Hacker culture - Wikipedia

Hacker culture - Wikipedia
Jump to content
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Subculture of individuals
For the book, see
Hacker Culture
Not to be confused with
Security hacker
Part of a series on
Computer hacking
History
Phreaking
Cryptovirology
Hacking of consumer electronics
List of hackers
Hacker culture
and
ethic
Hackathon
Hacker Manifesto
Hackerspace
Hacktivism
Maker culture
Types of
hackers
Black hat
Grey hat
White hat
Conferences
Black Hat Briefings
Chaos Communication Congress
DEF CON
Hackers on Planet Earth
Security BSides
ShmooCon
Summercon
Computer crime
Crimeware
List of computer criminals
Script kiddie
Hacking tools
Exploit
forensics-focused operating systems
Payload
Social engineering
Vulnerability
Practice sites
HackThisSite
Zone-H
Malware
Rootkit
Backdoor
Trojan horse
Virus
Worm
Spyware
Ransomware
Logic bomb
Botnet
Keystroke logging
HIDS
Web shell
RCE
Infostealer
Computer security
Application security
Cloud computing security
Network security
Groups
Anonymous
Chaos Computer Club
Homebrew Computer Club
(defunct)
Legion of Doom
(defunct)
LulzSec
(defunct)
Masters of Deception
(defunct)
Red team
Blue team
Publications
2600: The Hacker Quarterly
Hacker News
Nuts and Volts
Phrack
The
hacker culture
is a
subculture
of individuals who enjoy—often in collective effort—the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming the limitations of
software systems
or
electronic hardware
(mostly
digital electronics
), to achieve novel and clever outcomes.
The act of engaging in activities (such as programming or other media
) in a spirit of playfulness and exploration is termed
hacking
. However, the defining characteristic of a
hacker
is not the activities performed themselves (e.g.
programming
), but how it is done
and whether it is exciting and meaningful.
Activities of playful cleverness can be said to have "hack value" and therefore the term "hacks" came about,
with early examples including
pranks at MIT
done by students to demonstrate their technical aptitude and cleverness. The hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT)'s
Tech Model Railroad Club
(TMRC)
and
MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
Hacking originally involved entering restricted areas in a clever way without causing any major damage. Some famous
hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
were placing of a campus police cruiser on the roof of the
Great Dome
and converting the Great Dome into
R2-D2
Richard Stallman
explains about hackers who program:
What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could. They also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in a more exciting way than anyone believed possible and show "Look how wonderful this is. I bet you didn't believe this could be done."
Hackers from this subculture tend to emphatically differentiate themselves from whom they pejoratively call "
crackers
": those who are generally referred to by media and members of the general public using the term "hacker", and whose primary focus‍—‌be it to malign or for malevolent purposes‍—‌lies in
exploiting
weaknesses in computer security.
Definition
The
Jargon File
, an influential but not universally accepted compendium of hacker slang, defines hacker as "A person who enjoys exploring the details of programmable systems and stretching their capabilities, as opposed to most users, who prefer to learn only the minimum necessary."
The
Request for Comments
(RFC) 1392, the Internet Users' Glossary, amplifies this meaning as "A person who delights in having an intimate understanding of the internal workings of a system, computers and computer networks in particular."
10
As documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general public's usage of the word
hacker
to refer to
security breakers
, calling them "crackers" instead. This includes both "good" crackers ("
white hat hackers
"),
11
who use their computer security-related skills and knowledge to learn more about how systems and networks work and to help to discover and fix security holes, as well as those more "evil" crackers ("
black hat hackers
"), who use the same skills to author harmful software (such as viruses or trojans) and illegally infiltrate secure systems with the intention of doing harm to the system.
12
The programmer subculture of hackers, in contrast to the cracker community, generally sees computer security-related activities as contrary to the ideals of the original and true meaning of the hacker term, that instead related to playful cleverness.
12
History
The word "hacker" derives from the
Late Middle English
words hackere, hakker, or hakkere - one who cuts wood, woodchopper, or woodcutter.
13
Although the idea of "hacking", in the modern sense, existed long before the modern term "hacker"‍—‌with the most notable example of
Lightning Ellsworth
citation needed
, it was not a word that the first programmers used to describe themselves. In fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds.
citation needed
It was not until the mid 1940s, particularly in connection to the
ENIAC
computer, that some programmers began to see their expertise as a passion rather than a profession.
There was a growing awareness of a style of programming different from the cut and dried methods employed at first,
14
15
but it was not until the 1960s that the term "hackers" began to be used to describe proficient computer programmers. Therefore, the fundamental characteristic that links all who identify themselves as hackers is that each is someone who enjoys "…the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming and circumventing limitations of programming systems and who tries to extend their capabilities".
With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word "hacker" and the subculture of "hackers" came from.
Some common nicknames among this culture include "crackers", who are considered to be unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck, and "phreaks", which refers to skilled
crackers
and "warez d00dz" (crackers who acquire reproductions of copyrighted software). Hackers who are hired to test security are called "pentesters" or "tiger teams".
Before communications between computers and computer users were as
networked
as they are now, there were multiple independent and parallel hacker subcultures, often unaware or only partially aware of each other's existence. All of these had certain important traits in common:
Creating software and sharing it with each other
Placing a high value on freedom of inquiry
Hostility to secrecy
Information-sharing as both an ideal and a practical strategy
Upholding the right to
fork
Emphasis on rationality
Distaste for authority
Playful cleverness, taking the serious humorously and humor seriously
The
Glider
, proposed as an
emblem of the "hacker community"
by
Eric S. Raymond
16
These sorts of subcultures were commonly found at
academic
settings such as
college
campuses
. The
MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
, the
University of California, Berkeley
and
Carnegie Mellon University
were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. They evolved in parallel, and largely unconsciously, until the
Internet
, where a legendary
PDP-10
machine at MIT, called AI, that was running
ITS
, provided an early meeting point of the hacker community. This and other developments such as the rise of the
free software movement
and
community
drew together a critically large population and encouraged the spread of a conscious, common, and systematic ethos. Symptomatic of this evolution were an increasing adoption of
common slang
and a shared view of history, similar to the way in which other occupational groups have professionalized themselves, but without the formal credentialing process characteristic of most professional groups.
citation needed
Over time, the academic hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive, and better organized. The most important consciousness-raising moments have included the composition of the first
Jargon File
in 1973, the promulgation of the
GNU Manifesto
in 1985, and the publication of
Eric Raymond
's
The Cathedral and the Bazaar
in 1997. Correlated with this has been the gradual recognition of a set of shared culture heroes, including:
Bill Joy
Donald Knuth
Dennis Ritchie
Alan Kay
Ken Thompson
Richard M. Stallman
Linus Torvalds
Larry Wall
, and
Guido van Rossum
The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly been driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology, and has, in turn, accelerated that process. In 1975, hackerdom was scattered across several different families of
operating systems
and disparate networks; today it is largely a
Unix
and
TCP/IP
phenomenon, and is concentrated around various
operating systems
based on
free software
and
open-source software
development.
Ethics and principles
Main article:
Hacker ethic
Many of the values and tenets of the
free and open source software
movement stem from the
hacker ethics
that originated at
MIT
17
and at the
Homebrew Computer Club
. The hacker ethics were chronicled by Steven Levy in
Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution
18
and in other texts in which Levy formulates and summarizes general hacker attitudes:
Access to computers-and anything that might teach you something about the way the world works-should be unlimited and total.
All
information should be free
Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race, or position.
You can create
art
and beauty on a computer.
Computers can change your life for the better.
Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative.
18
Linus Torvalds
, one of the leaders of the open source movement (known primarily for developing the
Linux kernel
), has noted in the book
The Hacker Ethic
19
that these principles have evolved from the known Protestant ethics and incorporates the spirits of capitalism, as introduced in the early 20th century by
Max Weber
Hack value is the notion used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting.
20
This is something that hackers often feel intuitively about a problem or solution.
An aspect of hack value is performing feats for the sake of showing that they can be done, even if others think it is difficult. Using things in a unique way outside their intended purpose is often perceived as having hack value. Examples are using a
dot matrix impact printer
to produce musical notes, using a
flatbed scanner to take ultra-high-resolution photographs
or using an
optical mouse
as
barcode reader
A solution or feat has "hack value" if it is done in a way that has finesse, cleverness or brilliance, which makes
creativity
an essential part of the meaning. For example,
picking a difficult lock
has hack value; smashing it does not. As another example, proving
Fermat's Last Theorem
by linking together most of modern mathematics has hack value; solving a combinatorial problem by
exhaustively trying all possibilities
does not. Hacking is not using process of elimination to find a solution; it's the process of finding a clever solution to a problem.
Uses
While using
hacker
to refer to someone who enjoys playful cleverness is most often applied to computer programmers, it is sometimes used for people who apply the same attitude to other fields.
For example,
Richard Stallman
describes the silent composition
4′33″
by John Cage and the 14th-century
palindromic
three-part piece "Ma Fin Est Mon Commencement" by
Guillaume de Machaut
as hacks.
According to the Jargon File,
the word
hacker
was used in a similar sense among radio amateurs in the 1950s, predating the software hacking community.
Programming
The Boston Globe
in 1984 defined "hackers" as "computer nuts".
21
In their programmer subculture, a hacker is a person who follows a spirit of playful cleverness and loves programming. It is found in an originally academic movement unrelated to computer security and most visibly associated with
free software
open source
and
demoscene
. It also has a
hacker ethic
, based on the idea that writing software and sharing the result on a voluntary basis is a good idea, and that information should be free, but that it's not up to the hacker to make it free by breaking into private computer systems. This hacker ethic was publicized and perhaps originated in
Steven Levy
's
Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution
(1984). It contains a codification of its principles.
The programmer subculture of hackers disassociates from the mass media's pejorative use of the word 'hacker' referring to computer security, and usually prefer the term 'cracker' for that meaning. Complaints about supposed mainstream misuse started as early as 1983, when media used "hacker" to refer to the computer criminals involved in
The 414s
case.
22
In the programmer subculture of hackers, a computer hacker is a person who enjoys designing software and building programs with a sense for aesthetics and playful cleverness. The term hack in this sense can be traced back to "describe the elaborate college pranks that...students would regularly devise" (Levy, 1984 p. 10). To be considered a 'hack' was an honor among like-minded peers as "to qualify as a hack, the feat must be imbued with innovation, style and technical virtuosity" (Levy, 1984 p. 10) The
MIT
Tech Model Railroad Club
Dictionary defined hack in 1959 (not yet in a computer context) as "1) an article or project without constructive end; 2) a project undertaken on bad self-advice; 3) an entropy booster; 4) to produce, or attempt to produce, a hack(3)", and "hacker" was defined as "one who hacks, or makes them". Much of TMRC's jargon was later imported into early computing culture, because the club started using a
DEC
PDP-1
and applied its local model railroad slang in this computing context. Initially incomprehensible to outsiders, the slang also became popular in MIT's computing environments beyond the club. Other examples of jargon imported from the club are 'losing' ("when a piece of equipment is not working")
18
and 'munged' ("when a piece of equipment is ruined").
18
Others did not always view hackers with approval.
MIT living groups
in 1989 avoided advertising their sophisticated
Project Athena
workstations to prospective members because they wanted residents who were interested in people, not computers, with one fraternity member stating that "We were worried about the hacker subculture".
23
According to
Eric S. Raymond
24
the Open Source and Free Software hacker subculture developed in the 1960s among 'academic hackers'
25
working on early
minicomputers
in
computer science
environments in the United States.
Hackers were influenced by and absorbed many ideas of key technological developments and the people associated with them. Most notable is the technical culture of the pioneers of the
ARPANET
, starting in 1969. The
PDP-10
AI machine at MIT, running the
ITS
operating system and connected to the ARPANET, provided an early hacker meeting point. After 1980 the subculture coalesced with the culture of
Unix
. Since the mid-1990s, it has been largely coincident with what is now called the
free software
and
open source movement
Many programmers have been labeled "great hackers",
26
but the specifics of who that label applies to is a matter of opinion. Certainly major contributors to
computer science
such as
Edsger Dijkstra
and
Donald Knuth
, as well as the inventors of popular software such as
Linus Torvalds
Linux
), and
Ken Thompson
and
Dennis Ritchie
Unix
and
C programming language
) are likely to be included in any such list; see also
List of programmers
. People primarily known for their contributions to the consciousness of the programmer subculture of hackers include
Richard Stallman
, the founder of the free software movement and the
GNU project
, president of the
Free Software Foundation
and author of the famous
Emacs
text editor as well as the
GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
, and
Eric S. Raymond
, one of the founders of the
Open Source Initiative
and writer of the famous text
The Cathedral and the Bazaar
and many other essays, maintainer of the
Jargon File
(which was previously maintained by
Guy L. Steele, Jr.
).
Within the computer programmer subculture of hackers, the term hacker is also used for a programmer who reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to extend existing
code
or resources. In this sense, it can have a negative connotation of using inelegant
kludges
to accomplish programming tasks that are quick, but ugly, inelegant, difficult to extend, hard to maintain and inefficient. This derogatory form of the noun "
hack
" derives from the everyday English sense "to cut or shape by or as if by crude or ruthless strokes" [Merriam-Webster] and is even used among users of the positive sense of "hacker" who produces "cool" or "neat" hacks. In other words, to "hack" at an original creation, as if with an axe, is to force-fit it into being usable for a task not intended by the original creator, and a "hacker" would be someone who does this habitually. (The original creator and the hacker may be the same person.) This usage is common in both programming, engineering and building. In programming, hacking in this sense appears to be tolerated and seen as a necessary compromise in many situations. Some argue that it should not be, due to this negative meaning; others argue that some kludges can, for all their ugliness and imperfection, still have "hack value".
In non-software engineering, the culture is less tolerant of unmaintainable solutions, even when intended to be temporary, and describing someone as a "hacker" might imply that they lack professionalism. In this sense, the term has no real positive connotations, except for the idea that the hacker is capable of doing modifications that allow a system to work in the short term, and so has some sort of marketable skills. However, there is always the understanding that a more skillful or technical logician could have produced successful modifications that would not be considered a "hack-job". The definition is similar to other, non-computer based uses of the term "hack-job". For instance, a professional modification of a production sports car into a racing machine would not be considered a hack-job, but a cobbled together backyard mechanic's result could be. Even though the outcome of a race of the two machines could not be assumed, a quick inspection would instantly reveal the difference in the level of professionalism of the designers. The adjective associated with hacker is "hackish" (see the
Jargon file
).
In a very universal sense, hacker also means someone who makes things work beyond perceived limits in a clever way in general, without necessarily referring to computers, especially at MIT.
27
That is, people who apply the creative attitude of software hackers in fields other than computing. This includes even activities that predate computer hacking, for example
reality hackers
or
urban spelunkers
(exploring undocumented or unauthorized areas in buildings). One specific example is clever pranks
28
traditionally perpetrated by MIT students, with the perpetrator being called hacker. For example, when MIT students surreptitiously put a fake police car atop the dome on MIT's Building 10,
29
that was a hack in this sense, and the students involved were therefore hackers. Other types of hacking are
reality hackers
wetware
hackers ("hack your brain"), and
media hackers
("hack your reputation"). In a similar vein, a "hack" may refer to a
math
hack, that is, a clever solution to a mathematical problem. All of these uses have spread beyond MIT.
Home computing enthusiasts
Main article:
Hacking of consumer electronics
In yet another context, a hacker is a computer hobbyist who pushes the limits of software or hardware. The home computer hacking subculture relates to the hobbyist home computing of the late 1970s, beginning with the availability of
MITS Altair
. An influential organization was the
Homebrew Computer Club
. However, its roots go back further to
amateur radio
enthusiasts. The amateur radio slang referred to creatively tinkering to improve performance as "hacking" already in the 1950s.
30
A large overlap between hobbyist hackers and the programmer subculture hackers existed during the Homebrew Club's days, but the interests and values of both communities somewhat diverged. Today, the hobbyists focus on commercial
computer and video games
software cracking
and exceptional computer programming (
demo scene
). Also of interest to some members of this group is the modification of computer hardware and other electronic devices, see
modding
DIY
musician probes the circuit board of a synthesizer for
"bends"
using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips.
Electronics hobbyists working on machines other than computers also fall into this category. This includes people who do simple modifications to
graphing calculators
video game consoles
, electronic
musical keyboards
or other device (see
CueCat
for a notorious example) to expose or add functionality to a device that was unintended for use by end users by the company who created it. A number of
techno
musicians have modified 1980s-era
Casio SK-1
sampling keyboards to create unusual sounds by doing
circuit bending
: connecting wires to different leads of the integrated circuit chips. The results of these DIY experiments range from opening up previously inaccessible features that were part of the chip design to producing the strange, dis-harmonic digital tones that became part of the techno music style.
Companies take different attitudes towards such practices, ranging from open acceptance (such as
Texas Instruments
for its graphing calculators and
Lego
for its
Lego Mindstorms
robotics gear) to outright hostility (such as
Microsoft
's attempts to lock out
Xbox
hackers or the
DRM
routines on
Blu-ray Disc
players designed to sabotage compromised players.
citation needed
In this context, a "hack" refers to a
program
that (sometimes illegally) modifies another program, often a video game, giving the user access to features otherwise inaccessible to them. As an example of this use, for
Palm OS
users (until the 4th iteration of this
operating system
), a "hack" refers to an extension of the operating system which provides additional functionality. Term also refers to those people who cheat on video games using special software. This can also refer to the
jailbreaking
of
iPhones
Hacker artists
See also:
Fractal art
algorithmic art
, and
interactive art
Hacker artists create
art
by hacking on
technology
as an
artistic medium
. This has extended the definition of the term and what it means to be a hacker. Such
artists
may work with
graphics
computer hardware
sculpture
music
and other
audio
animation
video
software
simulations
mathematics
, reactive
sensory
systems, text,
poetry
literature
, or any combination thereof.
Dartmouth College
musician
Larry Polansky
states:
Technology and art are inextricably related. Many musicians, video artists, graphic artists, and even poets who work with technology—whether designing it or using it—consider themselves to be part of the 'hacker community.' Computer artists, like non-art hackers, often find themselves on society's fringes, developing strange, innovative uses of existing technology. There is an empathetic relationship between those, for example, who design experimental music software and hackers who write communications
freeware
31
Another description is offered by
Jenny Marketou
Hacker artists operate as
culture
hackers who manipulate existing techno-
semiotic
structures towards a different end, to get inside cultural systems on the net and make them do things they were never intended to do.
32
A successful software and hardware hacker artist is
Mark Lottor
(mkl), who has created the 3-D light art projects entitled the
Cubatron
, and the
Big Round Cubatron
. This art is made using custom computer technology, with specially designed
circuit boards
and programming for
microprocessor
chips to manipulate the
LED
lights.
Don Hopkins
is a software hacker artist well known for his artistic cellular automata. This art, created by a
cellular automata
computer program, generates objects which randomly bump into each other and in turn create more objects and designs, similar to a lava lamp, except that the parts change color and form through interaction. Hopkins Says:
Cellular automata are simple rules that are applied to a grid of cells, or the pixel values of an image. The same rule is applied to every cell, to determine its next state, based on the previous state of that cell and its neighboring cells. There are many interesting cellular automata rules, and they all look very different, with amazing animated dynamic effects. '
Life
' is a widely known cellular automata rule, but many other lesser known rules are much more interesting.
Some hacker artists create art by writing computer code, and others, by developing hardware. Some create with existing software tools such as
Adobe Photoshop
or
GIMP
The creative process of hacker artists can be more abstract than artists using non-technological media. For example,
mathematicians
have produced visually stunning graphic presentations of
fractals
, which hackers have further enhanced, often producing detailed and intricate graphics and animations from simple mathematical formulas.
Bubbles
was created using watercolors, then scanned into a computer. Colors were then manipulated using a software imaging tool.
Sunrise
was created using pen and ink, then scanned into a computer and colored with a software imaging tool.
Rolling Golden Hills of California
was created using pencil, scanned, and then painted with a software imaging tool.
Barnsley's fern
, a fractal fern computed using an
iterated function system
A fractal that models the surface of a mountain
Art
Burning Man Festival
Computer art
Computer music
Digital art
Demoscene
Electronic art
Electronic art music
Electronica
Experiments in Art and Technology
Generative art
Internet art
Maker movement
Media art
Robotic art
Software art
Hacker art mentions
"Vector in Open Space"
by Gerfried Stocker 1996.
Switch|Journal
Jun 14 1998.
Eye Weekly
"Tag – who's it?" by Ingrid Hein, July 16, 1998.
Linux Today
Archived
2011-07-09 at the
Wayback Machine
"Playing the Open Source Game" by
Shawn Hargreaves
pl
, Jul 5, 1999.
Canterbury Christ Church University Library
Resources by Subject – Art & Design, 2001.
SuperCollider Workshop / Seminar
Archived
2007-09-28 at the
Wayback Machine
Joel Ryan describes collaboration with hacker artists of Silicon Valley. 21 March 2002
Anthony Barker's Weblog on Linux, Technology and the Economy
"Why Geeks Love Linux", Sept 2003.
Live Art Research
Gesture and Response in Field-Based Performance by
Sha Xin Wei
& Satinder Gill, 2005.
Hackers, Who Are They
"The Hackers Identity", October 2014.
See also
Free and open-source software portal
Cowboy coding
: software development without the use of strict
software development methodologies
Demoscene
History of free software
Maker culture
Unix philosophy
The Hackers Conference
References
This article is based in part on the
Jargon File
, which is in the public domain.
Gehring, Verna (2004).
The Internet in Public Life
. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp.
43–
56.
ISBN
0742542335
"The Hacker Community and Ethics: An Interview with Richard M. Stallman, 2002"
gnu.org
. Archived from
the original
on 2021-03-07.
Stallman, Richard
(2002).
"On Hacking"
Archived
from the original on 2019-04-25
. Retrieved
2008-03-16
"TMRC – Hackers"
. Archived from
the original
on 2006-05-03
. Retrieved
2012-12-27
Stallman, Richard M.
"Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing"
GNU.org
Free Software Foundation
Archived
from the original on 3 June 2013
. Retrieved
29 December
2012
"IHTFP Hack Gallery: Hacks on the Great Dome (Bldg. 10)"
hacks.mit.edu
Archived
from the original on 2019-08-20
. Retrieved
2018-05-07
Stallman, Richard. "
Hackers – Wizards of the Electronic Age
" (Interview).
Raymond, Eric
(2008-01-08).
"How To Become A Hacker"
. Thyrsus Enterprises.
Archived
from the original on 2006-12-19
. Retrieved
2008-03-16
Raymond, Eric
, ed. (2003-12-29).
"hacker"
Jargon File
(version 4.4.7 ed.).
Archived
from the original on 2017-05-28
. Retrieved
2008-03-02
Internet Users' Glossary
IETF
. January 1993.
doi
10.17487/RFC1392
RFC
1392
Okpa, John Thompson; Ugwuoke, Christopher Uchechukwu; Ajah, Benjamin Okorie; Eshioste, Emmanuel; Igbe, Joseph Egidi; Ajor, Ogar James; Okoi, Ofem, Nnana; Eteng, Mary Juachi; Nnamani, Rebecca Ginikanwa (2022-09-05).
"Cyberspace, Black-Hat Hacking and Economic Sustainability of Corporate Organizations in Cross-River State, Nigeria"
SAGE Open
12
(3): 215824402211227.
doi
10.1177/21582440221122739
ISSN
2158-2440
S2CID
252096635
{{
cite journal
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
"Definition of "Cracker"
Jargon File
. Archived from
the original
on 2011-08-05.
"Hacker Etymology"
. 16 November 2023.
Archived
from the original on 20 November 2023
. Retrieved
20 November
2023
Antony J. T. Davie (1992).
Introduction to Functional Programming Systems Using Haskell
. Cambridge University Press. p. 1.
ISBN
978-0-521-27724-2
Archived
from the original on 2023-10-19
. Retrieved
2018-12-17
"A History of Modern Computing"
The Washington Post
Archived
from the original on 2017-05-27
. Retrieved
2017-08-29
During the time one of these machines read a card, it could execute a sequence of up to forty-eight steps. More complex sequences-within-sequences were also possible. One computer scientist later noted that this method of programming demanded
the kind of detailed design of parallel subsequencing that one sees nowadays at the microprogramming level of some computers.
"Glider Emblem FAQ"
. 22 May 2014.
Archived
from the original on 12 September 2016
. Retrieved
20 September
2016
"The Hacker's Ethics"
Archived
from the original on 30 July 2013
. Retrieved
31 August
2011
Levy, Steven (1984).
Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution
. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday.
ISBN
0-385-19195-2
Himanen, Pekka; Torvalds, Linus; Castells, Manuel (2001).
The Hacker Ethic
. Secker & Warburg.
ISBN
0-436-20550-5
Definition of 'hack value'
Archived
2011-08-05 at the
Wayback Machine
in the
Jargon File
Dyer, Richard (1984-05-06).
"Masters of the Game"
The Boston Globe
. Archived from
the original
on 1997-06-07.
Joe Wilson (19 September 1983).
"for hack ( er ) s who want to complain to CBS"
Newsgroup
net.misc
Archived
from the original on 5 June 2013
. Retrieved
28 July
2016
Garfinkel, Simson L.
(Feb–Mar 1989).
"Students Log on to ATHENA"
(PDF)
Technology Review
. pp.
7–
10.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 9 April 2016
. Retrieved
25 January
2016
Eric S.Raymond:
A Brief History of Hackerdom
Archived
2015-12-20 at the
Wayback Machine
(2000)
Raymond, Eric Steven
(19 September 2003).
"Reasons to Believe"
The Art of Unix Programming
. Addison-Wesley. Archived from
the original
on 18 July 2008
. Retrieved
6 September
2015
Graham, Paul
(2004).
"Great Hackers"
Archived
from the original on 2015-09-06
. Retrieved
2015-09-06
Eric Steven Raymond (2001).
"What Is a Hacker?"
How To Become A Hacker
. Thyrsus Enterprises.
Archived
from the original on 2006-12-19
. Retrieved
2008-10-18
"MIT Gallery of Hacks"
. Hacks.mit.edu.
Archived
from the original on 2008-11-07
. Retrieved
2013-11-30
"IHTFP Hack Gallery: CP Car on the Great Dome"
. Hacks.mit.edu. 1994-05-09.
Archived
from the original on 2013-11-28
. Retrieved
2013-11-30
hacker
Archived
from the original on 2015-08-06
. Retrieved
2008-10-18
{{
cite book
}}
|work=
ignored (
help
Singing Together, Hacking Together, Plundering Together: Sonic Intellectual Property in Cybertimes
by Larry Polansky
"Cornelia Sollfrank"
Thing.net
. 2000-07-25.
Archived
from the original on 2011-06-29
. Retrieved
2011-07-01
Further reading
The
Jargon File
has had a role in acculturating hackers since its origins in 1975.
citation needed
These academic and literary works helped shape the academic hacker subculture:
citation needed
Abelson, Hal
Sussman, Gerald Jay
(1984).
Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs
. London:
MIT Press
ISBN
9780070004849
Aho
Sethi
Ullman
(1986).
Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools
. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley
ISBN
9780201100884
Bourne, Stephen R.
(1983).
The Unix System
. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
ISBN
9780201137910
Brooks, Fred
(1975).
The Mythical Man-Month
. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
ISBN
9780201006506
Graham, Paul
(2004-05-18).
Hackers & Painters
. Sebastopol, CA:
O'Reilly Media
ISBN
9780596006624
Hoftstadter, Douglas
(1979).
Gödel, Escher, Bach
. New York, NY:
Basic Books
ISBN
9780465026852
James, Geoffrey
(1987).
The Tao of Programming
. Santa Monica, CA: InfoBooks.
ISBN
9780931137075
Kernighan, Brian W.
Ritchie, Dennis
(January 1988).
The C Programming Language
. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall
ISBN
9780131103702
Kidder, Tracy
(1981).
The Soul of a New Machine
. Boston, MA:
Little, Brown and Company
ISBN
9780316491709
Knuth, Donald
(1968).
The Art of Computer Programming
. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
ISBN
9780201038019
Levy, Steven
(1984).
Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution
. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press /
Doubleday
ISBN
9780385191951
Raymond, Eric S.
(1999).
The Cathedral and the Bazaar
. Cambridge, MA: O'Reilly Media.
ISBN
9781565927247
Stoll, Cliff
(September 1989).
The Cuckoo's Egg
. New York, NY: Doubleday.
ISBN
9780385249461
Olson, Parmy. (05-14-2013).
We Are Anonymous: Inside the Hacker World of LulzSec, Anonymous, and the Global Cyber Insurgency.
ISBN
0316213527
Coleman, Gabriella. (Nov 4, 2014).
Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous
. Verso Books.
ISBN
1781685835
Shantz, Jeff; Tomblin, Jordon (2014-11-28).
Cyber Disobedience: Re://Presenting Online Anarchy
. John Hunt Publishing.
ISBN
9781782795551
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Hacker culture
A Brief History of Hackerdom
Hack, Hackers, and Hacking
(see
Appendix A
Gabriella Coleman
The Anthropology of Hackers
The Atlantic, 2010.
Gabriella Coleman
Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous
at
Open Library
Retrieved from "
Categories
Hacker culture
Subcultures
Computing and society
Do it yourself
Hobbies
Hacking (computer security)
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 errors: periodical ignored
Articles with short description
Short description matches Wikidata
Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2023
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2011
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Jargon File
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011
Commons category link is on Wikidata
Hacker culture
Add topic