History of South Korea - Wikipedia

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For history of Korea before its division, see
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Preludes to Division
1910–48
Japanese rule
1910–45
Korean Provisional Government
1919–48
People's Republic of Korea
1945–46
USAMGIK
1945–48
First Republic
1948–60
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1950–53
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1948–60
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1960
Second Republic
and
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1960–63
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1960
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1960–61
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1961
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1963–72
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1963–79
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1972
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1972–81
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1979
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1979
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1980
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1980
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1981–88
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1981–87
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1987
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1988–
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1998–2003
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2003–08
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2008–13
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2013–17
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2017–22
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2022–25
2024 South Korean martial law crisis
2024
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2025–
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South Korea portal
The
history of South Korea
begins with the
Japanese surrender
on 2 September 1945.
At that time,
South Korea
and
North Korea
were divided, despite being the
same people
and on the
same peninsula
. In 1950, the Korean War broke out. North Korea overran South Korea until US-led UN forces intervened. At the end of the war in 1953, the border between South and North remained largely similar. Tensions between the two sides continued. South Korea alternated between dictatorship and liberal democracy. It underwent substantial economic development.
Background
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After
Japan
's defeat in the
Pacific War
in 1945, the Korean region, which was part of Japan's territory, was occupied by American and Soviet forces. In 1948, with the end of the U.S. military government, South Korea declared its independence from
Japan
as the Republic of Korea. In 1952, when Japan approved the independence of the Korean region under the
San Francisco Peace Treaty
, it became a completely independent and sovereign nation under international law. The unconditional
surrender of Japan
led to the
division of Korea
into two occupation zones (similar to the
four zones in Germany
), with the
United States
administering the southern half of the peninsula
and the
Soviet Union
administering the area north
of the
38th parallel
. This division was meant to be temporary (as was in Germany) and was first intended to return a
unified Korea
back to
its people
after the United States,
United Kingdom
, Soviet Union, and
China
could arrange a single government for the peninsula.
The two parties were unable to agree on the implementation of a Joint Trusteeship over Korea because of 2 different opinions.
This led in 1948 to the establishment of two separate governments with the two very opposite
ideologies
; the
Communist
-aligned
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
(DPRK) and the
West
-aligned
First Republic of Korea
– each claiming to be the legitimate government of all of Korea. On 25 June 1950, the
Korean War
broke out. After much destruction, the war ended on 27 July 1953, with the 1948 status quo being restored, as neither the DPRK nor the First Republic had succeeded in conquering the other's portion of the divided Korea. The peninsula was divided by the
Korean Demilitarized Zone
and the two separate governments
stabilized
into the existing political entities of
North
and
South Korea
South Korea's subsequent history is marked by alternating periods of
democratic
and
autocratic rule
. Civilian governments are conventionally numbered from the
First Republic
of
Syngman Rhee
to the contemporary
Sixth Republic
. The First Republic, arguably democratic at its inception (though preceded by major anti-communist and anti-socialist purges), became increasingly autocratic until its collapse in 1960. The Second Republic was strongly democratic but was overthrown in under a year and replaced by an autocratic
military regime
. The Third, Fourth, and Fifth Republics were nominally democratic, but are widely regarded as the continuation of military rule.
With the current Sixth Republic, the country has gradually stabilized into a
liberal democracy
Since its inception, South Korea has seen substantial development in
education
economy
, and
culture
. Since the 1960s, the nation has developed from one of Asia's poorest to
one of the world's wealthiest nations
. Education, particularly at the
tertiary
level, has expanded dramatically. It is said to be one of the "
Four Tigers
" of rising Asian states along with
Singapore
Taiwan
and
Hong Kong
U.S. military administration (1945–1948)
edit
Main article:
United States Army Military Government in Korea
Lyuh Woon-hyung
(far right) at the
US-Soviet Joint Commission
ko
in 1947
Emperor
Hirohito
announced the surrender
of the
Empire of Japan
to the
Allied Powers
on 15 August 1945.
General Order No. 1
for the surrender of Japan (prepared by the Joint Chiefs of Staff of U.S. military forces and approved on 17 August 1945) prescribed separate surrender procedures for Japanese forces in Korea north and south of the 38th parallel. After
Japan
's surrender to the Allies (formalised on 2 September 1945), division at the
38th parallel
marked the beginning of Soviet and U.S. occupation of the North and South, respectively. This division was meant to be temporary, to be replaced by a trusteeship of the United States,
United Kingdom
Soviet Union
, and
Republic of China
which would prepare for Korean independence. The trusteeship had been discussed at the
Yalta Conference
in February 1945.
U.S. forces landed at
Incheon
on 8 September 1945, and established a military government shortly thereafter.
Lieutenant General
John R. Hodge
, their commander, took charge of the government.
10
Faced with mounting popular discontent, in October 1945 Hodge established the Korean Advisory Council. The
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
, which had operated from China, sent a delegation with three interpreters to Hodge, but he refused to meet with them.
11
Likewise, Hodge refused to recognize the newly formed
People's Republic of Korea
and its People's Committees, and outlawed it on 12 December.
12
A year later, an interim legislature and interim government were established, headed by
Kim Kyu-shik
and
Syngman Rhee
respectively. Political and economic chaos – arising from a variety of causes – plagued the country in this period. The after-effects of the Japanese exploitation remained in the South, as in the North.
13
In addition, the U.S. military was largely unprepared for the challenge of administering the country, arriving with little knowledge of the language, culture or political situation.
14
Thus many of their policies had unintended destabilizing effects. Waves of refugees from North Korea and returnees from abroad added to the turmoil.
15
In December 1945 a conference convened in
Moscow
to discuss the future of Korea.
16
A five-year trusteeship was discussed, and a
US-Soviet joint commission
ko
was established. The commission met intermittently in
Seoul
but deadlocked over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no solution in sight, the
United States
submitted the Korean question to the
UN General Assembly
The resolution from the UN General Assembly called for a UN-supervised general election in Korea, but after the North rejected this proposition, a general election for a Constitutional Assembly took place in the South only, in May 1948. A constitution was adopted, setting forth a presidential form of government and specifying a four-year term for the presidency. According to the provisions of the Constitution, an indirect presidential election took place in July. Rhee Syngman, as head of the new assembly, assumed the presidency and proclaimed the
Republic of Korea (South Korea)
on 15 August 1948.
17
18
19
First Republic (1948–1960)
edit
Main article:
First Republic of South Korea
Syngman Rhee
, the 1st President of South Korea
On 15 August 1948, the Republic of Korea was formally established, with
Syngman Rhee
as the first president. With the establishment of Rhee's government,
de jure sovereignty
also passed into the new government. On 9 September 1948, a communist government, the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
(North Korea), was proclaimed under
Kim Il Sung
17
18
19
However, on 12 December 1948, by its resolution 195 in the Third General Assembly, the
United Nations
recognized the
Republic of Korea
as the sole legal government of Korea.
20
In 1946, the North implemented land reforms by confiscating private property, Japanese and pro-Japanese owned facilities and factories, and placed them under state ownership.
17
Demand for land reform in the South grew strong, and it was eventually enacted in June 1949. Koreans with large landholdings were obliged to divest most of their land. Approximately 40 percent of total farm households became small landowners.
21
However, because preemptive rights were given to people who had ties with landowners before liberation, many pro-Japanese groups obtained or retained properties.
17
With the country now divided, the relationship between the two Koreas turned more antagonistic as time passed. The Soviet forces having withdrawn in 1948, North Korea pressured the South to expel the United States forces, but Rhee sought to align his government strongly with America, and against both North Korea and Japan.
22
Although talks towards normalization of relations with Japan took place, they achieved little.
23
Meanwhile, the government took in vast sums of American aid, in amounts sometimes near the total size of the national budget.
24
The nationalist government also continued many of the practices of the U.S. military government. In 1948, the Rhee government repressed military uprisings in
Jeju
Suncheon and Yeosu
. During the rebellion and its suppression 14,000 to 60,000 people were killed in all fighting.
25
18
26
Of note, President Rhee's regime was intolerant of opposition. A famous event that highlighted this was the arrest and conviction of future President Park Chung Hee, for communist conspiracy in 1948.
The main policy of the First Republic of South Korea was anti-communism and "unification by expanding northward". The South's military was neither sufficiently equipped nor prepared, but the Rhee administration was determined to reunify Korea by military force with aid from the United States. However, in the second parliamentary elections held on 30 May 1950, the majority of seats went to independents who did not endorse this position, confirming the lack of support and the fragile state of the nation.
18
27
28
When the communist army attacked from the North in June, retreating
South Korean forces
executed tens of thousands suspected communists or sympathisers, either in prison or in a reeducation movement, in what is known as the
Bodo League massacre
29
On 25 June 1950,
North Korean forces invaded South Korea
. Led by the U.S., a 16-member coalition undertook the first collective action under the
United Nations Command
(UNC) in defense of South Korea.
30
31
32
Oscillating battle lines inflicted a high number of civilian casualties and wrought immense destruction. With the
People's Republic of China
's entry on behalf of North Korea in late 1950, the fighting came to a stalemate close to the original line of demarcation. Armistice negotiations, initiated in July 1951, finally concluded on 27 July 1953
33
at
Panmunjom
, now in the
Demilitarized Zone
(DMZ). Following the armistice, the South Korean government returned to Seoul on the symbolic date of 15 August 1953.
30
34
After the armistice, South Korea experienced political turmoil under years of autocratic leadership of
Syngman Rhee
, which was ended by student revolt in 1960. Throughout his rule, Rhee sought to take additional steps to cement his control of government. These began in 1952, when the government was still based in
Busan
due to the ongoing war. In May of that year, Rhee pushed through constitutional amendments which made the presidency a directly elected position. To do this, he declared martial law, arrested opposing members of parliament, demonstrators, and anti-government groups. Rhee was subsequently elected by a wide margin.
35
36
37
Rhee regained control of parliament in the
1954 election
, and thereupon pushed through an amendment to exempt himself from the eight-year term limit, and was once again re-elected in 1956.
38
Soon after, Rhee's administration arrested members of the opposing party and executed the leader after accusing him of being a North Korean spy.
37
39
The administration became increasingly repressive while dominating the political arena, and in 1958, it sought to amend the
National Security Law
to tighten government control over all levels of administration, including the local units.
36
These measures caused much outrage among the people, but despite public outcry, Rhee's administration rigged the
March 1960 presidential election
and won by a landslide.
40
On that election day, protests by students and citizens against the irregularities of the election burst out in the city of
Masan
. Initially these protests were quelled with force by local police, but when the body of a student was found floating in the harbor of Masan, the whole country was enraged and protests spread nationwide.
41
42
On 19 April, students from various universities and schools rallied and marched in protest in the Seoul streets, in what would be called the
April Revolution
. The government declared martial law, called in the army, and suppressed the crowds with open fire.
41
43
44
Subsequent protests throughout the country shook the government, and after an escalated protest with university professors taking to the streets on 25 April, Rhee submitted his official resignation on 26 April and fled into exile.
45
Second Republic (1960–1963)
edit
Main article:
Second Republic of South Korea
After the student revolution, power was briefly held by an interim administration under the Foreign Minister
Heo Jeong
46
A new parliamentary election was held on 29 July 1960. The Democratic Party, which had been in the opposition during the First Republic, easily gained power and the Second Republic was established. The revised constitution dictated the Second Republic to take the form of a parliamentary cabinet system where the President took only a nominal role. This was the first and the only instance South Korea turned to a parliamentary cabinet system instead of a presidential system.
47
The assembly elected
Yun Po-sun
as president and
Chang Myon
as the Prime Minister and head of government in August 1960.
41
48
49
50
The Second Republic saw the proliferation of political activity which had been repressed under the Rhee regime. Much of this activity was from leftist and student groups, which had been instrumental in the overthrow of the First Republic. Union membership and activity grew rapidly during the later months of 1960, including the Teachers' Union, Journalists' Union, and the Federation of Korean Trade Union.
41
51
Around 2,000 demonstrations were held during the eight months of the Second Republic.
52
Under pressure from the left, the Chang government carried out a series of purges of military and police officials who had been involved in anti-democratic activities or corruption. A Special Law to this effect was passed on 31 October 1960.
53
54
40,000 people were placed under investigation; of these, more than 2,200 government officials and 4,000 police officers were purged.
53
In addition, the government considered reducing the size of the army by 100,000, although this plan was shelved.
55
In economic terms as well, the government was faced with mounting instability. The government formulated a
Five-Year Economic Development Plan
, although it was unable to act on it prior to being overthrown.
56
The Second Republic saw the
hwan
lose half of its value against the dollar between fall 1960 and spring 1961.
57
Although the government had been established with support of the people, it had failed to implement effective reforms which brought about endless social unrest, political turmoil and ultimately, the
May 16 coup
Military rule (1961–1963)
edit
Major General
Park Chung Hee
(center) during the
May 16 coup
Main article:
Supreme Council for National Reconstruction
The
May 16 coup
, led by Major General
Park Chung Hee
on 16 May 1961, put an effective end to the Second Republic. Park was one of a group of military leaders who had been pushing for the de-politicization of the military. Dissatisfied with the cleanup measures undertaken by the Second Republic and convinced that the current disoriented state would collapse into communism, they chose to take matters into their own hands.
58
59
60
The National Assembly was dissolved and military officers replaced the civilian officials. In May 1961, the
junta
declared "Pledges of the Revolution":
anticommunism
; strengthened relations with the United States; an end to government corruption termed "fresh and clean morality"; a self-reliant economy; working towards reunification; and a return to democratic civilian government within two years.
58
59
60
61
As a means to check the opposition, the military authority created the
Korean Central Intelligence Agency
(KCIA) in June 1961, with
Kim Jong-pil
, a relative of Park, as its first director.
59
61
62
In December 1962, a referendum was held on returning to a presidential system of rule, which was allegedly passed with a 78% majority.
63
Park and the other military leaders pledged not to run for office in the next elections. However, Park became presidential candidate of the new
Democratic Republican Party
(DRP), which consisted of mainly KCIA officials, ran for president and won the
election of 1963
by a narrow margin.
58
60
61
63
Third Republic (1963–1972)
edit
Main article:
Third Republic of South Korea
President
Park Chung Hee
, who ruled South Korea from 1961 to 1979
Park's administration started the Third Republic by announcing the
Five-Year Economic Development Plan
, an
export-oriented industrialization
policy. Top priority was placed on the growth of a self-reliant economy and modernization; "Development First, Unification Later" became the slogan of the times and the economy grew rapidly with vast improvement in industrial structure, especially in the basic and heavy chemical industries.
64
65
Capital was needed for such development, so the Park regime used the influx of foreign aid from Japan and the United States to provide loans to export businesses, with preferential treatment in obtaining low-interest bank loans and tax benefits. Cooperating with the government, these businesses would later become the
chaebol
59
64
66
Relations with Japan were normalized by the
Korea-Japan treaty
ratified in June 1965.
67
68
This treaty brought Japanese funds in the form of loans and compensation for the damages suffered during the colonial era without an official apology from the Japanese government, sparking much protest across the nation.
59
64
The government also kept close ties with the United States, and continued to receive large amounts of aid. A
status of forces agreement
was concluded in 1966, clarifying the legal situation of the US forces stationed there.
69
70
Soon thereafter, Korea joined the
Vietnam War
, eventually sending a total of 300,000 soldiers from 1964 to 1973 to fight alongside
US troops
and
South Vietnamese Armed Forces
59
65
71
Economic and technological growth during this period improved the standard of living, which expanded opportunities for education. Workers with higher education were absorbed by the rapidly growing industrial and commercial sectors, and urban population surged.
72
Construction of the
Gyeongbu Expressway
was completed and linked Seoul to the nation's southeastern region and the port cities of
Incheon
and
Busan
. Despite the immense economic growth, however, the standard of living for city laborers and farmers was still low. Laborers were working with low wages to increase the price competitiveness for the export-oriented economy plan, and farmers were in near poverty as the government controlled prices.
64
73
As the
rural economy
steadily lost ground and caused dissent among the farmers, however, the government decided to implement measures to increase farm productivity and income by instituting the
Saemaul Movement
("New Village Movement") in 1971. The movement's goal was to improve the quality of rural life, modernize both rural and urban societies and narrow the income gap between them.
72
74
A card portrait of Park Chung Hee during a military parade on
Armed Forces Day
, 1 October 1973
Park ran again in the
1967 presidential election
, taking 51.4% of the vote.
63
At the time the presidency was constitutionally limited to two terms, but a
constitutional amendment
was forced through the National Assembly in 1969 to allow him to seek a third term.
64
75
76
Major protests and demonstrations against the constitutional amendment broke out, with large support gaining for the opposition leader
Kim Dae-jung
, but Park was again re-elected in the
1971 presidential election
77
Parliamentary elections followed shortly after the presidential election where the opposition party garnered most of the seats, giving them the power to pass constitutional amendments.
citation needed
Park, feeling threatened, declared a state of national emergency on 6 December 1971.
64
In the midst of this domestic insecurity, the
Nixon Doctrine
had eased tensions among the world superpowers on the international scene, which caused a dilemma for Park, who had justified his regime based on the state policy of anti-communism.
64
In a sudden gesture, the government proclaimed a joint communiqué for reunification with North Korea on 4 July 1972, and held
Red Cross
talks in Seoul and
Pyongyang
. However, there was no change in government policy regarding reunification, and on 17 October 1972, Park declared
martial law
, dissolving the National Assembly and suspending the constitution.
74
78
Fourth Republic (1972–1981)
edit
Main article:
Fourth Republic of South Korea
Shipyard of
Hyundai Heavy Industries
at
Ulsan
in 1976
The Fourth Republic began with the adoption of the
Yushin Constitution
on 21 November 1972. This new constitution gave Park effective control over the parliament and the possibility of permanent presidency. The president would be elected through indirect election by an elected body, and the term of presidency was extended to six years with no restrictions on reappointment. The legislature and judiciary were controlled by the government, and educational guidelines were under direct surveillance as well. Textbooks supporting the ideology of the military government were authorized by the government, diminishing the responsibilities of the Ministry of Education.
74
Despite social and political unrest, the economy continued to flourish under the authoritarian rule with the export-based industrialization policy. The first two five-year economic development plans were successful, and the 3rd and 4th
five-year plans
focused on expanding the heavy and chemical industries, raising the capability for steel production and oil refining. However, large conglomerate
chaebols
continuously received preferential treatment and came to dominate the domestic market. As most of the development had come from foreign capital, most of the profit went back to repaying the loans and interest.
66
74
Students and activists for democracy continued their demonstrations and protests for the abolition of the Yushin system and in the face of continuing popular unrest, Park's administration promulgated emergency decrees in 1974 and 1975, which led to the jailing of hundreds of dissidents. The protests grew larger and stronger, with politicians, intellectuals, religious leaders, laborers and farmers all joining in the movement for democracy. In 1978, Park was elected to another term by indirect election, which was met with more demonstrations and protests. The government retaliated by removing the opposition leader
Kim Young-sam
from the assembly and suppressing the activists with violent means. In 1979, mass anti-government demonstrations occurred nationwide. In the midst of this political turmoil, Park Chung Hee was assassinated by the director of the
KCIA
Kim Jae-gyu
, thus bringing the 18-year rule of military regime to an end.
74
78
79
Fifth Republic (1981–1988)
edit
Main article:
Fifth Republic of Korea
Burial grounds of the victims of the
Gwangju Uprising
at Mangwol-dong cemetery
After the
assassination of Park Chung Hee
, Prime Minister
Choi Kyu-hah
took the president's role only to be usurped 6 days later by Major General
Chun Doo-hwan
's 1979
Coup d'état of December Twelfth
74
In May of the following year, a vocal civil society composed primarily of university students and labour unions led strong protests against authoritarian rule all over the country. Chun Doo-hwan
declared martial law
on 17 May 1980, and protests escalated. Political opponents
Kim Dae-jung
and
Kim Jong-pil
were arrested, and
Kim Young-sam
was confined to house arrest.
80
On 18 May 1980, a confrontation broke out in the city of
Gwangju
between protesting students of
Chonnam National University
and the armed forces dispatched by the Martial Law Command. The incident turned into a citywide protest that lasted nine days until 27 May and resulted in the
Gwangju massacre
. Immediate estimates of the civilian death toll ranged from a few dozen to 2000, with a later full investigation by the civilian government finding nearly 200 deaths and 850 injured.
81
82
83
In June 1980, Chun ordered the National Assembly to be dissolved. He subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy Committee, and installed himself as a member. On 17 July, he resigned his position of KCIA Director, and then held only the position of committee member. In September 1980, President Choi Kyu-hah was forced to resign from president to give way to the new military leader, Chun Doo-hwan.
In September of that year, Chun was elected president by
indirect election
and inaugurated in March of the following year, officially starting the Fifth Republic. A new Constitution was established with notable changes; maintaining the presidential system but limiting it to a single 7-year term, strengthening the authority of the National Assembly, and conferring the responsibilities of appointing judiciary to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. However, the system of indirect election of the president stayed and many military persons were appointed to highly ranked government positions, keeping the remnants of the Yushin era.
83
84
South Korean President
Chun Doo-hwan
with U.S. President
Ronald Reagan
in Seoul, November 1983
The government promised a new era of economic growth and democratic justice. Tight monetary laws and low interest rates contributed to price stability and helped the economy boom with notable growth in the electronics, semi-conductor, and automobile industries. The country opened up to foreign investments and GDP rose as Korean exports increased. This rapid economic growth, however, widened the gap between the rich and the poor, the urban and rural regions, and also exacerbated inter-regional conflicts. These dissensions, added to the hard-line measures taken against opposition to the government, fed intense rural and student movements, which had continued since the beginning of the republic.
80
84
In foreign policy, ties with Japan were strengthened by state visits by Chun to Japan and Japanese Prime Minister
Yasuhiro Nakasone
to Korea. U.S. President
Ronald Reagan
also paid a visit, and relations with the
Soviet Union
and
China
improved.
85
The relationship with North Korea was strained when in 1983
a terrorist bomb attack in Burma
killed 17 high-ranking officials attending memorial ceremonies and North Korea was alleged to be behind the attacks. However, in 1980 North Korea had submitted a "one nation, two system" reunification proposal which was met with a suggestion from the South to meet and prepare a unification constitution and government through a referendum. The humanitarian issue of reuniting separated families was dealt with first, and in September 1985, families from both sides of the border made cross visits to
Seoul
and
Pyongyang
in an historic event.
80
84
Seoul Arts Center
The government made many efforts for cultural development: the
National Museum of Korea
Seoul Arts Center
, and
National Museum of Contemporary Art
were all constructed during this time. The
1986 Asian Games
were held successfully, and the bid for the
1988 Summer Olympics
in Seoul was successful as well.
80
Despite economic growth and success in diplomatic relations, the government that gained power by
coup d'état
was essentially a military regime and the public's support and trust in it was low when the promises for democratic reform never materialized.
84
In the 1985 National Assembly elections, opposition parties won more votes than the government party, clearly indicating that the public wanted a change.
86
Many started to sympathize with the protesting students. The
Gwangju massacre
was never forgotten and in January 1987, when a protesting
Seoul National University
student died under police interrogation, public fury was immense. In April 1987, President Chun made a declaration that measures would be taken to protect the current constitution, instead of reforming it to allow for the direct election of the president. This announcement consolidated and strengthened the opposition; in June 1987, more than a million students and citizens participated in the nationwide anti-government protests of the
June Struggle
84
87
88
On 29 June 1987, the government's presidential nominee
Roh Tae-woo
gave in to the demands and announced the
June 29 Declaration
, which called for the holding of direct presidential elections and restoration of civil rights. In October 1987 a revised Constitution was approved by a national referendum and direct elections for a new president were held in December, bringing the Fifth Republic to a close.
87
89
Sixth Republic (1988–present)
edit
The Sixth Republic was established on 25 February 1988 and remains the current—and by far the longest-lasting—polity of South Korea.
90
Roh Tae-woo, 1988–1993
edit
Main article:
Roh Tae-woo § Presidency (1988–1993)
Roh Tae-woo
became president for the 13th presidential term in the first direct presidential election in 16 years. Although Roh was from a military background and one of the leaders of
Chun's coup d'état
, the inability of the opposition leaders
Kim Dae-jung
and
Kim Young-sam
to agree on a unified candidacy led to him being elected.
91
92
The first female presidential candidate,
Hong Sook-ja
, even withdrew from the race in order to back Kim Young-sam against Roh.
93
Roh was officially inaugurated in February 1988. The government set out to eliminate past vestiges of authoritarian rule by revising laws and decrees to fit democratic provisions. Freedom of the press was expanded, university autonomy was recognised, and restrictions on overseas travel were lifted.
94
However, the growth of the economy had slowed down compared to the 1980s, resulting in stagnant exports while commodity prices kept on rising.
Fireworks during the closing ceremonies of the
1988 Summer Olympics
Shortly after Roh's inauguration, the
1988 Summer Olympics
took place, raising South Korea's international recognition and greatly influencing foreign policy. Roh's government announced the official unification plan,
Nordpolitik
, and established diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union, China, and countries in
Eastern Europe
91
A historic event was held in 1990 when North Korea accepted the proposal for exchange between the two Koreas, resulting in high-level talks and cultural and sports exchanges. In 1991, a
joint communiqué on denuclearization
was agreed upon, and the two Koreas simultaneously became members of the UN.
91
95
Kim Young-sam, 1993–1998
edit
Main article:
Kim Young-sam § Presidency (1993–98)
Kim Young-sam
was elected president in the 1992 elections after Roh's tenure. He was the country's first civilian president in 30 years since 1962 and promised to build a "New Korea".
96
The government set out to address the authoritarianism of the previous administrations. Local government elections were held in 1995, and parliamentary elections followed in 1996. In response to popular demand, former presidents Chun and Roh were both indicted on charges linked to bribery, illegal funds, and, in the case of Chun, responsibility for the
Gwangju Uprising
. They were tried and sentenced to prison in December 1996.
96
97
Relations with the North improved, and a summit meeting was planned but postponed indefinitely with the
death
of
Kim Il Sung
. Tensions varied between the two Koreas after that, with cycles of small military skirmishes and apologies. The government also carried out substantial financial and economic reforms, joining the
OECD
in 1996, but encountered difficulties with political and financial scandals involving his son
whose?
. The country also faced a variety of catastrophes: the Gupo Station rail accident
98
and the
sinking of MV
Seohae
in 1993,
99
the
Seongsu Bridge disaster
in 1994,
100
and the
Sampoong Department Store collapse
in 1995.
101
96
In 1997, the nation suffered a
severe financial crisis
, and the government approached the
International Monetary Fund
for relief. Opposition leader
Kim Dae-jung
won the presidency that year,
96
a first for the country.
citation needed
102
Kim Dae-jung 1998–2003
edit
Main article:
Kim Dae-jung § Presidency (1998–2003)
President
Kim Dae-jung
, the 2000
Nobel Peace Prize
recipient for advancing democracy and human rights in South Korea and East Asia and for reconciliation with North Korea, was sometimes called the "
Nelson Mandela
of Asia."
103
In February 1998, Kim Dae-jung was officially inaugurated.
104
South Korea had maintained its commitment to democratize its political processes and this was the first transfer of the government between parties by peaceful means. Kim's government faced the daunting task of overcoming the economic crisis, but with the joint efforts of the government's aggressive pursuit of foreign investment, cooperation from the industrial sector, and the citizen's gold-collecting campaign, the country was able to come out of the crisis in a relatively short period of time.
105
106
107
Industrial reconstruction of the big conglomerate
chaebols
was pursued, a
national pension system
was established in 1998, educational reforms were carried out, government support for the
IT field
was increased, and notable cultural properties were registered as
UNESCO Cultural Heritage sites
107
The
2002 FIFA World Cup
, co-hosted with Japan, was a major cultural event where millions of supporters gathered to cheer in public places.
108
109
In diplomacy, Kim Dae-jung pursued the "
Sunshine Policy
", a series of efforts to reconcile with North Korea.
110
This culminated in reunions of the separated families of the
Korean War
and a summit talk with North Korean leader
Kim Jong Il
111
For these efforts, Kim Dae-jung was awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize
in 2000.
112
Roh Moo-hyun, 2003–2008
edit
Main article:
Roh Moo-hyun § Presidency (2003–2008)
Roh Moo-hyun
was elected to the presidency in December 2002 by direct election.
113
114
His victory came with much support from the younger generation and civic groups who had hopes of participatory democracy, and Roh's administration consequently launched with the motto of "participation government". Unlike the previous governments, the administration decided to take a long-term view and execute market-based reforms gradually.
115
This approach did not please the public: approval ratings fell by the end of 2003.
116
The Roh administration succeeded in overcoming regionalism in South Korean politics, diluting the collusive ties between politics and business, empowering civil society, settling the South Korea-United States trade disagreement, continuing summit talks with North Korea, and launching the high-speed train system
KTX
. But despite a boom in the stock market, youth unemployment rates were high, real estate prices skyrocketed, and the economy lagged.
117
In March 2004, the National Assembly voted to impeach Roh regarding breach of election laws and corruption. This motion rallied his supporters and affected the outcome of the
parliamentary election
held in April, with the ruling party becoming the majority. Roh was reinstated in May by the Constitutional Court, which had overturned the verdict. However, the ruling party then lost its majority in
by-elections in 2005
, as discontinued reform plans, continual labor unrest, Roh's personal feuds with the media, and diplomatic friction with the United States and Japan caused criticism of the government's competence on political and socioeconomic issues and on foreign affairs.
116
118
119
In April 2009, after leaving office, Roh Moo-hyun and his family members were investigated for bribery and corruption; Roh denied the charges. On 23 May 2009, Roh committed suicide by jumping into a ravine.
118
120
121
Lee Myung-bak, 2008–2013
edit
Main article:
Lee Myung-bak § Presidency (2008–13)
Lee Myung-bak
, President of South Korea from 2008 to 2013
Roh's successor,
Lee Myung-bak
, was inaugurated in February 2008.
122
Stating "creative pragmatism" as a guiding principle, Lee's administration set out to revitalize the flagging economy, re-energize diplomatic ties, stabilize social welfare, and meet the challenges of globalization.
123
124
In April 2008, the ruling party secured a majority in the National Assembly elections.
125
Also that month, summit talks with the United States addressed the Korea-US Free Trade Agreement and helped ease tensions between the two countries caused by the previous administrations. Lee agreed to lift the ban on US beef imports, which caused
massive protests and demonstrations
in the months that followed, as paranoia of potential
mad cow disease
gripped the country.
126
Many issues plagued the government, starting from the
arson of the Namdaemun gates
, in which the government was accused of not providing adequate security. Further controversies arose over the years regarding the appointment of high-ranking government officials, rampant political conflicts, accusations of oppression of media, and strained diplomatic relationships with North Korea and Japan.
127
The global recession affected the economy as the worst economic crisis since 1997 hit the country.
128
The Lee administration tackled these issues by actively issuing statements, reshuffling the cabinet, and implementing administrative and industrial reforms.
129
The economy bounced back after regulatory and economic reforms, with the country's economy marking growth and recovering from the global recession.
130
131
132
133
The administration also pursued improved diplomatic relations by holding summit talks with the United States, China, and Japan and participating in the ASEAN-ROK Commemorative Summit to strengthen ties with other Asian countries.
134
The
2010 G20 summit
was held in Seoul, where issues regarding the global economic crisis were discussed.
135
In October 2020, South Korea's Supreme Court upheld a 17-year prison sentence for former president Lee Myung-bak because of taking bribes before and during his presidency.
136
Park Geun-hye, 2013–2017
edit
Main article:
Park Geun-hye § Presidency (2013–17)
President Park Geun-hye with
chaebol
business magnates
Lee Kun-hee
and
Chung Mong-koo
, May 2013
Park Geun-hye
was inaugurated in February 2013.
137
She is the eleventh President of South Korea and is the eldest child of South Korea's
stratocratic
third President,
Park Chung Hee
. She was the first woman to be elected South Korean president, and to be elected as a head of state in the modern history of Northeast Asia.
138
Her reputation during her presidency was eventually marred by her incompetency of handling the
Sewol
ferry disaster
139
the
2015 MERS outbreak
140
and later a major scandal, leading to her impeachment in December 2016.
141
142
The
corruption scandal
involving
Choi Soon-sil
quickly blew up after reports from multiple news organizations (the most notable of which was
JTBC
) in 2016,
nationwide protests
ensued weekly, with participant count hitting a maximum of over 2.3 million (as reported by the protesters). These protests turned out to be the biggest mass protests in Korean history. The protests continued even after Congress voted on Park's impeachment. Prime Minister
Hwang Kyo-ahn
acted as President of South Korea
143
pending completion of investigations
144
into the actions of
Park Geun-hye
, and in the absence of any intervening election. The
Constitutional Court
upheld the impeachment on 10 March 2017, ending Park's presidency and forcing her out of office.
145
In April 2018, former president Park Geun-hye was sentenced to 24 years in jail because of abuse of power and corruption.
146
Moon Jae-in, 2017–2022
edit
Main article:
Moon Jae-in § Presidency (2017–2022)
North Korean leader
Kim Jong Un
and South Korean President Moon Jae-in shaking hands inside the
Peace House
on 27 April 2018
Moon Jae-in
was inaugurated on 10 May 2017.
147
As President, his tenure saw an improving political relationship with North Korea, some increasing divergence in the military alliance with the United States, and the successful hosting of the
Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang
148
Moon Jae-in met with North Korean chairman
Kim Jong Un
at the
April 2018 inter-Korean summit
May 2018 inter-Korean summit
, and
September 2018 inter-Korean summit
149
150
During the
COVID-19 outbreak
, President Moon had gained a positive reputation both domestically and internationally with the initial successes of controlling the outbreak.
151
Subsequent outbreaks in 2021, however, caused his ratings to plummet.
152
As of 2021, South Korea recorded more deaths than births, resulting in a population decline for the first time on record.
153
In April 2020, President Moon's
Democratic party
won a landslide victory in parliamentary
elections
. It took 180 seats in the 300-member National Assembly with its allies. The opposition
People Power Party
(UFP) won 103 seats.
154
President Moon finished his term on 9 May 2022. His successor,
People Power Party
candidate
Yoon Suk-yeol
, took over the seat on 10 May 2022 after winning narrowly the
2022 South Korean presidential election
155
Yoon Suk Yeol, 2022–2025
edit
Main article:
Yoon Suk-yeol § Presidency (2022–2025)
Yoon takes the presidential oath of office outside the National Assembly, 10 May 2022.
On 29 October 2022, at least
153 people were crushed to death
when a crowd surged in an alleyway during
Halloween
festivities in Seoul's
Itaewon
district. President Yoon declared a state of official national mourning.
156
157
The "Unification Act on the Calculation of Age" took effect on 28 June 2023. The "Unification Act on the Calculation of Age" was promoted to resolve social and administrative confusion and disputes arising from mixing various age calculation methods. It is President Yoon Suk Yeol's representative presidential election pledge and the 13th of the 120 state affairs of the Yoon Suk Yeol government.
158
In the 22nd National Assembly
election
held on 10 April 2024, the People Power Party to which Yoon Suk Yeol belongs won 108 out of 300 seats, while the opposition Democratic Party of Korea won 175.
159
In June 2024, South Korea suspended the 2018
military agreement
with North Korea.
160
On 3 December 2024,
Yoon enacted martial law
to rid the opposition of 'Anti-State Influence'. Following a few hours of unrest, the National Assembly unanimously passed a motion to lift martial law. Many hours of protest later, with the army unable to stand down without presidential authority, Yoon lifted his prior declaration of martial law and ordered the military to stand down.
161
Yoon was subsequently impeached
on 14 December by the National Assembly and suspended from office pending a final ruling by the
Constitutional Court
on whether to confirm his removal from the presidency.
162
On 29 December 2024, Jeju Air
plane crash
at
Muan International Airport
in South Korea killed 179 people, being the deadliest air disaster on the nation's soil.
163
On 4 April 2025, in a unanimous 8-0 verdict, the Constitutional Court
upheld
Yoon's impeachment, formally removing him from office and laying the groundwork for a
new Presidential election
to be held later that year.
164
Lee Jae-myung, 2025–present
edit
Main article:
Lee Jae-myung § Presidency (2025–present)
Inauguration of the 21st President of South Korea
Lee Jae-myung
On 4 June 2025,
Lee Jae-myung
was sworn in as South Korea's new president after having won a snap
election
by 49.4% of the vote as the candidate of
Democratic Party
165
On 19 February 2026, former president Yoon Suk-yeol was convicted of leading an insurrection, and sentenced to life imprisonment.
166
Former Prime Minister
Han Duck-soo
was sentenced to 23 years in jail in relation to the martial law declaration.
167
Timeline
edit
Timeline of South Korean governments
See also
edit
Elections in South Korea
History of Asia
History of East Asia
History of North Korea
History of Korea
List of presidents of South Korea
Politics of South Korea
Prehistoric Korea
References
edit
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edit
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New York Times
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the original
on 28 December 2021
. Retrieved
5 January
2021
"South Korea's governing party wins election by a landslide"
"Yoon Suk-yeol takes office as South Korea's new president"
www.aljazeera.com
Kim, Mina (30 October 2022).
"President Yoon declares 'national mourning period'...Visit to Itaewon disaster site"
The Hankyoreh
"At least 153 killed in crowd crush during Halloween festivities in Seoul"
the Guardian
. 30 October 2022.
"Yoon Seok-yeol's government's national task 'Unification of Man-age Act' was promulgated today"
Ministry of Government Legislation of the Republic of Korea
. 27 December 2022.
"See the results of the 22nd general election vote count"
BBC Korea
"South Korea Fully Suspends Military Deal With North Korea After Tensions Over Trash Balloons"
thediplomat.com
Mao, Frances; Kwon, Jake.
"South Korea martial law: What happens next?"
www.bbc.com
"South Korea's leadership crisis in hands of Constitutional Court"
. reuters.com/
. Retrieved
22 February
2025
"South Korea to release preliminary report of Jeju Air crash by Monday"
. www.reuters.com
. Retrieved
22 February
2025
"South Korea to hold presidential election on 3 June after impeachment turmoil"
www.bbc.com
. 8 April 2025
. Retrieved
10 April
2025
"South Korea: New leader Lee Jae-myung pledges to 'unite' a divided country"
www.bbc.com
. 4 June 2025.
"South Korea court sentences ex-president Yoon to life in prison for 2024 insurrection"
France 24
. 19 February 2026.
Regencia, Ted.
"S Korea's former PM found guilty of insurrection, given 23 years in prison"
Al Jazeera
Sources
edit
Cumings, Bruce (1997).
Korea's place in the sun
. New York: W.W. Norton.
ISBN
978-0-393-31681-0
Lee, Gil-sang (2005).
Korea through the Ages
. Seongnam: Center for Information on Korean Culture, the Academy of Korean Studies.
Lee, Hyun-hee; Park, Sung-soo; Yoon, Nae-hyun (2005).
New History of Korea
. Paju: Jimoondang.
Lee, Ki-baek, tr. by E.W. Wagner & E.J. Shultz (1984).
A new history of Korea (rev. ed.)
. Seoul: Ilchogak.
ISBN
978-89-337-0204-8
{{
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
Nahm, Andrew C. (1996).
Korea: A history of the Korean people (2nd ed.)
. Seoul: Hollym.
ISBN
978-1-56591-070-6
Yang Sung-chul
(1999).
The North and South Korean political systems: A comparative analysis (rev. ed.)
. Seoul: Hollym.
ISBN
978-1-56591-105-5
Yonhap News Agency (2004).
Korea Annual 2004
. Seoul: Author.
ISBN
978-89-7433-070-5
Michael Edson Robinson (2007).
Korea's twentieth-century odyssey
. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN
978-0-8248-3174-5
Andrea Matles Savada (1997).
South Korea: A Country Study
. Honolulu: DIANE Publishing.
ISBN
978-0-7881-4619-0
The Academy of Korean Studies (2005).
Korea through the Ages Vol. 2
. Seoul: The Editor Publishing Co.
ISBN
978-89-7105-544-1
Robert E. Bedeski (1994).
The transformation of South Korea
. Cambridge: CUP Archive.
ISBN
978-0-415-05750-9
Adrian Buzo (2007).
The making of modern Korea
. Oxford: Taylor & Francis.
ISBN
978-0-415-41483-8
Edward Friedman; Joseph Wong (2008).
Political transitions in dominant party systems
. Oxford: Taylor & Francis.
ISBN
978-0-415-46843-5
Christoph Bluth (2008).
Korea
. Cambridge: Polity.
ISBN
978-0-7456-3356-5
Uk Heo; Terence Roehrig; Jungmin Seo (2007).
Korean security in a changing East Asia
. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN
978-0-275-99834-9
Tom Ginsburg; Albert H. Y. Chen (2008).
Administrative law and governance in Asia: comparative perspectives
. Cambridge: Taylor & Francis.
ISBN
978-0-415-77683-7
Hee Joon Song (2004).
Building e-government through reform
. Seoul: Ewha Womans University Press.
ISBN
978-89-7300-576-5
Edward A. Olsen (2005).
Korea, the divided nation
. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN
978-0-275-98307-9
Country studies: South Korea
Andrea Matles Savada and William Shaw, ed. (1990).
South Korea: A Country Study
. Yuksa Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.
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link
Institute of Historical Studies (역사학 연구소) (2004).
함께 보는 한국근현대사
A look into Korean Modern History
]. Paju: Book Sea.
ISBN
978-89-7483-208-7
Seo Jungseok (서중석) (2007).
이승만과 제1공화국
Rhee Syngman and the 1st Republic
]. Seoul: Yuksa Bipyungsa.
ISBN
978-89-7696-321-5
Oh Ilhwan (오일환) (2000).
현대 한국정치의 쟁점
Issues of Modern Korean Politics
]. Seoul: Eulyu Publishing Co.
ISBN
978-89-324-5088-9
Kim Dangtaek (김당택) (2002).
우리 한국사
Our Korean History
]. Seoul: Pureun Yeoksa.
ISBN
978-89-87787-62-6
(in Korean)
The 1st Republic
Archived
14 January 2022 at the
Wayback Machine
at
Doosan Encyclopedia
(in Korean)
The 2nd Republic
Archived
4 March 2021 at the
Wayback Machine
at
Doosan Encyclopedia
(in Korean)
The 3rd Republic
Archived
14 January 2022 at the
Wayback Machine
at
Doosan Encyclopedia
(in Korean)
The 4th Republic
Archived
14 January 2022 at the
Wayback Machine
at
Doosan Encyclopedia
(in Korean)
The 5th Republic
at
Doosan Encyclopedia
(in Korean)
The 6th Republic
at
Doosan Encyclopedia
(in Korean)
6.25 War
Archived
14 January 2022 at the
Wayback Machine
at
Doosan Encyclopedia
Further reading
edit
Cha, Victor, and Ramon Pacheco Pardo.
Korea: A New History of South and North
(Yale UP, 2023)
Pardo, Ramon Pacheco.
Shrimp to Whale: South Korea from the Forgotten War to K-Pop
(Oxford UP, 2022)
Pardo, Ramon Pacheco.
South Korea's Grand Strategy: Making Its Own Destiny
(Columbia UP, 2023)
External links
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Official site of Republic of Korea
Korean History Research Organization
Archived
26 October 2016 at the
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, U.S. Department of State
Countries & their culture: South Korea
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, PBS
Korea: case history of a pawn
Archived
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, The
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