
barnacles
and
mussels
. It was originally used pure, but has since been superseded by
Muntz metal
and copper-based paint. Similarly, as discussed in
copper alloys in aquaculture
, copper alloys have become important netting materials in the
aquaculture
industry because they are
antimicrobial
and prevent
biofouling
, even in extreme conditions,
205
and have strong structural and
corrosion-resistant
properties in marine environments.
206
Antimicrobial
Main articles:
Antimicrobial properties of copper
and
Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces
Copper-alloy touch surfaces
have natural properties that destroy a wide range of
microorganisms
(e.g.,
E. coli
O157:H7,
methicillin
-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus
MRSA
),
Staphylococcus
Clostridium difficile
influenza A virus
adenovirus
SARS-CoV-2
, and
fungi
).
207
208
Some copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99.9% of disease-causing bacteria within just two hours when cleaned regularly.
209
The
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as "
antimicrobial
materials with public health benefits";
209
that approval allows manufacturers to make legal claims to the public health benefits of products made of registered alloys. In addition, the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys, such as bedrails,
handrails
, over-bed tables,
sinks
faucets
door knobs
toilet
hardware,
computer keyboards
health club
equipment, and
shopping cart
handles. Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to minimize the transfer of disease, and
Legionnaires' disease
is suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems.
210
Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the UK, Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil, and in the subway transit system in Santiago, Chile, where copper–zinc alloy handrails were installed in some 30 stations between 2011 and 2014.
211
212
213
Copper surfaces in healthcare have been advocated for in the US, as well.
214
Textile fibers can be blended with copper to create antimicrobial protective fabrics.
215
Fungicide
Copper is widely used as a wood preservative primarily because it is an effective
fungicide
against
soft rot fungi
while avoiding the significant environmental impact of
chromium and arsenic based preservatives
216
Folk medicine
Copper is commonly used in jewelry, and according to some folklore, copper bracelets relieve
arthritis
symptoms.
217
In one trial for osteoarthritis and one trial for rheumatoid arthritis, no differences were found between copper bracelet and control (non-copper) bracelet.
218
219
No evidence shows that copper can be absorbed through the skin.
220
See also
Chemistry portal
Copper in renewable energy
Copper nanoparticle
Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes
Cold water pitting of copper tube
List of countries by copper production
Metal theft
Operation Tremor
Anaconda Copper
Antofagasta PLC
Codelco
El Boleo mine
Grasberg mine
Copper foil
Notes
Pourbaix diagrams
for copper
in pure water, or acidic or alkali conditions. Copper in neutral water is more noble than hydrogen.
in water containing sulfide
in 10 M ammonia solution
in a chloride solution
References
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CIAAW
. 1969.
Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (4 May 2022).
"Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)"
Pure and Applied Chemistry
doi
10.1515/pac-2019-0603
ISSN
1365-3075
Arblaster, John W. (2018).
Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements
. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.
ISBN
978-1-62708-155-9
Cu(−2) has been observed as dimeric anions [Cu
2–
in La
Cu
In; see
Myung-Hwan Whangbo; Changhoon Lee; Jürgen Köhler (2006). "Transition-Metal Anions in Solids and Their Implications on Bonding".
Angewandte Chemie International Edition
45
(44):
7465–
7469.
doi
10.1002/anie.200602712
Jackson, Ross A.; Evans, Nicholas J.; Babula, Dawid J.; Horsley Downie, Thomas M.; Charman, Rex S. C.; Neale, Samuel E.; Mahon, Mary F.; Liptrot, David J. (28 January 2025).
"Nucleophilicity at copper(-I) in a compound with a Cu–Mg bond"
Nature Communications
16
(1): 1101.
Bibcode
2025NatCo..16.1101J
doi
10.1038/s41467-025-56544-z
ISSN
2041-1723
PMC
11775243
PMID
39875432
Moret, Marc-Etienne; Zhang, Limei; Peters, Jonas C. (2013).
"A Polar Copper–Boron One-Electron σ-Bond"
J. Am. Chem. Soc
135
(10):
3792–
3795.
Bibcode
2013JAChS.135.3792M
doi
10.1021/ja4006578
PMID
23418750
Greenwood, Norman N.
; Earnshaw, Alan (1997).
Chemistry of the Elements
(2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28.
doi
10.1016/C2009-0-30414-6
ISBN
978-0-08-037941-8
Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds".
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Further reading
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ISBN
978-0-89603-943-8
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External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to
Copper
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Copper
Look up
copper
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikisource
has original text related to this article:
Copper
Copper Timeline
, an interactive history.
Copper
at
The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Copper and compounds fact sheet
from the
National Pollutant Inventory
of Australia
International Copper Association and the Copper Alliance
, a business interest group
Copper.org
– official website of the Copper Development Association, a North American industry association with an extensive site of properties and uses of copper
Price history
of
LME Copper
, according to the IMF
usgs.gov
(Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025):
Copper
Periodic table
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
He
Li
Be
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
Cs
Ba
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
s-block
f-block
d-block
p-block
Copper compounds
Cu(0,I)
Cu
Si
Cu(I)
CuBr
CuCN
CuCl
CuF
CuH
CuI
Cu
Cu
Cr
Cu
CuOH
CuNO
Cu
Cu
CuS
CuSCN
Cu
Cu(I,II)
Cu
Cu
Cu(II)
Cu(BF
CuBr
CuC
Cu(CH
COO)
Cu(CF
COO)
Cu(C
CuCO
Cu
CO
(OH)
Cu(CN)
CuCl
KCuCl
CuCl
Cu(ClO
Cu(ClO
CuF
Cu(NO
Cu
(PO
Cu
(BO
Cu(N
CuC
CuO
Cu(O
Cu(OH)
Cu(SCN)
CuSO
Cu
(AsO
Cu(C
11
23
COO)
Cu(C
17
35
COO)
Cu(O
CC
CuTe
CuTe
[Cu(NH
(H
O)]SO
Cu(III)
CuF
CuO
Cu(IV)
CuO
Cs
CuF
Jewellery
Forms
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Making
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Processes
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Categories
Copper
Chemical elements
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Crystals in space group 225
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