Köppen climate classification - Wikipedia

Köppen climate classification - Wikipedia
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Climate classification system
The
Köppen climate classification
divides Earth's climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal
precipitation
and temperature. The five main groups are
tropical
),
arid
),
temperate
),
continental
), and
polar
). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned a main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in the
group are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example,
Af
indicates a
tropical rainforest climate
. The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in the
group, indicated by the third letter for climates in
, and the second letter for climates in
. Other examples include:
Cfb
indicating an
oceanic climate
with warm summers as indicated by the ending
, while
Dwb
indicates a semi-
monsoonal continental climate
, also with warm summers. Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type.
The Köppen climate classification is the most widely used
climate classification
scheme.
It was first published by German-Russian
climatologist
Wladimir Köppen
(1846–1940) in 1884,
with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.
Later, German climatologist
Rudolf Geiger
(1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which is thus sometimes called the
Köppen–Geiger climate classification
As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a
botanist
, his main climate groups represent a classification by vegetation type. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its association with the plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes of plant life within that region.
The Köppen climate classification system was modified further within the
Trewartha climate classification
system in 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined
middle latitude
climate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the climate group C was too general).
10
: 200–201
Köppen–Geiger climate map 1991–2020
Af
Am
Aw
As
BWh
BWk
BSh
BSk
Csa
Csb
Csc
Cwa
Cwb
Cwc
Cfa
Cfb
Cfc
Dsa
Dsb
Dsc
Dsd
Dwa
Dwb
Dwc
Dwd
Dfa
Dfb
Dfc
Dfd
ET
EF
Overview
edit
Further information:
List of cities by Köppen climate classification
Köppen climate classification scheme symbols description table
11
1st
2nd
3rd
A (Tropical)
f (Rainforest)
m (Monsoon)
w (Savanna, dry winter)
s (Savanna, dry summer)
B (Dry)
W (Arid desert)
S (Semi-arid steppe)
h (Hot)
k (Cold)
C (Temperate)
w (Dry winter)
f (No dry season)
s (Dry summer)
a (Hot summer)
b (Warm summer)
c (Cold summer)
D (Continental)
w (Dry winter)
f (No dry season)
s (Dry summer)
a (Hot summer)
b (Warm summer)
c (Cold summer)
d (Very cold winter)
E (Polar)
T (Tundra)
F (Ice cap)
The Köppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups:
(tropical),
(arid),
(temperate),
(continental), and
(polar).
12
The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type, while the third letter indicates the level of heat.
13
Summers are defined as the six-month period that is warmer either from April to September or October to March, while winter is the six-month period that is cooler.
11
Group A: Tropical climates
edit
Tropical climates
have an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher every month of the year, with significant precipitation.
11
Af
Tropical rainforest climate
; average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in) in every month.
Am
Tropical monsoon climate
; driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least
100
25
{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}
11
Aw
or
As
= Tropical wet and dry or
savanna
climate; with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than
100
25
{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}
11
Group B: Desert and semi-arid climates
edit
Semi-arid grassland,
Queensland
Australia
Desert
and
semi-arid
climates are defined by low precipitation in a region that does not fit the polar (EF or ET) criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than 10 °C (50 °F).
The precipitation threshold in millimeters is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature in
Celsius
by 20, then adding:
280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months (April–September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October–March in the Southern), or
140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer, or
0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer.
If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (
semi-arid
: steppe climate).
11
A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climates (average annual temperature above 18 °C (64.4 °F)) while k signifies middle-latitude climates (average annual temperature less than 18 °C). In addition, n is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes.
14
15
16
BWh
Hot desert climate
BWk
Cold desert climate
BSh
Hot semi-arid climate
BSk
Cold semi-arid climate
Group C: Temperate climates
edit
Cornwall
, UK, has a temperate oceanic climate
Temperate climates
have the coldest month averaging between 0 °C (32 °F)
11
(or −3 °C (26.6 °F))
and 18 °C (64.4 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).
11
For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer (Cs) and a dry winter (Cw), a location is considered to have a wet summer (Cw) when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer (Cs) when more precipitation falls within the winter months.
11
This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well.
11
Cfa
Humid subtropical climate
; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
Cfb
= Temperate
oceanic climate
or
subtropical highland climate
; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
Cfc
Subpolar oceanic climate
; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
Cwa
Monsoon
-influenced humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
Cwb
Subtropical highland climate
or Monsoon-influenced temperate oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
Cwc
= Cold
subtropical highland climate
or Monsoon-influenced subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
Csa
Hot-summer Mediterranean climate
; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).
Csb
Warm-summer Mediterranean climate
; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).
Csc
Cold-summer Mediterranean climate
; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).
Group D: Continental climates
edit
Boreal forest
in
Alaska
has a subarctic climate
Continental climates
have at least one month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).
11
Dfa
= Hot-summer
humid continental climate
; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
Dfb
= Warm-summer
humid continental climate
; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
Dfc
Subarctic climate
; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
Dfd
= Extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
Dwa
= Monsoon-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
Dwb
= Monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
Dwc
= Monsoon-influenced
subarctic climate
; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
Dwd
= Monsoon-influenced extremely cold
subarctic climate
; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
Dsa
Mediterranean
-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month above 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).
Dsb
= Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month below 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).
Dsc
= Mediterranean-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).
Dsd
= Mediterranean-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).
Group E: Polar and alpine climates
edit
Polar
and
alpine climates
has every month of the year with an average temperature below 10 °C (50 °F).
11
ET
Tundra climate
; average temperature of warmest month between 0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F).
11
EF
Ice cap climate
; eternal winter, with all 12 months of the year with average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).
11
Group A: Tropical/megathermal climates
edit
Tropical climate distribution
Tropical climates
are characterized by constant high temperatures (at sea level and low elevations); all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher; and generally high annual precipitation. They are subdivided as follows:
Af
: Tropical rainforest climate
edit
Main article:
Tropical rainforest climate
All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). These climates usually occur within 10° latitude of the
equator
. This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes.
10
When it is dominated most of the year by the
doldrums
low-pressure system due to the presence of the
Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial. When the
trade winds
dominate most of the year, the climate is a tropical trade-wind rainforest climate.
17
Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest
Pacific
coast of
South
and
Central America
, from
Ecuador
to
Costa Rica
; see, for instance,
Andagoya
, Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at
Palembang
, Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at
Sitiawan
, Malaysia). Among these places, some have a pure equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo, Pontianak, and Singapore) with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes (Davao, Ratnapura, Victoria).
citation needed
(The term
aseasonal
refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics, but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature, but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or groundwater. Plant response (e.g.,
phenology
), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America, the 'rainy season' (and the 'high water season') is called
invierno
(Spanish) or
inverno
(Portuguese), though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season (and 'low water season') is called
verano
or
verão
, and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter).
citation needed
Am
: Tropical monsoon climate
edit
Main article:
Tropical monsoon climate
This type of climate results from the
monsoon
winds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least
100
25
{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}
of average monthly precipitation.
10
: 208
Aw/As
: Tropical savanna climate
edit
Main article:
Tropical savanna climate
Aerial photograph of
elephants
in the tropical savanna,
Boma-Jonglei
South Sudan
Aw
: Tropical savanna climate with dry winters
edit
Aw
climates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than
100
25
{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}
of average monthly precipitation.
10
: 208–211
Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the
tropical
zone from the low teens to the mid-20s latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g.,
San Marcos, Antioquia
, Colombia) also qualifies. The
Caribbean
coast, eastward from the
Gulf of Urabá
on the
Colombia
Panama
border to the
Orinoco River
delta, on the
Atlantic Ocean
(about 4,000 km (2,500 mi)), have long dry periods (the extreme is the
BWh
climate, characterized by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in the
Guajira
, and
Coro
, western
Venezuela
, the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive <300 mm (12 in) total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months).
This condition extends to the
Lesser Antilles
and
Greater Antilles
forming the circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon River—which flows eastward, just south of the
equatorial
line—the climate is
Af
. East from the
Andes
, between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco River's
Llanos
or
savannas
, from where this climate takes its name.
As
: Tropical savanna climate with dry summers
edit
Sometimes
As
is used in place of
Aw
if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer).
18
This is the case in parts of
Hawaii
, northwestern Dominican Republic, Eastern Africa, southeast India and northeast Sri Lanka, and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In places that have this climate type, the dry season occurs during the time of high sun and longer days generally because of
rain shadow
effects.
Group B: Arid (desert and semi-arid) climates
edit
Main articles:
Desert climate
and
Semi-arid climate
Arid climate
distribution
These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates the
potential evapotranspiration
10
: 212
The threshold value (in millimeters) is calculated as follows:
Multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add
280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or
140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or
0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received.
According to the modified Köppen classification system used by modern climatologists, total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high-sun half of the year.
19
If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is
BW
(arid:
desert climate
); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is
BS
(semi-arid:
steppe climate
).
A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here,
signifies low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C) while
signified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18 °C).
Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized by
frequent fog
and low clouds, although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received, can be labeled
BWn
with the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog.
14
15
16
An equivalent
BSn
category can be found in foggy coastal steppes.
20
BW
: Arid climates
edit
Main article:
Desert climate
Namib Desert
The desert climate or arid climate (
BW
) is a
dry climate
sub-type in which there is a severe excess of
evaporation
over
precipitation
. The typically bald, rocky, or sandy surfaces in desert climates are dry and hold little moisture, quickly evaporating the already little rainfall they receive. Covering 14.2% of Earth's land area, hot deserts are the second-most common type of climate on Earth after the
Polar climate
21
There are two variations of a
desert
climate: a hot desert climate (
BWh
), and a cold desert climate (
BWk
). To delineate "hot desert climates" from "cold desert climates", a mean annual temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) is used as an isotherm so that a location with a
BW
type climate with the appropriate temperature above this isotherm is classified as "hot arid subtype" (
BW
), and a location with the appropriate temperature below the isotherm is classified as "cold arid subtype" (
BW
).
Most desert/arid climates receive between 25 and 200 mm (1 and 8 in) of rainfall annually,
22
23
although some of the most consistently hot areas of
Central Australia
, the
Sahel
and
Guajira Peninsula
can be, due to extreme
potential evapotranspiration
, classed as arid with the annual rainfall as high as 430 millimetres or 17 inches.
BWh
: Hot deserts
edit
Hot desert climates (
BWh
) are typically found under the
subtropical ridge
in the lower middle latitudes or the
subtropics
, often between 20° and 33° north and south latitudes. In these locations, stable descending air and high pressure aloft clear clouds and create hot, arid conditions with intense sunshine. Hot desert climates are found across vast areas of
North Africa
West Asia
, northwestern parts of the
Indian subcontinent
, southwestern Africa, interior Australia, the
Southwestern United States
, northern
Mexico
, the coast of
Peru
and
Chile
, parts of the Brazilian
sertão
and the southeastern coast of
Spain
24
This makes hot deserts present in every continent except Antarctica. At the time of high sun (summer), scorching, desiccating heat prevails. Hot-month average temperatures are normally between 29 and 35 °C (84 and 95 °F), and midday readings of 43–46 °C (109–115 °F) are common.
citation needed
BWk
: Cold deserts
edit
Rare snow in the
Atacama Desert
, at 2,600 m (8,500 ft) elevation
Cold desert climates (
BWk
) usually feature hot (or warm in a few instances), dry summers, though summers are not typically as hot as hot desert climates. Unlike hot desert climates, cold desert climates tend to feature cold, dry winters. Snow tends to be rare in regions with this climate. The
Gobi Desert
in northern China and Mongolia is one example of a cold desert. Though hot in the summer, it shares the freezing winters of the rest of
Inner Asia
. Summers in South America's
Atacama Desert
are mild, with only slight temperature variations between seasons. Cold desert climates are typically found at higher altitudes than hot desert climates and are usually drier than hot desert climates. Cold desert climates are typically located in temperate zones in the 30s and 40s latitudes, usually in the leeward
rain shadow
of high mountains, restricting precipitation from the westerly winds.
citation needed
BS
: Semi-arid (steppe) climates
edit
Main article:
Semi-arid climate
Regions with semi-arid climates
A semi-arid or steppe climate is a
dry climate
sub-type. It is located on regions that receive
precipitation
below
potential evapotranspiration
, but not as low as a
desert climate
. There are different kinds of semi-arid climates, depending on variables such as temperature, and they give rise to different
biomes
BSh
: Hot semi-arid
edit
Hot semi-arid climates (type "BSh") tend to be located from the high teens to mid-30s latitudes of the
tropics
and
subtropics
, typically in proximity to regions with a
tropical savanna climate
or a
humid subtropical climate
. These climates tend to have hot, or sometimes extremely hot, summers and warm to cool winters, with some to minimal precipitation. Hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found around the fringes of subtropical deserts.
citation needed
BSk
: Cold semi-arid
edit
Cold semi-arid climates (type "BSk") tend to be located in elevated portions of
temperate zones
generally from the mid-30s to low 50s latitudes, typically bordering a
humid continental climate
or a
Mediterranean climate
. They are also typically found in continental interiors some distance from large bodies of water. Cold semi-arid climates usually feature warm to hot dry summers, though their summers are typically not quite as hot as those of hot semi-arid climates. Unlike hot semi-arid climates, areas with cold semi-arid climates tend to have cold and possibly freezing winters. These areas usually see some
snowfall
during the winter, though snowfall is much lower than at locations at similar latitudes with more humid climates.
citation needed
Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates
edit
Main article:
Temperate climate
Temperate climate
distribution
In the Köppen climate system, temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously) in their coldest month but below 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average temperature of −3 °C (26.6 °F) roughly coincides with the equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more.
The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern—
indicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation).
indicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer.
means significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above-mentioned set of conditions fulfilled).
The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat—
indicates warmest month average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F) while
indicates warmest month averaging below 22 °C but with at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F), and
indicates one to three months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F).
11
Cs
: Mediterranean-type climates
edit
Main article:
Mediterranean climate
Aegean Sea at
Ölüdeniz
, Turkey
Csa
: Hot-summer Mediterranean climates
edit
These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°.
25
These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high-pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring
fog
but prevent rain.
10
: 221–223
Csb
: Warm-summer Mediterranean climates
edit
Dry-summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas where the warmest month average temperatures do not reach 22 °C (71.6 °F), most often in the 40s latitudes. These climates are classified as
Csb
Csc
: Cold-summer Mediterranean climates
edit
Cold summer Mediterranean climates (
Csc
) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to coastal
Csb
climate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 °C (32 °F). This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere.
10
Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii.
Cfa
: Humid subtropical climates
edit
Main article:
Humid subtropical climate
Humid subtropical climate in
Li River
, China
These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents, usually in the high 20s and 30s latitudes. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season.
The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent and strong but short-lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southeast United States, southern China, and Japan.
10
: 223–226
Cfb
: Oceanic climates
edit
Main article:
Oceanic climate
Marine west coast climate
edit
Cfb
climates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates in the 40s and 50s latitudes. However, in southeast Australia, southeast South America, and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates, on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68°N in Norway.
These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents. Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy, and frequently wet.
Cfb
climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rainforest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "highlands".
10
: 226–229
Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall
edit
Main article:
Oceanic climate § Subtropical highland variety (Cfb, Cwb)
Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (
Cfb
) are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands of
Australia
, such as in or around the
Great Dividing Range
in the north of the state of
New South Wales
, and also sparsely in other continents, such as in
South America
, among others. Unlike a typical
Cwb
climate, they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. They have characteristics of both the
Cfb
and
Cfa
climates, but unlike these climates, they have a high
diurnal temperature variation
and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high
elevation
Cfc
: Subpolar oceanic climate
edit
Subpolar oceanic climates (
Cfc
) occur poleward of or at higher elevations than the maritime temperate climates and are mostly confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such coasts. They occur in both hemispheres, generally in the high 50s and 60s latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere and the 50s latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.
10
Cw
: Dry-winter subtropical climates
edit
Cwa
: Dry-winter humid subtropical climate
edit
Cwa
is a monsoonal influenced version of the
humid subtropical climate
, having the classic dry winter–wet summer pattern associated with tropical monsoonal climates. They are found at similar latitudes as the
Cfa
climates, except in regions where monsoons are more prevalent. These regions are in the
Southern Cone
of South America, the
Gangetic Plain
of South Asia, southeastern Africa, parts of East Asia and Mexico, and
Northern Vietnam
of Southeast Asia.
Cwb
: Dry-winter subtropical highland climate
edit
Dry-winter subtropical highland climate (
Cwb
) is a type of climate mainly found in highlands inside the tropics of
Central America
South America
Africa
, and
South
and
Southeast Asia
or areas in the subtropics. Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be very rainy. In the tropics, the monsoon is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure.
Cwc
: Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climate
edit
Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climates (
Cwc
) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to
Cwb
climates. This climate is rare and is found mainly in isolated locations mostly in the Andes in Bolivia and Peru, as well as in sparse mountain locations in Southeast Asia.
Group D: Continental/microthermal climates
edit
Main article:
Continental climate
Continental climate
distribution
These climates have an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in their warmest months, and the coldest month average below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously). These usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N. In the Southern Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only in some highland locations.
Dfa/Dwa/Dsa
: Hot summer humid continental climates
edit
Main article:
Hot-summer humid continental climate
The snowy city of
Sapporo
, Japan, has a humid continental climate (
Dfa
Dfa
climates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of greater than 22 °C (72 °F). In Europe, these climates tend to be much drier than in North America.
Dsa
exists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (
Csa
) climates.
10
: 231–32
These climates exist only in the Northern Hemisphere because the Southern Hemisphere has no large landmasses isolated from the moderating effects of the sea within the middle latitudes.
In eastern Asia,
Dwa
climates extend further south into the mid-30s latitudes due to the influence of the Siberian high-pressure system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because of
monsoon
circulation.
Dfb/Dwb/Dsb
: Warm summer humid continental/hemiboreal climates
edit
Main article:
Warm-summer humid continental climate
Dfb
climates are immediately poleward of hot summer continental climates, generally in the high 40s and low 50s latitudes in North America and Asia, and also extending to higher latitudes into the high 50s and low 60s latitudes in central and eastern Europe, between the maritime temperate and continental subarctic climates.
10
Like with all Group D climates,
Dwb
climates mostly only occur in the northern hemisphere.
Dsb
arises from the same scenario as
Dsa
, but at even higher altitudes or latitudes, and chiefly in North America, since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia.
Dfc/Dwc/Dsc
: Subarctic/boreal climates
edit
Main article:
Subarctic climate
Dfc
Dsc
and
Dwc
climates occur poleward of the other group D climates, or at higher altitudes, generally in the 50s and 60s latitudes.
10
: 232–235
Dfd/Dwd/Dsd
: Subarctic/boreal climates with severe winters
edit
Places with this climate have severe winters, with the temperature in their coldest month lower than −38 °C (−36 °F). These climates occur only in eastern
Siberia
, and are the second coldest, before EF. The coldest recorded temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere belonged to this climate. The names of some of the places with this climate have become veritable synonyms for the extreme, severe winter cold.
26
Group E: Polar climates
edit
Polar climate
distribution
In the Köppen climate system, polar climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month being below 10 °C (50 °F). Polar climates are further divided into two types, tundra climates and icecap climates:
ET
: Tundra climate
edit
Main article:
Tundra climate
Tundra climate
ET
): warmest month has an average temperature between 0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F). These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land masses (generally north of 70 °N although they may be found farther south depending on local conditions), and on nearby islands.
ET
climates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic Convergence, and at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line.
EF
: Ice cap climate
edit
Main article:
Ice cap climate
Denman Glacier
, Antarctica
Ice cap climate
EF
): this climate is dominant in Antarctica, inner
Greenland
, and summits of many high mountains, even at lower latitudes. Monthly average temperatures never exceed 0 °C (32 °F).
Ecological significance
edit
Biomass
edit
The Köppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions identified by the Köppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map the geographic distribution of long-term climate and associated ecosystem conditions.
27
Climate change
edit
Over recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time.
13
The most important ecological significance of the Köppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation type based on the climatic data and vice versa.
28
In 2015, a
Nanjing University
paper published in
Scientific Reports
analyzing climate classifications found that between 1950 and 2010, approximately 5.7% of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder classifications to drier and hotter classifications. The authors also found that the change "cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors".
29
A 2018 study provides detailed maps for present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution.
30
Other Köppen climate maps
edit
All maps use the ≥0 °C (32 °F) definition for the temperate-continental border.
North America
Europe
Russia
Central Asia
East Asia
South America
Africa
Western Asia
South Asia
Southeast Asia
Melanesia/Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
World (1991–2020)
World (2071–2099, SSP245)
See also
edit
Trewartha climate classification
Hardiness zone
Holdridge life zones
List of cities by Köppen climate classification
References
edit
Kottek, Markus; Grieser, Jürgen; Beck, Christoph; Rudolf, Bruno; Rubel, Franz (2006).
"World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated"
(PDF)
Meteorologische Zeitschrift
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Bibcode
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"EnergyPlus™ Version 24.2.0 Documentation: Auxiliary Programs"
(PDF)
EnergyPlus
. 4 October 2024. p. 52
. Retrieved
22 January
2025
Köppen, Wladimir (1884).
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[The thermal zones of the earth according to the duration of hot, moderate and cold periods and to the impact of heat on the organic world)].
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S2CID
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Archived
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. Retrieved
2 September
2016
Rubel, F.; Kottek, M (2011). "Comments on: 'The thermal zones of the Earth' by Wladimir Köppen (1884)".
Meteorologische Zeitschrift
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365.
Bibcode
2011MetZe..20..361R
doi
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Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen
. Vol. 64. pp.
193–
203,
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Das geographische System der Klimate
The geographic system of climates
(PDF)
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Archived
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. Retrieved
2 September
2016
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. Vol. 3. Berlin: Springer. pp.
603–
607.
Geiger, Rudolf (1961).
Überarbeitete Neuausgabe von Geiger, R.: Köppen-Geiger / Klima der Erde
(Wandkarte 1:16 Mill.) – Klett-Perthes, Gotha.
Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis;
Wood, Eric F.
(30 October 2018).
"Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution"
Scientific Data
180214.
Bibcode
2018NatSD...580214B
doi
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ISSN
2052-4463
PMC
6207062
PMID
30375988
McKnight, Tom L; Hess, Darrel (2000).
"Climate Zones and Types"
Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation
. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
ISBN
978-0-13-020263-5
Peel, M. C.; Finlayson, B. L. & McMahon, T. A. (2007).
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(PDF)
Hydrology and Earth System Sciences
11
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1633–
1644.
Bibcode
2007HESS...11.1633P
doi
10.5194/Hess-11-1633-2007
ISSN
1027-5606
"Koppen climate classification | climatology"
Encyclopædia Britannica
Archived
from the original on 4 August 2017
. Retrieved
4 August
2017
Chen, Hans;
Chen, Deliang
"Köppen climate classification"
hanschen.org
Archived
from the original on 14 August 2017
. Retrieved
4 August
2017
Cereceda, P.; Larrain, H.; osses, P.; Farias, M.; Egaña, I. (2008). "The climate of the coast and fog zone in the Tarapacá Region, Atacama Desert, Chile".
Atmospheric Research
87
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301–
311.
Bibcode
2008AtmRe..87..301C
doi
10.1016/j.atmosres.2007.11.011
hdl
10533/139314
"Clasificación climática de Köppen"
(in Spanish). University of Chile. Archived from
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. Retrieved
21 January
2018
Inzunza, Juan.
"Capitulo 15. Climas de Chile"
(PDF)
Meteorología Descriptiva y Aplicaciones en Chile
(in Spanish). p. 427. Archived from
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(PDF)
on 22 January 2018
. Retrieved
22 January
2018
Estienne, Pierre; Godard, Alain. "Chapitre XVI".
Climatologie
(in French). Éditions Armand Colin. pp.
308–
323.
ISBN
2-200-31042-0
"JetStream Max: Addition Köppen-Geiger Climate Subdivisions"
. National Weather Service. Archived from
the original
on 24 December 2018
. Retrieved
24 December
2018
Critchfield, H.J. (1983).
"Criteria for classification of major climatic types in modified Köppen system"
(4 ed.). University of Idaho. Archived from
the original
on 30 September 2009.
"Atlas Agroclimático de Chile–Estado Actual y Tendencias del Clima (Tomo I: Regiones de Arica Y Parinacota, Tarapacá y Antofagasta"
(in Spanish). Universidad de Chile. 2017.
Archived
from the original on 22 December 2018
. Retrieved
9 December
2018
Peel, M.C.; Finlayson, B.L.; McMahon, T.A. (2007).
"Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification"
(PDF)
Hydrology and Earth System Sciences
11
(5):
1633–
1644.
Bibcode
2007HESS...11.1633P
doi
10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2 December 2019
. Retrieved
20 May
2019
Laity, Julie J. (2009).
Deserts and Desert Environments
. John Wiley & Sons. p. 7.
ISBN
978-1-4443-0074-1
"What is a Desert Climate?"
WorldAtlas
. 1 November 2017.
Archived
from the original on 26 December 2021
. Retrieved
23 April
2022
"Spain climate maps 1991-2020"
(PDF)
(in Spanish). Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia
. Retrieved
28 March
2025
George, Melvin R.
"Mediterranean Climate"
UCRangelands
. University of California. Archived from
the original
on 4 March 2016
. Retrieved
26 January
2015
"Climate Types: Types of Climate | Climatology"
Geography Notes
. 9 August 2017
. Retrieved
17 June
2022
Chen, D.; Chen, H. W. (2013).
"Using the Köppen classification to quantify climate variation and change: An example for 1901–2010"
(PDF)
Environmental Development
69–
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Bibcode
2013EnvDe...6...69C
doi
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Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 31 October 2014
. Retrieved
29 October
2014
Critchfield, Howard J (1983).
General Climatology
(4th ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall. pp.
154–
161.
ISBN
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Chan, D.; Wu, Q. (2015).
"Significant anthropogenic-induced changes of climate classes since 1950"
Scientific Reports
(13487) 13487.
Bibcode
2015NatSR...513487C
doi
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PMC
4551970
PMID
26316255
Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018).
"Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution"
Scientific Data
(1): 180214.
Bibcode
2018NatSD...580214B
doi
10.1038/sdata.2018.214
ISSN
2052-4463
PMC
6207062
PMID
30375988
S2CID
53111021
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External links
edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Köppen-Geiger
World maps and graphs plus a video about the Köppen climate classification
World Map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification for the period 1951–2000
(archived 6 September 2010)
New gridded maps of Koeppen's climate classification (July 2006)
at the
Wayback Machine
(archived 10 January 2021)
Climate records
edit
IPCC Data Distribution Center
(archived 18 April 2016)
Climate
types under the
Köppen climate classification
Class A
Tropical rainforest
(Af)
Tropical monsoon
(Am)
Tropical savanna
(Aw, As)
Class B
Desert
(BWh, BWk)
Semi-arid
(BSh, BSk)
Class C
Humid subtropical
(Cfa, Cwa)
Oceanic
(Cfb, Cwb, Cfc, Cwc)
Mediterranean
(Csa, Csb, Csc)
Class D
Humid continental
(Dfa, Dwa, Dsa, Dfb, Dwb, Dsb)
Subarctic
(Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd, Dsd)
Class E
Tundra
(ET)
Ice cap
(EF)
Alpine
(ET, EF)
Lists
List of cities by Köppen climate classification
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Köppen climate types
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