Homelessness in the United States - Wikipedia

The official homeless population counts by state, 2019
As COVID-era protection programs expired and a cost-of-living crisis hit the country, homelessness numbers rose, surpassing 2007 Great Recession levels in 2023.
The statewide homelessness population rates as compared with the national U.S. homelessness rate (0.17% or 171 persons per 100,000) in 2019.
Of the 9 states (
Alaska
California
Hawaii
Massachusetts
Nevada
New York
Oregon
Vermont
, and
Washington
) and the
District of Columbia
that have homelessness rates higher than the United States as a whole, only Vermont did not have
median gross rents higher than the United States as a whole
in the 2015–2019
American Community Survey
5-year estimates.
A homeless woman in
Washington, D.C.
, 2006
A homeless man sleeping across the street from the
Colorado State Capitol Building
in
Denver
, 2018
In the United States, the number of
homeless people
on a given night in January 2024 was more than 770,000 according to the
Department of Housing and Urban Development
Homelessness has increased in recent years, in large part due to an increasingly severe
housing shortage
and rising home prices in the United States.
Most homeless people lived in California, New York, Florida, and Washington in 2022, according to the annual Homeless Assessment Report.
The majority of homeless people in the United States have been homeless for less than one year; two surveys by
YouGov
in 2022 and 2023 found that just under 20 percent of Americans reported having ever been homeless.
The main contributor to homelessness is a lack of housing supply and rising home values.
Interpersonal and individual factors, such as mental illness and addiction, also play a role in explaining homelessness.
However, mental illness and addiction play a weaker role than structural socio-economic factors, as West Coast cities such as
Seattle
Portland
San Francisco
, and
Los Angeles
have homelessness rates five times that of areas with much lower housing costs like
Arkansas
West Virginia
, and
Detroit
, even though the latter locations have high burdens of
opioid addiction
and
poverty
10
Historically, homelessness emerged as a national issue in the 1870s.
11
Early homeless people lived in emerging urban cities, such as
New York City
. Into the 20th century, the
Great Depression
of the 1930s caused a substantial rise in homelessness. In 1990, the
U.S. Census Bureau
estimated the homeless population to be of 228,621, or 0.09% of the 248,709,873 enumerated in the
1990 U.S. census
, which homelessness advocates criticized as an undercount.
12
13
14
In the 21st century, the
Great Recession
of the late 2000s and the resulting
economic stagnation
and downturn have been major driving factors and contributors to rising homelessness rates. Increases in homelessness broke records in 2022 and in 2023.
15
16
17
In 2023, record levels of homelessness have been declared in Los Angeles and New York City, and other cities around the country have reported increased levels of homelessness, with the main drivers being a shortage of affordable housing and the increased cost of living.
17
In 2024, homelessness increased by a record 18%.
18
19
Health complications are a significant concern for homeless people, as lack of residence inhibits hygiene and access to healthy food,
20
21
and exposes individuals to both cold and heat stress, violence, and traffic deaths.
22
This contributes to increased mortality rates.
23
24
In
City of Grants Pass v. Johnson
(2024), the
U.S. Supreme Court
ruled that anti-camping laws do not constitute a
cruel and unusual punishment
under the
8th Amendment
even when no shelter is available, allowing cities to jail and fine homeless people for sleeping and camping outside.
25
26
Many Americans who cannot afford normal housing live in their cars or
recreational vehicles
(RVs).
27
About a million people in the USA live full-time in RVs, according to the RV Industry Association, some of them just can’t afford normal housing, but many do it by choice.
28
Pre-colonial and colonial periods
edit
Following the 1381
Peasants' Revolt
in
England
constables
were authorized under 1383
English Poor Laws
to collar
vagabonds
and force them to show support. If they could not, the penalty was
gaol
29
Vagabonds could be sentenced to the
stocks
for three days and nights. In 1530,
whipping
was added. The presumption was that vagabonds were un
licensed
beggars
29
In 1547, a
bill
was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the
criminal law
, namely two years' servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offense and
death
for the second.
Large numbers of vagabonds were among the
convicts
transported to the
American colonies
in the 18th century. Many became homeless.
30
African American homelessness
edit
According to historian Roberta Ann Johnson,
American slavery
in the Southern colonies led to homelessness for free Blacks. Runaway slaves represented an early example of American homelessness. Native Americans at times provided a safe haven for runaway slaves. During the
Civil War (1861–1865)
, many slaves escaped and became homeless. The Union Army provided protection and some housing aid and employment to these refugees. During the
Reconstruction era
after the war, large-scale operations by
Freedmen's Bureau
provided employment for many homeless until it closed in 1872. Most former slaves became tenant farmers,
sharecroppers
, or day laborers on cotton or tobacco farms.
31
In the
Great Migration
after 1914, many Southern Blacks moved to large Northern cities, and some became homeless in segregated neighborhoods. Large-scale unemployment in the
Great Depression
of the 1930s disproportionately affected Black Americans. They received federal aid in proportion to their numbers, but it was not proportionate to their needs. The
New Deal
operated a major
farm program
but it helped owners more than tenants, many of whom became homeless. After 1965,
urban renewal
reduced the number of affordable housing units available to Blacks, forcing them to double up in housing units in the remaining slum areas.
31
Urbanization in the late 19th century
edit
The
Bowery Mission
at 36 Bowery in New York City,
c.
1880s
Homelessness emerged as a national issue in the 1870s. There are no national figures documenting homeless people's demography at this time.
11
Jacob Riis
wrote about, documented, and photographed the poor and destitute, although not specifically homeless people, in New York City
tenements
in the late 19th century. His book,
How the Other Half Lives
, published in 1890, raised public awareness of living conditions in the slums, causing some changes in building codes and some social conditions.
The growing movement toward social concern sparked the development of rescue missions, such as America's first rescue mission, the
New York City Rescue Mission
, founded in 1872 by
Jerry
and
Maria McAuley
32
33
In smaller towns, there were
hobos
, who temporarily lived near train tracks and hopped onto trains to various destinations. Especially following the
American Civil War
, a large number of homeless men formed part of a counterculture known as "hobohemia" all over America.
34
35
By the late 19th century, many American towns and cities had significant numbers of homeless people.
36
In New York City, for example, there was an area known as "the
Bowery
". Rescue missions offering "soup, soap, and salvation", a phrase introduced by
The Salvation Army
37
sprang up along the Bowery thoroughfare, including the oldest one, The
Bowery Mission
. The mission was founded in 1879 by the
Rev. and Mrs. A.G. Ruliffson
38
1930s: The Great Depression
edit
Unemployed men outside a
soup kitchen
in Depression-era
Chicago
, 1931
The
Great Depression
of 1929-1939 caused a devastating epidemic of poverty, hunger, and homelessness for one to two million people at any one time, with a great deal of turnover. As local charities and cities were overwhelmed, the homeless created self-governed shantytowns known as "
Hoovervilles
." Built from scrap materials in vacant lots near railroad yards, these poverty-stricken settlements housed hundreds or even thousands of displaced young men, with some women and children. Residents lived in makeshift shacks and begged for food or went to soup kitchens run by charities and churches. Local authorities did not officially recognize these Hoovervilles, but they were tolerated out of necessity. By early 1933 about 1.5 million people were lacking shelter. Because state laws denied aid to non-residents, the
New Deal
under President
Franklin Roosevelt
created the "Federal Transient Program" (FTP) in May 1933 as part of the new
Federal Emergency Relief Administration
(FERA), run by
Harry Hopkins
. FTP covered 100% of the local government costs for helping "transients" (those living in a state for less than a year). At its peak, the FTP operated over 600 facilities, providing food, medical care, housing and some jobs to about 1 million people. Most of those served were young, white, native-born working-class men, though women and African Americans were also present. By 1935, the federal government began phasing out direct relief like the FTP in favor of the "Second New Deal". Several factors drove this change. The FTP was so successful at clearing the streets that public urgency regarding homelessness faded. Officials like Harry Hopkins feared direct relief created "dependency" and pulled men away from traditional roles as family breadwinners. The new policy shifted toward public works run by the
Works Progress Administration
. (WPA) and long-term social safety nets especially Social Security. Shutting down the FTP in 1935 caused a resurgence of "hobo" life and left
Dust Bowl
migrants—like those famously depicted in the 1939 novel and film
The Grapes of Wrath
—with little federal support. Finally, the homelessness crisis ended between 1939 and 1941, when the booming World War II defense industries hired as many people as fast as possible.
39
40
41
A 1960 survey by
Temple University
of
Philadelphia
's poor neighborhoods found that 75 percent of the homeless were over 45 years old, and 87 percent were
white
42
The
Community Mental Health Act
of 1963 was a pre-disposing factor in setting the stage for homelessness in the United States.
43
Long term psychiatric patients were released from state hospitals into
single-room occupancies
and sent to community health centers for treatment and follow-up. Never adequately funded, the community mental health system struggled to meet patient needs
44
and many of the "deinstitutionalized" wound up living on the streets, with no sustainable support system.
45
46
In the United States, during the late 1970s, the
deinstitutionalization
of patients from state psychiatric hospitals was a precipitating factor which seeded the population of people that are homeless, especially in urban areas such as New York City.
47
Displaced people after the
Great Fire of 1911
The number of homeless people grew in the 1980s, nearly doubling from 1984 to 1987. According to
Don Mitchell
, this was in part due to the
neoliberal
reforms
of the
Reagan presidency
, as housing and social service cuts increased and also
the economy suffered a recession early in the decade
48
49
In 1984, the Federal government determined that somewhere between 200,000 and 500,000 Americans were homeless.
50
There were some U.S. federal initiatives that aimed to help, end and prevent homelessness. However, there were no designated homeless-related programs in the Office of Management and Budget.
51
Tent cities
, which had largely vanished during the post-war period, began to re-emerge during this time.
49
The
history of the United States in the 1980s
illustrates that this was a time when there was economic distress, and high unemployment at points, and was the period when chronic homelessness became a societal problem. In 1980, federal funds accounted for 22% of big city budgets. By 1989, the similar aid composed only 6% of urban revenue, part of a larger 60% decrease in federal spending to support local governments.
52
It is largely, although not exclusively, in these urban areas, that homelessness became widespread and reached unprecedented numbers.
52
Most notable were cuts to federal low-income housing programs. Congress halved the budget for
public housing
and
Section 8
, the government's housing voucher subsidization program, and that between 1980 and 1989, HUD's budget authority was reduced from $74 billion, to $19 billion.
52
Such changes are claimed to have resulted in an inadequate supply of
affordable housing
to meet the growing demand of low-income populations. In 1970, there were 300,000 more low-cost rental units (6.5 million) than low-income renter households (6.2 million). By 1985, the advocacy group claimed that the number of low-cost units had fallen to 5.6 million, and the number of low-income renter households had grown to 8.9 million, a disparity of 3.3 million units.
53
In response to the ensuing homelessness crisis of the 1980s and after many years of advocacy and numerous revisions, President Reagan signed into law the
McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act
in 1987. This remains the only piece of federal legislation that allocates funding to the direct service of homeless people. The McKinney–Vento Act paved the way for service providers in the coming years. In the 1990s,
homeless shelters
soup kitchens
, and other supportive services sprouted up in towns and cities nationally. Despite these efforts and the dramatic economic growth marked by this decade, homeless numbers rose and remained high from 1990 to 1999 according to the "coalition for the homeless" webpage.
54
It became increasingly apparent that simply providing services to alleviate the symptoms of homelessness, such as shelter beds, hot meals, psychiatric counseling, although needed, were not successful at solving the root causes of homelessness. In 1987, the
United States Interagency Council on Homelessness
(USICH), a federal agency contained in the Executive Branch, was established as a requirement of the McKinney–Vento Act of 1987.
Historically, the U.S. has approached addressing homelessness through a Treatment First approach, which operates on the idea that housing must be earned through abstinence from substance use or mental health treatment. In the 1980s, the Housing First approach raised a challenge to Treatment First. The Housing First approach, initially developed by homeless advocates, operates on the idea that housing is a right, and individuals have the option to address other underlying issues after they are housed.
55
56
The federal government adopted Housing First as the primary solution to ending homelessness. To implement this model, permanent supportive housing (PSH) was ascribed as a key solution to reducing homelessness.
56
It is argued that Housing First is more effective in addressing homelessness than Treatment First as it prioritizes a person's wellbeing over cost efficiency. Housing reduces persons experiencing homelessness' exposure to health risks and mental health strains.
56
A 1990 survey found that most homeless people were unable to bathe or shower.
57
In 1992, the National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing published a report identifying 6% of public housing as "severely distressed".
58
This led to a 5 billion dollar funding package, HOPE VI, for replacing distressed public housing with mixed-income developments.
59
The demolition of SROs was incentivized by increased real estate prices and neighborhood pressure, resulting in the teardown of more units than were initially identified. Redevelopments did not include nearly as many units of public housing as were demolished, decreasing the total stock of public housing and putting more people on the streets.
60
New multifamily units constructed, 1999 to 2021.
For rent:
1,000 - 1,199 ft
1,200 - 1,399 ft
1,400 - 1,799 ft
1,800+ ft
For Sale:
Under 1,000 ft
1,000 - 1,199 ft
1,200 - 1,399 ft
1,400 - 1,799 ft
1,800+ ft
According to the U.S. Conference of Mayors, the demand for emergency shelter in 270 U.S. cities increased 13 percent in 2001 and 25 percent in 2005.
61
62
Twenty-two percent of those requesting emergency shelter were turned away.
Tents of
homeless people in San Francisco
, 2017
In response to the
Great Recession in the United States
, President Obama signed several pieces of legislation that addressed the homelessness crisis. The
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
addressed homelessness prevention, in which he allocated an additional $1.5 billion to HUD for the "Homelessness Prevention and Rapid Rehousing Program (HPRP)." The purpose of HPRP was to assist individuals and families who are otherwise healthy and not chronically homeless in escaping homelessness or preventing homelessness of the vulnerable population.
63
In May 2009, President Obama signed the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act, reauthorizing
HUDs
Homeless Assistance programs. It was part of the
Helping Families Save Their Homes Act of 2009
. The HEARTH act allows for the prevention of homelessness, rapid re-housing, consolidation of housing programs, and new homeless categories.
64
65
66
67
In 2011, the Federal government launched of
Opening Doors: The Federal Strategic Plan to Prevent and End Homelessness.
68
69
Opening Doors
is a publication of the U.S.
Interagency Council on Homelessness
, which worked with all Federal agencies and many state and local stakeholders on its creation and vision, setting a ten-year path on preventing and ending all types of homelessness. This plan was presented to the President and Congress in a White House Ceremony in June 2010.
70
I've got economically zero unemployment in my city, and I've got thousands of homeless people that actually are working and just can't afford housing. There's nowhere for these folks to move to.
— Seattle City Council member
Mike O'Brien
on the explosion of homelessness on the West Coast, 2019.
71
In New York City, the number of homeless people using nightly shelter service tripled from about 20,000 to more than 60,000 between January 2000 and January 2015.
72
By 2016, homelessness was considered an epidemic in several U.S. cities. In 2016, Los Angeles Mayor
Eric Garcetti
and seven of the 15 City Council members announced they would declare a state of emergency and try to find $100 million "to cure what has become a municipal curse."
73
In September 2018, in
Martin v. City of Boise
, the
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
ruled that the city's Camping and Disorderly Conduct Ordinances violated the
Eighth Amendment's
prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment. Cities cannot punish homeless people for sleeping in public when the homeless shelters are full.
74
During the
COVID-19 pandemic in the United States
, mass job loss and unemployment led to fears of
mass evictions
, as tenants became unable to pay rent.
75
According to US government sources, homelessness has increased drastically, particularly in the US West, as
real estate shortages
drove up rents even higher, when people from already lower income levels were laid off from their jobs and evicted from existing housing. The estimates for homeless persons in the US during the
COVID-19 pandemic
range from 600,000 to 1.5 million people, making the US the worst affected industrialized country with regard to unhoused individuals.
76
77
In 2020, local city governments in
California
and
Oregon
started to intensify anti-homelessness campaigns, with limited success as local citizens reported extensive sprawls of homeless people in parks and public areas, creating unsanitary conditions with negative effects on small businesses.
76
77
In March 2021, there were an estimated 6.4 million American households that were behind on rent.
78
Due to COVID, the Department of Housing and Urban Development's 2021 report to Congress on the state of homelessness in the United States was unable to perform an accurate count of unsheltered homeless individuals. Instead, the report focused on point-in-time counts of sheltered homeless peoples.
79
A homeless veteran in New York, 2008
Over the past decades, the availability and quality of data on homelessness has improved considerably, due, in part, to initiatives by the United States government. Since 2007, the US Department of Housing and Urban Development has issued an
Annual Homeless Assessment Report
, which revealed the number of individuals and families that were homeless, both sheltered and unsheltered.
80
81
In the US Department of Housing and Urban Development's 2008 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, the most common demographic features of all sheltered homeless people are: male, members of minority groups, older than age 31, and alone. More than 40 percent of sheltered homeless people have a disability. At the same time, sizable segments of the sheltered homeless population are white, non-Hispanic (38 percent), children (20 percent), or part of multi-person households (33 percent). About 68 percent of the 1.6 million sheltered homeless people were homeless as individuals and 32 percent were persons in families.
82
A homeless camp in New Orleans, March 2023
In 2008, more than 66% of all sheltered homeless people were located in
principal cities
, with 32% located in suburban or rural jurisdictions. About 40% of people entering an emergency shelter or transitional housing program during 2008 came from another homeless situation (sheltered or unsheltered), 40% came from a housed situation (in their own or someone else's home), and the remaining 20% were split between institutional settings or other situations such as hotels or motels. Most people had relatively short lengths of stay in emergency shelters: 60% stayed less than a month, and a 33% stayed a week or less.
82
In 2009, there were about 643,000 sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons nationwide. About two-thirds of those stayed in emergency shelters or used transitional housing programs. The remainder lived on the street in abandoned buildings or other areas not meant for human habitation. About 1.56 million people, or about 0.5% of the U.S. population, used an emergency shelter or a transitional housing program between October 1, 2008, and September 30, 2009.
83
Around 44% of homeless people were employed.
84
In 2009, it was estimated that one out of 50 children or
1.5 million children in the United States of America
would experience some form of homelessness each year.
85
There were an estimated 37,878
homeless veterans in the United States
in January 2017, or 8.6 percent of all homeless adults, compared with about 7 percent of the U.S. adult population in 2018 that were military
veterans
86
87
88
In 2013, Texas,
California
and Florida had the highest numbers of
unaccompanied homeless youth
under the age of 18, comprising 58% of the total homeless under 18 youth population.
89
In 2020, New York City reported it had about 114,000 temporarily homeless school children.
90
From 2007 to 2015, homelessness appeared, from the federal survey, to be in decline. Beginning in 2016, the surveys showed a steady increase in homelessness, particularly among the unsheltered.
91
The
COVID-19 pandemic
, and associated economic downturn, housing shortages and housing price inflation, outpacing wage growth, and the end of government protections and assistance to counter the economic effects of COVID-19—along with the explosive growth in addictions to
methamphetamine
opioids
, and
Fentanyl
--
contributed to a sharp rise in homelessness
in the early 2020s. By 2023, according to the federal survey, a record 653,104 homeless were identified in the annual federal survey—a 12% jump over the previous year, quadruple any other year's increase, with increases in every category and demographic of homelessness.
91
81
In June 2024, the
U.S. Supreme Court
issued a ruling in the case
Grants Pass
v. Johnson
that allowed for cities to ban homeless encampments.
92
The homeless population in the United States rose by more than 18 percent in a single year in 2024, government officials said, driven by high housing costs, natural disasters and increased migration to big cities. According to the poll, the number of homeless people on a given night in January 2024 was more than 770,000. Children under 18 experienced the largest increase, with nearly 150,000 homeless on survey night. Overall, family homelessness is up 39 percent from the previous year.
93
94
Lack of available and
affordable housing
as a cause of homelessness was named at the 2004 United States Conference of Mayors, surveying the mayors of major cities on the extent and causes of urban homelessness.
61
The next three causes identified by mayors, in rank order, were mental illness or the lack of needed services, substance use and lack of needed services, and low-paying jobs. The lowest ranking cause, cited by five mayors, was
prisoner reentry
. Other causes cited were unemployment, domestic violence, and poverty.
61
The major causes of homelessness include:
61
62
95
96
97
98
Lack of affordable housing throughout much of the country is considered the "root cause" of the contemporary homelessness crisis. Writing for
The Atlantic
in 2023,
Jerusalem Demsas
says that "homelessness is primarily a function of the broader housing-unaffordability crisis, which in turn is primarily a function of how difficult local governments have made building new housing in the places that need it the most."
99
Lack of sufficient urban
housing projects
to provide safe, secure, and affordable housing to the financially underprivileged.
61
For low-wage workers, rents can be unaffordable in areas where their workplace is located.
62
97
98
100
The
deinstitutionalization
movement from the 1950s onwards in state
mental health
systems, to shift towards 'community-based' treatment of the mentally ill, as opposed to long-term commitment in
institutions
61
62
97
98
There is disproportionally higher prevalence of mental disorders relative to other disease groups within homeless patient populations, at both inpatient hospitals and hospital-based emergency departments.
101
Redevelopment
and
gentrification
activities instituted by cities, through which low-income neighborhoods are declared blighted and demolished, to make way for projects that generate higher property taxes and other revenue, creating a shortage of housing affordable to low-income working families, the elderly poor, and the disabled.
61
62
97
98
Nearly half of foster children in the United States become homeless
when they are released from foster care at age 18.
102
103
Natural disasters
that destroy homes: hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, etc. Places of employment are often destroyed, causing unemployment and transience.
104
People who have served time in prison, have used addictive substances, or have a history of mental illness find it difficult to find employment for years at a time because of the use of computer background checks by potential employers. Also inclusive of registered
sex offenders
who are considered unwelcome in some metropolitan areas. See
prisoner reentry
105
People with criminal charges at large that are in hiding seeking to evade law enforcement.
61
62
97
98
Adults and children who flee
domestic violence
61
62
97
98
Teenagers who flee or are thrown out by parents who disapprove of their child's sexual orientation or gender identity. A 2010 study by the
Center for American Progress
shows that a disproportionately high number of homeless youth, between 20 and 40%,
are gay or transgender.
106
Complex
building codes
which can make it difficult to build and construct. Traditional huts,
cars
, and tents can be illegal, classified as
substandard
and may require removal by the owner or be subject to removal by the government.
61
62
97
98
Homeless soliciting employment,
Ypsilanti, Michigan
Foreclosures
of homes, including foreclosure of apartment complexes which displaces tenants renting there.
107
Evictions
from rented property.
107
Lack of support from friends or family.
61
62
97
98
Individuals who prefer homelessness and wish to remain
off the grid
for political and ideological purposes. Often self-identified as
gutter punks
or urban survivalists. The Department of Housing and Urban Development rarely reports on this
counter-cultural movement
, since its adherents often refuse to participate in governmental studies and do not seek governmental assistance for ideological or political purposes.
108
Lack of resources in place in the communities to help aid in prevention of homelessness before it becomes a crisis.
61
62
97
98
Neoliberal
policies, reforms to the
welfare state
and the retrenchment of the
social safety net
109
110
111
112
49
High rents, in particular areas where individuals could pay over a third of their income on rent and related costs increase the potential of homelessness.
113
In poor communities,
landlords
increase the rent burden on tenants in what they perceive to be risky investments, extracting more profits from them than their counterparts in more affluent communities, which according to sociologist
Matthew Desmond
and his colleague, "directly contributes to their economic scarcity and hardship and is a source of residential insecurity, eviction, and homelessness."
114
Low-income workers are at increased risk of homelessness as wages for the typical American worker have stagnated over the last three decades, while housing costs have climbed, according to the
National Alliance to End Homelessness
115
Adverse childhood experiences
edit
In a study on
adverse childhood experiences
, "Nearly nine in ten homeless adults have been exposed to at least one early traumatic experience, and more than half of homeless adults have been exposed to four or more early traumatic experiences".
116
Unaffordable housing
edit
Homelessness is driven by a number of causes, but one of the most direct causes is a lack of affordable housing.
117
According to the
United States Interagency Council on Homelessness
, "affordable housing shortages" is among the top policy-related causes of homelessness, and 40-60% of homeless people have a job, yet still cannot afford housing.
118
In academic research, homelessness rates are directly correlated with increases in rent, most notably when the cost of rent in an area exceeds 30% of an area's median income.
119
120
In 2023, the surge in homelessness has been linked to soaring rents eating away at any worker wage gains not only in California and Washington, but also Arizona, Ohio, Tennessee and Texas.
121
In 2024, in California in particular, high housing costs were found to be a key driver of homelessness.
122
A 2023 survey of
homeless individuals in California
found that among typical causes of homelessness, many people were driven into homelessness due to high rents and low incomes which could not cover the cost of rent.
123
In San Diego, according to a 2023 report by the Private Equity Stakeholder Project,
Blackstone Inc.
has contributed to the problem through aggressive evictions and rent increases of some 43-64% on vacant properties in two years.
124
125
In a 2022 book titled "Homelessness is a Housing Problem", Clayton Page Aldern, a policy analyst and data scientist in Seattle, and Gregg Colburn, an assistant professor of real estate at the
University of Washington
's
College of Built Environments
, studied homelessness rates across the country, along with what possible factors might be influencing the rates. They found that high rates of homelessness are caused by shortages of affordable housing, not by mental illness, drug addiction, or poverty.
126
127
They found that mental illness, drug addiction and poverty occur nationwide, but not all places have equally expensive housing costs.
126
One example cited is that two states with high rates of opioid addiction, Arkansas and West Virginia, both have low per capita rates of homelessness, because of low housing prices.
126
127
With respect to poverty, the city of Detroit is one of the poorest cities, yet Detroit's homelessness rate is 20% that of West Coast cities like Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego.
126
127
Definitions and categories
edit
The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development acknowledges four categories of people who qualify as legally homeless: (1) those who are currently homeless, (2) those who will become homeless in the imminent future, (3) certain youths and families with children who suffer from home instability caused by a hardship, and (4) those who suffer from home instability
caused by domestic violence
128
According to the 1994 Stewart B. McKinney Act, a person is considered homeless if they "lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence and ... has a primary nighttime residency that is: (A) a supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations... (B) an institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized, or (C) a public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings." Human Rights Watch (2010) identified emancipated teenagers in California as a new homeless population.
citation needed
Homeless veterans are persons who have served in the armed forces, who are homeless or living without access to secure and appropriate accommodation. In January 2020, by HUD point-in-time measurements, there were an estimated 37,252
homeless veterans
in the United States, or 8 percent of all homeless adults. In 2020, just over 8 percent of homeless U.S. veterans were female.
129
Throughout the 21st century, homeless service providers and the Federal government have been able to reduce chronic homelessness and homelessness among Veterans with targeted efforts and interagency cooperation on initiatives, like the
HUD-VASH
program.
130
Indeed, the prominent role of the
Department of Veterans Affairs
and its joined up approach to veteran welfare help to distinguish the US response to veteran homelessness internationally.
131
Homeless children in the United States:
132
The number of homeless children reached record highs in 2011,
133
2012,
134
and 2013
135
at about three times their number in 1983.
134
needs update
The number of homeless children in the US grew from 1.2 million in 2007 to 1.6 million in 2010. The US defines homelessness as "individuals who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence," per the 1987
McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act
136
The number of homeless children reached record highs in 2011,
133
2012,
134
and 2013
135
at about three times their number in 1983.
134
In 2010, a study found that an "estimated two million [youth] run away from or are forced out of their homes each year" in the United States.
137
In 2009, one out of 50 children or
1.5 million children in United States of America
was homeless each year.
85
In 2013, that number jumped to one out of 30 children, or 2.5 million.
138
Texas, California and Florida have the highest numbers of unaccompanied homeless youth under the age of 18; comprising 58% of the total homeless under 18 youth population.
89
Street children in the United States tend to stay in the state. 83% do not leave their state of origin.
139
If they leave,
street children
are likely to end up in large cities, notably
New York City
Los Angeles
Portland, Oregon
; and
San Francisco
140
In 2010, street children were predominantly Caucasian and female in the United States, and
42% identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender
LGBT
).
141
The United States government has been making efforts since the late 1970s to accommodate this section of the population.
142
The Runaway and Homeless Youth Act of 1978 made funding available for shelters and funded the
National Runaway Switchboard
. Other efforts include the Child Abuse and Treatment Act of 1974, the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, and the
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act
143
There has been a decline of arrest rates in street youth, dropping in 30,000 arrests from 1998 to 2007. Instead, the authorities are referring homeless youth to state-run social service agencies.
144
In 2020, the National Center for homeless Education reported that in the U.S. public education system, over 1.5 million
students experienced homelessness
during their 2017 and 2018 school year.
145
According to the data, between 2023 and 2024, children under 18 saw a 33% increase in homelessness, with 150,000 children experiencing this crisis.
18
146
According to the Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey, one in four teens that participated in this survey who identify as gay or lesbian are homeless. Various sources report between 20 percent and 40 percent identify as LGBT. 2015 research shows that a disproportionate number of
homeless youth in the United States
identify as
lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender
, or LGBT.
147
A homeless camp in
Eugene, Oregon
, 2013
The topic of homeless families first emerged in the United States during the 1980s, when social welfare programs were being cut and high rates of
income inequality
, child poverty, and the lack of affordable housing were becoming an issue. The issue of homeless families came back in 2009 after the Recession, which replicated the same issues from the 80s.
148
The 2000s saw a new population of those experiencing homelessness: families with children. While an emerging problem at the beginning of the decade,
149
the problem continued to persist to 2010.
At the close of the decade the trend continued, with the number of individuals in homeless families increasing from 431,541 in 2007 to 535,447 in 2009.
130
Though the US
Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD) conducts an annual Point-in-Time count of homeless people, including homeless families, its methodology has been criticized for under-reporting the number of homeless families. HUD reported that the number of homeless families decreased by 2% from 2017 to 2018, and by 23% from 2007 to 2018. However, 85% of local services for homeless people reported an increase during the same time. While HUD reported 111,592 homeless minors in 2018, the
United States Department of Education
reported 1.3 million homeless minors in the 2016 – 2017 school year.
150
In 2019, the state of New York had the greatest number of homeless families, at 15,901. California had the second-greatest number of homeless families, at 7,044, followed by Massachusetts at 3,766. Wyoming had the fewest, at 37.
151
In 2024, the percentage of families with children experiencing homelessness increased by 39%.
146
Homeless women with children
edit
A homeless woman in NY
A 2007 study discovered that the three biggest risk factors that contributed to family homelessness in the United States are: ethnicity, lack of resources (specifically funds), and young children/pregnancy.
152
There is a strong correlation between homeless families and households run and financed by a single female, especially one from a minority group and with at least two children.
152
Single-income families, especially those below the federal poverty line, have a harder time finding housing than other families, especially given the limited affordable housing options.
153
Homeless families do not always take refuge in shelters, but being homeless also does not necessarily mean living on the streets. Homeless women with children are more likely to live with family or friends than those without children, and this group is treated with higher priority by both the government and society.
153
In 2020, homeless mothers had a much higher prevalence of
depression
, at 40 to 85%, compared to 12% in women of all socioeconomic groups. Homeless mothers have higher rates of substance use, anxiety disorders, and PTSD. Nearly all of them (92%) experience physical or sexual abuse.
150
Chronic homelessness
edit
Changes in different types of homelessness in the U.S. between 2011 and 2020
In 2017, about 85,000 chronically homeless people were sleeping on the streets or in shelters.
154
A chronically homeless individual is defined as an unaccompanied person who has been homeless for a consecutive year, or four or more periods of homelessness within the last three years, with a disability preventing them from working.
155
This definition was expanded in 2009 due to the HEARTH act, to include families who were experiencing prolonged or repeating homelessness due to a disabled parent. A 2017 study found that leaving these individuals to remain on the streets can cost taxpayers up to $50,000 per year for a single chronically homeless individual, by them cycling in and out of treatment facilities, jails, hospitals and other institutional care facilities.
154
Since 2007, the number of chronically homeless individuals has decreased by 33%, with Utah reporting to have achieved an end to chronic homelessness.
154
Episodic homelessness
edit
An episodic homeless person is someone that has experienced three instances of homelessness within a given year. After four instances within a year, they are classified as chronically homeless.
Episodic homelessness usually afflicts younger people that are fighting health issues or addiction.
Transitional homelessness
edit
Transitional homelessness is a type of homelessness that's a result of a major life change or catastrophic event.
156
Those life events could include losing a job, a medical condition, divorce, domestic abuse, and more. It is likely that people experiencing episodic homelessness are young, and end up staying in shelters for a brief period.
Hidden homelessness
edit
Hidden homelessness goes unreported and undocumented. Individuals who are classified as such are temporarily living with others with no guarantees for the long term.
157
The community of homeless people in the United States is aided by governmental and non-governmental organizations. According to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, in 2017, the number of people experiencing homelessness in unsheltered locations increased for a second straight year by 9% between 2016 and 2017.
158
This issue is partly caused by a lack of affordable housing and is exacerbated by the criminalization of behaviors associated with homelessness. This problem is also costly for the country in supporting these individuals. Multiple studies have demonstrated success in reducing the homeless population as well as its harmful financial and societal effects by providing these individuals with a combination of housing without preconditions and supportive care. These studies include the 2014 Housing first implementation of the Department of Veterans Affairs National Center on Homelessness Among Veterans
159
and a study performed through
Brown University
160
Many homeless people in the United States work, both part-time and full-time.
161
Employment
opportunities can be useful in providing financial stability to homeless individuals. Estimates of unemployment within the homeless population range from 57% to 90%.
162
163
Programs seeking to help homeless people find and maintain jobs usually focus on individual characteristics of homeless people as barriers, such as addiction and
mental illness
164
165
Research indicates that there are systemic factors that exclude homeless people from the work force, such as expectations, and the overall structure of the
labor market
. The rise of temporary employment in the modern labor market has made homeless people unable to secure stable employment and income, to ensure their ability to afford and maintain a house.
161
Homelessness is a public welfare and health epidemic within the United States. Any period of homelessness is associated with adverse health consequences.
166
These adverse health consequences are associated with poor living conditions and a lack of access to treatment facilities. Due to living in extreme poverty, it is unlikely for an individual or a family to have a healthcare plan. These healthcare plans are important in obtaining treatment for illnesses or injury from treatment facilities. Without it, individuals and families are left to deal with their ailments themselves or endure further financial burden by receiving treatments without a health insurance plan.
Respiratory infections and outbreaks of tuberculosis and other aerosol transmitted infections have been reported. Homeless intravenous drug users are at an increased risk of contracting HIV, and hepatitis B and C infections.
167
The close living spaces of areas such as Skid Row in California provide an environment in which infectious diseases can spread easily. These areas with a high concentration of homeless individuals are dirty environments, with little resources for personal hygiene. A 2018 report to congress estimated that 35% of homeless people were in unsheltered locations not suitable for human habitation.
168
There is a bidirectional relationship between homelessness and poor health.
169
Homelessness exacts a heavy toll on individuals. The longer individuals experience homelessness, the more likely they are to experience poor health and be at higher risk for premature death.
170
Health conditions, such as substance use and mental illness, can increase people's susceptibility to homelessness. Conversely, homelessness can cause further health issues, due to constant exposure to environmental threats such as violence and communicable diseases. Homeless people have disproportionately high rates of poly substance use, mental illness, physical health problems and legal issues/barriers in attaining employment.
171
A 2000 study found that large numbers of homeless people work, but few homeless people are able to generate significant earnings from employment alone.
172
Physical health problems limit work and daily activities, which are barriers to employment. Substance use is positively associated with a lower work level, and negatively related to a higher work level.
173
Those with physical health problems are substantially more likely than those with mental health problems to be in the more generous disability programs. Substance use disorders are a barrier to participation in disability programs. A 2015 study found that rates of participation in government programs are low, and that people with major mental disorders have a low participation rate in disability programs.
174
US homeless deaths surged 77% from 2016 to 2020. A February 2022 analysis in
The Guardian
found that some 18,000 homeless people died on the streets and in encampments and shelters over a five year period, with 5,000 of these deaths occurring in 2020. The non-profit National Health Care for the Homeless Council places homeless deaths at between 17,000 and 40,000 annually. Many are never counted, given that the federal government does not track homeless deaths nationally.
22
The top direct causes of death among the homeless population include "drug overdoses, violence, traffic deaths and premature lethality of treatable conditions like heart disease." Regarding drug deaths, methamphetamine is a significant killer, as people who are homeless use the stimulant drug to stay awake and alert in order to protect themselves from violence. The report notes that outside of direct medical causes of death, a major factor contributing to both the epidemic of homelessness and surge in deaths among the homeless population is the lack of affordable housing throughout much of the country.
22
Homelessness among the elderly
edit
A 2023 report found that
Homelessness among the elderly
has been increasing.
175
A 2002 report by the
Los Angeles County Department of Public Health
found that homeless persons die at greater rates than the general public from specific causes.
176
They are more likely to die by: 35 times from alcohol or drug overdoses, 16 times from auto accidents, 14 times from murder, 8 times from suicide, and 4 times from heart disease.
176
September 2023
HUD
data found that the elderly are the fastest growing demographic of the homeless population.
177
In 2023, Judge Milan Smith Jr., an American jurist claimed that homelessness is "presently the defining public health and safety crisis in the western United States."
178
According to 2023 Los Angeles homeless services authority data, on average, six unhoused people die in Los Angeles each day. The causes reported of death are overdoses, heart disease, traffic accidents, homicides, hypothermia, and heat exhaustion. Va Lecia Adams Kellum, Lahsa's CEO, believes "The primary causes of homelessness are economic."
179
Comprehensive health care
edit
Comprehensive healthcare usually refers to a form of medical care that meets a patient's whole needs through the provision of a wide range of health services.
180
This form of holistic care in relation to homeless people is often difficult for them to access, due to issues of location,
stigma
, etc, and difficult for care givers to perform and manage, as a result of the unpredictability of homeless people day to day.
181
Tailored care approach
edit
As high-risk and socially disadvantaged persons, homeless patients tend to require a lot of
acute care
, of short term but active treatment, with poor results. Due to the conditions homelessness creates, acute care and health is difficult to manage and maintain.
182
The Tailored Care approach recognizes the situation of homeless people and seeks to provide specialized care to the homeless community. Studies have found that the tailored approach is good at engaging homeless persons seeking health care for the first time.
183
These health care facilities position themselves in homeless shelters or in areas easily accessible to the homeless population. Some of these health care providers also provide meal kits, on-site showers, transportation, and hygiene kits.
183
This form of holistic and tailored care leads to the reduction in emergency service use, and hospitalizations amongst the homeless community.
184
This approach has been used in the government-sponsored Health Care for the Homeless Model (HCH Model).
185
Each HCH project is federally funded, and works as federally qualified health centers that work at the intersection of multiple disciplines.
185
These health centers usually provide their patients access to health services such as primary care, mental health services, and addiction services, as well as social services such as after-jail services and case management.
185
186
There is no set structure that each health center needs to follow—each health center has the agency to provide a variety of services based on their networks and connections with the local neighborhood, government, or community, but are not mandated to do so except for providing primary care.
185
For children, there are risks to seeking refuge in shelters, which are heightened and more noticeable for children. Children's homelessness health risks include
malnutrition
from lack of access to food with nutritional content, behavioral problems associated with coping, social insecurity from growing up in an unstable environment, and mental illnesses such as PTSD and trauma.
187
Just as children who come from homeless families are at a higher risk of developing behavioral, mental, and physical health problems than their peers, their mothers are also at a higher risk especially in developing mental illnesses.
188
There are many things that contribute to why homeless women are at a higher rate of developing a mental illness compared to the general population, but there has been a reoccurring theme among studies focused on this issue.
189
In 2006, homeless individuals reported mental illness as being the number three reason for becoming or staying homeless.
190
Such illnesses are often closely linked with the fourth reason—substance use—and therefore it is generally accepted that both of these issues should be treated simultaneously.
191
Although many medical, psychiatric, and counseling services exist to address these needs, it is commonly believed that without the support of reliable and stable housing, such treatments remain ineffective. In the absence of a
universal healthcare
plan, many of those in need cannot afford such services.
A 2020 representative sample of homeless youth across multiple US cities found that, in each city, more than 80% of the sampled individuals met criteria for at least one psychiatric diagnosis.
192
A 2020
Epidemiological
study found that only about 25–30% of homeless persons have a severe mental illness such as
schizophrenia
193
Early studies, comparing homeless persons found that
depression
and
suicidal thoughts
were very prevalent, along with symptoms of trauma and substance abuse.
193
Responses to homelessness
edit
In 2004, the downtown partnership in
Nashville, Tennessee
, conducted a census on businesses. Sixty percent of respondents identified that public inebriates, transients and vagrants affect their employees, clients and customers. Businesses were solicited to identify issues that need to be addressed; transients and panhandlers ranked amongst the top five issues.
194
In 2019, two
7-Eleven
locations — one in
Sacramento, California
, and one in
Portland, Oregon
— briefly employed a high-pitched noise maker to repel panhandlers and vagrants.
195
In Portland, a local news source (750 KXL) described the sidewalk in front of the
Downtown Portland
7-Eleven as being transformed from "barely walkable" to clean and orderly for the first time in years, after the repelling device was installed by the building's owner,
Standard Insurance Company
. The manager of the 7-Eleven told reporters he would see as many as a dozen transients simultaneously loitering in front of his store,
196
and that this loitering adversely affected his business. The building's owner issued a statement that the goal was to protect the "safety of their employees, tenants, and guests in a location that has been consistently plagued by public drug use and menacing behavior."
197
In 2019, a manager for a 7-Eleven in
Modesto, California
, also attested to the effectiveness of sound for deterring undesirable activity, commenting that "Once the music started, the riffraff left."
198
As of 2011, there were laws that both directly and indirectly
criminalized people that are homeless
199
As of 2012, some jurisdictions had made it illegal to attempt to feed homeless people outdoors.
200
As of 2014, at least 31 cities have criminalized feeding people that are homeless.
201
202
In 2014, the
United Nations Human Rights Committee
criticized the United States for the criminalization of homelessness, noting that such "cruel,
inhuman and degrading treatment
" is in violation of international human rights treaty obligations.
203
204
205
A 2018 report by
Philip Alston
, the U.N. Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, found that homeless persons have effectively been criminalized in many cities around the United States, and noted that "punishing and imprisoning the poor is the distinctively American response to poverty in the twenty-first century."
206
As of 2023, Missouri, Tennessee, and Texas have passed laws to ban homeless public camping by homeless people, often punishing such behavior with felony charges, with other states considering similar legislation.
207
208
As of 2024, some municipalities in the US make it a crime to provide food or shelter to homeless people.
209
210
Some local jurisdictions make it illegal for homeless people to use blankets or soap.
211
212
In August 2012, a federal district judge in
Philadelphia
ruled that laws prohibiting serving food to homeless people outdoors were unconstitutional.
213
In June 2014, the
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
struck down a 1983 ordinance in the city of
Los Angeles
which "bans people from living in cars or recreational vehicles on city streets or in parking lots" as being
unconstitutionally vague
, saying "This broad and cryptic statute criminalizes innocent behavior, making it impossible for citizens to know how to keep their conduct within the pale. ... Unlike other cities, which ban overnight parking or sleeping in vehicles, Los Angeles' law prohibits using cars as 'living quarters' both overnight and 'day-by-day, or otherwise'."
214
In 2015, homeless rights advocates were pushing for "Right to Rest" bills in several states, to overturn laws that target homeless people for sitting, eating, and sleeping in public places.
215
In 2018, in
Martin v. Boise
the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that city ordinances banning sleeping outside cannot be enforced, if there are not enough shelter beds available in the city.
216
In 2024, in
Grants Pass v. Johnson
the US Supreme Court ruled that cities may criminalize homelessness, as homelessness constitutes conduct, not status, and that the precedent set in
Robinson v. California
does not apply.
217
Crimes against homeless people
edit
Since the 1990s, there has been a growing number of violent acts committed upon people experiencing homelessness. The rate of such documented crimes in 2005 was 30% higher than of those in 1999.
218
Some teens engage in this activity as a source of amusement.
219
CNN reported in 2007 that such incidents were on the rise.
219
In 2006, the Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism (CSHE) at
California State University
, San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that 155 homeless people were killed by non-homeless people in "hate killings", while 76 people were killed in all the other traditional hate crime
homicide
categories, such as race and religion, combined.
220
Studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than the non-homeless, but that most incidents never get reported to authorities. A 2007 study found that the number of violent crimes against homeless people is increasing.
220
221
In 2013, there were 109 attacks on homeless people, a 24 percent increase on the previous year, according to the NCH. Eighteen people died as a result of the attacks. In July 2014, three boys 15, 16 and 18, were arrested and charged with beating to death two homeless men with bricks and a metal pole in
Albuquerque, New Mexico
222
As in other countries, criminals—both individuals and organized groups—sometimes exploit homeless people, ranging from
identity theft
to tax and welfare scams.
223
224
225
Homeless people, and homeless organizations, are also known to be accused or convicted of frauds and scams. These incidents often lead to negative impressions of homeless people by the general public.
226
Homeless advocates' importance has been critical in producing humanizing narratives that challenge a traditional media representation of the homeless population. The surge of homeless advocates played a key role in forming the growing
Housing First
approach. Some scholars attribute the advocacy of
Mitch Snyder
, one of countless homeless advocates of the 80s, to meaningful federal change in approaches to homelessness during the Reagan era. This includes critical legislation for funding and coordinating aid for people experiencing homelessness, such as the formation of the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit program and the Stewart B. McKinney Homelessness Assistance Act, also known as the
McKinney-Vento Homelessness Assistance Act
. There is discourse that emphasizes the importance of creating policy solutions developed with and supported by individuals experiencing homelessness.
56
Efforts towards ending homelessness
edit
In 2006, homeless individuals reported a lack of
affordable housing
as the number one reason for becoming homeless.
190
The two main types of housing programs provided for homeless people are transitional and permanent housing. Transitional housing programs are operated with one goal in mind—to help individuals and families obtain permanent housing as quickly as possible. Transitional housing programs assist homeless for a fixed amount of time, or until they are able to obtain housing on their own and function successfully in the community, or whichever comes first.
227
228
229
Barriers in
tenant screening
processes often prevent housing efforts. Some states have sealed
eviction records
to make it easier for tenants to become rehoused.
230
Advocates have also campaigned for tenant right to counsel programs that provide free legal counsel to tenants facing an eviction. The goal of these programs is to prevent evictions and public eviction records.
231
232
US state legislation on
tenant right to counsel
NOTE: does not indicate cities with tenant right to counsel)
233
No statewide TRTC
Some statewide TRTC passed
Some shelters and associated charitable foundations have bought buildings and real estate to develop into permanent housing for homeless people in lieu of transitional Housing.
234
US state legislation on
eviction sealing
(NOTE: does not indicate cities with eviction sealing)
235
No statewide eviction sealing
Some statewide eviction sealing passed
The
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
and
Veterans Administration
have a special
Section 8
housing voucher program called VASH (Veterans Administration Supported Housing), or HUD-VASH, which gives out a certain number of Section 8 subsidized housing vouchers to eligible homeless and otherwise vulnerable US armed forces veterans.
236
The HUD-VASH program has been successful in housing many homeless veterans.
237
In 2018, the number of U.S. citizens residing in their vehicles because they cannot find affordable housing has "exploded", particularly in cities with steep increases in the cost of living such as Seattle, Los Angeles, Portland, and San Francisco.
238
239
Bloomberg reported in November 2018 that the wealthiest cities in the U.S., in particular those in the Western states, are experiencing a homelessness crisis driven largely by stagnant wages and "skyrocketing rents".
240
In 2019,
Google
pledged one billion USD into funding 20,000 homes over the next decade throughout the San Francisco Bay Area.
241
The Bay Area is booming with economically successful people, who end up driving up the price of housing and increases the divide between the people who need the housing and the new houses being built.
242
In particular, the metropolitan area of San Francisco has some of the most expensive real estate in the United States.
243
Housing First
is an evidence based approach, that recognizes housing as one of the most impactful social determinants of health that affect those experiencing homelessness.
244
245
184
246
Housing First has been met with success since its initial implementations in 2009, by providing relatively no strings-attached housing to homeless people with substance use disorder problems or mental health issues. Housing First allows homeless men and women to be taken directly off the street into private community-based apartments, without requiring treatment first. This allows homeless people to return to some sense of normalcy, from which it is believed that they are better-poised to tackle their addictions or sicknesses. The relapse rate through these types of programs is lower than that of conventional homeless programs.
247
248
249
The BHH Collective is a program that has implemented the Housing First approach. It began in 2015 as an initiative in Chicago, Illinois, between BHH and University of Illinois Hospital to provide for frequently homeless emergency department patients.
250
The housing was paid for by the hospital and federal housing subsidies. The program provides the individuals with case managers, specialized health services based on the individual's needs, and other services they need.
250
BHH Collective aims to address the connection between housing and health by providing supportive housing to homeless individuals in order to improve the health of homeless people and address homelessness at the same time.
251
Other transitional housing interventions
edit
Studies have been conducted to demonstrate the ability of homeless people to receive and maintain houses and jobs when provided with adequate support. In LA's Homeless Opportunity Providing Employment (HOPE), for homeless adults with mental illness, individual characteristics in regards to specific mental illness or substance abuse played little role in the systemic difference to the employment outcomes. However, these factors including race and ethnicity, affected individual housing outcomes.
252
The provision of housing for homeless people reduces healthcare costs, inpatient hospitalizations, and emergency room costs. When provided with supportive housing, many homeless people are eligible for healthcare coverage. People with housing are less likely to need health services, as a stable home provides protection from the elements, prevention from sicknesses, wounds and infections, and a generally safer environment than the streets.
253
254
This is what
Rapid Rehousing
programs (RRHP) support. Designed to aid families experiencing homelessness, RRHP provides access to private affordable housing markets for a better transition back into stable housing.
255
The three major parts necessary for the program's success are: finding landlords and appropriate housing, providing move-in assistance; providing case management and support services to ensure the prolonged and eventual permanent rehousing success of each family.
255
In the early 2000s, the provision of housing for homeless persons was contingent on their treatment and abstinence from addictive substances.
256
However, emerging Permanent supportive housing approaches reversed the requirements, and provided homeless people housing without evidence of treatment for mental illness or substance abuse.
257
These interventions are usually paired with case managers. With the inclusion of income assistance programs, there is a significant increase in number of days spent stably housed for participating individuals.
257
Other interventions include supportive services which come in various forms that can be done independently or paired with housing such as critical time intervention, housing vouchers, residential treatment, high-intensity case management, and combinations of the aforementioned. These have been found to be effective in reducing homelessness and, when paired with housing, increasing housing stability, especially any form of participation in case management is generally equally effective.
258
Permanent supportive housing
edit
Permanent supportive housing (PSH) is an intervention that provides housing that does not limit residents' stays, along with supportive services that residents can opt into. PSH programs typically prioritize chronic homelessness, but can address other subpopulations of the homeless population.
259
55
It is argued that PSH in particular will complement and alleviate the stress of the mainstream welfare system and short-term housing solutions such as shelters, while reducing costs in addressing homelessness.
259
There is ongoing discourse on how to make PSH the most effective, these considerations include assessing the housing, the supportive services, and the intensity of the resources available. Assessing these factors has been challenging since these housing models are typically fragmented. The effectiveness of PSH programs is considered to be reliant on the quality and location of the housing. Some benefits found from PSH include eliminating numerous potential health risks through reducing environmental risks and external stressors.
55
Federal and presidential efforts
edit
In 2001,
President Bush
made ending chronic homelessness by 2012 as part of his
Compassion Agenda
, as his campaign promised to fully fund the
McKinney Act
260
261
262
The bi-partisan, congressionally mandated,
Millennial Housing Commission
included ending chronic homelessness in 10 years, among its principal recommendations in its Report to Congress in 2002.
260
By 2003, the Interagency Council on Homelessness had been re-engaged and charged with pursuing the President's 10-year plan.
260
263
In October 2003, the Administration announced the award of over $48 million in grants aimed at serving the needs of the chronically homeless, through two initiatives. The "Ending Chronic Homelessness through Employment and Housing" initiative was a collaborative grant offered jointly by HUD and the Department of Labor (DOL).
264
162
With the focus on providing housing and employment for the homeless population, there was not much attention placed on their comprehensive health.
264
Addressing homeless health is difficult in a traditional healthcare setting, due to the complex nature of the needs of homeless people and the multitude of health consequences they face. In 2003–04, during the 108th United States Congress meeting, the proposed
Bringing America Home Act
was intended to provide comprehensive treatment for many homeless mental and substance use disorder patients - it has not been passed or funded.
265
In 2010, under President Obama's administration, a federal strategic plan to end homelessness was released. This plan created four key goals: Prevent and end homelessness among Veterans in 5 years; Finish the job of ending chronic homelessness in 7 years; Prevent and end homelessness for families, youth, and children in 10 years; Set a path to ending all types of homelessness.
55
Capitalizing on these insights, the Plan built on previous reforms and the intent by the Obama Administration to directly address homelessness through intergovernmental cooperation for rehabilitating the homeless population and preventing homelessness to those at high-risk.
266
In 2015, First Lady Michelle Obama called for the collaboration of mayors, governors, and county officials to commit to ending Veteran homelessness in their communities, and reached out to additional mayors and local leaders to participate.
266
The McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act
edit
Homelessness has a tremendous effect on a child's education. Education of homeless youth is thought to be essential in breaking the
cycle of poverty
. The 1987 McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act mandates equal opportunity to a free public education to homeless students. This act is supposed to break down the barriers homeless students have to receiving an education. These barriers include residency restriction, medical record verification, and transportation issues.
267
Once a student surpasses these barriers, they are still subject to the stigma of being homeless, and the humiliation they feel because of their situation. Some families do not report their homelessness, while others are unaware of the opportunities available to them. Many report that maintaining a stable school environment helps the students because it is the only thing that remains normal.
267
Many homeless students fall behind their peers in school due to behavioral disorders, and lack of attendance in school.
268
Since the
United States housing bubble
collapse, there has been a rise in the number of homeless students. In December 2008, NAEHCY or the National Association for the Education of Homeless for Children and Youth, reported a 99% increase in homeless students within a three-month period in San Diego.
269
Of 1,636 schools in December 2008, 330 reported no increase in student homelessness, 847 reported an increase of half, and 459 reported an increase of 25 percent or more. Due to underfunding, many school districts struggled to provide the necessary services to support homeless students, as mandated in the provisions of the McKinney–Vento Act, such as rising transportation needs and the greater range and usefulness of services.
Wisconsin Rapids
Public Schools Homeless Liaison Heather Lisitza says:
One of the biggest challenges our district faces is providing transportation to students who are experiencing homelessness. There are few approaches that our district can utilize to provide transportation for these students. Our city has only one taxi cab service and no public bus system. Our cab company is small and simply cannot fulfill all of our transportation requests. When it's possible, we add students to existing bus routes or set up a contractual agreement with the student's parent/guardian. However, there have been many situations where none of these options have worked. Another challenge our district faces is providing proper outer-wear for students who are homeless. Being that we live in central Wisconsin and have long, cold winters, all students need proper outerwear to go outside. Proper outerwear includes snow boots, hat, mittens, snow pants, and a winter jacket that has a working zipper or buttons on it. This expense adds up quickly and is hard to provide to the increasing number of homeless students.
269
This is especially worrisome since homeless students are 1) 1.5 times more likely to perform below grade level in reading; 2) 1.5 times more likely to perform below grade level in spelling; and 3) 2.5 times more likely to perform below grade level in math.
269
There are a few worries that there will be false reports of homeless students, but mostly it is not an issue.
267
The
United States Interagency Council on Homelessness
(USICH) was established in 1987 through the
McKinney-Vento Assistance Act
. It was in operation from 1987 to 1994 and was reinstated in 2001 to 2028. The USICH is an executive branch responsible for collaborating with government agencies to assess targeted programs, or also known as programs geared towards assisting persons experiencing homelessness. The targeted programs address the impacts of homelessness on individuals, spanning from various federal agencies such as the
Housing and Urban Development
(HUD), the
Department of Veterans Affairs
(VA), and the
Department of Health and Human Services
(HHS). The Chronic Homelessness Initiative, one of the projects USICH has led, was a ten-year plan to ending chronic homelessness begun in 2002 through housing programs such as low-threshold and permanent supportive housing.
270
There has been robust discourse discussing whose responsibility it is to end homelessness; some actors argued to be responsible include individuals, local governments, state governments, and the federal government.
271
Scholars debate what solutions should be used to end homelessness. Recommendations include assessing the current homelessness relief system and alternative ways to rearrange the system so that solutions, such as permanent supportive housing and residential transitional programming, target the most impacted groups of individuals experiencing homelessness and are provided for an appropriate period.
259
Some scholars call for the federal government to broaden its tolerance for solutions to homelessness beyond just permanently subsidized housing.
56
Arguments made recognize that the shift to Housing First has reduced the punishing tactics while failing to include the diverse homeless population's needs and demand that solutions are more compassionate, inclusive, and efficient than the current system.
272
Other critiques of the current homelessness relief system include mismatches in timeliness, quantity, and quality of needs and available resources.
In May 1991, Richard Kreimer, a homeless man in Morristown, N.J. sued the local public library and the Town of Morristown for expelling him from the library, after other patrons complained about his disruptive behavior and pungent body odor. He later won the case and settled for $250,000.
273
274
Public libraries can and often do significantly assist with the issues presented by homelessness. In many communities, the library is the only facility that offers free computer and internet access. This is where many people experiencing homelessness go to locate services for basic needs, such as healthcare, education, and housing. Library computers are necessary for building a resume, searching for open jobs in the area, and completing job applications.
265
A 2010 article and video entitled, "SF library offers Social Services to Homeless,"
185
speaks about the San Francisco library having a full-time social worker at the library to reduce and help homeless patrons. It mentions that Leah Esguerra, who is a psychiatric social worker, has a usual routine making her rounds to different homeless patrons, and greeting them to see if she could help them. She offers help in different forms that could range from linking patrons with services, or providing them with mental health counseling. She supervises a 12-week vocational program that culminates in gainful employment in the library for the formerly homeless.
186
The San Jose University Library became one of the first academic libraries to pay attention to the needs of homeless people and implement changes to better serve this population. In 2007, the merged University Library and Public Library made the choice to be proactive in reaching out. Collaborations with non-profit organizations in the area culminated in computer classes being taught, as well as nutrition classes, family literacy programs, and book discussion groups.
275
After eighteen months, the library staff felt they still were not doing enough and "analyzed program participation trends supplemented by observation and anecdotes" in order to better understand the information needs of homeless people. When it was understood that these needs are complex, additional customer service training was provided to all staff who were interested.
275
Once the staff more fully understood the needs of homeless people, it was determined that many programs in place already, with a few minor adjustments, would be helpful to homeless people. For example, the providing book clubs have proven to be very effective bridges between librarians and homeless people.
276
Programs were tailored to meet these needs. Additional changes implemented included temporary computer passes and a generous in-house reading space to counteract the policies in place that may prevent a homeless person from obtaining a library card.
275
The
Dallas Public Library
started "Coffee and Conversation" which is part of their Homeless Engagement Initiative. The staff hopes these bimonthly events between staff and homeless patrons will help them better serve the homeless people population in Dallas.
277
They sponsor Street View podcast, a library produced podcast featuring the stories and experiences of the city's homeless population. Guests often include social service providers.
278
Situations in cities and states
edit
As of 2023, the issue of homelessness in the US is severe, with states like California, New York, Florida, Texas, and Washington having a combined number of over 330,000 homeless people. In 2023, California alone had over 161,000. Although begging and panhandling are among the ways homeless people can obtain money, in Kansas, Mississippi, and Maryland, begging and panhandling are considered crimes.
279
In June 2024, a U.S. Supreme Court 6-3 ruling, permitted cities to enforce bans on homeless people sleeping in public places.
280
California has been identified as especially vulnerable to homelessness due to high housing costs that are unaffordable and a lack of shelters, which have left a large portion of the population unsheltered.
Homelessness in California
is especially prevalent due to the growing demand for housing, while the production of new housing has been well below the national average. Homelessness in California is disproportionately concentrated in select cities such as San Francisco and Los Angeles. Some scholars emphasize that this is not an issue that select cities are solely responsible for, nor do they have the capacity to solve. They claim the federal government has failed to take a meaningful role in alleviating homelessness.
272
Many advocates for homeless people contend that a key difficulty is the
social stigma
surrounding homelessness. Many associate a lack of a permanent home with a lack of a proper bathroom and limited access to regular grooming. Thus, people that are homeless become "aesthetically unappealing" to the general public. Research shows that "
physically attractive persons are judged more positively
than physically unattractive individuals on various traits... reflecting social competence."
281
In addition to the physical component of stigmatization exists an association of homeless people with mental illness. Many people consider the mentally ill to be irresponsible and childlike and treat them with
fear and exclusion
, using their mental incapacitation as justification for why they should be left out of communities.
282
A common misconception persists that many individuals who panhandle are not actually homeless, but actually use pity and compassion to fund their lifestyles, making up to $20 an hour and living luxurious lives.
283
This exception to the rule seems more prevalent due to media attention, but in reality, only a few cases exist.
284
Public opinion surveys show relatively little support for this view. A 1995 paper in the
American Journal of Community Psychology
concluded that "although the homeless are clearly stigmatized, there is little evidence to suggest that the public has lost compassion and is unwilling to support policies to help homeless people."
285
A Penn State study in 2004 concluded that "familiarity breeds sympathy" and greater support for addressing the problem.
286
A 2007 survey conducted by Public Agenda, a non-profit organization that helps leaders and their citizens navigate through complex social issues, found that 67 percent of New Yorkers agreed that most homeless people were without shelter because of "circumstances beyond their control", including high housing costs and lack of good and steady employment. More than one-third (36 percent) said they worried about becoming homeless themselves, with 15 percent saying they were "very worried." 90 percent of New Yorkers believed that everyone has a right to shelter, and 68 percent believed that the government is responsible for guaranteeing that right to its citizens. The survey found support for investments in prevention, rental assistance and permanent housing for homeless people.
287
Research by Public Agenda concluded that the public's sympathy has limits. In a 2002 national survey, the organization found 74 percent say the police should leave a homeless person alone if they are not bothering anyone. In contrast, 71 percent say the police should move homeless people if they are keeping customers away from a shopping area. 51 percent say homeless people should be moved if they are driving other people away from a public park.
288
A 2005 book by Anthony Marcus,
289
argued that homelessness as a political concern in the 1980s and 90s was constructed around Democratic Party regional and national opposition to austerity politics during the Reagan Revolution 1981-1993. Appearing primarily in states and municipalities like Massachusetts, California, New York City, Santa Monica, and San Francisco where strong social welfare support and powerful liberal Democratic Party political machines held sway, the politics of homelessness became a battle standard in the anti-Reagan resistance, creating widespread concern for "the homeless" in the absence of significant concern or support for overall "social housing". According to Marcus, nearly immediately after the 1992 election of Democratic candidate Bill Clinton to the Presidency, concern for "homelessness" melted away across the United States, regardless of regional and municipal social welfare situations and housing environments.
Statistics and demographics
edit
Completely accurate and comprehensive statistics are difficult to acquire for any social study, but especially so when measuring the ambiguous hidden, and erratic reality of homelessness. All figures given are estimates. These estimates represent overall national averages. The proportions of specific homeless communities can vary substantially depending on local geography.
290
Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress
edit
US yearly timeline of people experiencing homelessness, 2007-2020.
291
Perhaps the most accurate, comprehensive, and current data on homelessness in the United States is reported annually by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in the
Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress
(AHAR), released every year since 2007. The AHAR report relies on data from two sources: single-night, point-in-time counts of both sheltered and unsheltered homeless populations reported on the Continuum of Care applications to HUD; and counts of the sheltered homeless population over a full year provided by a sample of communities based on data in their Management Information Systems (HMIS).
82
291
Over the course of the year (October 2009 – September 2010), the 2010 Annual Homeless Assessment Report found that 1,593,150 individuals experienced homelessness.
292
293
Most were homeless temporarily. The chronically homeless population, those with repeated episodes or who have been homeless for long periods, decreased from 175,914 in 2005 to 123,833 in 2007.
294
In the 2017 AHAR (Annual Homeless Assessment Report) about 553,742 people experienced homelessness, which was a 1% increase from 2016.
295
An April 2022
YouGov
survey found that 19 percent of Americans reported having ever been homeless, while a December 2023 survey found that 17 percent of Americans reported having been homeless at one point in their lives.
296
297
Familial composition
edit
In the 2010 NCHWIH report:
298
51.3% are single males.
24.7% are single females.
23% are families with children—the fastest growing segment.
5% are minors unaccompanied by adults.
39% of the total homeless population are children under the age of 18.
In the 2014 NCHWIH report:
298
24% are married.
76% are single.
67.5% are single males within the single percentage.
32.5% are single females within the single percentage.
The homeless
tent city
in
Skid Row, Los Angeles
. The 2019 count found 58,936 homeless people living in
Los Angeles County
299
In the 2010 SAMHSA report, among all sheltered individuals over the course of a year (October 2009-September 2010):
292
Gender, Age, Race/Ethnicity
41.6% are White, Non-Hispanic
9.7% are White, Hispanic
37% are Black/African-American
4.5% are other single races;
7.2% are multiple races
In the 2014 NCHWIH report:
298
42% are
African American
(over-represented 3.23× compared to 13% of general population).
38% are
Caucasian
(under-represented 0.53× compared to 72% of general population).
20% are
Hispanic
(over-represented 1.25× compared to 16% of general population).
4% are
Native American
(over-represented 4× compared to 1% of general population).
2% are
Asian-American
(under-represented 0.4× compared to 5% of general population).
In the 2010 SAMHSA report:
292
26.2% of all sheltered persons who were homeless had a severe mental illness
About 30% of people who are chronically homeless have mental health conditions.
In analyses of data from the 1996 NSHAPCxiv:
300
Over 60% of people who are chronically homeless have experienced lifetime mental health problems
In the 2010 SAMHSA report:
292
34.7% of all sheltered adults who were homeless had chronic substance use issues
About 50% of people who are chronically homeless had co-occurring substance use problems.
In analyses of data from the 1996 NSHAPCxiv:
300
Over 80% have experienced lifetime alcohol and/or drug problems
According to the 1996 Urban Institute findings of the National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients (UIHAC) report
301
53% have less than a high school education
21% have completed high school
27% have some education beyond high school.
In the 1996 UIHAC report:
301
44 percent did paid work during the past month. Of these:
20 percent worked in a job lasting or expected to last at least three months.
25 percent worked at a temporary or day labor job.
2 percent earned money by peddling or selling personal belongings.
A 2010
longitudinal study
of homeless men conducted in
Birmingham, Alabama
, found that most earned an average of ninety dollars per week, while working an average of thirty hours per week
302
In the 2010 SAMHSA report:
292
71% reside in central cities.
21% are in
suburbs
9% are in
rural
areas.
In 2019, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development reported:
303
In the 2010 SAMHSA report, research on shelter use in
New York City
and
Philadelphia
concluded that:
292
People experiencing transitional homelessness constitute 80% of shelter users
People experiencing episodic homelessness comprise 10% of shelter users.
In New York City
Transitionally homeless individuals experience an average of 1.4 stays over a 3-year period, for a total of 58 days on average over the 3 years.
Episodically homeless individuals, on average, experience 4.9 shelter episodes over a 3-year period totaling 264 days with an average length of stay of 54.4 days.
Data from the 1996 NSHAPC, show that about 50% of people who were homeless were experiencing their first or second episode of homelessness, which typically lasted a few weeks or months to one year.
In the 2017 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report:
304
60.5% are male.
39% are female.
0.4% are transgender
0.2% do not identify as male, female, or transgender.
In the 2017 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report:
304
20.7% are under 18.
9.7% are 18–24.
69.6% are over 24.
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