Digital library - Wikipedia

Digital library - Wikipedia
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Online database of digital resources
"Elibrary" redirects here. For the former online library eLibrary, see
HighBeam Research
Not to be confused with
Internet Archive
or
online book rental
The
Biodiversity Heritage Library
website, an example of a digital library
digital library
, also referred to as an
online library
, an
internet library
, a
digital repository
a library without walls
, or a
digital collection
, is an
online database
of digital resources that can include text, still images, audio, video,
digital documents
, or other
digital media
formats or a
library
accessible through the
internet
. Objects can consist of
digitized
content, such as
or
photographs
, as well as
originally produced digital
content, including
word processor
files or
social media
posts. In addition to storing content, digital libraries provide mechanisms for the organization, searching, and
retrieving
of content from the collection. Digital libraries can vary immensely in size and scope, and can be maintained by individuals or organizations.
The digital content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via
computer networks
. These information retrieval systems are able to exchange information with each other through
interoperability
and
sustainability
History
edit
The early history of digital libraries is not well documented, but several key thinkers are connected to the emergence of the concept.
Predecessors include
Paul Otlet
and
Henri La Fontaine
's
Mundaneum
, an attempt begun in 1895 to gather and systematically catalogue the world's knowledge, with the hope of bringing about world peace.
The visions of the digital library were largely realized a century later during the great expansion of the Internet.
Vannevar Bush
and
J. C. R. Licklider
were two pioneers who advanced this idea into contemporary technology. Bush had supported research that led to the bomb that was dropped on
Hiroshima
. After seeing the city's destruction, he wanted to create a machine that would show how technology can lead to understanding instead of destruction. This machine would include a desk with two screens, switches and buttons, and a keyboard.
He named this the "
Memex
". This way individuals would be able to access stored books and files at a rapid speed. In 1956,
Ford Foundation
funded Licklider to analyze how libraries could be improved with technology. Almost a decade later, his book, entitled "
Libraries of the Future
" included his vision. He wanted to create a system that would use computers and networks, thereby ensuring the accessibility of human knowledge for human needs and ensuring automatic feedback for machine purposes. This system contained three components: the corpus of knowledge, the question, and the answer. Licklider called it a procognitive system.
In 1980, the role of the library in an electronic society was the focus of a clinic on library applications of
data processing
. Participants included
Frederick Wilfrid Lancaster
Derek De Solla Price
Gerard Salton
, and
Michael Gorman)
Early projects centered on the creation of an electronic card catalogue known as
Online Public Access Catalog
(OPAC). By the 1980s, the success of these endeavors resulted in OPAC replacing the traditional
card catalog
in many academic, public and special libraries. This permitted libraries to undertake additional rewarding co-operative efforts to support resource sharing and expand access to library materials beyond an individual library.
An early example of a digital library is the
Education Resources Information Center
(ERIC), a database of education citations, abstracts and texts that was created in 1964 and made available online through
DIALOG
in 1969.
In 1994, digital libraries became widely visible in the research community due to a $24.4 million
NSF
managed program supported jointly by
DARPA
's Intelligent Integration of Information (I3) program,
NASA
, and NSF itself.
Successful research proposals came from six U.S. universities.
10
The universities included
Carnegie Mellon University
University of California-Berkeley
University of Michigan
University of Illinois
University of California-Santa Barbara
, and
Stanford University
. Articles from the projects summarized their progress at their halfway point in May 1996.
11
Stanford research, by
Sergey Brin
and
Larry Page
, led to the founding of
Google
Early attempts at creating a model for digital libraries included the DELOS
Digital Library Reference Model
12
13
and the 5S Framework.
14
15
Terminology
edit
The term
digital library
was first popularized by the
NSF
DARPA
NASA
Digital Libraries Initiative in 1994.
16
With the availability of the computer networks the information resources are expected to stay distributed and accessed as needed, whereas in
Vannevar Bush
's essay
As We May Think
(1945) they were to be collected and kept within the researcher's
Memex
The term
virtual library
was initially used interchangeably with
digital library,
but is now primarily used for libraries that are virtual in other senses (such as libraries which aggregate distributed content). In the early days of digital libraries, there was discussion of the similarities and differences among the terms
digital
virtual
, and
electronic
17
A distinction is often made between content that was created in a digital format, known as
born-digital
, and information that has been converted from a physical medium, e.g. paper, through
digitization
. Not all electronic content is in
digital data
format. The term
hybrid library
is sometimes used for libraries that have both physical collections and electronic collections. For example,
American Memory
is a digital library within the
Library of Congress
Some important digital libraries also serve as long term archives, such as
arXiv
and the
Internet Archive
. Others, such as the
Digital Public Library of America
, seek to make digital information from various institutions widely accessible online.
18
Types of digital libraries
edit
Institutional repositories
edit
Main article:
Institutional repositories
Many academic libraries are actively involved in building repositories of their institution's books, papers, theses, and other works that can be digitized or were 'born digital'. Many of these repositories are made available to the general public with few restrictions, in accordance with the goals of
open access
, in contrast to the publication of research in commercial journals, where the publishers usually limit access rights. Irrespective of access rights, institutional, truly free, and corporate repositories can be referred to as digital libraries.
Institutional repository
software is designed for archiving, organizing, and searching a library's content. Popular open-source solutions include
DSpace
Greenstone Digital Library (GSDL)
EPrints
Digital Commons
, and the
Fedora Commons
-based systems
Islandora
and
Samvera
19
National library collections
edit
Legal deposit
is often covered by
legislation and sometimes by laws specific to legal deposit, and requires that one or more copies of all material published in a country should be submitted for preservation in an institution, typically the
national library
. Since the advent of
electronic documents
, legislation has had to be amended to cover the new formats, such as the 2016 amendment to the
Copyright Act 1968
in Australia.
20
21
22
Since then various types of electronic depositories have been built. The
British Library
's Publisher Submission Portal and the German model at the
Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
have one deposit point for a network of libraries, but public access is only available in the reading rooms in the libraries. The Australian
National edeposit
system has the same features, but also allows for remote access by the general public for most of the content.
23
Digital archives
edit
Physical
archives
differ from physical libraries in several ways. Traditionally, archives are defined as:
Containing
primary sources
of information (typically letters and papers directly produced by an individual or organization) rather than the secondary sources found in a library (books, periodicals, etc.).
Having their contents organized in groups rather than individual items.
Having unique contents.
The technology used to create digital libraries is even more revolutionary for archives since it breaks down the second and third of these general rules. In other words, "digital archives" or "online archives" will still generally contain primary sources, but they are likely to be described individually rather than (or in addition to) in groups or collections. Further, because they are digital, their contents are easily reproducible and may indeed have been reproduced from elsewhere. The
Oxford Text Archive
is generally considered to be the oldest digital archive of academic physical primary source materials.
Archives differ from libraries in the nature of the materials held. Libraries collect individual published books and serials, or bounded sets of individual items. The books and journals held by libraries are not unique, since multiple copies exist and any given copy will generally prove as satisfactory as any other copy. The material in archives and manuscript libraries are "the unique records of corporate bodies and the papers of individuals and families".
24
A fundamental characteristic of archives is that they have to keep the context in which their records have been created and the network of relationships between them in order to preserve their informative content and provide understandable and useful information over time. The fundamental characteristic of archives resides in their hierarchical organization expressing the context by means of the
archival bond
Archival descriptions are the fundamental means to describe, understand, retrieve and access archival material. At the digital level, archival descriptions are usually encoded by means of the
Encoded Archival Description
XML format. The EAD is a standardized electronic representation of archival description which makes it possible to provide union access to detailed archival descriptions and resources in repositories distributed throughout the world.
Given the importance of archives, a dedicated formal model, called NEsted SeTs for Object Hierarchies (NESTOR),
25
built around their peculiar constituents, has been defined. NESTOR is based on the idea of expressing the hierarchical relationships between objects through the inclusion property between sets, in contrast to the binary relation between nodes exploited by the tree. NESTOR has been used to formally extend the 5S model to define a digital archive as a specific case of digital library able to take into consideration the peculiar features of archives.
CAD library
edit
See also:
Category:3D graphics file formats
Porting
, and
3D scanning
computer-aided design
library or CAD library is a
cloud
based
repository
of 3D models or parts for
computer-aided design
(CAD),
computer-aided engineering
(CAE),
computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM), or
Building information modeling
(BIM). The models can be free and
open source
or
proprietary
and have to pay a
subscription
to have access to the CAD library 3D models.
Generative AI CAD libraries
are being developed using
linked
open data
of
schematics
and
diagrams
26
Assets
edit
CAD libraries can have assets such as
3D models
, materials/
textures
bump maps
, trees/plants,
HDRIs
, and different
Computer graphics lighting
sources to be
rendered
27
unreliable source?
CAD and 3D Model Libraries
edit
Blenderkit
— for
Blender
CGTrader
Chaos
Cosmos
— for
V-Ray
GrabCAD
McMaster-Carr
Mixamo
Poliigon
Sketchfab
Thingiverse
TurboSquid
Sketchup 3D Warehouse
2D graphics repository of digital art
edit
See also:
Digital art § List of 2D digital art repositories
A 2D graphics repository/library are
vector graphics
or
raster graphics
images/
icons
that can be
free use
or
proprietary
28
unreliable source?
In-game book libraries
edit
In-game book libraries are virtual collections of written works that players can read, share, or interact with inside a
video game
. Unlike
programming libraries
, these libraries function as narrtive or educational spaces, often mirroring real-world libraries and sometimes providing access to text that are
censored
or unavailable in the player's region. The most prominent example is
The Uncensored Library
, a
minecraft
map that distributes banned books worldwide. Another example is
NaNa-Library
known for its good
novels
and is designed to make small
writers
known.
29
30
Features of digital libraries
edit
The advantages of digital libraries as a means of easily and rapidly accessing books, archives and images of various types are now widely recognized by commercial interests and public bodies alike.
31
Traditional libraries are limited by storage space; digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information requires very little physical space to contain it.
32
As such, the cost of maintaining a digital library can be much lower than that of a traditional library. A physical library must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintenance, rent, and additional books. Digital libraries may reduce or, in some instances, do away with these fees. Both types of library require cataloging input to allow users to locate and retrieve material. Digital libraries may be more willing to adopt innovations in technology providing users with improvements in electronic and audio book technology as well as presenting new forms of communication such as wikis and blogs; conventional libraries may consider that providing online access to their OP AC catalog is sufficient. An important advantage to digital conversion is increased accessibility to users. They also increase availability to individuals who may not be traditional patrons of a library, due to geographic location or organizational affiliation.
No physical boundary: The user of a digital library need not to go to the library physically; people from all over the world can gain access to the same information, as long as an Internet connection is available.
Round the clock availability: A major advantage of digital libraries is that people can gain access 24/7 to the information.
Multiple access: The same resources can be used simultaneously by a number of institutions and patrons. This may not be the case for copyrighted material: a library may have a license for "lending out" only one copy at a time; this is achieved with a system of
digital rights management
where a resource can become inaccessible after expiration of the lending period or after the lender chooses to make it inaccessible (equivalent to returning the resource).
Information retrieval: The user is able to use any search term (word, phrase, title, name, subject) to search the entire collection. Digital libraries can provide very user-friendly interfaces, giving click able access to its resources.
Preservation and conservation: Digitization is not a long-term preservation solution for physical collections, but does succeed in providing access copies for materials that would otherwise fall to degradation from repeated use. Digitized collections and born-digital objects pose many preservation and conservation concerns that analog materials do not.
See
§ Digital preservation
for examples.
Space: Whereas traditional libraries are limited by storage space, digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information requires very little physical space to contain them and media storage technologies are more affordable than ever before.
Added value: Certain characteristics of objects, primarily the quality of images, may be improved. Digitization can enhance legibility and remove visible flaws such as stains and discoloration.
33
Software
edit
See also:
Library (computing)
and
Category:Digital library software
Digital libraries offer a variety of software packages, including those tailored for
kids' educational games
34
Institutional repository software, which focuses primarily on ingest, preservation and access of locally produced documents, particularly locally produced academic outputs, can be found in
Institutional repository software
. This software may be proprietary, as is the case with the Library of Congress which uses Digiboard and CTS to manage digital content.
35
The design and implementation in digital libraries are constructed so computer systems and software can make use of the information when it is exchanged. These are referred to as semantic digital libraries. Semantic libraries are also used to socialize with different communities from a mass of social networks.
36
DjDL is a type of semantic digital library. Keywords-based and semantic search are the two main types of searches. A tool is provided in the semantic search that create a group for augmentation and refinement for keywords-based search. Conceptual knowledge used in DjDL is centered around two forms; the subject
ontology
and the set of
concept search
patterns based on the ontology. The three type of ontologies that are associated to this search are
bibliographic ontologies
, community-aware ontologies, and subject ontologies.
Metadata
edit
In traditional libraries, the ability to find works of interest is directly related to how well they were cataloged. While cataloging electronic works digitized from a library's existing holding may be as simple as copying or moving a record from the print to the electronic form, complex and born-digital works require substantially more effort. To handle the growing volume of electronic publications, new tools and technologies have to be designed to allow effective automated semantic classification and searching. While
full-text search
can be used for some items, there are many common catalog searches which cannot be performed using full text, including:
finding texts which are translations of other texts
differentiating between editions/volumes of a text/periodical
inconsistent descriptors (especially subject headings)
missing, deficient or poor quality
taxonomy
practices
linking texts published under pseudonyms to the real authors (
Samuel Clemens
and
Mark Twain
, for example)
differentiating non-fiction from parody (
The Onion
from
The New York Times
Searching
edit
Most digital libraries provide a search interface which allows resources to be found. These resources are typically
deep web
(or invisible web) resources since they frequently cannot be located by
search engine
crawlers
. Some digital libraries create special pages or
sitemaps
to allow search engines to find all their resources. Digital libraries frequently use the
Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting
(OAI-PMH) to expose their metadata to other digital libraries, and search engines like
Google Scholar
Yahoo!
and
Scirus
can also use OAI-PMH to find these deep web resources.
37
As with physical libraries, very relatively little is known about how users actually select books.
38
There are two general strategies for searching a
federation
of digital libraries: distributed searching and searching previously harvested
metadata
Distributed searching typically involves a client sending multiple search requests in parallel to a number of servers in the federation. The results are gathered, duplicates are eliminated or clustered, and the remaining items are sorted and presented back to the client. Protocols like
Z39.50
are frequently used in distributed searching. A benefit to this approach is that the resource-intensive tasks of indexing and storage are left to the respective servers in the federation. A drawback to this approach is that the search mechanism is limited by the different indexing and ranking capabilities of each database; therefore, making it difficult to assemble a combined result consisting of the most relevant found items.
Searching over previously harvested metadata involves searching a locally stored
index
of information that has previously been collected from the libraries in the federation. When a search is performed, the search mechanism does not need to make connections with the digital libraries it is searching—it already has a local representation of the information. This approach requires the creation of an indexing and harvesting mechanism which operates regularly, connecting to all the digital libraries and querying the whole collection in order to discover new and updated resources.
OAI-PMH
is frequently used by digital libraries for allowing metadata to be harvested. A benefit to this approach is that the search mechanism has full control over indexing and ranking algorithms, possibly allowing more consistent results. A drawback is that harvesting and indexing systems are more resource-intensive and therefore expensive.
Digital preservation
edit
Main article:
Digital preservation
Digital preservation aims to ensure that digital media and information systems are still interpretable into the indefinite future.
39
Each necessary component of this must be migrated, preserved or
emulated
40
Typically lower levels of systems (
floppy disks
for example) are emulated, bit-streams (the actual files stored in the disks) are preserved and operating systems are emulated as a
virtual machine
. Only where the meaning and content of digital media and information systems are well understood is migration possible, as is the case for office documents.
40
41
42
However, at least one organization, the Wider Net Project, has created an offline digital library, the
eGranary
, by reproducing materials on a 6
TB
hard drive
. Instead of a bit-stream environment, the digital library contains a built-in
proxy server
and
search engine
so the digital materials can be accessed using a
web browser
43
Also, the materials are not preserved for the future. The eGranary is intended for use in places or situations where Internet connectivity is very slow, non-existent, unreliable, unsuitable or too expensive.
In the past few years, procedures for
digitizing
books at high speed and comparatively low cost have improved considerably with the result that it is now possible to digitize millions of books per year.
44
The Google book-scanning project is also working with libraries to offer digitize books pushing forward on the digitize book realm.
Copyright and licensing
edit
Digital libraries are hampered by
law because, unlike with traditional printed works, the laws of digital copyright are still being formed. The republication of material on the web by libraries may require permission from rights holders, and there is a conflict of interest between libraries and the publishers who may wish to create online versions of their acquired content for commercial purposes. In 2010, it was estimated that twenty-three percent of books in existence were created before 1923 and thus out of copyright. Of those printed after this date, only five percent were still in print as of 2010.
[update]
Thus, approximately seventy-two percent of books were not available to the public.
45
There is a dilution of responsibility that occurs as a result of the distributed nature of digital resources. Complex intellectual property matters may become involved since digital material is not always owned by a library.
46
The content is, in many cases,
public domain
or self-generated content only. Some digital libraries, such as
Project Gutenberg
, work to digitize out-of-copyright works and make them freely available to the public. An estimate of the number of distinct books still existent in library catalogues from 2000 BC to 1960, has been made.
47
48
The
Fair Use
Provisions
(17 USC § 107)
under the
Copyright Act of 1976
provide specific guidelines under which circumstances libraries are allowed to copy digital resources. Four factors that constitute fair use are "Purpose of the use, Nature of the work, Amount or substantiality used and Market impact".
49
Some digital libraries acquire a license to lend their resources. This may involve the restriction of lending out only one copy at a time for each license, and applying a system of
digital rights management
for this purpose.
The
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
of 1998 was an act created in the United States to attempt to deal with the introduction of digital works. This Act incorporates two treaties from the year 1996. It criminalizes the attempt to circumvent measures which limit access to copyrighted materials. It also criminalizes the act of attempting to circumvent access control.
50
This act provides an exemption for nonprofit libraries and archives which allows up to three copies to be made, one of which may be digital. This may not be made public or distributed on the web, however. Further, it allows libraries and archives to copy a work if its format becomes obsolete.
50
Copyright issues persist. As such, proposals have been put forward suggesting that digital libraries be exempt from copyright law. Although this would be very beneficial to the public, it may have a negative economic effect and authors may be less inclined to create new works.
51
Another issue that complicates matters is the desire of some publishing houses to restrict the use of digit materials such as e-books purchased by libraries. Whereas with printed books, the library owns the book until it can no longer be circulated, publishers want to limit the number of times an e-book can be checked out before the library would need to repurchase that book. "[HarperCollins] began licensing use of each e-book copy for a maximum of 26 loans. This affects only the most popular titles and has no practical effect on others. After the limit is reached, the library can repurchase access rights at a lower cost than the original price."
52
While from a publishing perspective, this sounds like a good balance of library lending and protecting themselves from a feared decrease in book sales, libraries are not set up to monitor their collections as such. They acknowledge the increased demand of digital materials available to patrons and the desire of a digital library to become expanded to include best sellers, but publisher licensing may hinder the process.
Recommendation systems
edit
Many digital libraries offer
recommender systems
to reduce
information overload
and help their users discovering relevant literature. Some examples of digital libraries offering recommender systems are
IEEE Xplore
Europeana
, and
GESIS Sowiport
. The recommender systems work mostly based on
content-based filtering
but also other approaches are used such as
collaborative filtering
and citation-based recommendations.
53
Beel et al. report that there are more than 90 different recommendation approaches for digital libraries, presented in more than 200
research articles
53
Typically, digital libraries develop and maintain their own recommender systems based on existing search and recommendation frameworks such as
Apache Lucene
or
Apache Mahout
Drawbacks of digital libraries
edit
Digital libraries, or at least their digital collections, also have brought their own problems and challenges in areas such as:
User authentication
for access to collections
Digital preservation
(see
§ Digital preservation
, above)
Equity of access
(see
digital divide
Interface design
Interoperability
between systems and software
Information organization
Inefficient or non-existent
taxonomy
practices (especially with historical material)
Training and development
Quality of
metadata
Exorbitant cost of building/maintaining the terabytes of storage, servers, and redundancies necessary for a functional digital collection.
54
There are many large scale digitisation projects that perpetuate these problems.
Future development
edit
Large scale digitization projects are underway at
Google
, the
Million Book Project
, and
Internet Archive
. With continued improvements in book handling and presentation technologies such as
optical character recognition
and development of alternative depositories and business models, digital libraries are rapidly growing in popularity. Just as libraries have ventured into audio and video collections, so have digital libraries such as the Internet Archive. In 2016,
Google Books
project received a court victory on proceeding with their book-scanning project that was halted by the Authors' Guild.
55
This helped open the road for libraries to work with Google to better reach patrons who are accustomed to computerized information.
According to Larry Lannom, Director of Information Management Technology at the nonprofit
Corporation for National Research Initiatives
(CNRI), "all the problems associated with digital libraries are wrapped up in archiving". He goes on to state, "If in 100 years people can still read your article, we'll have solved the problem."
Daniel Akst
, author of
The Webster Chronicle
, proposes that "the future of libraries—and of information—is digital".
Peter Lyman
and
Hal Variant
, information scientists at the
University of California, Berkeley
, estimate that "the world's total yearly production of print, film, optical, and magnetic content would require roughly 1.5 billion gigabytes of storage". Therefore, they believe that "soon it will be technologically possible for an average person to access virtually all recorded information".
56
Digital archives are an evolving medium and they develop under various circumstances. Alongside large scale repositories, other digital archiving projects have also evolved in response to needs in research and
research communication
on various institutional levels. For example, during the
COVID-19 pandemic
libraries
and higher education institutions have launched digital archiving projects to document life during the pandemic, thus creating a digital, cultural record of
collective memories
from the period.
57
Researchers have also utilized digital archiving to create specialized
research databases
. These databases compile digital records for use on international and interdisciplinary levels. COVID CORPUS, launched in October 2020, is an example of such a database, built in response to scientific communication needs in light of the pandemic.
58
Beyond academia, digital collections have also recently been developed to appeal to a more general audience, as is the case with the Selected General Audience Content of the Internet-First University Press developed by Cornell University. This general-audience database contains specialized research information but is digitally organized for accessibility.
59
The establishment of these archives has facilitated specialized forms of digital recordkeeping to fulfill various niches in online,
research-based communication.
See also
edit
Anna's Archive
Bibliographic database
Content repository
Digital Library Federation
Digital Collections Selection Criteria
Digitization
D-Lib
, magazine about digital libraries
Full-text database
List of digital library projects
List of online educational resources
Mobile library
Panjab Digital Library
Shadow library
Traveling library
Web archive
Z-Library
References
edit
Witten, Ian H.; Bainbridge, David Nichols (2009).
How to Build a Digital Library
(2nd ed.). Morgan Kaufman.
ISBN
9780080890395
Lanagan, James; Smeaton, Alan F. (September 2012). "Video digital libraries: contributive and decentralized".
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S2CID
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doi
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ISSN
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ISBN
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. Retrieved
30 April
2018
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Mundaneum
– that was initiated and driven by their idea that, if they would be able to collect all human knowledge and make it accessible to everybody worldwide, then this would bring about peace on Earth.
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doi
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hdl
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Case Western Reserve Journal of Law, Technology & The Internet
, 1.2 (Spring 2010), 145.
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Further reading
edit
Harvey, Ross; Weatherburn, Jaye (2018).
Preserving Digital Materials
(3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
ISBN
9781538102985
McCormack, Allison, and Rachel Wittmann. (2022) "Rarely Analyzed The Relationship Between Digital and Physical Rare Books Collections".
Information technology and libraries
41.2; 1–13.
Pomerantz, Jeffrey, and
Gary Marchionini
. 2007. "The Digital Library as Place".
Journal of Documentation
63(4): 505–33.
External links
edit
Scholia
has a
topic
profile for
Digital library
Ebooks Elibrary
Computer science
This template follows roughly the 2012
ACM Computing Classification System
Hardware
Printed circuit board
Peripheral
Integrated circuit
Very-large-scale integration
System on a chip
(SoC)
Energy consumption
(green computing)
Electronic design automation
Hardware acceleration
Processor
Size
Form
Systems
organization
Computer architecture
Computational complexity
Dependability
Embedded system
Real-time computing
Cyber-physical system
Fault tolerance
Wireless sensor network
Networks
Network architecture
Network protocol
Network components
Network scheduler
Network performance evaluation
Network service
Software
organization
Interpreter
Middleware
Virtual machine
Operating system
Software quality
Software
notations
tools
Programming paradigm
Programming language
Compiler
Domain-specific language
Modeling language
Software framework
Integrated development environment
Software configuration management
Software library
Software repository
Software
development
Control flow
Software development process
Requirements analysis
Software design
Software construction
Software deployment
Software engineering
Software maintenance
Programming team
Open source
model
Theory of
computing
Model of computation
Stochastic
Formal language
Automata theory
Computability theory
Computational complexity theory
Logic
Semantics
Algorithms
Algorithm design
Analysis of algorithms
Algorithmic efficiency
Randomized algorithm
Computational geometry
Mathematics
of
computing
Discrete mathematics
Probability
Statistics
Mathematical software
Information theory
Mathematical analysis
Numerical analysis
Theoretical computer science
Computational problem
Information
systems
Database
management
Information storage
Enterprise information
Social information
Geographic information
Decision support
Process control
Multimedia information
Data mining
Digital library
Computing platform
Digital marketing
World Wide Web
Information retrieval
Security
Cryptography
Formal methods
Security hacker
Security
services
Intrusion detection system
Hardware security
Network security
Information security
Application security
Human-
centered
computing
Interaction design
Augmented reality
Virtual reality
Social computing
Ubiquitous computing
Visualization
Human–computer interaction
Mobile computing
Concurrency
Concurrent computing
Parallel computing
Distributed computing
Multithreading
Multiprocessing
Artificial
intelligence
Computational intelligence
Natural language processing
Knowledge representation and reasoning
Computer vision
Automated planning and scheduling
Search methodology
Control method
Philosophy of
Distributed
Machine
learning
Supervised
Unsupervised
Reinforcement
Multi-task
Cross-validation
Graphics
Animation
Rendering
Photograph manipulation
Graphics processing unit
Image compression
Solid modeling
Applied
computing
Quantum computing
E-commerce
Enterprise software
Computational mathematics
Computational physics
Computational chemistry
Computational biology
Computational social science
Computational engineering
Differentiable computing
Computational healthcare
Digital art
Electronic publishing
Cyberwarfare
Electronic voting
Video games
Word processing
Operations research
Educational technology
Document management
Outline
Glossaries
Category
Semantic Web
Background
Databases
Hypertext
Internet
Ontologies
Semantics
Semantic networks
World Wide Web
Sub-topics
Dataspaces
Hyperdata
Linked data
Rule-based systems
Applications
Semantic analytics
Semantic computing
Semantic mapper
Semantic matching
Semantic publishing
Semantic reasoner
Semantic search
Semantic service-oriented architecture
Semantic wiki
Solid
Related topics
Collective intelligence
Description logic
Folksonomy
Geotagging
Information architecture
iXBRL
Knowledge extraction
Knowledge management
Knowledge representation and reasoning
Library 2.0
Digital library
Digital humanities
Metadata
References
Topic map
Web 2.0
Web engineering
Web Science Trust
Standards
Syntax and supporting technologies
HTTP
IRI
URI
RDF
triples
RDF/XML
JSON-LD
Turtle
TriG
Notation3
N-Triples
TriX
(no W3C standard)
RRID
SPARQL
XML
Semantic HTML
Schemas, ontologies and rules
Common Logic
OWL
RDFS
Rule Interchange Format
Semantic Web Rule Language
SHACL
Semantic annotation
COinS
GRDDL
Microdata
Microformats
RDFa
SAWSDL
Facebook Platform
Common vocabularies
BIBFRAME
BIBO
DOAP
Dublin Core
MODS
MADS
FOAF
Schema.org
SIOC
SKOS
Microformat vocabularies
hAtom
hCalendar
hCard
h-feed
hProduct
hRecipe
hReview
Digital humanities
Computational archaeology
Computational philosophy
Computational theory of mind
Computers and writing
Cultural analytics
Cybertext
Digital classics
Digital history
Digital library
Digital Medievalist
Digital ontology
Digital physics
Digital religion
Digital rhetoric
Digital scholarship
Digital theology
Digitization
E-research
Electronic literature
Humanistic informatics
New media
Philosophy of computer science
Semantic Web
Systems theory
Text Encoding Initiative
Transliteracy
Software
digital distribution
platforms
App store
Cloud gaming
Content delivery network
Digital library
Digital distribution of video games
Over-the-air update
Package manager
Software distribution
List of mobile app distribution platforms
Android
Active
Personal
computers
Amazon Digital Game Store
Battle.net
Big Fish Games
Chrome Web Store
Direct2Drive
Discord
DLsite
Discover
DMM Games
EA
Epic Games Store
Flathub
GameHouse
GamersGate
Gamesplanet
Game Jolt
GOG.com
Humble Store
IndieGala
itch.io
iWin
MacGameStore
MacUpdate
Mac App Store
Meta Horizon Store
Microsoft Store
MSN Games
Nutaku
Pogo.com
Pokki
PureOS Software Center
Robot Cache
Rockstar Games Social Club
Snap Store
Steam
Ubisoft Connect
Viveport
WeGame
WildTangent
Consoles
Microsoft Store
Nintendo eShop
PlayStation Store
Mobile
devices
Amazon Appstore
Apple App Store
Appland
Aptoide
Cafe Bazaar
Cydia
DLsite
Epic Games Store
F-Droid
Galaxy Store
GetJar
Google Play
Huawei AppGallery
Meta Horizon Store
MiKandi
Nutaku
OpenStore
PureOS Software Center
RuStore
Tencent Appstore
SlideME
TapTap
Viveport
Arcade
NESiCAxLive
Defunct
Allmyapps
BlackBerry World
Club Nokia
Desura
Digital River
Download!
GameAgent
GameLine
GameShadow
GameTap
Games for Windows Marketplace
Handango
Impulse
Intel AppUp
Kartridge
Kazaa
N-Gage
Nokia Store
Opera Mobile Store
PlayCable
Playism
PlayNow Arena
RealArcade
Satellaview
Sega Channel
Sega Meganet
Stardock Central
Triton
Ubuntu App Store
Ubuntu Software Center
Vodafone live!
Wii Shop Channel
Windows Marketplace
Windows Marketplace for Mobile
Windows Phone Store
Xbox Games Store
Xbox Live Arcade
Yahoo! Games
Zune Marketplace
§ Also includes
smart TVs
and standalone
VR headsets
Category
Portal
Libraries
and
library science
Types of library
Academic
Archive
Branch
Children's
Christian
Consortium
Digital
shadow
Hybrid
Law
Lending
Library of things
Map
Medicine
Mobile
Music
National
Presidential
U.S.
Prison
Private
Public
Carnegie
Research
School
Learning Resource Centre
virtual
Special collections
Special library
Street
Subscription
Tool
Toy
Transportation
Traveling
Types of
librarian
Distance education
E-science
Medical record
Music
ensemble
Periodicals/serials
School
Information professional
Informationist
Library and information scientist
Library science
Five laws
Library and information science
Education for librarianship
Acquisitions
Archival science
Assessment
Cataloging
catalog
OPAC
Circulation
Classification
Collection development
Collective collection
Conservation
Discovery system
Electronic resource management
Information literacy
Inventory
Legal deposit
Library history
Library instruction
Library management
Library publishing
Preservation
Readers' advisory
Reference
virtual
roving
Stack
Mobile shelving
Technical services
Weeding
History
History of libraries
History of library science
Lists
Libraries
by country
by size
ancient
destroyed
medical
national
Library associations
Library schools
Librarians
women
fictional
Archivists
women
Category:Libraries
Category:Library science
Commons
Glossary
Outline
WikiProject
Music
digital distribution
platforms
Digital library
Music streaming service
Digital music store
Music download
Active
7digital
Amazon Music
Amuse
Apple Music
Anghami
Audacy
Audiomack
Bandcamp
Beatport
Believe
Bleep.com
Boomplay
CD Baby
Classical Archives
cloudLibrary
Deezer
Digitally Imported
DistroKid
Ditto Music
Djshop
EmuBands
eMusic
HDtracks
Hoopla
Icecast
IDAGIO
iHeartRadio
iTunes Store
Jamendo
Juno Records
Labelcaster
LANDR
Last.fm
Line Music
Live365
LiveOne (Live X Live / Slacker)
MAD Solutions
Melon
Mixcloud
MOOV
mora
Music Glue
Napster (Rhapsody)
Nintendo Music
ONErpm
Pandora
Patari
Qobuz
RockMyRun
ROXi
Spinlet
Spotify
SoundCloud
Sua Música
Symphonic Distribution
Tidal
TuneCore
UnitedMasters
Yandex Music
YouTube Music
Discontinued
8tracks.com
AOL Radio/Radio@AOL
AllOfMP3
Amie Street
Aupeo
Bandit.fm
BlackBerry World
BuyMusic
Electric Jukebox
GhostTunes
GoMusicNow
Google Play Music
Grooveshark
Guvera
Internet Underground Music Archive
imeem
iMesh
Kazaa
Magnatune
Mixcrate
Mog
MP3.com
MSN Music
Murfie
Music Unlimited
Nokia Store
MixRadio
MusicStation
Nimbit
NoiseTrade
Play.com
PlayNow Arena
Pono
PressPlay
Puretracks
Radical.fm
Radionomy
rara
Simfy
Sony Connect
Spinner
SpiralFrog
Stardock Central
Streamwaves
Style Jukebox
Taazi
TuneTribe
WiMP
Wowloud
Yahoo! Music Radio / LAUNCHcast
Yahoo! Music Unlimited
Zune Marketplace
Online video
and sharing platforms
Digital library
Streaming media
Video on demand
Free
56.com
Amazon Freevee
Aparat
Apple TV
AcFun
Bilibili
Binge
Bioscope
BitChute
Bigo Live
Bongo BD
Brightcove
Buzznet
Chorki
CHZZK
cloudLibrary
Dailymotion
Daum
Dlive
Endeavor Streaming
The Film Detective
FilmOn
Flickr
Fotki
Funny or Die
Funshion
GOG.com
hoopla
iQIYI
Kanopy
Kick
LBRY
Odysee
Le
Mango TV
Medici.tv
meWATCH
Niconico
Odnoklassniki
PeerTube
PictureBox Films
Plex
Pluto TV
puhutv
Rumble
Rutube
SchoolTube
Showroom
Sohu
SOOP
TeacherTube
Teaching Channel
Telly
thePlatform
Toffee
Tudou
Triller
Twitch
TwitCasting
VBox7
Vimeo
Vudu
VK Video
WeTV
Xigua Video
Xunlei Kankan
Youku
Kids
YouNow
Zattoo
Rental and
purchase
Aha
Amazon Prime Video
Apple TV
Exxen
Fandango
Fandango at Home
Google
Google TV
YouTube Movies & TV
iTunes Store
Microsoft Movies & TV
Movies Anywhere
Nintendo eShop
Plex
Rakuten TV
Sony Pictures Core
Others
AMC+
Apple TV+
Bioscope
Bongo BD
Chorki
Crunchyroll
Curiosity Stream
Disney+
ESPN+
HBO Max
Hidive
Hulu
Netflix
Paramount+
Peacock
Pluto TV
Starz
Showtime
Toffee
Tubi
Discontinued
Amazon Freevee
Azubu
BBC Store
Blip.tv
BluTV
Break.com
Chicken Pork Adobo
CinemaNow
Daisuki
Disney Movies Anywhere
Fearnet
FilmStruck
Flixster
Funimation
Global Wrestling Network
Google Video
Hitbox
imeem
iMesh
Intel AppUp
In2TV
Joost
Justin.tv
Kazaa
LiveLeak
LoveFilm
Megaupload
Mixer
MUZU.TV
Metacafe
MyVideo
Nintendo Channel
Nintendo Video
Noggin
Nokia Store
Openfilm
Openload
Pandora TV
PlayStation Video
PLUS7
Presto
Putlocker
Quickflix
Redbox
Revver
Sony Connect
Sony Entertainment Network
Stage6
Starlight Networks
Streamworks International
Super Deluxe
TalkTalk TV Store
Tank Top TV
TouchVision
Trilulilu
Triton
TroopTube
Toons.TV
Twango
UltraViolet
Total Access
Impact Wrestling
Vdio
Vessel
Viddler
Vidme
Vine
Vongo
Warner Archive Instant
WeShow
Windows Media Center
WWE Classics on Demand
Cultural heritage
and
historic preservation
Topics
and issues
Agents of deterioration
Archival processing
Archaeological science
Archaeology
Archive
Bioarchaeology
Book
Calendar (archives)
Conservation and restoration of cultural property
Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property
Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property
Conservation science (cultural property)
Collecting
Collection (museum)
Collection catalog
Collections maintenance
Collections management
Collections management system
Cultural heritage
Cultural heritage management
Cultural property
Cultural property documentation
Cultural property exhibition
Cultural property imaging
Cultural property storage
Cultural resource management
Database preservation
Deaccessioning
Digital library
Digital photograph restoration
Digital preservation
Disaster preparedness (cultural property)
Documentary editing
Film preservation
Finding aid
Fonds
Found in collection
Heritage asset
Heritage science
Historic site
Inherent vice
Intangible cultural heritage
Integrated pest management (cultural property)
Inventory (library and archive)
Inventory (museums)
Media preservation
Midden
Mold control and prevention (library and archive)
Museum
Optical media preservation
Preservation (library and archive)
Preservation metadata
Preservation survey
Provenance
Repatriation
Ruins
Sustainable preservation
Treasure
Web archiving
Roles
and expertise
Archivist
Art dealer
Art handler
Auctioneer
Collection manager
Conservator-restorer
Conservation scientist
Conservation technician
Curator
Exhibition designer
Mount maker
Objects conservator
Paintings conservator
Photograph conservator
Preservationist
Registrar (cultural property)
Textile conservator
Methods
and techniques
Aging (artwork)
Anastylosis
Arrested decay
Cradling (paintings)
Cultural property radiography
Detachment of wall paintings
Desmet method
Display case
Digital repository audit method based on risk assessment
Historic paint analysis
Inpainting
Kintsugi
Leafcasting
Lining of paintings
Mass deacidification
Overpainting
Paleo-inspiration
Paper splitting
Reconstruction (architecture)
Rissverklebung
Textile stabilization
Transfer of panel paintings
UVC-based preservation
VisualAudio
Conservation
and restoration
of immovable
cultural property
by item type
Archaeological sites
Cultural venues
Frescos
Heritage railways
Historic gardens
Outdoor artworks
Outdoor bronze objects
Outdoor murals
Conservation
and restoration
of movable
cultural property
by item type
Aircraft
Ancient Greek pottery
Bone, horn, and antler objects
Books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera
Ceramic objects
Clocks
Copper-based objects
Feathers
Film
Flags and banners
Fur objects
Glass objects
Herbaria
Human remains
Illuminated manuscripts
Insect specimens
Iron and steel objects
Ivory objects
Judaica
Lacquerware
Leather objects
Lighthouses
Metals
Musical instruments
Neon objects
New media art
Paintings
Painting frames
Panel paintings
Papyrus
Parchment
Performance art
Photographs
Photographic plates
Plastic objects
Rail vehicles
Road vehicles
Shipwreck artifacts
Silver objects
South Asian household shrines
Stained glass
Taxidermy
Textiles
Tibetan thangkas
Time-based media art
Totem poles
Vinyl discs
Woodblock prints
Wooden artifacts
Wooden furniture
Intangible
cultural heritage
preservation
Ancient music
Applied folklore
Dance notation
Early music
Endangered language
Ethnochoreology
Ethnomusicology
Ethnopoetics
Family folklore
Folklore
Folk art
Folk dance
Folk etymology
Folk instrument
Folk music
Folk process
Folk play
Foodways
Folklore studies
Heritage language
Heritage language learning
Indigenous intellectual property
Indigenous culture
Indigenous language
Language death
Language preservation
Language revitalization
Living history
Oral history preservation
Preservation of meaning
Prehistoric music
Tradition preservation
Traditional knowledge
Traditional medicine
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Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Conservation-restoration of
Ecce Homo
by Elías García Martínez
Conservation-restoration of
The Gross Clinic
by Thomas Eakins
Conservation-restoration of Leonardo da Vinci's
The Last Supper
Pompeian frescoes
Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin
Conservation-restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes
Conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty
Conservation-restoration of the
H.L. Hunley
Conservation response to flood of Arno, Florence
Modern and Contemporary Art Research Initiative
Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies
World Heritage Site
Authority control databases
International
GND
National
United States
France
BnF data
Japan
Czech Republic
Spain
Israel
Other
Yale LUX
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