End-to-end encryption - Wikipedia

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Under end-to-end encryption, no third parties like platforms and service providers can decrypt messages, dramatically reducing
attack surface
End-to-end encryption
E2EE
) is a method of implementing a secure communication system where only the sender and intended recipient can read the messages. No one else, including the system provider,
telecom providers
Internet providers
or
malicious actors
, can access the
cryptographic keys
needed to read or send messages.
End-to-end
encryption
prevents data from being read or
secretly modified
, except by the sender and intended recipients. In many applications, messages are relayed from a sender to some recipients by a service provider. In an E2EE-enabled service, messages are encrypted on the sender's device such that no third party, including the service provider, has the means to decrypt them. The recipients retrieve encrypted messages and decrypt them independently on their own devices. Since third parties cannot decrypt the data being communicated or stored, services with E2EE are better at protecting user data from
data breaches
and
espionage
Computer security experts,
digital freedom organizations,
and human rights activists
advocate for the use of E2EE due to its security and privacy benefits, including its ability to resist
mass surveillance
Popular messaging apps like
WhatsApp
iMessage
Facebook Messenger
, and
Signal
use end-to-end encryption for chat messages, with some also supporting E2EE of voice and video calls. As of May 2025, WhatsApp is the most widely used E2EE messaging service, with over 3 billion users.
Meanwhile, Signal with an estimated 70 million users,
is regarded as the current gold standard in secure messaging by cryptographers, protestors, and journalists.
10
11
12
Since end-to-end encrypted services cannot offer decrypted messages in response to government requests, the proliferation of E2EE has been met with controversy.
13
14
Around the world, governments, law enforcement agencies, and child protection groups have expressed concerns over its impact on criminal investigations.
15
As of 2025, some governments have successfully passed legislation targeting E2EE, such as Australia's Telecommunications and Other Legislation Amendment Act (2018) and the
Online Safety Act (2023)
in the UK. Other attempts at restricting E2EE include the
EARN IT Act
in the US and the
Child Sexual Abuse Regulation
in the EU.
[1]
16
Nevertheless, some government bodies such as the UK's
Information Commissioner's Office
and the US's
Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency
(CISA) have argued
for
the use of E2EE, with Jeff Greene of the CISA advising that "encryption is your friend" following the discovery of the
Salt Typhoon
espionage campaign in 2024.
17
18
Definitions
edit
End-to-end encryption is a means of ensuring the security of communications in applications like secure messaging.
19
Under E2EE, messages are encrypted on the sender's device such that they can be decoded only by the final recipient's device.
20
In many non-E2EE messaging systems, including
email
and many chat platforms, messages pass through intermediaries and are stored by a third party service provider,
21
from which they are retrieved by the recipient. Even if messages are encrypted, they are only
encrypted 'in transit'
, and are thus accessible by the service provider.
22
Server-side
disk encryption
is also distinct from E2EE because it does not prevent the service provider from viewing the information, as they have the encryption keys and can simply decrypt it.
The term "end-to-end encryption" originally only meant that the communication is never decrypted during its transport from the sender to the receiver.
23
For example, around 2003, E2EE was proposed as an additional layer of encryption for
GSM
24
or
TETRA
25
in addition to the existing radio encryption protecting the communication between the mobile device and the network infrastructure. This has been standardized by SFPG for TETRA.
26
Note that in TETRA, the keys are generated by a Key Management Centre (KMC) or a Key Management Facility (KMF), not by the communicating users.
27
Later, around 2014, the meaning of "end-to-end encryption" started to evolve when WhatsApp encrypted a portion of its network,
28
requiring that not only the communication stays encrypted during transport,
29
but also that the provider of the communication service is not able to decrypt the communications—maliciously or when requested by law enforcement agencies. Similarly, messages must be undecryptable in transit by attackers through
man-in-the-middle attacks
This new meaning is now the widely accepted one.
30
Motivations
edit
The lack of end-to-end encryption can allow service providers to easily provide search and other features, or to scan for illegal and unacceptable content. However, it also means that content can be read by anyone who has access to the data stored by the service provider, by design or via a
backdoor
31
This can be a concern in many cases where privacy is important, such as in governmental and
military communications
financial transactions
, and when sensitive information such as
health
and
biometric data
are sent. If this content were shared without E2EE, a malicious actor or adversarial government could obtain it through
unauthorized access
or
subpoenas
targeted at the service provider.
14
E2EE alone does not guarantee
or
security
32
For example, the data may be held unencrypted
on the user's own device
or accessed through their own app if their credentials are compromised.
Modern implementations
edit
Messaging
edit
As of 2025, messaging apps like
Signal
10
and
WhatsApp
33
are designed to exclusively use end-to-end encryption. Both Signal and WhatsApp use the
Signal Protocol
. Other messaging apps and protocols that support end-to-end encryption include
Facebook Messenger
34
iMessage
35
Telegram
36
Matrix
37
and
Keybase
38
Although Telegram supports end-to-end encryption, it has been criticized for not enabling it by default, instead supporting E2EE through opt-in "secret chats". As of 2020, Telegram did not support E2EE for group chats and no E2EE on its desktop clients.
In 2022, after controversy over the use of
Facebook Messenger
messages in an abortion lawsuit in Nebraska, Facebook added support for end-to-end encryption in the Messenger app.
39
40
Writing for
Wired
, technologist Albert Fox Cahn criticized Messenger's approach to end-to-end encryption, which required the user to opt into E2EE for each conversation and split the message thread into two chats which were easy for users to confuse.
41
In December 2023, Facebook announced plans to enable end-to-end encryption by default despite pressure from British law enforcement agencies.
42
As of 2016,
43
many
server
-based communications systems did not include end-to-end encryption.
44
These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between
clients
and
servers
45
meaning that users have to trust the third parties who are running the servers with the sensitive content. End-to-end encryption is regarded as safer
46
because it reduces the number of parties who might be able to interfere or break the encryption.
47
In the case of instant messaging, users may use a third-party client or plugin to implement an end-to-end encryption scheme over an otherwise non-E2EE protocol.
48
Audio and video conferencing
edit
Signal and WhatsApp use end-to-end encryption for audio and video calls.
49
Since 2020, Signal has also supported end-to-encrypted video calls.
50
In 2024,
Discord
added end-to-end encryption for audio and video calls, voice channels, and certain live streams.
51
However, they had no plans to implement E2EE for messages.
In 2020, after acquiring
Keybase
Zoom
announced end-to-end encryption would be limited to paid accounts.
52
53
Following criticism from human rights advocates, Zoom extended the feature to all users with accounts.
54
55
In 2021, Zoom settled an $85M class action lawsuit over past misrepresentation about end-to-end encryption.
56
The
FTC
confirmed Zoom previously retained access to meeting keys.
57
Other uses
edit
Some encrypted
backup
and
file sharing
services provide
client-side encryption
Nextcloud
58
59
and
MEGA
60
61
offer end-to-end encryption of shared files.
The term "end-to-end encryption" is sometimes incorrectly used to describe client-side encryption.
62
Some non-E2EE systems, such as
Lavabit
and
Hushmail
, have described themselves as offering "end-to-end" encryption when they did not.
63
Law enforcement and regulation
edit
Main article:
Crypto wars
Unsealed 2021 subpoena addressed to
Signal Messenger LLC
requesting records for a redacted Signal profile name.
In 2022,
Facebook Messenger
came under scrutiny because the messages between a mother and daughter in
Nebraska
were used to seek criminal charges in an
abortion
-related case against both of them. The daughter told the police that she had a miscarriage and tried to search for the date of her miscarriage in her Messenger app. Police suspected there could be more information within the messages and obtained and served a warrant against Facebook to gain access. The messages allegedly mentioned the mother obtaining
abortion pills
for her daughter and then burning the evidence.
64
65
While E2EE can offer privacy benefits that make it desirable in consumer-grade services, many businesses have to balance these benefits with their regulatory requirements. For example, many organizations are subject to mandates that require them to be able to decrypt any communication between their employees or between their employees and third parties.
66
This might be needed for archival purposes, for inspection by
Data Loss Prevention (DLP)
systems, for litigation-related
eDiscovery
or for detection of
malware
and other threats in the data streams. For this reason, some enterprise-focused communications and information protection systems might implement encryption in a way that ensures all transmissions are encrypted with the encryption being terminated at their internal systems (on-premises or cloud-based) so they can have access to the information for inspection and processing.
Challenges
edit
Man-in-the-middle attacks
edit
End-to-end encryption ensures that data is transferred securely between endpoints. But, rather than try to break the encryption, an eavesdropper may impersonate a message recipient (during
key exchange
or by substituting their
public key
for the recipient's), so that messages are encrypted with a key known to the attacker. After decrypting the message, the snoop can then encrypt it with a key that they share with the actual recipient, or their public key in case of asymmetric systems, and send the message on again to avoid detection. This is known as a
man-in-the-middle attack
(MITM).
67
Authentication
edit
See also:
Key Transparency
"Verify safety number" screen on Signal Android 7.43.1
Most end-to-end encryption protocols include some form of endpoint
authentication
specifically to prevent MITM attacks. For example, one could rely on
certification authorities
or a
web of trust
68
An alternative technique is to generate cryptographic hashes (fingerprints) based on the communicating users’ public keys or shared secret keys. The parties compare their
fingerprints
using an outside (out-of-band) communication channel that guarantees integrity and authenticity of communication (but not necessarily secrecy
citation needed
), before starting their conversation. If the fingerprints match, there is, in theory, no man in the middle.
When displayed for human inspection, fingerprints usually use some form of
binary-to-text encoding
69
These strings are then formatted into groups of characters for readability. Some clients instead display a
natural language
representation of the fingerprint.
70
As the approach consists of a
one-to-one mapping
between fingerprint blocks and words, there is no loss in
entropy
. The protocol may choose to display words in the user's native (system) language.
70
This can, however, make cross-language comparisons prone to errors.
71
In order to improve
localization
, some protocols have chosen to display fingerprints as base 10 strings instead of more error prone hexadecimal or natural language strings.
72
71
Modern messaging applications can also display fingerprints as
QR codes
that users can scan off each other's devices.
72
Endpoint security
edit
The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the communications endpoints themselves. Each user's computer can still be hacked to steal their cryptographic key (to create a MITM attack) or simply read the recipients’ decrypted messages both in real time and from log files. Even the most perfectly encrypted communication pipe is only as secure as the mailbox on the other end.
Major attempts to increase endpoint security have been to isolate key generation, storage and cryptographic operations to a smart card such as Google's Project Vault.
73
However, since plaintext input and output are still visible to the host system, malware can monitor conversations in real time. A more robust approach is to isolate all sensitive data to a fully
air gapped
computer.
74
However, as
Bruce Schneier
points out,
Stuxnet
developed by US and Israel successfully jumped air gap and reached Natanz nuclear plant's network in Iran.
75
To deal with key exfiltration with malware, one approach is to split the
Trusted Computing Base
behind two
unidirectionally connected
computers that prevent either insertion of malware, or exfiltration of sensitive data with inserted malware.
76
Backdoors
edit
A backdoor is usually a secret method of bypassing normal authentication or encryption in a computer system, a product, an embedded device, etc.
77
Companies may also willingly or unwillingly introduce
backdoors
to their software that help subvert key negotiation or bypass encryption altogether. In 2013, information leaked by
Edward Snowden
showed that
Skype
had a backdoor which allowed Microsoft to hand over their users' messages to the
NSA
despite the fact that those messages were officially end-to-end encrypted.
78
79
Following terrorist attacks in
San Bernardino in 2015
and
Pensacola in 2019
, the
FBI
requested backdoors to
Apple's
iPhone
software. The company, however, refused to create a backdoor for the government, citing concern that such a tool could pose risk for its consumers’ privacy.
80
See also
edit
Comparison of instant messaging protocols
Comparison of VoIP software § Secure VoIP software
– a table overview of VoIP clients that offer end-to-end encryption
Mass surveillance
Human rights and encryption
Diffie–Hellman key exchange
– method of negotiating secret keys for the communicating users without sharing them with observers, such as the communication system provider
End-to-end auditable voting systems
Point-to-point encryption
Crypto Wars
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11 October
2016
Julie Bort, Matt Weinberger
"Google's Project Vault is a tiny computer for sending secret messages"
Archived
2017-08-08 at the
Wayback Machine
Business Insider
, NYC May 29, 2015
Whonix Wiki
"Air Gapped OpenPGP Key"
Archived
2017-08-08 at the
Wayback Machine
Bruce Schneier
"Air Gaps"
Archived
2017-06-09 at the
Wayback Machine
Schneier on Security
, October 11, 2013
"maqp/tfc"
GitHub
Archived
from the original on 31 March 2017
. Retrieved
26 April
2018
Eckersley, Peter; Portnoy, Erica (8 May 2017).
"Intel's Management Engine is a security hazard, and users need a way to disable it"
. www.eff.org.
Archived
from the original on 6 March 2018
. Retrieved
7 March
2018
Goodin, Dan (20 May 2013).
"Think your Skype messages get end-to-end encryption? Think again"
Ars Technica
Archived
from the original on 22 December 2015.
Greenwald, Glenn
; MacAskill, Ewen; Poitras, Laura; Ackerman, Spencer; Rushe, Dominic (12 July 2013).
"Microsoft handed the NSA access to encrypted messages"
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Leswing, Kif (2020-01-16).
"Apple's fight with Trump and the Justice Department is about more than two iPhones"
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Further reading
edit
Ermoshina, Ksenia; Musiani, Francesca; Halpin, Harry (September 2016).
"End-to-End Encrypted Messaging Protocols: An Overview"
(PDF)
. In Bagnoli, Franco; et al. (eds.).
Internet Science
. INSCI 2016. Florence, Italy: Springer. pp.
244–
254.
doi
10.1007/978-3-319-45982-0_22
ISBN
978-3-319-45982-0
Bhuse, Vijay (2023).
"Review of End-to-End Encryption for Social Media"
International Conference on Cyber Warfare and Security
18
(1):
35–
37.
doi
10.34190/iccws.18.1.1017
Unger, Nick; Dechand, Sergej; Bonneau, Joseph; Fahl, Sascha; Perl, Henning; Goldberg, Ian; Smith, Matthew (2015).
"SoK: Secure Messaging"
(PDF)
2015 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy
. Vol. 18. pp.
232–
249.
doi
10.1109/SP.2015.22
ISBN
978-1-4673-6949-7
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