List of Mesopotamian deities - Wikipedia

List of Mesopotamian deities - Wikipedia
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Akkadian
cylinder seal
dating to
c.
2300 BC, depicting the deities
Inanna
Utu
Enki
, and
Isimud
Map showing the extent of Mesopotamia and its major cities relative to modern landmarks
Part of
a series
on
Religion in Mesopotamia
Chaos Monster and Sun God
Ancient Mesopotamian religion
Sumerian
Babylonian
Mythology
Deities
Primordial beings
Tiamat
and
Abzu
Lahamu
and
Lahmu
Kishar
and
Anshar
Mummu
Seven gods who decree
Four primary
Anu
Enlil
Enki
Ninhursag
Three sky gods
Inanna/Ishtar
Nanna/Sin
Utu/Shamash
Other major deities
Adad
Ashur
Dumuzid
Enkimdu
Enmesharra
Ereshkigal
Ki
Kingu
Geshtinanna
Lahar
Marduk
Nergal
Ninurta
Šulpae
Minor deities
Agasaya
Anunnaki
Asaruludu
Ashnan
Ashgi
Bel
Dumuzi-abzu
Enbilulu
Erra
Erragal
Gibil
Hendursaga
Igigi
Isimud
Išum
Kajamanu
Lahar
Laṣ
Lisin
Lugala'abba
Mami/Nintu
Mamitu
Maštabba
Nabu
Namtar
Nanshe
Nindara
Ninmarki
Nisaba
Ninazu
Ningal
Ningirida
Ningirima
Ninkasi
Ninkilim
Ninlil
Ninmug
Ninšar
Ninsikila
Ninšubur
Ninsun
Nuska
Paniĝinĝarra
Sarpanit
Shul-utula
Šubula
Šulpae
Tišpak
Uttu
Demigods and heroes
Adapa
Enkidu
Enmerkar
Gilgamesh
Lugalbanda
Shamhat
Siduri
Atra-Hasis
Ziusudra
Apkallu
(seven sages)
Spirits and monsters
Udug
Lamassu/Shedu
Asag
Edimmu
Siris
Anzû
Ušum/Dragon
Kuli-ana/Mermaid
Bašmu
Mušmaḫḫū
Ušumgallu
Seven-headed serpent
Humbaba
Hanbi
Kur
Lamashtu
Lilu
Pazuzu
Rabisu
Tales
An = Anum
Atra-Hasis
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta
Enūma Eliš
Epic of Gilgamesh
Dingir
Sukkal
Genealogy
Babylonian
Sumerian
Other
religions of the ancient Near East
Anatolia
Egypt
Hurrian
Iranian
Semitic
Arabia
Canaan
Deities in ancient Mesopotamia
were almost exclusively
anthropomorphic
They were thought to possess extraordinary powers
and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size.
The deities typically wore
melam
, an ambiguous substance which "covered them in terrifying splendor"
and which could also be worn by heroes, kings, giants, and even demons.
The effect that seeing a deity's
melam
has on a human is described as
ni
, a word for the "
physical creeping of the flesh
".
Both the
Sumerian
and
Akkadian languages
contain many words to express the sensation of
ni
including the word
puluhtu
, meaning "fear".
Deities were almost always depicted wearing horned caps,
consisting of up to seven superimposed pairs of ox-horns.
They were also sometimes depicted wearing clothes with elaborate decorative gold and silver ornaments sewn
into them.
The ancient
Mesopotamians
believed that their deities lived in
Heaven
but that a god's statue was a physical embodiment of the god himself.
10
As such,
cult statues
were given constant care and attention
11
and a set of priests were assigned to tend to them.
12
These priests would clothe the statues
10
and place feasts before them so they could "eat".
11
A deity's
temple
was believed to be that deity's literal place of residence.
13
The gods had boats, full-sized
barges
which were normally stored inside their temples
14
and were used to transport their cult statues along waterways during various
religious festivals
14
The gods also had
chariots
, which were used for transporting their cult statues by land.
15
Sometimes a deity's cult statue would be transported to the location of a battle so that the deity could watch the battle unfold.
15
The major deities of the Mesopotamian pantheon were believed to participate in the "assembly of the gods",
through which the gods made all of their decisions.
This assembly was seen as a divine counterpart to the
semi-democratic legislative system
that existed during the
Third Dynasty of Ur
c.
2112 BC –
c.
2004 BC).
The Mesopotamian pantheon evolved greatly over the course of its history.
16
In general, the history of Mesopotamian religion can be divided into four phases.
16
During the first phase, starting in the fourth millennium BC, deities' domains mainly focused on basic needs for human survival.
17
During the second phase, which occurred in the third millennium BC, the divine hierarchy became more structured
17
and deified kings began to enter the pantheon.
17
During the third phase, in the second millennium BC, the gods worshipped by an individual person and gods associated with the commoners became more prevalent.
17
During the fourth and final phase, in the first millennium BC, the gods became closely associated with specific human empires and rulers.
18
The names of over 3,000 Mesopotamian deities have been recovered from cuneiform texts.
19
16
Many of these are from lengthy lists of deities compiled by ancient Mesopotamian scribes.
19
20
The longest of these lists is a text entitled
An = Anum
, a Babylonian scholarly work listing the names of over 2,000 deities.
19
17
While sometimes mistakenly regarded simply as a list of Sumerian gods with their Akkadian equivalents,
21
it was meant to provide information about the relations between individual gods, as well as short explanations of functions fulfilled by them.
21
In addition to spouses and children of gods, it also listed their servants.
22
Various terms were employed to describe groups of deities. The collective term
Anunnaki
is first attested during the reign of
Gudea
c.
2144 – 2124 BC) and the Third Dynasty of Ur.
23
24
This term usually referred to the major deities of heaven and earth,
25
endowed with immense powers,
26
23
who were believed to "decree the fates of mankind".
24
Gudea described them as "
Lamma
(tutelary deities) of all the countries."
25
While it is common in modern literature to assume that in some contexts the term was instead applied to
chthonic
Underworld deities,
26
this view is regarded as unsubstantiated by assyriologist Dina Katz, who points out that it relies entirely on the myth of
Inanna's Descent
, which doesn't necessarily contradict the conventional definition of Anunnaki and doesn't explicitly identify them as gods of the Underworld.
27
Unambiguous references to Anunnaki as chthonic come from
Hurrian
(rather than Mesopotamian) sources, in which the term was applied to a class of distinct, Hurrian, gods instead.
28
Anunnaki are chiefly mentioned in literary texts
24
and very little evidence to support the existence of any distinct cult of them has yet been unearthed
29
24
due to the fact that each deity which could be regarded as a member of the Anunnaki had his or her own individual cult, separate from the others.
23
Similarly, no representations of the Anunnaki as a distinct group have yet been discovered,
23
although a few depictions of its frequent individual members have been identified.
23
Another similar collective term for deities was
Igigi
, first attested from the
Old Babylonian Period
c.
1830 BC –
c.
1531 BC).
30
The name
Igigi
seems to have originally been applied to the "great gods",
30
but it later came to refer to all the gods of Heaven collectively.
30
In some instances, the terms
Anunnaki
and
Igigi
are used synonymously.
23
24
Major deities
edit
Samuel Noah Kramer
, writing in 1963, stated that the three most important deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon during all periods were the deities
An
Enlil
, and
Enki
31
However, newer research shows that the arrangement of the top of the pantheon could vary depending on time period and location. The Fara god list indicates that sometimes Enlil,
Inanna
and Enki were regarded as the three most significant deities.
32
Inanna was also the most important deity in Uruk and a number of other political centers in the Uruk period.
33
Gudea
regarded
Ninhursag
, rather than Enki, as the third most prominent deity.
34
An Old Babylonian source preserves a tradition in which
Nanna
was the king of the gods, and Anu, Enlil and Enki merely his advisers,
35
likely a view espoused by Nanna's priests in
Ur
, and later on in
Harran
36
An Old Babylonian personal name refers to
Shamash
as "Enlil of the gods," possibly reflecting the existence of a similar belief connected to him among his clergy too, though unlike the doctrine of supremacy of the moon god, accepted by
Nabonidus
, it found no royal support at any point in time.
37
In Zabban, a city in the northeast of Babylonia,
Hadad
was the head of the pantheon.
38
In the first millennium BCE
Marduk
became the supreme god in Babylonia, and some late sources omit Anu and Enlil altogether and state that Ea received his position from Marduk.
39
In some neo-Babylonian inscriptions
Nabu
's status was equal to that of Marduk.
39
In Assyria,
Assur
was regarded as the supreme god.
40
The number seven was extremely important in ancient Mesopotamian cosmology.
41
42
In
Sumerian religion
, the most powerful and important deities in the pantheon were sometimes called the "seven gods who decree":
43
An
Enlil
Enki
Ninhursag
Nanna
Utu
, and
Inanna
44
Many major deities in Sumerian mythology were associated with specific celestial bodies:
45
Inanna was believed to be the planet
Venus
46
47
Utu was believed to be the Sun,
48
47
and Nanna was the Moon.
49
47
However, minor deities could be associated with planets too, for example Mars was sometimes called
Simut
50
and
Ninsianna
was a Venus deity distinct from Inanna in at least some contexts.
51
Name
Image
Major cult centers
Celestial body
Details
An
Anu
52
Eanna
temple in
Uruk
53
Equatorial sky
54
47
An (in Sumerian), later known as Anu (in Akkadian),
55
was the supreme God and "prime mover in creation", embodied by the sky.
52
He is the first and most distant ancestor,
52
theologically conceived as the God of Heaven in its "transcendental obscurity".
56
In some theological systems all of the deities were believed to be the offspring of An and his consort
Ki
52
57
24
However Anu was himself described as the descendant of various primordial beings in various texts (god lists, incantations, etc.), and Enlil was often equipped with his own elaborate family tree separate from Anu's.
58
While An was described as the utmost god,
59
52
at least by the time of the earliest written records the main god in terms of actual cult was
Enlil
60
61
Anu's supremacy was therefore "always somewhat nominal" according to
Wilfred G. Lambert
62
Luludanitu,
a multicolored stone (red, white and black) was associated with him.
63
Enlil
Nunamnir, Ellil
64
65
Ekur
temple in
Nippur
66
67
Northern sky
54
47
Enlil, later known as Ellil, is the god of wind, air, earth, and storms
64
and the chief of all the gods.
68
The Sumerians envisioned Enlil as a benevolent, fatherly deity, who watches over humanity and cares for their well-being.
69
One Sumerian hymn describes Enlil as so glorious that even the other gods could not look upon him.
65
70
His cult was closely tied to the holy city of Nippur
67
and, after Nippur was sacked by the
Elamites
in 1230 BC, his cult fell into decline.
71
He was eventually paralleled in his role as chief deity by
Marduk
, the
national god
of the Babylonians,
71
and Assur, who fulfilled an analogous role for the Assyrians.
72
He was associated with
lapis lazuli
63
73
Enki
Nudimmud, Ninshiku, Ea
74
E-Abzu
temple in
Eridu
74
Canopus
75
southern sky
54
47
Enki, later known as Ea, and also occasionally referred to as Nudimmud or Ninšiku, was the god of the subterranean freshwater ocean,
74
who was also closely associated with wisdom, magic, incantations, arts, and crafts.
74
He was either the son of An, or the goddess
Nammu
74
and is the former case the twin brother of
Ishkur
74
His wife was the goddess
Damgalnuna
Ninhursag
74
and his children include the gods
Marduk
Asarluhi
Enbilulu
, the sage
Adapa
, and the goddess
Nanshe
74
His
sukkal
, or minister, was the two-faced messenger god
Isimud
74
Enki was the divine benefactor of humanity,
74
who helped humans survive the
Great Flood
74
In
Enki and the World Order
, he organizes "in detail every feature of the civilised world."
74
In
Inanna and Enki
, he is described as the holder of the sacred
mes
, the tablets concerning all aspects of human life.
74
He was associated with
jasper
63
73
Marduk
Babylon
76
71
Jupiter
77
Marduk is the national god of the
Babylonians
76
The expansion of his cult closely paralleled the historical rise of Babylon
76
71
and, after assimilating various local deities, including a god named
Asarluhi
, he eventually came to parallel Enlil as the chief of the gods.
76
71
Some late sources go as far as omitting Enlil and Anu altogether, and state that Ea received his position from Marduk.
39
His wife was the goddess
Sarpānītu
76
Ashur
Assur
78
Ashur was the national god of the
Assyrians
78
It has been proposed that originally he was the deification of the city of
Assur
79
or perhaps the hill atop which it was built.
80
He initially lacked any connections to other deities, having no parents, spouse or children.
81
The only goddess related to him, though in an unclear way, was
Šerua
81
Later he was syncretized with Enlil,
82
72
and as a result Ninlil was sometimes regarded as his wife, and Ninurta and Zababa as his sons.
81
Sargon II
initiated the trend of writing his name with the same signs as that of Anshar, a primordial being regarded as Anu's father in the theology of Enuma Elish.
72
He may have originally been a local deity associated with the city of
Assur
78
but, with the growth of the Assyrian Empire,
78
his cult was introduced to southern Mesopotamia.
83
In Assyrian texts Bel was a title of Ashur, rather than Marduk.
84
Nabu
Borsippa
85
Kalhu
86
Mercury
85
Nabu was the Mesopotamian god of scribes and writing.
85
His wife was the goddess
Tashmetu
85
and he may have been associated with the planet
Mercury
85
though the evidence has been described as “circumstantial” by Francesco Pomponio.
87
He later became associated with wisdom and agriculture.
85
In the Old Babylonian and early Kassite periods his cult was only popular in central Mesopotamia (Babylon, Sippar, Kish, Dilbat, Lagaba), had a limited extent in peripheral areas (Susa in Elam, Mari in Syria) and there is little to no evidence of it from cities such as Ur and Nippur, in sharp contrast with later evidence.
88
In the first millennium BCE he became one of the most prominent gods of Babylonia.
88
In Assyria his prominence grew in the eighth and seventh centuries BCE.
86
In Kalhu and Nineveh he eventually became more common in personal names than the Assyrian head god Ashur.
86
He also replaced Ninurta as the main god of Kalhu.
86
In the Neo-Babylonian periods some inscriptions of kings such as
Nebuchadnezzar II
indicate that Nabu could take precedence even over the supreme Babylonian god Marduk.
86
His cult also spread beyond Mesopotamia, to cities such as
Palmyra
Hierapolis
Edessa
or
Dura Europos
89
and to Egypt, as far as
Elephantine
, where in sources from the late first millennium BCE he is the most frequently attested foreign god next to
Yahweh
89
Nanna
Enzu, Zuen, Suen, Sin
90
E-kiš-nu-ğal temple in
Ur
and another temple in
Harran
49
Moon
49
Nanna, Enzu or Zuen ("Lord of Wisdom") in Sumerian, later altered as Suen and Sin in Akkadian,
90
is the ancient Mesopotamian god of the Moon.
49
He was the son of Enlil and
Ninlil
and one of his most prominent myths was an account of how he was conceived and how he made his way from the Underworld to Nippur.
49
A theological system where Nanna, rather than Enlil, was the king of gods, is known from a text from the Old Babylonian period;
91
in the preserved fragment Enlil, Anu, Enki and Ninhursag served as his advisers, alongside his children Utu and Inanna.
35
Other references to Nanna holding such a position are known from personal names and various texts, with some going as far as stating he holds "Anuship and Enlilship," and Wilfred G. Lambert assumes that he was regarded as the supreme god by his clergy in Ur and Harran.
36
Utu
Shamash
92
E-Babbar temples at
Sippar
and
Larsa
93
Sun
92
Utu, later known as Shamash, is the ancient Mesopotamian god of the Sun,
92
who was also revered as the god of truth, justice, and morality.
93
He was the son of Nanna and the twin brother of Inanna. Utu was believed to see all things that happen during the day
93
and to aid mortals in distress.
93
Alongside Inanna, Utu was the enforcer of divine justice.
94
Inanna
Ishtar
95
Eanna temple in Uruk,
96
46
53
though she also had temples in
Nippur
Lagash
Shuruppak
Zabalam
, and
Ur
96
Venus
46
Inanna, later known as Ishtar, is "the most important female deity of ancient Mesopotamia at all periods."
95
She was the Sumerian goddess of love, sexuality, prostitution, and war.
97
She was the divine personification of the planet Venus, the morning and evening star.
46
Accounts of her parentage vary;
95
in most myths, she is usually presented as the daughter of Nanna and Ningal,
98
but, in other stories, she is the daughter of Enki or An along with an unknown mother.
95
The Sumerians had more myths about her than any other deity.
99
100
Many of the myths involving her revolve around her attempts to usurp control of the other deities' domains.
101
Her most famous myth is the story of her
descent into the Underworld
102
in which she attempts to conquer the Underworld, the domain of her older sister
Ereshkigal
102
but is instead struck dead by the
seven judges of the Underworld
103
104
105
She is only revived due to Enki's intervention
103
104
105
and her husband
Dumuzid
is forced to take her place in the Underworld.
106
107
Alongside her twin brother Utu, Inanna was the enforcer of
divine justice
94
Ninhursag
Damgalnuna, Ninmah
108
E-Mah temple in
Adab
Kesh
108
Ninhursag ("Mistress of the mountain ranges"
109
), also known as Damgalnuna, Ninmah, Nintur
110
and Aruru,
111
was the Mesopotamian mother goddess. Her primary functions were related to birth (but generally not to nursing and raising children, with the exception of sources from early
Lagash
) and creation.
112
Descriptions of her as "mother" weren't always referring to motherhood in the literal sense or to parentage of other deities, but sometimes instead represented her esteem and authority as a senior deity, similar to references to major male deities such as Enlil or Anu as "fathers."
113
Certain mortal rulers claimed her as their mother,
108
a phenomenon recorded as early as during the reign of
Mesilim
of Kish (c. 2700 BCE).
114
She was the wife of Enki,
108
though in some locations (including Nippur) her husband was
Šulpae
instead.
115
Initially no city had Ninhursag as its tutelary goddess.
116
Later her main temple was the E-Mah in Adab,
108
originally dedicated to a minor male deity,
Ašgi
117
She was also associated with the city of Kesh,
108
where she replaced the local goddess Nintur,
111
and she was sometimes referred to as the "Bēlet-ilī of Kesh" or "she of Kesh".
108
It is possible her emblem was a symbol similar to later Greek letter
omega
118
Ninurta
Ninĝírsu
119
E-šu-me-ša temple in Nippur,
119
Girsu
120
Lagash
121
122
and later
Kalhu
in
Assyria
123
124
125
Saturn
126
originally Mercury
Ninurta, also known as Ningirsu, was a Mesopotamian warrior deity who was worshipped in Sumer from the very earliest times.
119
He was the champion of the gods against the
Anzû
bird after it stole the
Tablet of Destinies
from his father Enlil
119
and, in a myth that is alluded to in many works but never fully preserved, he killed a group of warriors known as the "Slain Heroes".
119
Ninurta was also an agricultural deity and the patron god of farmers.
119
In the epic poem
Lugal-e
, he slays the demon
Asag
and uses stones to build the
Tigris
and
Euphrates
rivers to make them useful for irrigation.
124
His major symbols were a perched bird and a plow.
127
Nergal
E-Meslam temple in
Kutha
and
Mashkan-shapir
49
Mars
128
Nergal was associated with the Underworld
129
and is usually the husband of
Ereshkigal
129
He was also associated with forest fires (and identified with the fire-god,
Gibil
130
), fevers, plagues, and war.
129
In myths, he causes destruction and devastation.
129
In the neo-Babylonian period in many official documents Nergal is listed immediately after the supreme gods Marduk and Nabu, and before such prominent deities as Shamash and Sin.
86
Dumuzid
Tammuz
131
Bad-tibira
and
Kuara
131
Dumuzid, later known by the
corrupted form
Tammuz, is the ancient Mesopotamian god of shepherds
131
and the primary consort of the goddess Inanna.
131
His sister is the goddess
Geshtinanna
131
132
In addition to being the god of shepherds, Dumuzid was also an agricultural deity associated with the growth of plants.
133
134
Ancient Near Eastern peoples associated Dumuzid with the springtime, when the land was fertile and abundant,
133
135
but, during the summer months, when the land was dry and barren, it was thought that Dumuzid had "died".
133
136
During the month of Dumuzid, which fell in the middle of summer, people all across Sumer would mourn over his death.
137
138
An enormous number of popular stories circulated throughout the Near East surrounding his death.
137
138
Ereshkigal
Kutha
Hydra
139
Ereshkigal was the queen of the Mesopotamian Underworld.
140
141
She lived in a palace known as Ganzir.
140
In early accounts, her husband is
Gugalanna
140
whose character is undefined, but later the northern god
Nergal
was placed in this role.
140
141
Her gatekeeper was the god
Neti
141
and her
sukkal
was
Namtar
140
In the poem
Inanna's Descent into the Underworld
, Ereshkigal is described as Inanna's "older sister".
142
In the god list
An = Anum
she opens the section dedicated to underworld deities.
143
Gula
and
Ninisina
Nintinugga
Ninkarrak
144
E-gal-mah temple in
Isin
and other temples in Nippur,
Borsippa
, Assur,
144
Sippar,
145
Umma
146
A prominent place in the Mesopotamian pantheon was occupied by healing goddesses,
147
regarded as divine patronesses of doctors and medicine-workers.
144
Multiple such deities existed:
Nintinugga, "mistress who revives the dead," worshiped in Ninlil's temple in Nippur
148
Ninisina, who in addition to her primary role was also the goddess of Isin
146
Ninkarrak, most likely of Akkadian, rather than Sumerian, origin,
146
worshiped in Sippar
145
Gula ("the great"), from
Umma
; possibly initially a title rather than a distinct goddess
149
Eventually Gula became the preeminent healing goddess,
146
and other healing goddesses were sometimes syncretised with her,
150
though in the god list
An = Anum
Gula, Ninkarrak and Nintinugga all figure as separate deities with own courts.
150
Dogs were associated with many healing goddesses
145
and Gula in particular is often shown in art with a dog sitting beside her.
144
Bau
Lagash,
Kish
Bau was a prominent goddess of Lagash, and some of its kings regarded her as their divine mother.
115
She was also a healing goddess, though unlike other healing goddesses she only developed such a function at some point in her history.
151
She was the wife of Ningirsu, and rose to prominence in third millennium BCE in the state of Lagash.
152
Gudea
elevated Bau's rank to equal of that of Ningirsu, and called her "Queen who decides the destiny in
Girsu
."
153
This made her the highest ranking goddess of the local pantheon of Lagash,
154
putting her above
Nanshe
155
During the reign of the
Third Dynasty of Ur
, she was the second most notable "divine wife" after
Ninlil
156
with some sources (ex. from Nippur) indicating she was exalted above Ningirsu.
148
While the original Lagashite cult of Bau declined alongside the city,
157
she continued to be prominent in Kish in northern Babylonia, where she arrived in the
Old Babylonian period
158
The city god of Kish, Zababa, became her husband.
159
She remained a major goddess of that city as late as the
neo-Babylonian period
160
Ishkur
Adad, Hadad
161
Karkar
162
Assur,
163
164
Kurba'il
165
Ishkur, later known as Adad or Hadad (from the root *hdd, "to thunder"
166
), was the Mesopotamian god of storms and rain.
161
In northern Mesopotamia, where agriculture relied heavily on rainfall, he was among the most prominent deities, and even in the south he ranked among the "great gods."
167
In god lists his position is similar to that of Sin, Shamash and Ishtar.
168
Ishkur is already attested as the god of Karkar in the
Uruk period
162
however evidence such as theophoric names indicates that the weather god's popularity only grew in later periods under the Akkadian name.
169
Hadad is already attested as the name of the weather god in early sources from
Ebla
166
In Mesopotamia these two gods started to merge in the Sargonic period,
170
and it seems it was already impossible to find a clear distinction between them in the Ur III period.
171
While northern texts put an emphasis on the benevolent character of the weather god as a bringer of rain, in the south he was often associated with destructive weather phenomena, including dust storms,
172
though even there he was credited with making plant growth possible in areas which weren't irrigated.
173
He was regarded as the son of An,
169
though less commonly he was also referred to as a son of Enlil.
174
His wife was
Shala
161
while his
sukkal
was Nimgir, the deified lightning.
175
In addition to being a weather god, Hadad was also a god of law and guardian of oaths,
176
as well as a god of divination (
extispicy
).
164
In these roles he was associated with Shamash.
164
In Zabban, a city in the northeast of Babylonia, he was regarded as the head of the local pantheon.
38
In Assyrian sources he was closely connected to military campaigns of the kings.
165
Kurba'il on the northern frontier of the empire was regarded as his most notable cult center in neo-Assyrian times.
165
In god lists foreign weather gods such as
Hurrian
Teshub
("Adad of
Subartu
"),
Kassite
Buriyaš or
Ugaritic
Baal
were regarded as his equivalents.
177
Ištaran
Der
163
Ištaran was a prominent
178
god, who served as the tutelary deity of the Sumerian city-state of
Der
, which was located east of the Tigris river on the border between Mesopotamia and Elam.
163
His wife was the goddess Šarrat-Dēri, whose name means "Queen of Der",
163
or alternatively
Manzat
(goddess of the rainbow),
178
and his
sukkal
was the snake-god
Nirah
163
He was regarded as a divine judge, and kings were said to "render justice like Ištaran."
179
A text from the late Early Dynastic Period invokes Ištaran to resolve a boundary dispute between the cities of Lagash and
Umma
163
In one of his inscriptions, King
Gudea
of Lagash mentions himself having installed a shrine for Ištaran in the temple of
Ningirsu
at
Girsu
163
and describes Ištaran as a god of justice.
163
On
kudurrus
(boundary stones), Ištaran is often represented by a serpent, which may be Nirah
163
or Ištaran himself.
180
It is also possible that he's the god with an ophidian lower body known from cylinder seals.
178
In a ritual associated with the
Ekur
temple in Nippur, Ištaran is a "dying god" and is equated with
Dumuzid
180
A reference to Ištaran as a dying god appears also in a late text from
Assur
179
His national cult fell into decline during the Middle Babylonian Period,
163
though he still appeared in documents such as neo-Assyrian land grants.
181
However, in Der he continued to be venerated in later periods as well.
182
Nanaya
Uruk and
Kish
183
Corona Borealis
184
Nanaya was a goddess of love
185
(including erotic love and lust).
186
She was commonly invoked in spells connected to this sphere.
187
Her worship was widespread, and she appears frequently in the textual record.
188
She was also involved in intercession and was regarded as "lady of lamma," a class of minor protective goddesses capable of interceding on behalf of humans.
189
She shared these roles with Ninshubur.
189
She was closely associated with Inanna/Ishtar,
190
though not identical to her as the two often appear side by side in the same texts: for example in Larsa Inanna, Nanaya and Ninsianna all functioned as distinct deities,
51
while in god lists Nanaya appears among Inanna's courtiers, usually following Dumuzi and Ninshubur.
191
In late sources Nanaya and Ishtar sometimes appear as goddesses of equal status.
192
In neo-Babylonian Uruk she was one of the most important deities, and retained this status under Persian rule as well.
193
There is also evidence for her worship continuing in Seleucid and Parthian times, as late as 45 CE.
194
Nanshe
Lagash
85
Nanshe was a goddess associated with the state of Lagash,
195
49
whose cult declined with the loss of political relevance of that city.
160
She was a daughter of Enki and sister of
Ningirsu
49
She was associated with
divination
and the interpretation of dreams, but was also believed to assist the poor and the impoverished and ensure the accuracy of weights and measurements.
49
She was also associated with fish and waterfowl.
196
The
First Sealand dynasty
revived (or continued) her cult, making her the royal tutelary goddess.
160
Ninazu
Eshnunna
and
Enegi
197
Ninazu was a god regarded as either the son of
Ereshkigal
or of Enlil and Ninil.
197
He was also the father of
Ningishzida
198
He was closely associated with the Underworld,
198
and some researchers go as far as proposing he was the oldest Mesopotamian god associated with it,
152
though it is most likely more accurate to say that there was initially no single universally agreed upon version of relevant mythical and cultic concepts, with various deities, both male and female, ruling over the Underworld in the belief systems of various areas and time periods.
199
Ninazu was also a Ninurta-like warrior god,
197
as well as the "king of snakes."
200
He was worshipped in
Eshnunna
during the third millennium BCE, but he was later supplanted there by
Tishpak
, who despite foreign origin had a similar character and attributes.
201
Ninazu was also worshipped at Enegi in southern Sumer.
197
His divine beast was the
mušḫuššu
, a serpentine dragon-like mythical creature, which was later also associated with Tishpak, Marduk (and by extension Nabu) and after
Sennacherib's
destruction of Babylon also with Ashur.
202
Ninlil
Nippur
Assur
203
Kish, Ḫursaĝkalama
204
Ninlil was the wife of Enlil, the ruler of the gods.
108
She was not associated with any city of her own, serving primarily as Enlil's spouse,
205
and as such was probably an artificially created deity, invented as a female equivalent to Enlil.
108
She was nonetheless regarded as having power on par with Enlil;
206
in one poem, Ninlil declares, "As Enlil is your master, so am I also your mistress!"
206
In documents from the Ur III period, Ninlil was believed to be able to determine fates much like husband, and the pair was jointly regarded as the source of royal power by kings.
156
Sud, the tutelary goddess of
Šuruppak
, came to be regarded as one and the same as Ninlil, and the myth
Enlil and Sud
explain that Sud was the goddess' name before she married Enlil, receiving the name Ninlil.
160
However, Sud was originally an independent deity who was close in character to Sudag, an alternate name of the wife of Shamash; the confusion between Sudag and Sud(/Ninlil) is reflected in a myth where
Ishum
, normally regarded as the son of Shamash and his wife, is instead the son of Ninlil.
160
Ninshubur
Akkil;
207
worshipped with Inanna as her
sukkal
Orion
208
Assyriologists regard Ninshubur as the most commonly worshiped
sukkal
("vizier"),
209
a type of deity serving as another's personal attendant. Her mistress was Inanna.
119
210
Many texts indicate they were regarded very close to each other, with one going as far as listing Ninshubur with the title "beloved vizier," before Inanna's relatives other than her husband Dumuzi.
211
She consistently appears as the first among Inanna's courtiers in god lists, usually followed by another commonly worshiped deity, Nanaya.
212
She was portrayed as capable of "appeasing" Inanna,
213
and as "unshakably loyal" in her devotion to her.
210
In the Sumerian myth of
Inanna and Enki
, Ninshubur rescues Inanna from the monsters that Enki sends to capture her,
214
215
210
while in
Inanna's Descent into the Underworld
, she pleads with the gods Enlil, Nanna and finally Enki in effort to persuade them to rescue Inanna from the Underworld.
216
217
She was regarded as a wise adviser
210
of her divine masters and human rulers alike.
209
In addition to being the sukkal of Inanna, she also served
An
210
and the divine assembly.
218
In later
Akkadian mythology
, Ninshubur was syncretized with the male messenger deities
Ilabrat
and
Papsukkal
208
though this process wasn't complete until
Seleucid
times.
219
Ninshubur was popular
209
in the sphere of personal religion, for example as tutelary deity of a specific family, due to the belief she could mediate between humans and higher ranking gods.
220
Nisaba
Eresh
, later Nippur
221
Nisaba was originally a goddess of grain and agriculture,
124
but, starting in the Early Dynastic Period, she developed into a goddess of writing, accounting, and scribal knowledge.
124
Her main cult city, Eresh, was evidently prominent in early periods, but after the reign of
Shulgi
almost entirely disappeared from records.
221
Texts mentioning Nisaba are sporadically attested as far west as
Ebla
and
Ugarit
, though it is uncertain if she was actively venerated further west than
Mari
222
Nisaba was the mother of the goddess Sud, syncretised with Enlil's wife Ninlil, and as a result she was regarded as his mother in law.
223
While a less common tradition identified her as the daughter of Enlil,
221
she was usually regarded as the daughter of Uraš, and references to Anu or Ea as her father are known from first millennium BCE literature.
221
Her husband was the god
Haya
124
There is little direct evidence for temples (in Nippur she was worshiped in the temple of her daughter Ninlil
224
) and clergy of Nisaba, but literary texts were commonly ended with the doxology "praise to Nisaba!" or other invocations of her.
224
The term "house of wisdom of Nisaba" attested in many texts was likely a generic term for institutions connected to writing.
224
Her importance started to decline (especially outside the scribal circles) after the Old Babylonian period, though attestations as late as from the reign of
Nabopolassar
are known.
225
Zababa
Kish
226
159
Zababa was a war god who served as the tutelary deity of Kish.
159
His main temple was E-mete-ursag.
226
The earliest attestation of him comes from the Early Dynastic Period.
226
During the reign of Old Babylonian kings such as
Hammurabi
it was Zababa, rather than Ninurta, who was regarded as the primary war god.
227
He was initially regarded as a son of Enlil,
159
but
Sennacherib
called him a son of Ashur instead.
228
Initially his wife was Ishtar of Kish (regarded as separate from Ishtar of Uruk), but after the Old Babylonian period she was replaced by Bau in this role, and continued to be worshiped independently from him.
158
In some texts Zababa uses weapons usually associated with Ninurta and fights his mythical enemies, and on occasion he was called the "Nergal of Kish," but all 3 of these gods were regarded as separate.
229
In one list of deities he is called "Marduk of battle."
226
His primary symbol was a staff with the head of an eagle.
226
His
sukkal
was
Papsukkal
230
Primordial beings
edit
Various civilizations over the course of Mesopotamian history had many different
creation stories
231
232
The earliest accounts of creation are simple narratives written in Sumerian dating to the late third millennium BC.
233
234
These are mostly preserved as brief prologues to longer mythographic compositions dealing with other subjects, such as
Inanna and the Huluppu Tree
The Creation of the Pickax
, and
Enki and Ninmah
235
233
Later accounts are far more elaborate, adding multiple generations of gods and primordial beings.
236
The longest and most famous of these accounts is the Babylonian
Enûma Eliš
, or
Epic of Creation
, which is divided into seven tablets.
234
The surviving version of the
Enûma Eliš
could not have been written any earlier than the late second millennium BC,
234
but it draws heavily on earlier materials,
237
including various works written during the Akkadian, Old Babylonian, and
Kassite
periods in the early second millennium BC.
237
A category of primordial beings common in incantations were pairs of divine ancestors of Enlil and less commonly of Anu.
58
In at least some cases these elaborate genealogies were assigned to major gods to avoid the implications of divine incest.
238
Figures appearing in theogonies were generally regarded as ancient and no longer active (unlike the regular gods) by the Mesopotamians.
239
Name
Image
Details
Abzu
In the Babylonian creation epic, the
Enûma Eliš
, Abzu is primordial undeterminacy,
240
the consort of the goddess
Tiamat
who was killed by the god Ea (Enki).
240
Abzu was the personification of the subterranean primeval waters.
240
Alala
and
Belili
Alala and Belili were ancestors of Anu, usually appearing as the final pair in god lists accepting this tradition of his ancestry.
241
Alala was also adopted into
Hurro
Hittite
mythology
242
under the name
Alalu
243
It is possible Alala and Belili were paired together only because both names are iterative.
244
The name Belili could also refer to a goddess regarded as a sister of
Dumuzi
245
It has been argued that she was one and the same as the primordial deity,
246
but this view is not universally accepted and Manfred Krebernik argues it cannot be presently established if they were one and the same.
247
Anshar
and
Kishar
In some myths and god lists, Anshar and Kishar are a primordial couple, who are male and female respectively.
26
In the Babylonian
Enûma Eliš
, they are the second pair of offspring born from Abzu and Tiamat
26
and the parents of the supreme An.
26
A partial rewrite of
Enûma Eliš
from the neo-Assyrian period attempted to merge the roles of Marduk and Anshar, which Wilfred G. Lambert described as "completely superficial in that it leaves the plot in chaos by attributing Marduk's part to his great-grandfather, without making any attempt to iron out the resulting confusion."
248
In other late sources Anshar was sometimes listed among "conquered" mythical antagonists.
249
In a fragmentary text from
Seleucid
or
Parthian
times he is seemingly vanquished by Enki and an otherwise little known goddess Ninamakalla.
250
Dūri and Dāri
Dūri and Dāri (derived from an
Akkadian
phrase meaning "forever and ever"
242
) were ancestors of Anu according to the so-called "Anu theogony."
251
They represented "eternal time as a prime force in creation,"
241
and it is likely they developed as a personified form of a preexisting cosmological belief.
242
A single text identifies them as ancestors of Enlil instead.
251
They appear for the first time in an incantation from the reign of
Samsu-iluna
(Old Babylonian period).
242
Enki and Ninki
Enki and Ninki were two primordial beings who were regarded as the first generation among the
ancestors of Enlil
252
Enki and Ninki followed by a varying number of pairs of deities whose names start with "En" and "Nin" appear as Enlil's ancestors in various sources: god lists, incantations, liturgical texts,
253
and the Sumerian composition "Death of Gilgamesh," where the eponymous hero encounters these divine ancestors in the underworld.
254
The oldest document preserving this tradition is the Fara god list (
Early Dynastic period
).
255
Sometimes all the ancestors were collectively called "the Enkis and the Ninkis."
256
Enki, the ancestor of Enlil, is not to be confused with the god Enki/Ea, who is a distinct and unrelated figure.
257
The ancestral Enki's name means "lord earth," while the meaning of the name of the god of Eridu is uncertain but not the same, as indicated by some writings including an amissable g.
257
Enmesharra
Enmesharra was a minor deity of the underworld.
65
Seven, eight or fifteen other minor deities were said to be his offspring.
258
His symbol was the
suššuru
(a kind of
pigeon
).
65
He was sometimes regarded as the father of Enlil,
259
or as his uncle.
260
Texts allude to combat between Enmesharra and Enlil (or perhaps Ninurta), and his subsequent imprisonment.
261
In some traditions it was believed that this is how Enlil gained control over destinies.
262
In a late myth he was described as an enemy of Marduk.
263
Lugaldukuga
Lugaldukuga was the father of Enlil in some traditions,
260
though sometimes he was instead referred to as his grandfather.
264
Like Enmesharra he was regarded as a vanquished theogonic figure, and sometimes the two were equated.
265
He might be analogous to Endukuga, another ancestor of Enlil from god lists.
264
Nammu
Nammu is the primordial goddess who, in some Sumerian traditions, was said to have given birth to both An and
Ki
183
She eventually came to be regarded as the mother of Enki
183
and was revered as an important mother goddess.
183
Because the cuneiform sign used to write her name is the same as the sign for
engur
, a synonym for
abzu
, it is highly probable that she was originally conceived as the personification of the subterranean primeval waters.
183
Tiamat
In the Babylonian creation epic, the
Enûma Eliš
, after the separation of heaven and earth, the goddess Tiamat and her consort
Abzu
are the only deities in existence.
266
A male-female pair, they mate and Tiamat gives birth to the first generation of gods.
266
Ea (Enki) slays Abzu
266
and Tiamat gives birth to eleven monsters to seek vengeance for her lover's death.
266
Eventually, Marduk, the son of Enki and the national god of the Babylonians, slays Tiamat and uses her body to create the earth.
266
In the Assyrian version of the story, it is Ashur who slays Tiamat instead.
266
Tiamat was the personification of the primeval waters and it is hard to tell how the author of the
Enûma Eliš
imagined her appearance.
266
Minor deities
edit
Name
Image
Major cult centers
Details
Alammuš
worshiped with Nanna in Ur as his sukkal
Alammush was the sukkal of Nanna.
267
He appears very rarely in known literary texts, though in one case, possibly a fragment of a myth about Nanna going on a journey, he is described as "suitable for justice like Utu."
267
Ama-arhus
Uruk
268
Ama-arhus (Nin-amaʾarḫuššu; "(lady) compassionate mother") was a sparsely attested Mesopotamian divinity, explained as a title of the medicine goddess
Gula
in one text.
269
It has been proposed that the presence of Ama-Arhus in late theophoric names from Uruk explains why Gula appears to not be attested in them, despite being worshiped in the city.
270
It is possible that she was merely viewed as her manifestation or synonym, as she is not otherwise attested in Uruk.
271
Amasagnudi
Uruk
268
Amasagnudi was the wife of Papsukkal in the god list
An = Anum
272
and in
Seleucid
Uruk.
273
According to one Old Babylonian text she was the
sukkal
of Anu,
273
and it has been proposed that she was originally an epithet of Ninshubur.
273
Assyriologist Frans Wiggermann translates her name as "mother who cannot be pushed aside."
274
Amashilama
Amashilama was the daughter of Ninazu and his wife
Ningirida
, and one of the two sisters of Ningishzida.
275
She is known from the god list
An = Anum
and a single mythical composition.
275
Thorkild Jacobsen identifies her as a leech goddess.
276
As noted by assyriologist Nathan Wasserman, however, leeches are only attested with certainty in late medical texts,
277
and the image of a leech in Mesopotamian literature is that of "a non-divine, harmful creature."
278
Antu
Reš
temple complex in Uruk
279
Antu is a goddess who was invented during the
Akkadian Period
c.
2334 BC – 2154 BC) as a consort for Anu,
52
59
and appears in such a role in the god list
An = Anum
280
Her name is a female version of Anu's own.
52
59
She was worshiped in the late first miilennium BCE in Uruk in the newly built temple complex dedicated to Anu.
281
Her elevation alongside her husband was connected to a theological trend under Achaemenid and Seleucid rule which extended their roles at the expense of Ishtar.
282
German classical scholar
Walter Burkert
proposed that the Greek goddess
Dione
, mentioned in Book V of the
Iliad
as the mother of
Aphrodite
, was a
calque
for
Antu
283
Anunītu
Agade
284
and
Sippar-Amnanum
285
Annunitum ("the martial one") was initially an epithet of Ishtar,
286
but later a separate goddess.
287
She is first attested in documents from the Ur III period.
288
She was a warrior goddess who shared a number of epithets with Ishtar.
289
It is possible she was depicted with a trident-like weapon on seals.
290
In documents from Sippar she sometimes appeared as a divine witness.
291
A similarly named and possibly related goddess, Annu, was popular in
Mari
292
Asarluhi
Kuara
293
Asarluhi was originally a local god of the village of Kuara, which was located near the city of
Eridu
293
He eventually became regarded as a god of magical knowledge
293
and was thought to be the son of Enki and Ninhursag.
293
He was later absorbed as an aspect of Marduk.
293
In the standard Babylonian magical tradition, the name "Asarluhi" is used as merely an alternative name for Marduk.
293
Ashgi
Adab
and
Kesh
294
Ashgi was one of the main gods of Adab in the Early Dynastic and Sargonic periods.
295
It is unclear if he was initially the spouse or the son of the goddess Nintu, analogous to Ninhursag.
152
In later periods he was viewed as her son, and her husband
Shulpa'e
is identified as his father in the god list
An = Anum
296
His mother replaced him as the tutelary deity of Adab in later periods.
152
Aruru
Kesh
297
Aruru was initially a distinct minor goddess, regarded as violent and connected to vegetation;
111
however, despite lack of a connection to birth or creation she was later conflated with
Ninhursag
111
Sometimes she was syncretized with
Nisaba
instead, in which case the conflation was meant to highlight the latter's authority.
298
Aya
Sherida, Nin-Aya
Sippar and Larsa
299
300
Sherida (Sumerian) or Aya (Akkadian) was the wife of the sun god Utu/Shamash and the goddess of dawn.
301
Her most common epithet was
kallatum
, which could be understood both as "bride" and "daughter in law".
302
She was especially popular during the Old Babylonian Period
303
and the
Neo-Babylonian Period
(626 BC – 539 BC).
299
Bēl-ṣarbi
Lugal-asal
304
Šapazzu
305
The name Bēl-ṣarbi means "lord of the poplar" (the tree meant is assumed to be
Populus euphratica
) in Akkadian.
304
He could also function as one of the gods connected with
underworld
304
Belet-Seri
Uruk
306
Belet-Seri ("mistress of the steppe")
301
was a goddess who acted as the scribe of the underworld.
307
She could be identified with Geshtinanna or with Gubarra, the Sumerian name of the spouse of Amurru,
Ashratum
308
Bilgames
Gilgamesh
Uruk
, a small village near
Ur
309
Lagash, Girsu, Der, Nippur
310
Most historians generally agree that Gilgamesh was a historical king of the Sumerian city-state of
Uruk
309
311
who probably ruled sometime during the early part of the
Early Dynastic Period
c.
2900–2350 BC).
309
311
It is certain that, during the later Early Dynastic Period, Gilgamesh was worshipped as a god at various locations across Sumer.
309
In the twenty-first century BC,
Utu-hengal
, the king of Uruk adopted Gilgamesh as his patron deity.
309
The kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur were especially fond of Gilgamesh, calling him their "divine brother" and "friend".
309
During this period, a large number of myths and legends developed surrounding him.
309
Probably during the
Middle Babylonian Period
c.
1600 BC –
c.
1155 BC), a scribe named
Sîn-lēqi-unninni
composed the
Epic of Gilgamesh
, an
epic poem
written in
Akkadian
narrating Gilgamesh's heroic exploits.
309
The opening of the poem describes Gilgamesh as "one-third human, two-thirds divine".
309
Very little evidence of worship of Gilgamesh comes from times later than the Old Babylonian period.
312
A late source states that he was worshiped during ceremonies connected to the dead, alongside Dumuzi and Ninishzida.
313
In incantations he commonly appeared alongside minor underworld deities such as Ningishzida, Geshtinanna, or Namtar and his family.
314
There are also attestations of Gilgamesh as a servant of Nergal and Ereshkigal, specifically a ferryman of the dead.
315
Birtum
Birtum was the husband of the prison goddess Nungal.
316
The name, which means "fetter" or "shackle" in Akkadian, is grammatically feminine, but designates a male deity.
316
Bitu
Bitu's primary function is that of a gatekeeper (
ì-du
) of the underworld.
317
In older publications his name was read as Neti.
318
In
Inanna's Descent into the Underworld
, he leads Inanna through the seven gates of the underworld, removing one of her garments at each gate so that when she comes before Ereshkigal she is naked and symbolically powerless.
319
Bizilla
Ḫursaĝkalama
320
Bizilla was a goddess closely associated with Nanaya.
321
It is assumed that like her she was a love goddess.
322
She was also most likely regarded as the sukkal of Enlil's wife
Ninlil
in Ḫursaĝkalama, her cult center located near
Kish
320
204
Bunene
Sippar
Uruk
, and
Assur
93
Bunene was the
sukkal
and charioteer of the sun-god Utu.
93
He was worshipped at Sippar and Uruk during the Old Babylonian Period
93
and later worshipped at Assur.
93
According to some accounts, he may have been Utu's son.
93
However, in Sippar he was regarded as the son in law of Utu's Akkadian counterpart Shamash instead, and the daughter of Shamash and Aya, Mamu (or Mamud) was his wife.
289
Damu
Isin, Larsa, Ur, and Girsu
323
Damu was a god who presides over healing and medicine.
323
He was the son of Ninisina or of Gula.
151
In some texts, "Damu" is used as another name for Dumuzid,
324
but this may be a different word meaning "son".
324
Another god named "Damu" was also worshipped in
Ebla
and
Emar
323
but this may be a local hero, not the same as the god of healing.
323
According to Alfonso Archi, the Eblaite Damu should be understood as the deified concept of a kinship group rather than a personified deity.
325
The official cult of Damu became extinct sometime after the Old Babylonian Period.
323
Dingirma
Kesh
111
Dingirma was a goddess from Kesh regarded as analogous to Ninhursag.
326
Her name means "exalted deity."
115
While in literary texts the names Dingirma and Ninhursag can alternate, administrative texts from Kesh exclusively use the former.
111
Dumuzi-abzu
The state of Lagash,
327
especially
Kinunir
137
Dumuzi-abzu is a local goddess who was the tutelary goddess of Kinunir, a settlement in the territory of the state of Lagash.
327
Her name, which probably means "good child of the Abzu",
137
was sometimes abbreviated to
Dumuzi
137
but she has no obvious connection to the god
Dumuzi
137
It is possible that in Early Dynastic and Sargonic sources the name Dumuzi often referred to Dumuzi-abzu and not to the husband of Inanna.
328
It is assumed that she belonged to the circle of deities connected to
Nanshe
329
It is possible Dumuzi-abzu was regarded as the wife of
Hendursaga
in the third millennium BCE.
111
Duttur
Duttur was the mother of Dumuzi.
330
Thorkild Jacobsen
proposed that she should be understood as a deification of the ewe (adult female
sheep
).
331
However, her name shows no etymological affinity with any attested terms related to sheep, and it has been suggested that while she was definitely a goddess associated with livestock and pastoralism, she was not necessarily exclusively connected with sheep.
331
Emesh
Emesh is a farmer deity in the Sumerian poem
Enlil Chooses the Farmer-God
(ETCSL
5.3.3
Archived
2021-05-07 at the
Wayback Machine
), which describes how Enlil, hoping "to establish abundance and prosperity", creates two gods:
Emesh
and
Enten
, a farmer and a shepherd respectively.
332
The two gods argue and Emesh lays claim to Enten's position.
333
They take the dispute before Enlil, who rules in favor of Enten.
334
The two gods rejoice and reconcile.
334
Enbilulu
Babylon
335
Enbilulu was the god of irrigation.
336
In
early dynastic
sources the name Ninbilulu is also attested, though it's uncertain if it should be considered an alternate form, or a separate, possibly female, deity.
336
The relation between Enbilulu, Ninbilulu and
Bilulu
from the myth
Inanna and Bilulu
Archived
2021-10-03 at the
Wayback Machine
also remains uncertain.
336
Enkimdu
possibly Umma
337
Enkimdu is described as the "lord of dike and canal".
65
His character has been compared to
Enbilulu
's.
338
It has been proposed that he was worshiped in
Umma
as the personification of the irrigation system, though the evidence is scarce.
337
ppears in the myth
Enkimdu and Dumuzi
339
The text has originally been published under the title
Inanna prefers the farmer
by
Samuel Noah Kramer
in 1944.
340
Initially it was assumed that it would end with Inanna choosing Enkimdu, but this interpretation was abandoned after more editions were compiled.
340
In laments, he could be associated with
Amurru
341
It has been pointed out that Dumuzi does not appear in any of the texts where Enkimdu occurs alongside Amurru, which might indicate that in this case the latter was meant to serve as a shepherd god contrasted with Enkimdu in a similar way.
342
Enlilazi
Nippur
Enlilazi was a minor god regarded as the "superintendent of Ekur."
343
Ennugi
Nippur
344
Ennugi was a god regarded as "lord of ditch and canal"
345
and "chamberlain of Enlil."
346
Based on similar meaning of the name
Gugalanna
to the former title, it has been proposed that they might have been analogous.
140
Enten
Enten is a shepherd deity in the Sumerian poem
Enlil Chooses the Farmer-God
(ETCSL
5.3.3
Archived
2021-05-07 at the
Wayback Machine
), which describes how Enlil, hoping "to establish abundance and prosperity", creates two gods:
Emesh
and
Enten
, a farmer and a shepherd respectively.
332
The two gods argue and Emesh lays claim to Enten's position.
333
They take the dispute before Enlil, who rules in favor of Enten.
334
The two gods rejoice and reconcile.
334
Erra
Kutha
347
Erra is a warlike god who is associated with pestilence and violence.
348
349
He is the son of the sky-god An
348
and his wife is an obscure, minor goddess named Mami, who is different from the mother goddess with the same name.
348
350
As early as the Akkadian Period, Erra was already associated with
Nergal
348
349
and he eventually came to be seen as merely an aspect of him.
348
349
The names came to be used interchangeably.
348
Erragal
Errakal
Erragal, also known as Errakal, is a relatively rarely-attested deity who was usually regarded as a form of Erra,
349
but the two gods are probably of separate origin.
351
He is connected with storms and the destruction caused by them.
350
In
An = Anum
I 316, Erragal is listed as the husband of the goddess Ninisig and is equated with Nergal.
350
in the
Epic of Gilgamesh
and the
Atra-Hasis Epic
, Errakal is said to "tear up the mooring poles", causing the
Great Flood
350
Ezina
Ashnan
Adab, Lagash, Umma, Ur,
352
Shuruppak
109
Ezina, or Ashnan in Akkadian,
352
was a goddess of grain.
352
She was commonly associated with Kusu, a goddess of purification.
353
In the Sumerian poem
The Dispute between Cattle and Grain
, she and
Lahar
are created by the Anunnaki to provide them with food.
354
They produce large amounts of food,
355
but become drunk with wine and start to quarrel, so Enki and Enlil intervene, declaring Ashnan the victor.
356
Gareus
Uruk
Gareus was a god introduced to Uruk during late antiquity by the
Parthians
357
who built a small
temple
to him there in around 100 AD.
357
He was a syncretic deity, combining elements of Greco-Roman and Babylonian cults.
357
Gazbaba
Gazbaba was a goddess closely associated with Nanaya, like her connected with erotic love.
358
Šurpu
describes her as
ṣayyaḫatu
, "the smiling one," which is likely a reference to the frequent mention of smiles in Akkadian erotic literature.
358
Her name is derived from the Akkadian word
kazbu
, which can be translated as "sexual attraction."
358
Geshtinanna
Nippur, Isin, and Uruk
359
Geshtinanna was a rural agricultural goddess sometimes associated with
dream interpretation
360
She was the sister of Dumuzid, the god of shepherds.
360
In one myth, she protects her brother when the
galla
demons come to drag him down to the Underworld by hiding him in successively in four different places.
360
In another myth about Dumuzid's death, she refuses to tell the
galla
where he is hiding, even after they torture her.
360
The
galla
eventually take Dumuzid away after he is betrayed by an unnamed "friend",
360
but Inanna decrees that he and Geshtinanna will alternate places every six months, each spending half the year in the Underworld while the other stays in Heaven.
360
While she is in the Underworld, Geshtinanna serves as Ereshkigal's scribe.
360
In Lagash she was regarded as the wife of
Ningishzida
, and was associated with his symbol,
mushussu
361
According to Julia M. Asher-Greve she was connected in myths to Geshtindudu, another minor goddess, by friendship alone, an uncommon connection between otherwise unrelated Mesopotamian goddesses.
362
Gibil
Gibil is the deification of fire.
360
According to
Jeremy Black
and Anthony Green, he "represented fire in all its aspects: as a destructive force and as the burning heat of the Mesopotamian summer; and as a creative force, the fire in the blacksmith's furnace and the fire in the kiln where bricks are baked, and so as a 'founder of cities'."
360
He is traditionally said to be the son of An and
Shala
360
but is sometimes the son of
Nusku
363
Gugalanna
Gugalanna is the first husband of
Ereshkigal
, the queen of the Underworld.
140
His name probably originally meant "canal inspector of An"
140
and he may be merely an alternative name for
Ennugi
140
The son of Ereshkigal and Gugalanna is
Ninazu
140
In
Inanna's Descent into the Underworld
, Inanna tells the gatekeeper
Neti
that she is descending to the Underworld to attend the funeral of "Gugalanna, the husband of my elder sister Ereshkigal".
140
364
142
Gunura
Gunura was the daughter of
Ninisina
and thus sister of Damu.
151
She was not associated with other healing goddesses, such as
Ninkarrak
151
Ĝatumdug
Lagash
362
Ĝatumdug was a goddess from the early pantheon of Lagash.
362
While the meaning of her name is unknown, she was described as the city's mother,
365
or its founder.
366
According to inscriptions of
Gudea
she assigned a
lamma
(tutelary deity) to him.
25
She was later equated with Bau.
367
Haya
Umma
Ur
, and
Kuara
368
Haya is the husband of the goddess
Nisaba
124
368
Haya was primarily a god of scribes,
368
but he may have also been associated with grain and agriculture.
368
He also served as a doorkeeper.
368
In some texts, he is identified as the father of the goddess
Ninlil
368
He was worshipped mostly during the Third Dynasty of Ur, when he had temples in the cities of
Umma
Ur
, and
Kuara
368
In later times, he had a temple in the city of
Assur
and may have had one in
Nineveh
368
A god named Haya was worshipped at
Mari
, but this may have been a different deity.
368
Ḫegir
Ḫegirnunna
Girsu
369
Ḫegir, later known as Ḫegirnunna,
370
was one of the seven deities referred to as "septuplets of Bau" or "seven
lukur
priestesses of Ningirsu."
371
Her name can be translated as "the maid of the (lofty) way" and refers to a route of processions in Girsu in the state of Lagash.
370
Hendursaga
Girsu
372
Hendursaga was a Sumerian god described as "protective god with a friendly face" in inscriptions.
220
He was believed to guard streets and gates at night.
220
King
Gudea
of Lagash refers to him as the "herald of the land of Sumer" in one inscription.
373
His wife might have originally been Dumuzi-abzu, though later he was regarded as the husband of Ninmug due to syncretism between him and Ishum.
111
Humhum
Dūr-Šarruku
374
Humhum was a minor god worshiped in Dūr-Šarruku (also known as Sippar-Aruru) in northern Babylonia.
374
Esarhaddon
returned his statue to a temple located there.
374
Idlurugu
Id
375
Id (modern
Hit
376
Idlurugu was a god who represent the concept of
trial by ordeal
, specifically river ordeal. The term
-lú-ru-gú
, "the river that receives man"
377
or "the river which confronts man," could refer both to him and to the procedure.
378
Igalima
Lagash
379
Igalima was a son of Bau and
Ninĝirsu
379
In offering lists he appears next to Shulshaga.
380
Ilaba
Agade
46
Ilaba was briefly a major deity during the
Sargonic period
46
but seems to have been completely obscure during all other periods of Mesopotamian history.
46
He was closely associated with the kings of the Akkadian Empire.
97
Ilabrat
Assur,
381
a town near Nuzi
382
Ilabrat was the
sukkal
, or personal attendant, of Anu.
59
383
He appears in the myth of
Adapa
in which he tells Anu that the reason why the south wind does not blow is because Adapa, the priest of Ea in
Eridu
, has broken its wing.
383
Ishmekarab
Shamash's temple Ebabbar
384
in Larsa
385
One of the 11
385
"standing gods of Ebabbar," divine judges assisting Shamash,
384
as well as a member of various Assyrian groups of judge deities.
386
While Akkadian in origin (the name means "he (or she) heard the payer),
384
Ishmekarab also appears in
Elamite
sources as an assistant of judge god
Inshushinak
, both in legal documents
384
and in texts about the underworld.
387
388
Ishmekarab's gender is unclear, but
Wilfred G. Lambert
considered it more likely that this deity was male.
389
Irnina
Irnina was the goddess of victory.
390
She could function as an independent deity from the court of Ningishzida, but also as a title of major goddesses.
179
Isimud
Worshipped with Enki as his
sukkal
Isimud, later known as Usmû, was the
sukkal
, or personal attendant, of Enki.
161
His name is related to the word meaning "having two faces"
161
and he is shown in art with a face on either side of his head.
161
He acts as Enki's messenger in the myths of
Enki and Ninhursag
and
Inanna and Enki
161
Ishum
Ishum was a popular, but not very prominent god,
391
who was worshipped from the Early Dynastic Period onwards.
391
In a fragmentary myth, he is described as the son of Shamash and Ninlil,
391
but he was usually the son of Shamash and his wife Aya.
160
The former genealogy was likely the result of confusion between Sud (Ninlil) and Sudag, a title of the sun god's wife.
160
He was a generally benevolent deity, who served as a night watchman and protector.
391
He may be the same god as the Sumerian
Hendursaga
, because the both of them are said to have been the husband of the goddess Ninmug.
391
He was sometimes associated with the Underworld
391
and was believed to exert a calming influence on
Erra
, the god of rage and violence.
391
Kabta
Kabta was a deity commonly paired with Ninsianna.
392
Kakka
Maškan-šarrum
393
Kakka was the
sukkal
of both Anu (in
Nergal and Ereshkigal
394
and Anshar (in the god list
An = Anum
and in
Enuma Elish
).
395
Kakka is not to be confused with a different unrelated deity named Kakka, known from
Mari
, who was a healing goddess associated with
Ninkarrak
395
and
Ninshubur
292
Kanisurra
Uruk,
396
Kish
397
Kanisurra (also Gansurra, Ganisurra)
397
was a goddess from the entourage of Nanaya.
396
398
She was known as
bēlet kaššāpāti
, "lady of the sorceresses."
396
However, her character and functions remain unclear.
396
398
It has been proposed that her name was originally a term for a location in the netherworld due to its similarity to the Sumerian word
ganzer
, the entrance to the underworld.
399
In late theological sources she was regarded as Nanaya's hairdresser and one of the two "daughters of
Ezida
."
400
Ki
Umma, Lagash
353
Ki was a Sumerian goddess who was the personification of the earth.
391
In some Sumerian accounts, she is a primordial being who copulates with An to produce a variety of plants.
401
An and Ki collectively were an object of worship in Umma and Lagash in the Ur III period,
353
but the evidence for worship of her is scarce and her name was sometimes written without the dingir sign denoting divinity.
402
A fragmentary late neo-Assyrian god list appears to consider her and another figure regarded as the wife of Anu, Urash, as one and the same, and refers to "Ki-Urash."
403
Kittum
Bad-Tibira, Rahabu
404
Kittum was a daughter of Utu and
Sherida
405
Her name means "Truth".
405
Kus
Kus is a god of herdsmen referenced in the
Theogony of Dunnu
406
Kusu
Lagash,
353
Nippur
407
Kusu was a goddess of purification, commonly invoked in Akkadian
šuillakku
, a type of prayers asking for help with an individual's problems.
301
She was regarded as the personification of a type of ritual censer.
353
A late text states that "the duck is the bird of Kusu."
408
Lagamar
Dilbat
409
410
Lagamar, whose name means "no mercy" in Akkadian
411
was a minor god worshiped in Dilbat
409
as the son of the city's tutelary god,
Urash
(not to be confused with the
earth goddess
).
412
He was associated with the underworld.
411
He was also worshiped in Elam, where he was associated with Ishmekarab
412
and the underworld judge
Inshushinak
387
388
Laguda
Nēmed-Laguda
413
Laguda was a god associated with the Persian Gulf.
413
He appears in the text
Marduk's Address to the Demons
, according to which he exalted the eponymous god in the "lower sea."
414
He could be associated with other deities with marine associations, such as Sirsir and Lugal'abba.
414
Lahar
Lahar was a god associated with sheep.
415
Research shows that he was usually regarded as a male deity,
416
though he was initially interpreted as a goddess in Samuel Noah Kramer's translations.
416
In the poem
The Dispute between Cattle and Grain
, Lahar and
Ashnan
are created by the Anunnaki to provide them with food.
354
They produce large amounts of food,
355
but become drunk with wine and start to quarrel, so Enki and Enlil intervene, declaring Ashnan the victor.
356
Laṣ
Kutha,
417
Lagaba
418
Laṣ was one of the goddesses who could be regarded as the wife of Nergal.
417
In
Babylonia
, she became the goddess most commonly identified as such starting with the reign of
Kurigalzu II
419
In Assyria, an analogous phenomenon is attested from the reign of
Tiglath-Pileser III
onward.
419
In the Old Babylonian period, Nergal's wife was usually
Mammitum
420
Wilfred G. Lambert proposed that Laṣ was a goddess of healing, as an explanatory version of the Weidner god list equates her with
Bau
, while other similar documents place her in the proximity of
Gula
, who were both regarded as such.
420
Lisin
Adab and
Kesh
294
Lisin and her brother
Ashgi
were worshipped in Adab and Kesh.
294
Her husband was the god
Ninsikila
294
In Sumerian times, Lisin was viewed as a mother goddess.
294
She is identified with the star
α Scorpionis
294
Later, Ninsikila's and Lisin's genders were swapped.
421
Lugala'abba
Nippur
422
Lugala'abba ("Lord of the Sea"
423
) was a god associated both with the sea and with the underworld.
424
Lugalbanda
Uruk
Nippur
, and
Kuara
425
Lugalbanda was an early legendary king of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, who was later declared to be a god.
425
He is the husband of the goddess
Ninsun
and the father of the mortal hero
Gilgamesh
425
He is mentioned as a god alongside Ninsun in a list of deities as early as the Early Dynastic Period.
425
A brief fragment of a myth about him from this same time period is also preserved.
425
During the Third Dynasty of Ur, all the kings would offer sacrifices to Lugalbanda as a god in the holy city of
Nippur
425
Two epic poems about Lugalbanda describe him successfully crossing dangerous mountains alone, though hindered by severe illness.
425
The
Sumerian King List
makes him a shepherd, who reigned for 1,200 years.
425
He has a close relationship with the goddess Inanna.
425
Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea
Kisiga
425
Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea are a set of twin gods who were worshipped in the village of Kisiga, located in northern
Babylonia
425
They were regarded as guardians of doorways
426
and they may have originally been envisioned as a set of twins guarding the gates of the Underworld, who chopped the dead into pieces as they passed through the gates.
427
During the Neo-Assyrian period, small depictions of them would be buried at entrances,
426
with Lugal-irra always on the left and Meslamta-ea always on the right.
426
They are identical and are shown wearing horned caps and each holding an axe and a mace.
426
They are identified with the constellation
Gemini
, which is named after them.
426
Lulal
Latarak
Bad-tibira
428
429
Lulal, also known as Latarak in Akkadian,
429
was a god closely associated with Inanna,
428
but their relationship is unclear and ambiguous.
428
He appears in
Inanna's Descent into the Underworld
428
He seems to have primarily been a warrior-god,
428
but he was also associated with domesticated animals.
428
One hymn calls him the "master of the open country."
429
Lumma
Nippur and Umma
430
Reading of the theonym LUM-ma is unclear.
431
The god bearing it was regarded as a guardian (
udug
) of
Ekur
, Enlil's temple in Nippur,
432
or as an underworld demon (
gallû
).
432
Gianni Marchesi describes him as "gendarme demon par excellence."
432
He was regarded as a figure of low rank, serving under other deities,
432
but nonetheless capable of rewarding righteousness.
432
The goddess Ninmug was his mother according to the text of a Sumerian lamentation.
430
It has been proposed that he was originally a deified human ruler.
343
Similar origin has been proposed for a number of other gods of similar character, such as Ḫadaniš (who shares his name with a king of
Hamazi
343
Mami
Mama
Mami or Mama is a mother goddess whose name means "mother".
85
She may be the same goddess as Ninhursag.
85
Mammitum
Kutha
417
Mammitum was one of the goddesses who could be identified as the wife of Nergal.
417
In the Old Babylonian period, she is the best attested among them.
420
It is possible she was originally the wife of
Erra
rather than Nergal, and was only introduced to Kutha alongside him.
417
Her name might mean "oath" or "frost" (based on similarity to the
Akkadian
word
mammû
, "ice" or "frost").
433
As her name is
homophonous
with
Mami
, a goddess of birth or "divine midwife,"
434
some researchers assume they are one and the same.
417
However, it has been proven that they were separate deities,
434
Mamu
Sippar
435
Mamu or Mamud was the daughter of Aya and Shamash,
436
worshiped in Sippar.
435
She was the goddess of dreams.
291
Her husband was Bunene.
289
Mandanu
Babylon, Kish
344
Mandanu was a divine judge, attested after the Old Babylonian period, but absent from older god lists such as the so-called Weidner and Nippur lists.
437
According to assyriologist Manfred Krebernik he can be considered a personification of places of judgment.
437
He belonged to the circle of deities associated with Marduk.
438
Manzat
Der
439
Manzat ("Rainbow") was the Akkadian goddess of the rainbow.
440
She was worshiped in Der,
439
and was sometimes viewed as the wife of the city's tutelary god,
Ishtaran
178
Her titles, such as "Lady of regulations of heaven" and "Companion of heaven" highlighted her astral character,
440
though she was also associated with prosperity of cities.
441
Outside Mesopotamia she was also worshiped in
Elam
, where she was possibly regarded as the wife of
Simut
441
Martu
Amurru
Babylon,
442
Assur
443
Martu, in Akkadian known as Amurru, was the divine personification of the nomads who began to appear on the edges of the Mesopotamian world in the middle of the third millennium BC, initially from the west, but later from the east as well.
444
He was described as a deity who "rages over the land like a storm".
444
One myth describes how the daughter of the god Numušda insists on marrying Martu, despite his unattractive habits.
445
In Old Babylonian and Kassite art, Amurru is shown as a god dressed in long robes and carrying a
scimitar
or a
shepherd's crook
Misharu
Misharu ("justice") was a son of Adad and Shala.
446
His wife was
Ishartu
("righteousness").
446
Nanibgal
Eresh
447
Nanibgal was initially a title or alternate name of Nisaba, but eventually developed into a distinct goddess attested in the god list
An = Anum
and in a number of rituals.
221
She had her own spouse, Ennugi, and own distinct role as a courtier of Ninlil.
221
Nimintabba
Ur
448
Nimintabba was a minor goddess who belonged to the entourage of Nanna, the tutelary god of Ur.
448
She had a temple in Ur during the reign of king Shulgi.
448
It is possible she was initially a deity of greater theological importance, but declined with time.
449
Nindara
Girsu,
447
Ki'eša
450
Nindara was the husband of
Nanshe
451
Ninegal
Belet Ekallim
452
Nippur,
452
Umma,
453
Lagash,
453
Dilbat
301
454
Ninegal or Ninegalla, known in Akkadian as Belet Ekallim
452
(both meaning "lady of the palace")
455
was a minor
456
goddess regarded as a tutelary deity of palaces of kings and other high-ranking officials.
456
She was the wife of Urash, the city god of Dilbat,
301
and was worshiped alongside him and their son Lagamar in some locations.
454
"Ninegal" could also function as an epithet of other deities, especially Inanna,
453
but also
Nungal
457
Outside Mesopotamia she was popular in
Qatna
, where she served as the tutelary goddess of the city.
454
Ningal
Nikkal
458
Ekišnuĝal temple in
Ur
459
and
Harran
458
Ningal ("great queen"
460
), later known by the corrupted form Nikkal, was the wife of Nanna-Suen, the god of the moon, and the mother of Utu, the god of the sun.
458
Though she was worshiped in all periods of ancient Mesopotamian history, her role is described as "passive and supportive" by researchers.
460
Ningikuga
Ur
461
Ningikuga is a goddess of reeds and marshes.
462
Her name means "Lady of the Pure Reed".
462
She is the daughter of Anu and
Nammu
462
and one of the many consorts of Enki.
462
Ningirida
Ningirida was the wife of Ninazu and mother of Ningishzida and his two sisters.
275
A passage describing Ningirida taking care of baby Ningishzida is regarded as one of the only references to deities in their infancy and to goddesses breastfeeding in Mesopotamian literature.
463
Ninhegal
Sippar
Ninhegal was a goddess of abundance worshiped in Sippar.
435
It is possible she can be identified as the goddess depicted with streams of water on seals from that city.
435
Ninimma
Nippur
407
Ninimma was a courtier of Enlil regarded as his scribe and sometimes as the nurse of his children.
464
463
Like other goddesses from Enlil's circle she had a temple in Nippur.
407
In the myth
Enki and Ninmah
she's one of the seven birth goddesses,
465
the other 6 being Shuzianna, Ninmada, Ninshar, Ninmug, Mumudu and Ninniginna.
466
Her husband was
Guškinbanda
467
called "Ea of the goldsmith" in an explanatory text.
464
Occasional references to Ninimma as a male deity are also known,
468
and in this context he was called "Ea of the scribe."
464
Ninkilim
Ninkilim was a deity who was associated with mongooses, which are common throughout southern Mesopotamia.
469
According to a
Babylonian
popular saying, when a mouse fled from a mongoose into a serpent's hole, it announced, "I bring you greetings from the snake-charmer!"
469
A creature resembling a mongoose also appears in Old Babylonian glyptic art,
469
but its significance is not known.
469
Ningirima
Muru,
470
Girima near Uruk
471
Ningirama was a goddess
471
associated with incantations, water, and fish,
471
and who was invoked for protection against snakes.
469
It has been argued that she was conflated with
Ningilin
, the deity of mongooses, at an early date,
469
but she is a distinct deity as late as during the reign of Esarhaddon.
472
Ningishzida
Lagash
473
Ningishzida is a god who normally lives in the Underworld.
458
He is the son of
Ninazu
and his name may be etymologically derived from a phrase meaning "Lord of the Good Tree".
458
In the Sumerian poem,
The Death of Gilgamesh
, the hero
Gilgamesh
dies and meets Ningishzida, along with
Dumuzid
, in the Underworld.
473
Gudea
, the Sumerian king of the city-state of
Lagash
, revered Ningishzida as his personal protector.
473
In the myth of
Adapa
, Dumuzid and Ningishzida are described as guarding the gates of the highest Heaven.
474
Ningishzida was associated with the constellation
Hydra
108
Ningublaga
Kiabrig,
475
Ur,
476
Larsa
477
Ningublaga was associated with cattle.
478
He was believed to oversee the herds belonging to the moon god
Nanna
479
Consumption of beef was regarded as taboo to him.
478
He also had an
apotropaic
role, and appears in many incantations, for example against scorpion bite.
478
Ninigizibara
Umma,
480
Uruk
481
Ninigizibara was a deified harp who could be regarded as an advisor of Inanna.
480
Ninkasi
Shuruppak,
109
Nippur
407
Ninkasi was the goddess of beer.
421
She was associated with Širaš, the goddess of brewing.
482
In one hymn her parents are said to be Enki and Ninti,
482
though it also states she was raised by Ninhursag.
482
Sometimes Ninkasi was viewed as a male deity.
421
In the so-called Weidner god list, Ninkasi appears among chthonic deities alongside the prison goddess
Nungal
483
Ninkurra
Ninkurra is the daughter of Enki and
Ninsar
484
After having sex with her father Enki, Ninkurra gave birth to
Uttu
, the goddess of weaving and vegetation.
484
Ninmada
Ninmada was a god regarded as a brother of Ninazu,
179
who was described as a snake charmer in the service of An or Enlil.
179
A goddess bearing the same name appears among the assistants of Ninmah in the myth
Enki and Ninmah
466
Nin-MAR.KI
Ninmar?
485
Ḫurim,
486
Gu'abba
487
Lagash
362
Nin-MAR.KI (reading uncertain) was the daughter of Nanshe.
361
Ninmena
Utab
488
Ninmena was a Sumerian goddess of birth
489
whose name means "Lady of the Crown".
85
434
Although syncretised with more prominent similar goddesses (like Ninhursag) in literary texts, she never fully merged with them in Sumerian tradition.
490
Ninmug
Kisiga,
491
Shuruppak
109
Ninmug was the tutelary goddess of metal workers.
492
She was the wife of the god
Ishum
, and by extension also of Hendursaga in later periods.
111
Ninpumuna
Ur,
Puzrish-Dagan
493
possibly Gishbanda
494
Ninpumuna was the goddess of
salt springs
495
She is only attested in texts from Ur and Puzrish-Dagan from the Ur III period,
493
though it is also possible that she was worshiped in Gishbanda.
494
Ninšar
Ninnisig?
496
Nippur,
497
Shuruppak
109
The reading of the name of this goddess, NIN.SAR (possibly to be understood as "Lady Herbs"), is uncertain,
491
with Ninšar being favored by authors such as Andrew R. George
497
and Wilfred G. Lambert, while Antonie Cavigneaux and Martin Krebernik argue Ninnisig is more likely to be correct.
496
She belonged to the court of Enlil and was regarded as his personal butcher.
498
Her husband was Erragal.
350
In the myth
Enki and Ninmah
, she appears as one of the seven assistants of the eponymous goddess.
466
Ninsianna
É-ešbarzida temple in Ur and other temples in
Sippar
Larsa
, and
Uruk
499
Ninsianna was the deity of the planet
Venus
499
Ninsiana's gender varied depending on location.
51
She is described in one text as the "holy torch who fills the heavens"
499
and was frequently associated with
haruspicy
499
Her worship is first attested during the Third Dynasty of Ur and she continued to be venerated until the
Seleucid Period
(312 BC – 63 BC).
499
She was sometimes regarded as the astral aspect of Inanna,
457
but in Isin she was instead associated with Ninisina
500
and in Larsa Ninsianna and Inanna were separate goddesses.
51
She was also sometimes associated with the
Elamite
astral goddess
Pinikir
501
Ninsikila
Ninsikila was the husband of the goddess
Lisin
294
Later their genders were switched around,
421
possibly due to confusion between the male Mesopotamian Ninsikila and a similarly named goddess from
Dilmun
502
Ninsun
Uruk
124
Ninsun was a goddess whose name can be understood as "lady of the wild cows."
503
She was the divine consort of
Lugalbanda
, the deified king of Uruk, and the mother of the hero
Gilgamesh
208
Nintu
Nintu is a Sumerian mother goddess associated with childbirth.
504
Her name literally means "Lady of Birth".
85
She may just be an aspect of Ninhursag.
85
Nirah
Der
163
Nirah was the messenger of the god
Ištaran
163
He was identified with snakes
163
and may appear in the form of a snake on
kudurrus
163
Numushda
Kazallu
505
Kiritab
506
Numushda was a god who was associated with the city of Kazallu.
505
His worship is attested from the Early Dynastic Period,
505
but his cult seems to have ceased at the end of the Old Babylonian Period.
505
He was believed to be the son of the moon-god Nanna and may have been regarded as a storm deity.
505
In the myth of
The Marriage of Martu
, Numushda's unnamed daughter insists on marrying the nomadic desert god
Martu
, despite his unattractive lifestyle.
505
Nungal
Manungal
Ekur
temple in Nippur,
505
Lagash, Sippar, Dilbat
316
Nungal, also known as Manungal,
507
was the goddess of prisons,
500
also associated with the death penalty.
508
Her name means "great prince(ss)" in Sumerian.
500
She is rarely attested in literary compositions.
509
In the so-called Weidner god list she appears among chthonic deities,
483
and she was sometimes referred to with the epithet Ninkurra, "lady of the underworld."
509
According to one hymn her mother was
Ereshkigal
509
Her husband was the god Birtum.
505
The name Ninegal was sometimes used as her epithet,
507
and it is possible in Dilbat she and the distinct goddess Ninegal were regarded as analogous.
510
Nunusdug
Kisiga
Nunusdug was a minor goddess from the city of Kisiga, attested only in the Early Dynastic period.
511
Her name means "good woman."
511
Nusku
Nippur,
512
Harran
505
Nusku is the god of fire and light.
505
He was the son and minister of Enlil.
505
The god
Gibil
is sometimes described as his son.
505
Nusku's main symbol was a lit
oil lamp
505
He was a member of a group of deities that were worshipped in Harran during the Neo-Assyrian Period by the predominately
Old Aramaic-speaking
population there.
505
Pabilsaĝ
Isin, Nippur, and
Larag
19
Pabilshag was a god whose worship is attested from the Early Dynastic Period onwards.
19
He was believed to be the son of Enlil and the husband of
Ninisina
, the patron goddess of Isin.
19
In some texts, he is identified with Ninurta or Ningirsu.
19
One Sumerian poem describes Pabilsag's journey to Nippur.
19
Pabilsag was believed to be the constellation
Sagittarius
19
Panigingarra
Adab
513
Panigingarra was a god worshiped in Adab who was the son of Ninhursag and Shulpa'e.
514
One inscription calls him the "lord of
kudurru
."
514
In late sources he was syncretised with Ninurta.
514
He appears in a poorly preserved myth,
Urash and Marduk
515
Sadarnunna
Nippur
481
Sadarnunna was the wife of Nuska.
481
Sarpanit
Esagil
in
Babylon
281
Sarpanit was the wife of Marduk.
51
Her name was most likely derived from Sarpan, a village near Babylon, which in a myth about her marriage to Marduk was given to her by her father Enlil.
239
Šarrāḫītu
Babylon, Uruk
516
Šarrāḫītu ("The glorified one"
219
) was a goddess worshiped in Babylon during the reign of Esarhaddon and later in Uruk.
516
She was identified with Ashratum, the wife of
Amurru
268
and a late esoteric text explains her name as
Ašrat aḫītu,
"Ashratum, the foreigner."
517
In Uruk she was associated with Belet-Seri.
219
Šarrat-Dēri
Der
163
Šarrat-Dēri was the wife of
Ištaran
, the local god of the Sumerian city-state of Der.
163
Her name means "Queen of Der".
163
Šerua
Assur
518
Šerua was an Assyrian goddess associated with Ashur.
81
She was the only deity regarded as related to him for reasons other than syncretism with Enlil,
81
but Assyrian theological treatises disputed if she was his wife or daughter.
81
She should not be confused with Erua, an epithet of
Sarpanit
81
Shala
Medimsha
446
Karkar
439
Shala, also known as Medimsha
446
("having beautiful limbs")
175
was the wife of the weather god Adad.
439
She was a goddess of rain, and was often depicted naked on cylinder seals.
175
Shara
Umma
519
possibly
Tell Agrab
299
Shara was a local deity associated with the city of Umma, where his main temple was the E-mah.
299
A fragment of a stone bowl inscribed with his name discovered in the rubbish dump at
Tell Agrab
, northeast of Babylon, indicates that he may have also been worshipped there.
299
He was also a warrior god and is referred to as a "hero of An".
299
In the Babylonian myth of Anzû, Shara is one of the warrior gods who is asked to retrieve the
Tablet of Destinies
, but refuses.
299
In
Inanna's Descent into the Underworld
, Shara is one of the three deities who come to greet her upon her return.
299
In the myth of
Lugalbanda
and in a single building inscription from the Third Dynasty of Ur, Shara is described as Inanna's "son",
299
a tradition which runs directly contrary to the usual portrayal of Inanna as youthful and without offspring.
95
Šubula
Ṣupur-Šubula
520
Šubula was a minor god most likely associated with the
underworld
521
It is assumed that the name is etymologically connected with the Akkadian word
ābalu(m)
, "to dry" or "to be dry."
522
A less likely proposal instead derives it from
wābalu(m)
, "to carry."
523
It is sometimes assumed he was Nergal's son.
307
It has been argued that such a connection could be a reflection of the location of his cult center, Ṣupur-Šubula, in the proximity of Nergal's city, Kutha.
520
However, as noted by Jeremiah Peterson, it is unclear if the god list
An = Anum
, usually used to support this theory, recognizes him as Nergal's son, as the corresponding section contains a lacuna.
522
Another possible restoration would instead make him the son of Ishum.
522
Shullat and Hanish
Shullat and Hanish were a pair of gods regarded as twins, and usually mentioned together.
524
In tablet XI of the
Epic of Gilgamesh
both of them appear in association with Adad.
525
Their character was regarded as destructive.
525
They could be associated with Adad, either alone, alongside Shamash, or deities from his circle like
Misharu
and
Uṣur-amāssu
526
Shulgi of Ur built a temple dedicated to them, but its location is unknown.
527
Shulshaga
Shulshagana
Lagash
379
Šulšagana is the son of
Bau
and
Ninĝirsu
379
Shulpa'e
Shulpa-e's name means "youthful brilliance",
299
but he was not envisioned as youthful god.
299
According to one tradition, he was the consort of Ninhursag, a tradition which contradicts the usual portrayal of Enki as Ninhursag's consort in myths.
299
528
In one Sumerian poem, offerings are made to Shulpa'e in the Underworld
299
and, in later sources, he was one of the demons of the Underworld.
299
No less than ten temples of Shulpa'e are listed in the so-called Canonical Temple List, but their names and locations are not preserved.
527
Shul-utula
Girsu, Lagash
529
Shul-utul was the tutelary god of the dynasty started by Ur-Nanshe.
530
Shuzianna
Nippur
111
Shuzianna was a goddess regarded as the second wife of Enlil.
111
She also appears in the myth
Enki and Ninmah
, where she is one of the seven assistants of the eponymous goddess, alongside Ninimma, Ninmada, Ninšar, Ninmug, Mumudu and Ninnigina.
466
She could also be addressed as a daughter of
Enmesharra
260
Sirsir
Sirsir was the god of sailors.
414
In the text
Marduk's Address to the Demons
he appears alongside
Laguda
, also argued to be a god associated with the sea.
414
Šiduri
Siduri (or more accurately Šiduri
531
) was a goddess who according to the Epic of Gilgamesh was believed to keep an alehouse at the edge of the world.
528
In the Old Babylonian versions, she attempts to dissuade Gilgamesh from his quest for immortality,
532
instead urging him to be content with the simple pleasures in life.
532
The origin of her name is uncertain.
531
A personal name understood as "she is my rampart" is attested in Mesopotamian sources from the reign of Third Dynasty of Ur, but the word
Šiduri
functioned as epithet of deities in Hurrian texts as well.
531
Šurpu
regards her as a deity connected with wisdom.
531
Silili
Silili is an obscure goddess who was apparently the mother of all horses.
528
She is only attested once in the
Epic of Gilgamesh
528
Sumugan
Šakkan
533
Sumugan (also spelled Sumuqan) or Šakkan was a god associated with quadrupeds,
533
especially donkeys
534
or alternatively wild sheep.
535
In literary texts (such as hymns) he was also tasked with caring for their habitat and plants growing there.
535
In some texts his epithet is "shepherd of everything."
416
He was sometimes associated with Utu/Shamash, as his son or courtier.
535
His attribute was likely fleece.
536
In some sources Enkidu was compared with him.
536
Tadmuštum
Dadamušda
537
Kutha
537
Tadmuštum was the daughter of Nergal.
417
She could be regarded as the wife of Šubula, and like him appears among underworld deities in known sources.
521
Tashmetu
Kalhu
538
In Assyrian mythology, Tashmetu is the divine consort of
Nabu
, the god of scribes and wisdom;
538
in Babylonian mythology, this role is instead assigned to the goddess
Nanaya
538
Tashmetu is associated with wisdom and sexual attractiveness, a quality which she shares with Inanna and Nanaya.
538
A poetic composition from the
Library of Ashurbanipal
describes how, in one ritual, Nabu and Tashmetu's statues would be brought together for a "marriage ceremony".
538
One extant letter describes how, after their wedding, Tashmetu and Nabu stayed in the bedchamber for six days and seven nights, during which time they were served an elaborate feast.
538
Tashmetu is attested relatively late
538
and is not mentioned in texts prior to the Old Babylonian Period.
538
Tutu
Borsippa
539
Tutu was the tutelary god of Borsippa at least between Ur III
540
and Old Babylonian periods.
541
Later he was syncretised with Marduk, and in
Enuma Elish
"Tutu" is simply one of the names of the latter god.
542
Uraš
Nippur
301
Uraš is the earliest attested consort of Anu, as evidenced by Sumerian texts dating to the third millennium BCE.
52
59
Her role as Anu's consort was later ascribed to
Ki
, the personification of the earth.
52
59
Uraš
Dilbat
543
While in texts from cities such as Nippur Uraš was an earth goddess, in Dilbat it was the name of an unrelated male god, husband of Ninegal, who served as the city's tutelary deity.
301
He was regarded as the father of Lagamar.
412
Urkitum
Urkayītu
502
Uruk
502
Urkitum was in origin an epithet of Ishtar meaning "the Urukean," who eventually developed into a separate goddess.
544
It is possible she was a
theos eponymos
, a divine representation of the city of Uruk itself.
279
She was closely associated with
Uṣur-amāssu
502
Uṣur-amāssu
Uruk
545
Uṣur-amāssu was one of the deities regarded as children of Adad and Shala.
446
While initially viewed as male, she came to be regarded as a goddess and achieved a degree of prominence in Neo-Babylonian Uruk, where she belonged to the entourage of Ishtar.
546
Uttu
Babylon
547
Uttu was the goddess of weaving.
92
Her name was a term for a part of a loom and a cognate of the Sumerian verb
tuku
, "weaving."
547
While the claim that her name means "spider"
92
and that she was envisioned as a spider spinning a web
92
can be found in a number of publications, recent research shows that association between Uttu and spiders is limited to a single text (a hemerology), which connects her Sumerian name with the Akkadian word
uttutu
(spider).
547
She was worshiped in E-ešgar ("house of work assignment), part of the
Esagil
temple complex in Babylon.
547
She appears in the early myth
Enki and Ninhursag
547
in which she resists the sexual advances of her father Enki
548
but he convinces her to let him in using a gift of fresh produce and the promise that he will marry her.
548
Enki then intoxicates her with
beer
and
rapes
her.
548
She is rescued by Enki's wife Ninhursag,
548
who removes Enki's
semen
from her
vagina
and plants it in the ground, resulting in the growth of eight new plants, which Enki later eats.
548
She also appears in the myth
Enki and the World Order
and in
Debate between Sheep and Grain
549
Wer
Mer, Ber, Iluwer
Wer was a weather god worshiped chiefly in northern Babylonia and in Assyria.
550
He appears in an Old Babylonian version of the
Epic of Gilgamesh
, which states that the cedar mountain belonged to him,
551
and that he appointed
Humbaba
as its guardian.
552
He is most likely not the same deity as
Itūr-Mēr
from Mari, assumed to be a deified hero in origin.
553
Monsters and apotropaic spirits
edit
Name
Image
Associated god(s)
Details
Anzû
Imdugud
Ninurta
554
Imdugud, later known as Anzû, is an enormous bird-like monster with the head of a lion described as so huge that the flapping of its wings was thought to be the cause of sandstorms and whirlwinds.
554
Imdugud probably originated as the personification of atmospheric
fog
554
In some descriptions, he has a "beak like a saw", indicating that he sometimes had the head of a bird.
554
In Sumerian mythology, Imdugud steals the sacred
mes
(the clay tablets recording all the aspects of civilization) from Enki.
554
In Akkadian mythology, he steals the
Tablet of Destinies
from Enlil.
554
In both stories, the creature is challenged by Ninurta, who defeats him and returns the stolen property to its rightful owner.
554
In the Sumerian story of
Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld
, Imdugud is one of several creatures that come to inhabit the
huluppu
tree planted by Inanna
555
556
557
and is driven off by the hero Gilgamesh.
556
557
Bašmu
Ereshkigal, Ninazu, Ningishzida, Tishpak;
558
Išḫara
559
Bašmu ("venomous snake") was a mythical horned snake who played an apotropaic role in Mesopotamian religion.
560
While in some contexts its name can be a generic word designating any mythical snake or dragon, as early as in
Gudea's
inscriptions it was also understood as a specific creature.
561
Some texts indicate that bašmu possessed forelegs.
562
A largely analogous creature was the muššàtùr, depicted as a horned cobra.
563
Bull of Heaven
The Bull of Heaven is a mythical beast that Ishtar demands from her father Anu in both the Sumerian poem
Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven
and in Tablet VI of the Standard Akkadian
Epic of Gilgamesh
after
Gilgamesh
repudiates her sexual advances.
564
Anu gives it to her and she unleashes it on the world, causing mass destruction.
564
Gilgamesh and
Enkidu
eventually slay the bull.
564
The Bull of Heaven is identified with the constellation
Taurus
564
and the reason why Enkidu hurls the bull's thigh at Ishtar in the
Epic of Gilgamesh
after defeating it may be an effort to explain why the constellation seems to be missing its hind quarters.
564
Girtablullu
Utu
/Shamash
565
Girtablullu were creatures with the upper body of a human (
lu-ulu
, "untamed man") and the lower body of a scorpion (
gir-tab
) believed to serve the sun god Utu in Sumerian mythology, and later his Akkadian counterpart Shamash.
565
In the Epic of Gilgamesh a scorpionman and a scorpionwoman guard the gate through which the sun rises and sets each day, but it is likely this motif existed earlier independently from this myth.
565
Unlike most other apotropaic creatures, a male girtablullu was also often accompanied by his feminine counterpart in apotropaic rituals.
565
Hanbi
Hanbi is the father of the demon-god
Pazuzu
566
Humbaba
Huwawa
567
Humbaba (also Huwawa, Huppipi, Hubbubu
568
) was a monster residing in the Cedar Forest defeated by Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh.
569
Sculptures of Humbaba's head are attested in an apotropaic role from Mesopotamian temples.
569
Humbaba was commonly referenced in omen texts, which highlighted his unusual appearance.
570
His face was frequently compared to entrails of sacrificial animals.
374
While connections to the minor god Humhum from northern Babylonia, to Elamite god
Humban
and to Combabos mentioned by
Lucian of Samosata
have been proposed in scholarship, they are not regarded as plausible.
503
Kilili
Ishtar
571
Kilili was a demon or minor goddess who served as a messenger of Ishtar.
571
Kingaludda
Kingaludda was a demon whose name means "director of the storm."
572
In the god list
An = Anum
he is described as
ilu lemnu
, "evil god,"
572
and his name was written with the
divine determinative
572
He appears in a lamentation from Ur.
572
Kulullû
Enki/Ea
573
Kulullu ("fish man") was an apotropaic creature depicted a centaur-like fish-man.
574
In one text it has the head of a
kissugu
, a creature whose identity is currently unknown, rather than a human.
573
Kulullu was described as a servant of Ea who carries a vessel from which it could pour a liquid symbolizing abundance and prosperity.
573
In
Kalhu
a pair of kulullu statues (one male and one female) guarded the temple of Nabu.
573
Kusarikku
Utu/Shamash
575
Kusarikku ("bison man") was a creature depicted as a human-faced bison standing on its hind legs,
576
associated with the sun god Utu.
575
Depictions of kusarikku alongside lahmu were sometimes incorrectly interpreted as
Enkidu
and
Gilgamesh
respectively in the past.
577
Lahmu
Enki/Ea;
578
Marduk
579
Lahmu ("hairy one") was a type of apotropaic creature.
580
He was originally associated with Enki and later with Marduk.
579
On cylinder seals Lahmu was sometimes depicted as a fisherman.
581
In mythical texts, the god Enki/Ea is sometimes said to have 50 lahmu serving him.
581
During the
Neo-Assyrian Period
(911 BC – 609 BC), figurines of Lahmu, who is depicted with long hair and a long, curled beard, were placed under the foundations of houses and temples to protect against demons and pestilence.
579
Lahmu is closely associated with the
kusarikku
or "bull-man".
579
In the Babylonian
Enûma Eliš
, a singular Lahmu and his consort Lahamu (whose name is derived from the same root) are a primordial couple.
579
Lamashtu
Lamashtu was a goddess with the "head of a lion, the teeth of a donkey, naked breasts, a hairy body, hands stained (with blood?), long fingers and fingernails, and the feet of
Anzû
."
428
She was believed to feed on the blood of human infants
428
and was widely blamed as the cause of
miscarriages
and
cot deaths
428
Although Lamashtu has traditionally been identified as a demoness,
582
the fact that she could cause evil on her own without the permission of other deities strongly indicates that she was seen as a goddess in her own right.
428
Mesopotamian peoples protected against her using amulets and talismans.
428
She was believed to ride in her boat on the river of the Underworld
428
and she was associated with donkeys.
428
She was believed to be the daughter of An.
428
Mušḫuššu
Ninazu, Ningishzida; Tishpak; Marduk, Nabu; Ashur
202
Mušḫuššu ("furious snake" or "awful snake") was a dragon-like creature (sometimes a lion-dragon hybrid), depicted as a servant of various gods in Mesopotamian art.
563
It was originally associated with Ninazu and, by extension, with his son Ningishzida (in Lagash); after Tishpak replaced Ninazu as the city god of Eshnunna he also started to be associated with his serpentine symbolic animals.
202
In the Middle Babylonian period Marduk started to be associated with the mušḫuššu, possibly in reflection of Hammurabi's conquest of Eshnunna; his son Nabu was later associated with it too.
583
Marduk's association with it was in turn transferred to Ashur after
Sennacherib's
destruction of Babylon.
583
The apotropaic use of its depictions was likely connected to the belief that it served as a fearless protector of its divine masters, fighting evil on their behalf.
583
Pazuzu
Pazuzu is a demonic god who was well known to the Babylonians and Assyrians throughout the first millennium BC.
19
He is shown with "a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake-headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings."
19
He was believed to be the son of the god
Hanbi
566
He was a beneficent entity who protected against winds bearing pestilence
19
and he was thought to be able to force
Lamashtu
back to the Underworld.
584
Amulets bearing his image were positioned in dwellings to protect infants from Lamashtu
566
and pregnant women frequently wore amulets with his head on them as protection from her.
566
Sebitti
Nergal
585
Narundi
586
A group of 7 anthropomorphic
587
figures variously described as servants of Nergal, as sons of
Enmesharra
, as gods of foreign nation (
Elam
Gutium
, etc.) or as astral or atmosphetic spirits serving the gods, or as a combination of some of the above.
586
The Elamite goddess Narundi was regarded as their sister in Mesopotamia.
586
While destructive, the Sebitti weren't necessarily regarded as evil.
588
They played an apotropaic role, appearing for example in rituals meant to protect houses from demons.
586
In apotropaic contexts they were described as armed with hatchets.
589
A possibly analogous group, additionally identified with the Pleiades, is described as Inanna's "seven-headed mace" in one text.
587
Suhurmašu
Enki/Ea
573
Suhurmašu was a creature likely imagined simply as a type of fish by the Sumerians, but as a fish-goat hybrid by the Akkadians.
590
A Sumerian text refers to it as "the lofty purification priest of the Apsu," and in apotropaic rituals it was associated with exorcisms.
590
It was also used to symbolically represent Ea on
kudurru
590
Unlike many other apotropaic creatures, it doesn't appear as a member of Tiamat's army defeated by Marduk in Enuma Elish, which might indicate it was viewed as more peaceful than other similar beings.
590
Ugallu
Ishkur/Adad
591
Ugallu ("big day" or "big weather beast") was a class of beings in Mesopotamian mythology, attested after the Ur III period.
583
The term
ugallu
could refer to multiple types of creatures,
583
and both benevolent and malevolent character was assigned to them in various texts.
592
Ugallu was depicted as a "lion demon," with the body of a man, head of a lion and bird-like claws.
592
This class of beings was likely viewed as enforcers of divine will.
593
Due to their fearsome characters they were viewed as a source of protection as well, and as such appear on apotropaic amulets.
594
Similar leonine creatures were sometimes depicted or described as servings the gods (notably Ishkur, Ishtar, Marduk and Ninurta) as mounts or pulling their chariots.
593
Uridimmu
Marduk and
Sarpanit
595
Uridimmu ("mad dog" or "mad lion") was an apotropaic creature in Mesopotamian mythology.
594
Next to nothing is known about its history prior the Middle Babylonian period, but in texts from this era it was associated with Marduk and his wife Sarpanit, and was believed to serve as their gatekeeper.
596
An apotropaic ritual involving a figurine of uridimmu made from cedar wood prescribes praying to Marduk and Sarpanit to bestow healing powers upon the representation of the creature, and describes it as their faithful servant capable of interceding with them on behalf of humans.
595
The ritual also states that Sarpanit makes the uridimmu well disposed towards the patient treated with apotropaic magic.
596
Urmahlullu
Urmahlullu was an apotrapaic creature with the lower body of a lion and upper body of a man, attested mostly in Assyria.
597
Depictions are late (13th century BCE or later) and uncommon, and it is doubtful if any role was assigned to it in mythology.
597
Apotropaic rituals nonetheless occasionally refer to it.
574
Ušumgallu
Nabu;
562
Ninkilim
598
Ušumgallu ("prime venomous snake") was an apotropaic snake monster similar to bašmu.
562
In the god list
An = Anum
, it is the
sukkal
of Ninkilim,
598
while in some later texts it is stated to be Nabu's dragon instead of mušḫuššu.
562
Foreign deities in Mesopotamia
edit
Name
Image
Place of origin
Details
Ahura Mazda
Persia
Under
Sasanian
rule, a number of
fire temples
of Ahura Mazda were erected in modern Iraq, for example in
Irbil
and
Mada'in
599
Allatum
Allani
600
Hurrian
areas, possibly
Haššum
in particular
600
Allani, in Mesopotamia known as Allatum, was the Hurrian goddess of the underworld. She was introduced in Mesopotamia in the Ur III period as an independent deity.
601
She had at least one temple, likely located in Ur.
600
She continued to be worshiped in the Old Babylonian period.
602
In later periods she was equated with,
603
and eventually fully assimilated into
Ereshkigal
604
Some documents associate her with Išḫara;
600
in Hurrian sources they are well attested as a pair due to some shared functions.
605
606
She is not to be confused with
Alla
or Alla-Gula,
sukkal
of
Ningishzida
600
Anahita
Persia
According to
Berossos
, the cult of Anahita was introduced by
Artaxerxes I
to many cities in the Mesopotamian part of his empire, including Babylon.
607
These efforts are thought to have been directed at the Iranian population of the city to tie regional courts to the imperial core rather than as an attempt to impose Persian deities on the Babylonians.
608
Apollo
Greece
The Hellenistic
Seleucid
kings favoured Apollo as the patron deity of their dynasty and introduced his cult to Mesopotamia. Locally, Apollo was syncretised with Nabu, but the Greek-speaking communities of
Seleucia on the Tigris
built a sanctuary to Apollo
Komaios
and honoured the god under the name Apollo, using a mixture of Greek and Mesopotamian iconography.
609
610
611
A cult of Apollo and Artemis
Daittai
was brought to Seleucia on the Eulaios (the refounded
Susa
) from Antioch.
612
Strabo
reported that a temple of Apollo existed on the island of
Ikaros
in the Persian Gulf, which had a garrison who built many structures in the Greek style.
613
Artemis
Greece
In Mesopotamia and Syria, Artemis was identified with the goddess Nanaya. This identification had a long-lasting influence on Nanaya by introducing associations with the moon and archery.
614
615
The cult of Apollo and Artemis
Daittai
was brought from Antioch to Seleucia on the Eulaios in Elymais.
612
The Greek settlers on the island of
Ikaros
had a shrine to Artemis and made dedications to Artemis
Soteira
; Strabo also reports that an oracle of Artemis
Tauropolos
was present on the island.
616
Ashratum
Amorite
areas
617
Ashratum (or Ashiratum in documents from
Larsa
618
) was an Amorite goddess who in Mesopotamia came to be associated with
Amurru
617
In addition to being envisioned as a couple, they shared an association with mountains
619
and steppes.
620
According to Steve A. Wiggins, while the names of the Mesopotamian Ashratum and
Ugaritic
Athirat
are cognate, they weren't entirely the same deity, but merely developed in parallel from one source.
621
She was described as "daughter in law of the god An."
622
A temple dedicated to her, Ehilikalamma ("House of the luxury of the land") existed in Babylon.
623
In past scholarship Ashratu was incorrectly assumed to be connected to Ishtar due to a shared epithet – however, it was applied to a wide variety of gods including Marduk and Nergal, and as such cannot serve as grounds for claims about identification of these two deities with each other, as many epithets were shared between deities not necessarily regarded as analogous to each other.
624
Atargatis
Syria
Worship of the goddess Atargatis is attested from
Edessa
Hatra
and
Dura-Europos
in Upper Mesopotamia in Seleucid and Roman times. In the syncretic environment of the Upper Euphrates in the early centuries CE, Atargatis was associated with Artemis, Athena, and
Allat
625
In Dura-Europos, she had a temple separate from that of Artemis and shared iconographic similarities with
Tyche
626
Athena
Greece
Terracotta figurines of Athena are known from Seleucid Babylon,
627
and she is also one of the most popular deities depicted on bullae from Seleucid Mesopotamia, which depict Athena of both the
Promachos
and
Parthenos
types.
628
Belet Nagar
Nagar
Shekhna
629
Belet Nagar was the tutelary goddess of the Syrian city of Nagar.
602
She was introduced in Mesopotamia in the Ur III period, likely due to her connection to kingship and due to her role as a divine witness to commercial treaties.
630
It is possible that "Haburitum" known from similar Mesopotamian sources and the Hurrian Nabarbi are the same goddess.
631
Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban
Šuḫnir and Terraban
632
Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban were a pair of goddesses venerated in the Ur III period.
633
They were most likely introduced from the area north of
Eshnunna
, beyond the borders of sphere of direct Mesopotamian influence, where the corresponding cities were located.
633
A seal inscription associates both of them with
Tishpak
633
Known festivals dedicated to them have been described as "lugubrious" by researchers, and included a "wailing ceremony," "the festival of chains" and a celebration known only as "place of disappearance." It has been proposed that these rituals might reflect an unknown myth about descent to the underworld or perhaps capture of these two deities.
633
They almost always appear as a pair, though sporadic references to Belet-Šuḫnir alone are known from Mesopotamian documents,
634
while Belet-Terraban is attested on her own in Susa during the reign of
Puzur-Inshushinak
635
Bes
Egypt
636
Bes was the Egyptian god of play and recreation.
637
He was envisioned as a "full-faced, bow-legged dwarf with an oversized head, goggle eyes, protruding tongue, bushy tail and usually a large feathered crown as a head-dress."
637
Representations of an almost identical dwarf-god became widespread across the Near East during the first millennium BC and are common in Syria, Palestine, and Arabia.
638
This god's name in Assyrian and Babylonian may have been Pessû.
638
Bes seems to have been the only Egyptian god who became widely worshipped throughout Mesopotamia.
559
His role in Mesopotamian religion was however closer to that of a type of apotropaic creature (native examples of which include
lahmu
kusarikku
mushussu
etc.) than a deity proper.
639
Dagan
Tuttul
640
and
Terqa
641
Dagan was the main god of the middle Euphrates area, regarded as a god of prosperity
642
and "father of gods."
643
While his cult centers were never major political powers in their own right, he was nonetheless a popular deity
644
and his cult had international importance in the Ebla period already.
645
Due to their analogous position in corresponding pantheons, he and Enlil were partially conflated.
643
However, Dagan had a distinct purpose in the Mesopotamian pantheon as well, as the god granting rulers control over western lands.
646
In Nippur he shared a temple with Išḫara,
647
though contrary to conclusions in older scholarship these two deities were not regarded as a couple, and merely shared a similar area of origin.
648
Hahharnum and Hayyashum
Hurrian areas
649
Hahharnum and Hayyashum were the Mesopotamian adaptation of Hurrian words for heaven and earth,
eše hawurni
650
While Hurrians did not worship this pair as personified deities,
651
in Mesopotamia they appear as primordial gods in a handful of texts.
649
650
Hamurnu (Hahharnum) alone appears in a copy of the god list
Anšar = Anum
, where he is also explained as a name of Anu.
649
Prior to the discovery that their names have Hurrian origin, Hahharnum and Hayashum were described as "little known primordial deities."
652
Herakles
Greece
In Mesopotamia, the cult of Herakles was syncretised with the cults of Nergal and the Persian deity
Verethragna
, and he served an apotropaic function.
653
Figures of Herakles have been found widely in Hatra and the cultic statue of Nergal used the iconography of the Greek god.
654
Humban
Elam
559
Humban was an Elamite god associated with the concept of kingship and divine protection (
kiten
).
655
In Mesopotamian sources he appeared only sporadically in the Neo-Assyrian period, and in a commentary on the incantation series Šurpu he is equated with Enlil, most likely based on their shared role as gods who grant authority to human rulers.
656
Past researchers sometimes incorrectly assumed he was one and the same as a distinct Elamite god,
Napirisha
657
Evidence from the
Persepolis Administrative Archives
shows that his worship was adopted by Persians as well from the Elamites.
658
While commonly proposed in the past, a connection between Humban and Humbaba is now regarded as implausible.
503
Ḫabūrītum
Sikani
659
Ḫabūrītum was a goddess understood as either "she of
Ḫabur
" (either the river or the area surrounding it) or "she of the city Ḫabura."
634
The former option is considered more plausible, as her cult center was apparently Sikani, located near the head of the river Khabur, rather than Ḫabura, which was instead located near modern
Al-Hasakah
659
In Mesopotamia she was worshiped alongside other western deities, such as Dagan and Išḫara.
660
Ḫarbe
Kassite homeland in the Zagros
Ḫarbe was likely the head of the
Kassite pantheon
661
His symbol, known from some Mesopotamian
kudurru
(boundary stones), was a bird with its head turned back.
662
Inshushinak
Elam, especially
Susa
663
Inshushinak (from
Sumerian
: "Lord of Susa"
182
) was one of the main Elamite gods. He was associated with kingship and the underworld,
388
and served as the tutelary god of Susa.
178
In some Mesopotamian texts he appears as an underworld god, for example in the god list
An = Anum
he can be found among the deities forming the entourage of
Ereshkigal
139
His assistants were Lagamar and Ishmekarab, whose names have Akkadian origin and who were originally worshiped in Mesopotamia.
388
387
Frans Wiggermann proposes that Inshushinak and the Mesopotamian gods Ishtaran, Ninazu, Ningishzida and Tishpak can be collectively described as "Transtigridian snake gods" existing on the boundary between Elamite and Mesopotamian culture based on their shared connection to judgment, the afterlife and snakes, as well as similar locations of their major cult centers.
664
Inzak
Enzag
Dilmun
665
The Sumerians regarded Inzak as the chief god of the Dilmunite pantheon,
665
but the Dilmunites themselves regarded him as a god of
Agaru
, a land in eastern Arabia.
665
His main cult center was on
Failaka Island
665
where a temple was dedicated to him.
665
He appears, alongside his wife
Meskilak
, in documents from Nippur and in
Šurpu
666
During the Neo-Babylonian Period, Inzak was identified with Nabu
665
under the latter's name Mu'ati.
666
Išḫara
Ebla
667
Hurrian areas
668
An Eblaite goddess of pre-Semitic and pre-Hurrian origin.
669
She was among the western deities introduced in Mesopotamia in the Ur III period, and shared temples with Belet Nagar in Ur
286
and with Dagan in Nippur.
647
Due to association with Ishtar she developed into a love goddess,
670
associated with marriage.
146
Her symbols were
bashmu
, otherwise mostly a symbol of underworld gods,
558
and scorpions,
559
also associated with marriage.
155
According to a Hurrian source she was viewed as a daughter of Enlil.
671
Jabru
Elam?
672
According to Mesopotamian sources, such as the god list
An = Anum
, Jabru was a god similar to Anu or Enlil.
672
While described as Elamite, he is not attested in any sources from Elam.
672
Kumarbi
Hurrian areas, especially
Urkesh
673
Kumarbi was one of the main gods of the Hurrians,
674
regarded as partially analogous to Enlil (and Dagan
675
) due to his role as "father of the gods."
676
He had a chthonic character and was associated with grain and prosperity.
642
In Mesopotamia he appears in the Assyrian
Tākultu
text as the god of
Taite
, alongside Nabarbi and Samnuha.
673
Manziniri
Elam
677
An Elamite deity known chiefly from a passage mentioning "the forest of Manziniri."
677
She appears in a letter of
Esarhaddon
addressed to Urtaku, an Elamite ruler, as one of the deities meant to guarantee peace between the two monarchs, alongside Assyrian gods Ashur, Bel, Nabu, Sin, Shamash, Ishtar of Nineveh and Ishtar of Arbela.
678
Wilfred G. Lambert
proposed a connection between Manziniri and the
Kassite goddess
Minimzir/Mirizir.
677
Meskilak
Dilmun
665
Meskilak was a Dilmunite goddess and the wife of Inzak.
679
The Mesopotamians viewed her as a daughter of Enki and Ninhursag under the name
Ninsikila
, it is possible that later on she was identified with Nabu's wife
Tashmetum
666
She was sometimes referred to as Nin-Dilmun, meaning "Lady of Dilmun".
665
Nabarbi
Hurrian areas, especially
Taite
Nabarbi ("she of Nawar") was Hurrian goddess possibly analogous to Belet Nagar.
674
In Mesopotamian sources she is attested in the Assyrian
Tākultu
text, where she appears alongside Kumarbi and Samnuha as one of the deities of Taite.
673
Narundi
Susa
An Elamite goddess known from Susa who in Mesopotamia was regarded as analogous to Ishtar or
Nanaya
and developed a distinct apotropaic role as early as in the Old Babylonian period.
586
Mesopotamians viewed her as sister of the
Sebitti
, equated with "Divine Seven of Elam" – a Mesopotamian grouping of Elamite gods – in god lists.
586
Ninatta and Kulitta
Hurrian areas
Musician goddesses always mentioned as a pair who were handmaidens of Shaushka.
680
In Assyria they were incorporated into Ishtar's entourage in her temple in
Ashur
673
Pinikir
Elam
559
An Elamite goddess regarded as analogous to Ishtar by modern researchers,
681
but incorrectly assumed to be an alternate name of
Kiririsha
in the past.
682
She was also worshiped by Hurrians in Syria and Anatolia, and
Gary Beckman
proposes that her worship was transmitted there from a Mesopotamian source.
501
An Akkadian god list known from a copy from
Emar
indicates she was equated with
Ninsianna
501
Shalash
Ebla,
683
Tuttul
684
Shalash was the wife of the Syrian god Dagan.
685
She appears with her husband in cylinder seal inscriptions from the
Isin-Larsa period
686
Shaushka
Nineveh
Nuzi
and other Hurrian centers
Shaushka was a Hurrian goddess regarded as analogous to Ishtar ("Ishtar of
Subartu
687
or "Ishtar of Nineveh"
660
). Despite her origin, the oldest known attestations of both Shaushka and her main cult center, Nineveh, come from Mesopotamian, rather than Hurrian, documents.
688
She is attested in religious documents from the Ur III period, but her worship evidently persisted in later times too, as she appears in a list of offerings from Old Babylonian
Isin
689
A temple dedicated to her was located in Babylon as well.
690
She influenced the later Assyrian Ishtar of Nineveh,
691
though the latter also shows influence from
Ninlil
692
Shuqamuna and Shumaliya
Kassite homeland in the
Zagros
Shuqamuna and Shumaliya were a pair of Kassite gods regarded as the tutelary deities of the
Kassite dynasty
of Babylon.
693
They were depicted on a number of
kudurru
in the symbolic form of birds sitting on a perch.
694
Shuwala
Mardaman
695
Shuwala, the tutelary goddess of Mardaman, a city located in the north of modern Iraq, is attested in sources from the Ur III period.
695
She is assumed to be an underworld deity of Hurrian origin.
695
Simut
Elam
74
Simut was an Elamite god associated with Mars,
50
regarded as herald of the gods.
696
His name was used as a theophoric element in Old Babylonian personal names,
696
while god lists associate him with Nergal.
50
It is possible the Akkadian goddess Manzat, who became a popular deity in Elam, was regarded as his wife.
441
Tishpak
Eshnunna
Tishpak was a god who replaced
Ninazu
as the tutelary deity of Eshnunna.
197
He shared most of his functions and attributes (ex. plough, two maces and various snakes and serpentine monsters such as
mushussu
).
697
It is agreed that he had foreign roots.
698
While in early scholarly works Hurrian origin (and a connection to
Teshub
) was proposed for him,
699
newer sources favor an
Elamite
etymology for his name,
700
as well as for the name of his son Nanshak known from god lists.
701
Umbidaki
Nupatik
Hurrian areas
Umbidaki was a god worshiped in the temple of Ishtar of
Arbela
in neo-Assyrian times.
702
It is assumed that he was analogous to the Hurrian god Nupatik, possibly introduced to Arbela after a statue of him was seized in a war.
702
Yahweh
El
Elohim
El Shaddai
Yah
Kingdoms of
Israel
and
Judah
703
704
705
Yahweh was the national god of the
Israelites
, who originally lived in the
Levantine
kingdoms of Israel and Judah.
703
704
705
In 586 BC, the
Neo-Babylonian
king
Nebuchadnezzar
captured
Jerusalem
, destroyed the
Temple of Solomon
, and deported the elite members of Judahite society to Babylon in an event known as the "
Babylonian exile
".
706
Modern scholars generally agree that much of the
Deuteronomistic History
was probably edited and redacted by Judahite priests living in Babylon during the exile.
707
The works of
Second Isaiah
, also written in Babylon, represent the first unambiguous Judahite declaration of the non-existence of foreign deities and proclamation of Yahweh as the
sole, supreme God
708
Much of the
Torah
was probably written and compiled after the exile, when the Jews were allowed to return to their homeland by the Persians.
709
710
See also
edit
List of Elamite deities
List of Hittite deities
List of Hurrian deities
List of sukkals
An = Anum
References
edit
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Black & Green 1992
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