Digital object identifier - Wikipedia

Digital object identifier - Wikipedia
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ISO standard unique string identifier for a digital object
Digital object identifier
Full name
Digital Object Identifier
Acronym
DOI
Organisation
International DOI Foundation
Introduced
October 1997
; 28 years ago
1997-10
Example
10.1000/182
Website
www
.doi
.org
/the-identifier
/what-is-a-doi
digital object identifier
DOI
) is a
persistent identifier
, or persistent
handle
, used to uniquely identify various objects, standardized by the
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO).
DOIs are an implementation of the
Handle System
they also fit within the URI system (
Uniform Resource Identifier
). They are widely used to identify academic, professional, and government information, such as
journal
articles, research reports, data sets, and official
publications
A DOI aims to resolve to its target, the information object to which the DOI refers. This is achieved by binding the DOI to
metadata
about the object, such as a
URL
where the object is located. Thus, by being actionable and
interoperable
, a DOI differs from
ISBNs
or
ISRCs
which are identifiers only. The DOI system uses the
indecs Content Model
to represent
metadata
The DOI for a
document
remains fixed over the lifetime of the document, whereas its location and other metadata may change. Referring to an online document by its DOI should provide a more stable link than directly using its URL, but if its URL changes, the publisher must update the metadata for the DOI to maintain the link to the URL.
It is the publisher's responsibility to update the DOI database. If they fail to do so, the DOI resolves to a
dead link
, leaving the DOI useless.
The developer and administrator of the DOI system is the International DOI Foundation (IDF), which introduced it in 2000.
Organizations that meet the contractual obligations of the DOI system and are willing to pay to become a member of the system can assign DOIs.
10
The DOI system is implemented through a federation of registration agencies coordinated by the IDF.
11
The cumulative number of DOIs has increased exponentially over time, from 50 million registrations in 2011 to 391 million in 2025.
12
The rate of registering organizations ("members") has also increased over time from 4,000 in 2011 to 9,500 in 2013, but the federated nature of the system means it is not immediately clear how many members there are in total today.
13
Fake registries have even appeared.
14
Nomenclature and syntax
edit
A DOI is a type of Handle System handle, which takes the form of a
character string
divided into two parts, a prefix and a suffix, separated by a slash.
prefix/suffix
The prefix identifies the registrant of the identifier and the suffix is chosen by the registrant and identifies the specific object associated with that DOI. Most legal
Unicode
characters are allowed in these strings, which are interpreted in a
case-insensitive
manner. The prefix usually takes the form
10.NNNN
, where
NNNN
is a number greater than or equal to
1000
, whose limit depends only on the total number of registrants.
15
16
The prefix may be further subdivided with periods, like
10.NNNN.N
17
For example, in the DOI name
10.1000/182
, the prefix is
10.1000
and the suffix is
182
. The "10" part of the prefix distinguishes the handle as part of the DOI namespace, as opposed to some other Handle System namespace,
and the characters
1000
in the prefix identify the registrant; in this case the registrant is the International DOI Foundation itself.
182
is the suffix, or item ID, identifying a single object (in this case, the latest version of the
DOI Handbook
).
DOI names can identify creative works (such as texts, images, audio or video items, and software) in both electronic and physical forms,
performances
, and abstract works
18
such as licenses, parties to a transaction, etc.
The names can refer to objects at varying levels of detail: thus DOI names can identify a journal, an individual issue of a journal, an individual article in the journal, or a single table in that article. The choice of level of detail is left to the assigner, but in the DOI system it must be declared as part of the metadata that is associated with a DOI name, using a
data dictionary
based on the
indecs Content Model
Display
edit
The official
DOI Handbook
explicitly states that DOIs should be displayed on screens and in print in the format
doi:10.1000/182
19
Contrary to the
DOI Handbook
Crossref
, a major DOI registration agency, recommends displaying a URL (for example,
) instead of the officially specified format.
20
21
The DOI Foundation guarantees these URLs to be persistent
22
—i.e. such URLs are
PURLs
, providing the location of a
name resolver
which will redirect
HTTP requests
to the correct online location of the linked item.
10
23
The Crossref recommendation is primarily based on the assumption that the DOI is being displayed without being hyperlinked to its appropriate URL—the argument being that without the hyperlink it is not as easy to copy-and-paste the full URL to actually bring up the page for the DOI, thus the entire URL should be displayed, allowing people viewing the page containing the DOI to copy-and-paste the URL, by hand, into a new window/tab in their
browser
in order to go to the appropriate page for the document the DOI represents.
24
Currently, major citation styles differ in their guidelines for formatting the DOI, with AMA
25
style using the
DOI Handbook
format and APA
26
, MLA
27
and Chicago Style
28
using the full URL format.
Content
edit
Major content of the DOI system currently includes:
Scholarly materials
(journal articles, books, ebooks, etc.) through
Crossref
, a consortium of around 3,000 publishers;
Airiti
, a leading provider of Chinese and Taiwanese electronic academic journals; and the Japan Link Center (JaLC)
29
an organization providing link management and DOI assignment for electronic academic journals in Japanese.
Research datasets through
DataCite
, a consortium of leading research libraries, technical information providers, and scientific data centers;
European Union
official publications through the
EU publications office
The
Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure
project at
Tsinghua University
and the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China (ISTIC), two initiatives sponsored by the Chinese government.
Permanent global identifiers for both commercial and non-commercial audio/visual content titles, edits, and manifestations through the Entertainment ID Registry, commonly known as
EIDR
In the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
's publication service
OECD iLibrary
, each table or graph in an OECD publication is shown with a DOI name that leads to an Excel file of data underlying the tables and graphs. Further development of such services is planned.
30
Other registries include
Crossref
and the
multilingual European DOI Registration Agency
(mEDRA).
31
Since 2015,
RFCs
can be referenced as
doi:10.17487/rfc
...
32
Features and benefits
edit
The IDF designed the DOI system to provide
persistent identification
. Each DOI name permanently and clearly identifies the object it belongs to (although when the publisher of a journal changes, sometimes all the DOIs will be changed, with the old DOIs no longer working). It also associates
metadata
with objects, allowing it to provide users with relevant pieces of information about the objects and their relationships. Included as part of this metadata are network actions that allow DOI names to be resolved to web locations where the objects they describe can be found. To achieve its goals, the DOI system combines the
Handle System
and the
indecs Content Model
with a social infrastructure.
The Handle System ensures that the DOI name for an object is not based on any changeable attributes of the object such as its physical location or ownership, that the attributes of the object are encoded in its metadata rather than in its DOI name, and that no two objects are assigned the same DOI name. Because DOI names are short character strings, they are human-readable, may be copied and pasted as text, and fit into the
URI
specification. The DOI name-resolution mechanism acts behind the scenes, so that users communicate with it in the same way as with any other web service; it is built on
open architectures
, incorporates
trust mechanisms
, and is engineered to operate reliably and flexibly so that it can be adapted to changing demands and new applications of the DOI system.
33
DOI name-resolution may be used with
OpenURL
to select the most appropriate among multiple locations for a given object, according to the location of the user making the request.
34
However, despite this ability, the DOI system has drawn criticism from librarians for directing users to non-free copies of documents, that would have been available for no additional fee from alternative locations.
35
The
indecs Content Model
as used within the DOI system associates metadata with objects. A small kernel of common metadata is shared by all DOI names and can be optionally extended with other relevant data, which may be public or restricted. Registrants may update the metadata for their DOI names at any time, such as when publication information changes or when an object moves to a different URL.
The International DOI Foundation (IDF) oversees the integration of these technologies and operation of the system through a technical and social infrastructure. The social infrastructure of a federation of independent registration agencies offering DOI services was modelled on existing successful federated deployments of identifiers such as
GS1
and
ISBN
Comparison with other identifier schemes
edit
A DOI name differs from commonly used Internet pointers to material, such as the
Uniform Resource Locator
(URL), in that it identifies an object itself as a first-class entity, rather than the specific place where the object is located at a certain time. It implements the
Uniform Resource Identifier
Uniform Resource Name
) concept and adds to it a data model and social infrastructure.
36
A DOI name also differs from standard identifier registries such as the
ISBN
ISRC
, etc. The purpose of an identifier registry is to manage a given collection of identifiers, whereas the primary purpose of the DOI system is to make a collection of identifiers actionable and interoperable, where that collection can include identifiers from many other controlled collections.
37
The DOI system offers persistent,
semantically interoperable
resolution to related current data and is best suited to material that will be used in services outside the direct control of the issuing assigner (e.g., public citation or managing content of value). It uses a managed registry (providing both social and technical infrastructure). It does not assume any specific business model for the provision of identifiers or services and enables other existing services to link to it in defined ways. Several approaches for making identifiers persistent have been proposed.
The comparison of persistent identifier approaches is difficult because they are not all doing the same thing. Imprecisely referring to a set of schemes as "identifiers" does not mean that they can be compared easily. Other "identifier systems" may be enabling technologies with low barriers to entry, providing an easy-to-use labeling mechanism that allows anyone to set up a new instance (examples include
Persistent Uniform Resource Locator
(PURL), URLs,
Globally Unique Identifiers
(GUIDs), etc.), but may lack some of the functionality of a registry-controlled scheme and will usually lack accompanying metadata in a controlled scheme.
The DOI system does not have this approach and should not be compared directly to such identifier schemes. Various applications using such enabling technologies with added features have been devised that meet some of the features offered by the DOI system for specific sectors (e.g.,
ARK
).
A DOI name does not depend on the object's location and, in this way, is similar to a
Uniform Resource Name
(URN) or PURL but differs from an ordinary URL. URLs are often used as substitute identifiers for documents on the Internet although the same document at two different locations has two URLs. By contrast, persistent identifiers such as DOI names identify objects as first class entities: two instances of the same object would have the same DOI name. In May, 2024, an
Internet Draft
was introduced to register the "doi" scheme,.
38
Many experts were not aware of this draft,
39
and the latest draft has currently expired.
Resolution
edit
To resolve a DOI name, it may be input to a DOI resolver, such as one at the official website
DOI name resolution is provided through the
Handle System
, which is an infrastructure developed and operated by CNRI (
Corporation for National Research Initiatives
), and is freely available to any user encountering a DOI name. Resolution redirects the user from a DOI name to one or more pieces of typed data: URLs representing instances of the object, services such as e-mail, or one or more items of metadata. To the Handle System, a DOI name is a handle, and so has a set of values assigned to it and may be thought of as a record that consists of a group of fields. Each handle value must have a data type specified in its

field, which defines the syntax and semantics of its data. While a DOI persistently and uniquely identifies the object to which it is assigned, DOI resolution may not be persistent, due to technical and administrative issues.
Another approach, which avoids typing or
copying and pasting
into a resolver is to include the DOI in a document as a URL which uses the resolver as an HTTP proxy, such as
(preferred)
40
or
, both of which support HTTPS. For example, the DOI
10.1000/182
can be included in a reference or
hyperlink
as
. This approach allows users to click on the DOI as a normal
hyperlink
. Indeed, as previously mentioned, this is how Crossref recommends that DOIs always be represented (preferring HTTPS over HTTP), so that if they are cut-and-pasted into other documents, emails, etc., they will be actionable.
An interesting consequence of the fact that DOIs depend entirely on CNRI's Handle System infrastructure (whereby CNRI operates the global root servers and wrote the protocol) is that the proxy services
DOI.org/<#>
and
hdl.handle.net/<#>
are interoperable. For example, the following URIs resolve to the same publication:
There are other DOI resolvers and HTTP Proxies apart from NCRI's
Handle System
. At the beginning of the year 2016, a new class of alternative DOI resolvers was started by
(now discontinued
41
). This service was unusual in that it tried to find a
non-paywalled
(often
author archived
) version of a title and redirected the user to that instead of the
publisher's version
42
Since then, other open-access favoring DOI resolvers have been created, notably
in October 2016
43
(rebranded in 2017 as
). While traditional DOI resolvers solely rely on the Handle System, alternative DOI resolvers first consult multiple Open Access resources such as institutional libraries with the
Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting
(OAI-PMH), or indexing services based in OAI-PMH, such as
BASE
(Bielefeld Academic Search Engine).
41
43
An alternative to HTTP proxies is to use one of a number of add-ons and plug-ins for
browsers
, thereby avoiding the conversion of the DOIs to URLs,
44
which depend on domain names and may be subject to change, while still allowing the DOI to be treated as a normal hyperlink. A disadvantage of this approach for publishers is that, at least at present, most users will be encountering the DOIs in a browser,
mail reader
, or other software which does not have one of these plug-ins installed.
IDF organizational structure
edit
International DOI Foundation
Logo of the foundation
Company type
501(c)(6) organization
Founded
October 10, 1997
; 28 years ago
1997-10-10
The
International DOI Foundation
IDF
), a non-profit organization created in 1997, is the governance body of the DOI system.
45
It safeguards all
intellectual property rights
relating to the DOI system, manages common operational features, and supports the development and promotion of the DOI system. The IDF ensures that any improvements made to the DOI system (including creation, maintenance, registration, resolution and policymaking of DOI names) are available to any DOI registrant. It also prevents third parties from imposing additional licensing requirements beyond those of the IDF on users of the DOI system.
The IDF is controlled by a Board elected by the members of the Foundation, with an appointed Managing Agent who is responsible for co-ordinating and planning its activities. Membership is open to all organizations with an interest in electronic publishing and related enabling technologies. The IDF holds annual open meetings on the topics of DOI and related issues.
Registration agencies, appointed by the IDF, provide services to DOI registrants: they allocate DOI prefixes, register DOI names, and provide the necessary infrastructure to allow registrants to declare and maintain metadata and state data. Registration agencies are also expected to actively promote the widespread adoption of the DOI system, to cooperate with the IDF in the development of the DOI system as a whole, and to provide services on behalf of their specific user community. A list of current RAs is maintained by the International DOI Foundation. The IDF is recognized as one of the federated registrars for the Handle System by the DONA Foundation (of which the IDF is a board member), and is responsible for assigning Handle System prefixes under the top-level
10
prefix.
46
Registration agencies generally charge a fee to assign a new DOI name; parts of these fees are used to support the IDF. The DOI system overall, through the IDF, operates on a
not-for-profit
cost recovery basis.
Standardization
edit
The DOI system is an international standard developed by the
International Organization for Standardization
in its technical committee on identification and description, TC46/SC9.
47
The Draft International Standard ISO/DIS 26324,
Information and documentation – Digital Object Identifier System
met the ISO requirements for approval. The relevant ISO Working Group later submitted an edited version to ISO for distribution as an FDIS (Final Draft International Standard) ballot,
48
which was approved by 100% of those voting in a ballot closing on 15 November 2010.
49
The final standard was published on 23 April 2012.
DOI is a registered URI under the
info URI scheme
specified by IETF RFC 4452.
50
info:doi/
is the infoURI Namespace of Digital Object Identifiers.
51
The DOI syntax is a
NISO
standard, first standardized in 2000, ANSI/NISO Z39.84-2005 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier.
52
The maintainers of the DOI system have registered a DOI namespace for
URNs
53
See also
edit
arXiv
Bibcode
DataCite
Digital identity
Metadata standard
Object identifier
ORCID
Permalink
PMID
Publisher Item Identifier
(PII)
Scientific literature
Universally unique identifier
(UUID)
Notes
edit
Other registries are identified by other strings at the start of the prefix.
References
edit
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. Serials.
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Archived
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. Retrieved
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2016
All DOI prefixes begin with "10" to distinguish the DOI from other implementations of the Handle System followed by a four-digit number or string (the prefix can be longer if necessary).
"Factsheet—Key Facts on Digital Object Identifier System"
. International DOI Foundation. 6 June 2016.
Archived
from the original on 5 June 2016
. Retrieved
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2024
Over 18,000 DOI name prefixes within the DOI System
"DOI Handbook—2 Numbering"
. International DOI Foundation. 1 February 2016. Archived from
the original
on 30 June 2014
. Retrieved
10 June
2016
The registrant code may be further divided into sub-elements for administrative convenience if desired. Each sub-element of the registrant code shall be preceded by a full stop.
"Frequently asked questions about the DOI system: 6. What can a DOI name be assigned to?"
DOI Foundation
. 3 July 2018.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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2018
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doi.org
. 13 February 2014. Section 2.6.1 Screen and print presentation.
Archived
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. Retrieved
30 June
2014
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doi
10.13003/5jchdy
Archived
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. Retrieved
19 October
2016
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Archived
from the original on 19 October 2016
. Retrieved
19 October
2016
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. Archived from
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on 27 September 2025
. Retrieved
6 October
2025
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"Resolving DOI Based URNs Using Squid: An Experimental System at UKOLN"
D-Lib Magazine
doi
10.1045/june98-powell
ISSN
1082-9873
Archived
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. Retrieved
23 April
2010
ChrissieCW.
"Crossref Revises DOI Display Guidelines - Crossref"
crossref.org
Archived
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. Retrieved
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2018
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AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors
(11 ed.). Oxford University PressNew York.
doi
10.1093/jama/9780190246556.001.0001
ISBN
978-0-19-024655-6
American Psychological Association (2022).
"Style and Grammar Guidelines: DOIs and URLs"
"If I want to include a DOI for a book chapter in my works-cited-list entry, where should I insert it?"
MLA Style Center
. 23 August 2018
. Retrieved
17 April
2026
The Chicago Manual of Style - 18th ed. (2024).
"Citation Quick Guide"
{{
cite web
}}
|last=
has generic name (
help
CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
link
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japanlinkcenter.org
Archived
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. Retrieved
6 August
2022
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"We Need Publishing Standards for Datasets and Data Tables"
Research Information
doi
10.1787/603233448430
"multilingual European DOI Registration Agency"
. mEDRA.org. 2003.
Archived
from the original on 1 February 2018
. Retrieved
2 February
2018
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(October 2015).
Assigning Digital Object Identifiers to RFCs
Internet Architecture Board
doi
10.17487/RFC7669
RFC
7669
Informational.
sec. 3.
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Ars Technica
Archived
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doi
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PMC
261894
PMID
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. IOS Press. p. 74.
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Archived
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2010
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. ietf.org
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2025
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. WSDL.
Archived
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2025
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"Resolution"
DOI Handbook
Archived
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2015
"DOAI"
. CAPSH (Committee for the Accessibility of Publications in Sciences and Humanities). Archived from the original on 25 August 2016
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Archived
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2017
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2012
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (
link
"Standards and Specifications"
Overviews & Standards
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2010
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Overviews & Standards
. doi.org. 18 November 2010. Archived from
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2011
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4452
"About "info" URIs – Frequently Asked Questions"
. Info-uri.info.
Archived
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7 August
2010
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(PDF)
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Archived
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. IANA.
External links
edit
Wikidata
has the property:
DOI (P356)
(see
uses
Official website
DOI Resources
from DOI.org, including Factsheets, FAQs, and more
shortDOI Service
— A shortening service offered by the
DOI Foundation
that creates aliases for existing DOI® names of the form 10/abcde
Crossref Metadata Search
from CrossRef.org
Crossref Simple Text Query
from CrossRef.org
International numbering standards
Standards
ISO 2108:
International Standard Book Number
(ISBN)
ISO 3297:
International Standard Serial Number
(ISSN)
ISO 3901:
International Standard Recording Code
(ISRC)
ISO 6166:
International Securities Identification Number
(ISIN)
ISO/IEC 7812
: Issuer Identification Number (IIN)
ISO 9362
: Business Entity Identifier (BIC)
ISO 10957:
International Standard Music Number
(ISMN)
ISO 13616:
International Bank Account Number
(IBAN)
ISO 15511:
International Standard Identifier for Libraries...
(ISIL)
ISO 15706:
International Standard Audiovisual Number
(ISAN)
ISO 15707:
International Standard Musical Work Code
(ISWC)
ISO 17316:
International Standard Link Identifier
(ISLI)
ISO 17442:
Legal Entity Identifier
(LEI)
ISO 21047:
International Standard Text Code
(ISTC)
ISO 26324:
Digital Object Identifier
System (DOI)
ISO 27729:
International Standard Name Identifier
(ISNI)
ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI)
CAE
IPI
Virtual International Authority File
(VIAF)
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) standards
List of
ISO standards
ISO romanizations
IEC standards
1–9999
16
17
31
-0
-1
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
68-1
128
216
217
226
228
233
259
261
262
302
306
361
500
518
519
639
-1
-2
-3
-5
-6
646
657
668
690
704
732
764
838
843
860
898
965
999
1000
1004
1007
1073-1
1073-2
1155
1413
1538
1629
1745
1989
2014
2015
2022
2033
2047
2108
2145
2146
2240
2281
2533
2709
2711
2720
2788
2848
2852
2921
3029
3103
3166
-1
-2
-3
3297
3307
3601
3602
3864
3901
3950
3977
4031
4157
4165
4217
4909
5218
5426
5427
5428
5725
5775
5776
5800
5807
5964
6166
6344
6346
6373
6385
6425
6429
6438
6523
6709
6943
7001
7002
7010
7027
7064
7098
7185
7200
7498
-1
7637
7736
7810
7811
7812
7813
7816
7942
8000
8093
8178
8217
8373
8501-1
8571
8583
8601
8613
8632
8651
8652
8691
8805/8806
8807
8820-5
8859
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-8-I
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14
-15
-16
8879
9000/9001
9036
9075
9126
9141
9227
9241
9293
9314
9362
9407
9496
9506
9529
9564
9592/9593
9594
9660
9797-1
9897
9899
9945
9984
9985
9995
10000–19999
10006
10007
10116
10118-3
10160
10161
10165
10179
10206
10218
10279
10303
-11
-21
-22
-28
-238
10383
10585
10589
10628
10646
10664
10746
10861
10957
10962
10967
11073
11170
11172
11179
11404
11544
11783
11784
11785
11801
11889
11898
11940
-2
11941
11941 (TR)
11992
12006
12052
12182
12207
12234-2
12620
13211
-1
-2
13216
13250
13399
13406-2
13450
13485
13490
13567
13568
13584
13616
13816
13818
14000
14031
14224
14289
14396
14443
14496
-2
-3
-6
-10
-11
-12
-14
-17
-20
14617
14644
14649
14651
14698
14764
14882
14971
15022
15118
15189
15288
15291
15398
15408
15444
-3
-9
15445
15438
15504
15511
15686
15693
15706
-2
15707
15897
15919
15924
15926
15926 WIP
15930
15938
16023
16262
16355-1
16485
16612-2
16750
16949 (TS)
17024
17025
17100
17203
17369
17442
17506
17799
18004
18014
18181
18245
18629
18760
18916
19005
19011
19092
-1
-2
19114
19115
19125
19136
19407
19439
19500
19501
19502
19503
19505
19506
19507
19508
19509
19510
19600
19650
19752
19757
19770
19775-1
19794-5
19831
20000–29999
20000
20022
20121
20400
20802
20830
21000
21001
21047
21122
21500
21778
21827
22000
22275
22300
22301
22395
22537
23000
23003
23008
23009
23090-3
23092
23094-1
23094-2
23270
23271
23360
23941
24517
24613
24617
24707
24728
25178
25964
26000
26262
26300
26324
27000 series
27000
27001
27002
27005
27006
27729
28000
29110
29148
29199-2
29500
30000+
30170
31000
32000
37001
38500
39075
40230
40240
40250
40260
40314
40500
42010
45001
50001
55000
56000
80000
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