Papers by Emilio Maria De Tommaso
«Il viaggio da Kamakura a Kyoto dura dodici giorni: se viaggi per undici giorni e ti fermi quando... more «Il viaggio da Kamakura a Kyoto dura dodici giorni: se viaggi per undici giorni e ti fermi quando ne manca uno, come puoi ammirare la luna sopra la capitale?».
BOLLETTINO DEL CENTRO DI STUDI VICHIANI, 2022
This paper focuses on the notions of will and action, understood as the foundation of moral agenc... more This paper focuses on the notions of will and action, understood as the foundation of moral agency, as presented in Chapter one of F. A. Piro’s Riflessioni. Piro argues that will is the active faculty of mind by which we choose among several possible actions, and, in this perspective, liberty of indifference is essential to morality. Thus, Piro rejects both Malebranche’s occasionalism, especially his view that will is determined by the love of God, and Cartesian dualism, to which he opposes a sort of substantial agnosticism. Although Piro was a member of the Order of Minim Friars, surprisingly, his view on the foundation of morality is clearly inspired by John Locke’s epistemology – and this was seen as dangerously heretical by the Roman Church.
Il dibattito tra Damaris Masham e Mary Astell sull'amore di Dio: una congettura storiografica?
RIVISTA DI STORIA DELLA FILOSOFIA
Cfr. Kulstad 1999a. Per un"analisi più dettagliata di questo aspetto si veda infra, cap. III, § §... more Cfr. Kulstad 1999a. Per un"analisi più dettagliata di questo aspetto si veda infra, cap. III, § § 3.3. e 3.4. 2 Si veda A VI-3, sezione F. De summa rerum, 460-588. 3 Cfr. Infra, Parte II, Introduzione ai testi. 1 Secondo Mark Kulstad il De summa rerum è una collezione di scritti difficile da raggruppare, che presenta spesso contraddizioni interne, ma di profondo interesse, proprio perché sono stati composti durante un periodo di profonda creatività, sviluppo intellettuale e crescita da parte di Leibniz (cfr. Kulstad 1999a, 69). 2 C. Wilson 1999, 223. 3 Cfr. M. Laerke, 2008, 439-445. 4 Lo stesso Parkinson riconosce, infatti, che vi sono delle importanti lacune tematiche e sostanziali nelle idee che il suo tentativo di ricostruzione deduttiva sistematizza (cfr. Parkinson 1986, 151). 1 «Leibnizscrive Nadleramava Parigi. Vi arrivò con enormi aspettative e la città le superò tutte. Era un ambiente eccitante per lui, dal punto di vista sia intellettuale sia sociale, e l"esperienza di quegli anni giocò un ruolo cruciale tanto per la sua maturazione filosofica quanto per la sua reputazione nel mondo delle idee» (Nadler 2009, 23). 2 Durante gli studi universitari, Leibniz decise di trascorrere il semestre estivo del 1663 a Jena, dove seguì i corsi di matematica di Ehrhardt Weigel (Weiden in der Oberpfalz, 1625-Jena, 1699), il quale era un intellettuale brillante ed ecclettico, matematico non di primo rango, filosofo e moralista (cfr. Aiton 1991, 23), che esercitò un certo fascino sul giovane Leibniz. Nel 1686 egli, infatti, ne avrebbe scritto: «c"è un professore molto abile a Jena di nome Weigel, che ha pubblicato una bella opera intitolata Analisi Euclidea, in cui vi sono molti bei pensieri per perfezionare la logica e per dare dimostrazioni in filosofia» (C, 179). Si tratta dell"Analisys Aristotelica ex Euclide restituta edita nel 1658, in cui l"autore rigettando il rigido atteggiamento settario tanto degli aristotelici quanto dei filosofi contemporanei, propone una lettura più conciliante. Su questo aspetto si veda anche Mercer 1999, 33-35. 3 Hofmann 1974, 1. Si veda anche Antognazza 2009, 140. 1 Cfr. De Corpore, IX, § § 3-5 (HOL I, 108-9). Si noti come rispetto alla versione hobbesiana Leibniz operi la sostituzione degli accidentia con i requisita di tradizione scolastica, ovvero le condizioni per natura precedenti all"effetto, tolte le quali l"effetto stesso non si produce. Sulle radici della nozione di requisito e la teoria del natura prius si veda
In February 1676, one of Leibniz's main concerns is with the problem of the seat of the soul and ... more In February 1676, one of Leibniz's main concerns is with the problem of the seat of the soul and its relationship with the body, to which, in two very short papers, he provides two different solutions: the doctrine of the flos substantiae and the vortex theory. By analyzing the former, I suggest that, despite what other scholars claim, it is far from being an earlier exposition of the notion of monad. I argue that this doctrine is entertained by Leibniz only for a period, but is rejected later on and excluded from the final monadic system. This hypothesis seems to be supported by the shift to the notion of a vortex, which-despite having some evident pantheistic and monistic implications-offers a different solution to the problem of mind-body union, by identifying the soul as the only cement of matter. In this article, by following the progress of such a shift, we discover some fascinating nuances in the young Leibniz's development. Among the thirty-one pieces collected by the Editors of the Academy under the heading De Summa Rerum, two are explicitly devoted by Leibniz to the problem of the seat of the soul and the mind-body relationship: De Sede Animae (A, VI-3, 478-9) 1 and De Unione Animae et Corporis (A, VI-3, 480). Both written in February 1676, these texts are a cluster of ideas as brief as they are interesting, not only because they offer a quick review of Leibniz's interests and intellectual relationships at that time, but also because they represent a shift (one of many) in the development of the young Leibniz's reflections. The pages of these two works show that he meets Christian Knorr von Rosenroth and Claude Perrault, and that he reads Athanasius Kircher,
Philosophy Study, 2017
Although excluded from the standard account of the history of philosophy, Catharine Trotter Cockb... more Although excluded from the standard account of the history of philosophy, Catharine Trotter Cockburn (1679-1749) avoided the 17th-century bias against female intellectual skills and was an active contributor to the early modern philosophical discourse. In her Defence of Mr. Locke's Essay (1702), she defended Locke from several criticisms by Thomas Burnet (1635-1715). By analysing three of Burnet's main arguments, such as the theory of natural conscience, his anti-voluntarism, and his belief in the immateriality of the soul, Trotter showed that he often misinterpreted John Locke's principles, especially those concerning his moral epistemology. Moreover, beyond her apologetic aim, she also presented her own moral philosophy, arguing that the true ground of morality is the rational and social nature of human beings. Although Trotter was clearly inspired by John Locke, her Defence was not simply a vindication, and she was not his mere handmaiden, for her thought was original and independent in many respects.
John Locke and Catharine Cockburn on Personal Identity
RIVISTA DI STORIA DELLA FILOSOFIA
John Locke's account of personal identity (Essay 2.27) is one of his most discussed theories.... more John Locke's account of personal identity (Essay 2.27) is one of his most discussed theories. Opposing the Cartesian ontology of mind, Locke argued that the soul does not always think - for thinking is simply one of its operations, but not its essence -, and that personal identity consists in consciousness alone. Against Locke, an anonymous commentator published the Remarks upon an Essay concerning Humane Understanding (1697-99) charging Locke's view with possible immorality. Catharine Cockburn rebuffed the Remarker's objections, in her Defence of Mr. Locke's Essay (1702), depicting his view as more dangerous for morality than Locke's. This paper shifts the focus from Cockburn's defence of Locke's moral thought, to her apology for his theory of personal identity, including his probabilistic arguments in favour of the immortality of the soul. This shift of focus yields an alternative account of Cockburn's originality: first, because she offered a non-s...
Although excluded from the standard account of the history of philosophy, Catharine Trotter Cockb... more Although excluded from the standard account of the history of philosophy, Catharine Trotter Cockburn (1679-1749) avoided the 17th-century bias against female intellectual skills and was an active contributor to the early modern philosophical discourse. In her Defence of Mr. Locke’s Essay (1702), she defended Locke from several criticisms by Thomas Burnet (1635-1715). By analysing three of Burnet’s main arguments, such as the theory of natural conscience, his anti-voluntarism, and his belief in the immateriality of the soul, Trotter showed that he often misinterpreted John Locke’s principles, especially those concerning his moral epistemology. Moreover, beyond her apologetic aim, she also presented her own moral philosophy, arguing that the true ground of morality is the rational and social nature of human beings. Although Trotter was clearly inspired by John Locke, her Defence was not simply a vindication, and she was not his mere handmaiden, for her thought was original and indepen...
Diversamente scienza, 2020
Gabrielle Émilie le Tonnelier de Breteuil du Châtelet fu pensatrice e scienziata molto attiva nel... more Gabrielle Émilie le Tonnelier de Breteuil du Châtelet fu pensatrice e scienziata molto attiva nel XVIII secolo. Il saggio ne percorre la traiettoria scientifica con particolare attenzione al periodo trascorso a Cirey, insieme a Voltaire, durante il quale ella approfondì la scienza newtoniana e la metafisica leibniziana. L'operazione di sincretismo tra queste posizioni apparentemente inconciliabili è solo uno degli aspetti più originali della vicenda di Chatelet.
Bruniana & Campanelliana, 2020
The principal purpose of this paper is to argue that a manifest ontology of sex difference operat... more The principal purpose of this paper is to argue that a manifest ontology of sex difference operates in Lucrezia Marinella's The Nobility and Excellence of Women (1600). In particular, in Chapter Two ('The Causes That Produce Women') and Chapter Three ('Of the Nature and Essence of the Female Sex'), she combines Aristotle's theory of Four Causes with the Platonic doctrine of Ideas, affirming that different ideas of men and women are in God's mind before creation. Marinella rejects the traditional view that the distinction between man and woman rests in their physiology, and that a woman is merely a defective male (mas occasionatus). On the contrary, she maintains that men and women are different not only in bodies, but also in souls, emphasizing that corporeal beauty is a manifestation of the superiority of women's souls. In this perspective, Marinella implicitly identifies the female ideal as another model of human nature, which is alternative to the traditional male-centered one. This seems to be one of her most original contributions to the querelle des femmes.
Filosofi(e)Semiotiche, 2019
If we take a stereotype to be "an ordered, more or less consistent picture of the world", that we... more If we take a stereotype to be "an ordered, more or less consistent picture of the world", that we find familiar, as Walter Lippmann (1889-1974) defined it, then the image of women as wives and mothers is one of the strongest stereotypes of the early modern period (broadly understood, from the Renaissance to the early Enlightenment). Despite the deep-rooted prejudice against female intellectual skills, a significant number of women contributes to the philosophical and scientific debates of that time. Nevertheless, standard narratives of the history of philosophy have ignored them. By following an ideal trajectory form Chirstine de Pizan (ca. 1365-1430) to Damarism Masham (1659-1708), this paper aims to show that the early modern defenders of gender equality agree that the social and intellectual disproportion between sexes is not due to a natural difference, but it is the artificial product of a poor education of women and the tyranny of custom. Moreover, after the philosophically pivotal cartesian feminist experience of Poullain de la Barre (1647-1726), numerous attempts of alternative and inclusive educational strategies take form, especially in England, such as Bathsua Makin's (1600?-1675?) boarding school for gentlewomen and Mary Astell's (1666-1731) social proposal to the ladies.
Patrizia Delpiano, Marina Formica, Anna Maria Rao (a cura di), Il Settecento e la religione, 2018
Catharine Trotter Cockburn (1679-1749) was an English playwright and philosopher. Although she wa... more Catharine Trotter Cockburn (1679-1749) was an English playwright and philosopher. Although she was born in an Anglican family, when still very young, she joined the Church of Rome, and embraced that communion until 1707, when she converted back to the Church of England. Despite the accusation of opportunism by some of their contemporaries, her religious experience seems to be consonant with her intellectual and philosophical trajectory. In this paper a number of Cockburn’s texts are analysed, which were mostly written at the time of her second conversion. Inspired by John Locke, Cockburn argues that reason and sociability, which are the essentials of human nature, are the authentic grounds of morality. Consequently, a true religion must be both reasonable and committed to politics. She firmly believes that, once agreed on Christ’s divinity, the difference among all Christian churches only concerns formal aspects of the worship. According to Cockburn, the Reformation produced rather a separation of than from the Church, and none of the resulting communions could claim absolute authority or supremacy over the others. Indeed, since there is no Church absolutely infallible and perfect in all points, everyone should be free to follow that confession, which she/he is satisfied with, even if some of the unessential points in it seem unconvincing. By stressing the central role of human nature in morality, she reverses the traditional relationship between morality and religion, and states the priority of the first over the latter. Moreover, her anti-dogmatic view on religion provides a clear example of sincere toleration.
http://www.iep.utm.edu/cockburn/
Although she has been not included in the standard account of the history of philosophy, Catharin... more Although she has been not included in the standard account of the history of philosophy, Catharine Trotter Cockburn was an active contributor to the early modern philosophical discourse, especially regarding morality.. Her philosophical production was primarily in defence of John Locke and Samuel Clarke. Nevertheless, her thought was original and independent in many respects.
Cockburn’s moral philosophy combines elements of Locke's epistemology with Clarke’s fitness theory, and its central axiom is that the true ground of morality consists in human nature. She argued that, since all human beings are naturally provided with reason, moral obligation rests on the conformity of God’s command to our own reason. According to her anti-voluntarist moral view, the will of God does not lay the foundations of morality, but it only gives morality the force of a law. Furthermore, Cockburn maintained that Man is naturally inclined towards sociability and, consequently, morally obliged to contribute to the good and preservation of society. This is one of the most distinctive of Cockburn’s ideas, which departs from a strictly Lockean moral view.
Cockburn entertained a universal and anti-dogmatic idea of the Christian religion, founded on the essentials of human nature, i.e. reason and sociability. In her view, since there is not an absolutely perfect communion, everyone can choose the one she/he judges as the best. Churches should not waste time presuming to be infallible; rather, they should aim at satisfying their adherents, by teaching those truths necessary for salvation. Thus, she converted to the Church of England from Catholicism.
Although mainly focused on morality, Cockburn also dealt with some metaphysical issues that often connected to it: particularly, the nature of the soul and the reality of space. Regarding the former, she inquired whether the soul is material or spiritual, concluding that, although it is probably immaterial, there is no evidence against its immateriality or the possibility of thinking matter. Moreover, while she defended Locke’s position that only consciousness makes personal identity, Cockburn also gave an original mode-based interpretation of Locke’s view on personhood. As regards the reality of space, she rejected Edmund Law’s position against Clarke that space is only an abstract idea. On the contrary, she argued that space is a real being, which can fill up the abyss between body and spirit, since it partakes of the nature of both.
Nel XVII secolo, nuove idee di soggetto, individuo e ragione si affermano, animando un dibattito ... more Nel XVII secolo, nuove idee di soggetto, individuo e ragione si affermano, animando un dibattito filosofico, i cui protagonisti principali sono Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza, Leibniz e Locke, nel quale tuttavia intervengono molti tra gli intellettuali del tempo. Alcuni contributi, in particolare, pubblicati anonimi in Inghilterra, risultano decisivi nell’elaborazione di un’interessante epistemologia morale che propone una nuova idea di persona, rivendicando pari dignità intellettuale, morale e sociale per tutti gli individui, senza distinzione di genere.
Dietro il velo dell’anonimato si celano spesso donne filosofe, come Margaret Cavendish, Anne Conway, Mary Astell, Damaris Cudworth Masham, Catharine Trotter Cockburn, le quali hanno il merito di ritagliarsi un posto all’interno della Repubblica delle lettere, non solo per via delle amicizie intellettuali che le legano ai filosofi più illuminati del loro tempo, ma anche per il contributo attivo che offrono al dibattito filosofico moderno.
Il presente lavoro si concentra in particolare su due di queste pensatrici, ossia Masham e Trotter, le quali, pur essendo entrambe ispirate da John Locke, mostrano, al contempo, una raffinata sensibilità alle diverse sfumature della speculazione metafisica a loro contemporanea. Esse elaborano, ognuno a suo modo, un interessante concetto di individuo-persona, inteso come essere naturalmente razionale e sociale, sul quale costruiscono una vera e propria epistemologia morale, le cui forti implicazioni sociali si traducono in una sorta di proto-femminismo. Tale aspetto è il tratto più originale della riflessione di entrambe le filosofe e merita di essere approfondito.
Masham, nelle opere filosofiche, e in particolare negli Occasional Thoughts, presenta un’interessante concezione della società, nella quale tutti gli individui concorrono al benessere e all’armonia, comprese le donne e le madri. Dal momento che queste sono le prime educatrici, argomenta la filosofa, lungi dall’escluderle dall’istruzione, la società dovrebbe invece garantire loro una formazione adeguata, proprio in virtù del loro ruolo sociale.
Nella Defence of Mr. Locke’s Essay, Trotter, rigettando l’autorità degli antichi e il dogmatismo religioso, sviluppa un vero e proprio razionalismo etico, secondo il quale l’essere razionale è portato ad agire naturalmente secondo ragione e a perseguire il bene dell’altro, e, essendo la ragione la caratteristica naturale comune a tutti gli esseri umani, allora l’inferiorità della donna è moralmente inammissibile.
Le riflessioni affidate a questi testi mostrano come entrambe le filosofe si smarchino dalla dimensione meramente ancillare rispetto ai loro referenti più illustri, per affermare un pensiero connotato dall’appartenenza di genere, che si colloca perfettamente all’interno del panorama filosofico dell’età moderna. In questo senso, mi sembra possano a buon diritto occupare un posto nella storia della filosofia, della quale troppo a lungo sono rimaste ai margini.
Nel panorama della modernità il pensiero di Spinoza costituisce uno dei momenti di rottura più ra... more Nel panorama della modernità il pensiero di Spinoza costituisce uno dei momenti di rottura più radicali con la tradizione filosofica e religiosa, fondata sui concetti di volontà e finalità divine: denuncia l'irrazionalità di tutto ciò che si pone dalla parte della trascendenza, inscrivendo il geometrico e il divino nel medesimo orizzonte naturale, così come tutto ciò che esiste, sotto il rispetto della sostanza unica, in relazione alla quale l'ordine delle idee coincide con quello delle cose 1 , in un processo di causazione eterno. In tal modo, abbatte lo scarto tra l'individuo e Dio, ridisegna il ruolo dell'uomo nell'universo e ri-getta la tradizionale mappa dei valori morali.
According to Spinoza, God is the only substance, which produces itself in each particular think o... more According to Spinoza, God is the only substance, which produces itself in each particular think of Nature. Human being seems to have no other role but as a part of it. In this work it is shown how the concepts of Conatus and Multitudo introduce in the Spinoza’s thought an anthropological dimension, in which human being appears as a phenomenon in a double sense: he is a part of Nature and, at the same time, Nature manifests itself to him. From the ontological level of Conatus to the birth of Civitas, Spinoza's Ethics is crossed by this anthropological tension.
Is it possible to image Uriel Da Costa instructing the young Spinoza as a Samuel Hirszenberg's po... more Is it possible to image Uriel Da Costa instructing the young Spinoza as a Samuel Hirszenberg's portrait suggests? In this paper, the Uriel's pseudo-authobiografi-cal tragic story, Exemplar humanae vitae, and the most heretical work of Da Costa, Exame das tradições phariseas, will help us to throw light on the nature of their relationship.
Leibniz’s philosophy can be seen as the product of interactions. Indeed, traces of Platonism and ... more Leibniz’s philosophy can be seen as the product of interactions. Indeed, traces of Platonism and Aristotelianism – likewise, remnants of Spinozism, Occasionalism, Necessitarism, Alchemy, and Kabbalah – can be easily detected in it. But, properly speaking, he was neither a Platonist nor an Aristotelian (nor anything else). He was simply Leibniz. Interested both in philosophical traditions and in his contemporary philosophers, he was used to take any idea he found intriguing, and turn it into something consistent with his own thought. Evidence of this attitude was his theory of theodicy, where he reconsidered Boethius’ question about origin and nature of evil (Si Deus unde malum?) and, by struggling with Origenism, Manicheism and Pyrrhonism, proposed a new solution. The occasion for facing this problem was given to Leibniz by some articles in the second edition of Dictionnaire Historique et Critique by Pierre Bayle, which the German philosopher read carefully and annotated. These Leibniz’s remarks – on which I focus in this paper – offer a double example of interactions in his philosophy. On the one hand, different philosophical and theological traditions converge on these pages. On the other hand, they are the product of a deeper level of interaction, that is to say the controversy: the one with Pierre Bayle and his obsessive Manicheism. In this double level of interactions Leibniz’s theory of theodicy is rooted, according to which God’s infinite Goodness is perfectly consistent with the presence of evil in the world.
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Papers by Emilio Maria De Tommaso
Cockburn’s moral philosophy combines elements of Locke's epistemology with Clarke’s fitness theory, and its central axiom is that the true ground of morality consists in human nature. She argued that, since all human beings are naturally provided with reason, moral obligation rests on the conformity of God’s command to our own reason. According to her anti-voluntarist moral view, the will of God does not lay the foundations of morality, but it only gives morality the force of a law. Furthermore, Cockburn maintained that Man is naturally inclined towards sociability and, consequently, morally obliged to contribute to the good and preservation of society. This is one of the most distinctive of Cockburn’s ideas, which departs from a strictly Lockean moral view.
Cockburn entertained a universal and anti-dogmatic idea of the Christian religion, founded on the essentials of human nature, i.e. reason and sociability. In her view, since there is not an absolutely perfect communion, everyone can choose the one she/he judges as the best. Churches should not waste time presuming to be infallible; rather, they should aim at satisfying their adherents, by teaching those truths necessary for salvation. Thus, she converted to the Church of England from Catholicism.
Although mainly focused on morality, Cockburn also dealt with some metaphysical issues that often connected to it: particularly, the nature of the soul and the reality of space. Regarding the former, she inquired whether the soul is material or spiritual, concluding that, although it is probably immaterial, there is no evidence against its immateriality or the possibility of thinking matter. Moreover, while she defended Locke’s position that only consciousness makes personal identity, Cockburn also gave an original mode-based interpretation of Locke’s view on personhood. As regards the reality of space, she rejected Edmund Law’s position against Clarke that space is only an abstract idea. On the contrary, she argued that space is a real being, which can fill up the abyss between body and spirit, since it partakes of the nature of both.
Dietro il velo dell’anonimato si celano spesso donne filosofe, come Margaret Cavendish, Anne Conway, Mary Astell, Damaris Cudworth Masham, Catharine Trotter Cockburn, le quali hanno il merito di ritagliarsi un posto all’interno della Repubblica delle lettere, non solo per via delle amicizie intellettuali che le legano ai filosofi più illuminati del loro tempo, ma anche per il contributo attivo che offrono al dibattito filosofico moderno.
Il presente lavoro si concentra in particolare su due di queste pensatrici, ossia Masham e Trotter, le quali, pur essendo entrambe ispirate da John Locke, mostrano, al contempo, una raffinata sensibilità alle diverse sfumature della speculazione metafisica a loro contemporanea. Esse elaborano, ognuno a suo modo, un interessante concetto di individuo-persona, inteso come essere naturalmente razionale e sociale, sul quale costruiscono una vera e propria epistemologia morale, le cui forti implicazioni sociali si traducono in una sorta di proto-femminismo. Tale aspetto è il tratto più originale della riflessione di entrambe le filosofe e merita di essere approfondito.
Masham, nelle opere filosofiche, e in particolare negli Occasional Thoughts, presenta un’interessante concezione della società, nella quale tutti gli individui concorrono al benessere e all’armonia, comprese le donne e le madri. Dal momento che queste sono le prime educatrici, argomenta la filosofa, lungi dall’escluderle dall’istruzione, la società dovrebbe invece garantire loro una formazione adeguata, proprio in virtù del loro ruolo sociale.
Nella Defence of Mr. Locke’s Essay, Trotter, rigettando l’autorità degli antichi e il dogmatismo religioso, sviluppa un vero e proprio razionalismo etico, secondo il quale l’essere razionale è portato ad agire naturalmente secondo ragione e a perseguire il bene dell’altro, e, essendo la ragione la caratteristica naturale comune a tutti gli esseri umani, allora l’inferiorità della donna è moralmente inammissibile.
Le riflessioni affidate a questi testi mostrano come entrambe le filosofe si smarchino dalla dimensione meramente ancillare rispetto ai loro referenti più illustri, per affermare un pensiero connotato dall’appartenenza di genere, che si colloca perfettamente all’interno del panorama filosofico dell’età moderna. In questo senso, mi sembra possano a buon diritto occupare un posto nella storia della filosofia, della quale troppo a lungo sono rimaste ai margini.