Nile - Wikipedia

Nile - Wikipedia
Jump to content
Coordinates
30°10′21″N
31°8′24″E
 / 
30.17250°N 31.14000°E
 /
30.17250; 31.14000
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from
Nile River
Major river in northeast Africa
For other uses, see
Nile (disambiguation)
Nile River
The
Third Cataract
of the Nile
Location
Countries
Burundi
DR Congo
Egypt
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Rwanda
South Sudan
Sudan
Tanzania
Uganda
Major cities
Bahir Dar
Cairo
Khartoum
Jinja
Juba
Physical characteristics
Source
Rukarara River
, Rwanda
• coordinates
2°19′35″S
29°21′30″E
 / 
2.32639°S 29.35833°E
 /
-2.32639; 29.35833
• elevation
2,539 m (8,330 ft)
Mouth
• coordinates
30°10′21″N
31°8′24″E
 / 
30.17250°N 31.14000°E
 /
30.17250; 31.14000
Length
7,088 km (4,404 mi)
Basin size
2,927,843 km
Discharge
• location
Aswan
, Egypt
• average
2,757 m
/sec
The
Nile
is a major north-flowing
river
in northeast
Africa
which empties into the
Mediterranean Sea
. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, it is the
longest river in the world
although the volume of water it carries is
much smaller than other major rivers
such as the
Amazon
or the
Congo
. The Nile has played a central role in the environmental, economic, and cultural history of Africa for millennia.
The Nile has two major
tributaries
: the
White Nile
and the
Blue Nile
. The White Nile is longer and is considered to be the
headwaters
, yet the Blue Nile contributes over twice the volume of the White Nile. The White Nile begins near
Lake Victoria
and flows through Uganda and South Sudan; while the Blue Nile begins near
Lake Tana
in Ethiopia and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet at the Sudanese capital of
Khartoum
. From there, the Nile flows north through the
Nubian Desert
to Egypt's capital,
Cairo
, and finally empties into the Mediterranean Sea near
Alexandria
, where it has formed
a large delta
Geologically, the Nile is a young river and has followed its present course for about 15,000 years.
Its drainage basin
extends across eleven countries. Most of the water in the Nile comes from rainfall in the upstream countries
Ethiopia
Kenya
Tanzania
, and
Uganda
. Downstream countries –
Egypt
Sudan
, and
South Sudan
– are primarily desert, and withdraw river water for irrigation. Other countries that lie wholly or partly in the Nile Basin are
Burundi
, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Eritrea
, and
Rwanda
The Nile was the foundation of the
Ancient Egyptian civilization
, which relied on the river for nearly every aspect of life. The
annual flooding
of the river deposited nutrient-rich silt along the riverbanks. This soil supported crops that enabled a sophisticated society to thrive in an otherwise inhospitable desert. The Nile facilitated trade, communication, transportation, and governance. South (upstream) of the second Nile cataract lay
Nubia
, the historical home of the ancient
Kerma culture
and the
Kushite Empire
. Many Europeans were fascinated by the Nile, and their explorations around Lake Victoria in the late 19th century located the source of the river. Among the cultures that live along the Nile in the modern era are the
Nilotic peoples
, semi-nomadic cattle herders who practice
nomadic pastoralism
, moving their cattle seasonally in response to the Nile's floods.
In the modern era, the Nile plays a critical role in the economies of Egypt and Sudan, which rely on it to irrigate extensive croplands. Since the late 20th century, over a dozen dams have been built in the Nile Basin to provide for irrigation and to
generate electricity
. The dams have altered the river's annual flood cycle and restricted the transport of silt downstream, causing the Nile Delta to shrink. Some dams – such as the Aswan High Dam and Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – have been the source of international political disputes about
water scarcity
, safety,
food security
, and
forced displacement of peoples
Names and etymology
The English word "Nile" is derived from the
Latin
Nilus
and the
Ancient Greek
Νεῖλος
(Neilos), which possibly originated from the
Semitic
term
naḥal
, meaning 'river'.
Egyptian hieroglyphs
for
jtrw
the word for 'river' or 'Nile':
10
In the ancient
Egyptian language
, the same word was used for 'Nile' and 'river':
jtrw
11
Egyptians called their country
kmt
meaning 'black', in reference to the dark color of the Nile floodwaters as they carried sediment from upriver.
12
The English name "Blue Nile" is a translation of the Arabic name
Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq
In the modern era, the river goes by several names within the Nile Basin. In Egypt, it is referred to as
Al-Nīl
Baḥr Al-Nīl
or
Nahr Al-Nīl
13
In South Sudan, it is sometimes referred to by the Arabic
Baḥr el-Jebel
بحر الجبل
, literally 'Mountain River'.
14
In Uganda, the speakers of
Luganda
use the name
Kiyira
15
Some Nubian peoples of Egypt and Sudan use the
Nobiin
name
Áman Dawū
('Great Water').
16
Several
tributaries
(smaller rivers that merge into the Nile) and segments of the river incorporate "Nile" in their names, including:
Albert Nile – Segment of the White Nile flowing north from
Lake Albert
to
Nimule
17
Black Nile – An alternate name for the
Atbarah River
18
Blue Nile
– One of the two major tributaries of the Nile River
Kyoga Nile – Segment of White Nile from
Lake Kyoga
to Lake Albert
19
Main Nile – Segment of the Nile River downstream from the
confluence
of Blue Nile and White Nile
20
Mountain Nile
– Segment of the White Nile from the mountains of Uganda to the plains of South Sudan
21
Victoria Nile – Segment of White Nile from
Lake Victoria
to Lake Kyoga
22
White Nile
– One of the two major tributaries of the Nile River
Yellow Nile – The
Wadi Howar
, remnant of an ancient tributary that dried up several thousand years ago
20
Sources
The Nile has six
cataracts
and several sources.
The source of the Nile is a tributary of the
Rukarara River
, in
Nyungwe National Park
, Rwanda, at
2°19′35″S
29°21′30″E
 / 
2.32639°S 29.35833°E
 /
-2.32639; 29.35833
, at an elevation of 2,539 meters (8,330 ft).
The source is defined as the starting point of the longest year-round watercourse in the
Nile's drainage basin
From this source, the river runs 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) to its mouth at the
Mediterranean Sea
The distance was measured along the centerline of the river using satellite imagery.
The highest sources of the Nile (based on elevation) are on the slopes of the
Rwenzori Mountains
in
Uganda
23
The legendary
Mountains of the Moon
, described by
Ptolemy
, have been associated with Rwenzori.
23
The southernmost source of the Nile is in
Burundi
at one of the heads of the
Ruvyironza River
, which feeds into the
Kagera River
24
A monument was erected nearby in 1937 by
Burkhart Waldecker
close to the town of
Rutovu
, near
Mount Kikizi
24
Lake Victoria
is sometimes informally described as the source of the Nile, despite the fact that many rivers flow
into
the lake.
26
Some have suggested that the genuine source of the Nile is the rain clouds that are often found above Lake Victoria, because they supply five times more water to the lake than the rivers that flow into the lake.
28
The source of the
Blue Nile
tributary is near the town of
Gish Abay
, south of
Lake Tana
29
Geography
The waters of the Nile originate as rainfall in the mountains in the south and east regions of the Nile Basin.
The Nile River is a major river in northeast Africa which flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile Basin is
all land that drains
into the Nile River, and it covers 2,927,843 km
– about 10% of the African continent (see adjacent map).
Eleven countries are wholly or partially within the basin: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.
30
The basin covers a wide variety of climates, ecosystems, and topographies – ranging from arid, sandy deserts in the north, to flat, swampy wetlands in the middle, to rainy, forested mountains in the south.
32
The basin can be divided into seven regions; five of these regions encompass the longest course of the Nile River. Proceeding in a downstream sequence, these five regions are: the
African Great Lakes
, the
Mountain Nile
, the
White Nile
, the main Nile, and the
Nile Delta
. Two additional regions encompass major tributaries: the
Blue Nile
and the
Atbarah River
African Great Lakes
The African Great Lakes region contains the source of the Nile River as well as several large lakes that are part of the Nile River system:
Lake Victoria
Lake Albert
Lake George
, and
Lake Edward
33
The source of the Nile is the
Rukarara River
within Rwanda's Nyungwe National Park,
and it leads to the
Kagera River
which drains into Lake Victoria.
Although it is a large lake – the
second-largest freshwater lake
in the world
– Lake Victoria is relatively shallow, with an average depth of 40 meters (130 ft).
35
The Nile River first assumes the name "Nile" where Lake Victoria empties on its north side: the stretch from there to Lake Albert is called the Victoria Nile.
A pair of waterfalls –
Ripon Falls
and
Owen Falls
– were located where the Nile exits Lake Victoria, but have both been submerged by the construction of the
Nalubaale dam
. After
Bujagali Falls
and
Bujagali Power Station
, the Victoria Nile empties into
Lake Kyoga
. After exiting Lake Kyoga, the river is joined by the
River Kafu
tributary, then passes over
Murchison Falls
and flows into Lake Albert. Unlike Lake Victoria, Lake Albert is a deep lake surrounded by mountains. The river exits Lake Albert on its north shore, where it is called the
Albert Nile
; this stretch of the river is relatively flat and broad, and suitable for navigation by
steamboats
36
Mountain Nile
The second region of the Nile Basin, proceeding downstream, is the Mountain Nile (
Arabic
Bahr al Jabal
).
37
This region begins near the town of
Nimule
and extends to
Lake No
, and is entirely within South Sudan. After passing through Nimule, the river goes through the
Fula Rapids
and on to
Juba
– the capital of South Sudan. After Juba, the Nile passes through the town of
Bor
, then enters the
Sudd
, a large swamp located in a flat plain.
38
The
incline
of the ground in the Sudd is only 1:13,000
rise over run
, so the river slows down and widens. Lush vegetation, including
sedges
papyrus
, and
common water hyacinth
(an
invasive species
) clog the waterways and make navigation difficult. At the north edge of the Sudd swamp, the Nile passes through Lake No, a small lake where the Nile is joined by the
Bahr el Ghazal River
(Arabic: 'gazelle river') – a tributary from the west.
36
A major tributary in the Mountain Nile region is
Bahr el Ghazal
which arrives from west Sudan and joins the White Nile at Lake No. The drainage basin of the Bahr el Ghazal River is large – about 860,000 square km
39
– and receives a relatively large amount of rain, but its contribution to the Nile is small compared to other tributaries.
Its basin includes
Lake Kundi
and
Lake Keilak
. The Bahr el Ghazal passes through the city of
Wau
, South Sudan: it is a permanent stream east of Wau, but a seasonal stream to the west.
40
White Nile region
The distinct colors of the
White Nile
(left) and the
Blue Nile
(right) are visible where they merge to form the main Nile (top left).
Continuing downstream, the third region of the Nile Basin is the White Nile region
which includes an 800 kilometers (500 mi) stretch of river from near
Malakal
to
Khartoum
, the capital of Sudan. There it is joined by the Blue Nile. This portion of the river is a wide, calm stream with a fringe of swamps on both banks. The river here is shallow and undergoes significant losses due to evaporation.
Where the White Nile merges with the Blue Nile, they are noticeably distinct colors. The White Nile is a lighter shade because the sediment it carries includes a significant amount of
quartz
and
feldspar
. This is in contrast to the Blue Nile which carries dark clay sediments originating from Ethiopia's
basaltic rocks
41
The
Sobat River
is a tributary which joins the White Nile near the town of
Malakal
(after the Bahr el Ghazal confluence, before the Blue Nile). Its basin – which includes the
Machar Marshes
14
– covers about 225,000 square km.
42
The Sobat floods between July and December.
Main Nile
The
Aswan High Dam
is located on the main Nile near the border between Egypt and Sudan. Its electrical generators have the capacity to produce 2.1
gigawatts
43
The fourth region of the Nile Basin – the main Nile
– extends from Khartoum to Cairo, the capital of Egypt.
36
This stretch has a relatively uniform width and depth: about 500 meters (1,600 ft) wide and 10 meters (33 ft) deep at its deepest point (when not in flood).
45
Soon after leaving Khartoum, the river enters the
Sabaloka Game Reserve
and goes through large, powerful
rapids
that are impassable by boat. This is the sixth (and furthest upstream) of the six
cataracts of the Nile
. The
Atbarah River
– a major tributary – joins the Nile, which then follows a large S-shaped curve to the west. Four more
cataracts
(numbered 5, 4, 3, and 2) are encountered in this large S-curve, which render the river unnavigable; although ships may travel in certain calm stretches between the cataracts. The river then enters a reservoir:
Lake Nasser
. This lake – the world's second-largest human-made lake – was formed when the
Aswan High Dam
was built in Egypt, and inundates more than 480 kilometers (300 mi) of the Nile River. The
Aswan Low Dam
– older and smaller than the High Dam – lies beneath the Aswan High Dam, near the location of the first Nile cataract (now submerged). From these dams, the Nile flows about 800 kilometers (500 mi) through a limestone plateau, bordered by large amounts of irrigated farmland, until it reaches Cairo.
36
Nile Delta
Main article:
Nile Delta
The
Nile Delta
is the large triangular vegetated region at the top of this photograph, where the river empties into the
Mediterranean Sea
The fifth, and final, region encompassing the Nile River is the Nile Delta, a large triangular
river delta
(about 22,000 km
46
that extends from Cairo to the Mediterranean Sea.
The river splits into two major
distributaries
(channels) within the delta: the Rosetta branch and the Damietta branch. The total volume of the delta (including the submerged portions) is about 150,000 km
. The delta was created over several million years, built-up from sediment carried down the river from upstream.
47
Since the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1970, the delta has begun to shrink because of erosion from currents in the Mediterranean Sea. In the past, erosion was balanced by new soils arriving in the form of sediment carried by the river; but the dam traps sediment in its reservoir, preventing new soil from reaching the delta.
48
Blue Nile tributary
Main article:
Blue Nile
The source of the
Blue Nile
is
Gish Abay
at the bottom of the bright line. The river flows north from there to
Lake Tana
at the top.
The longest course of the Nile – which includes the White Nile tributary – has several other tributaries that feed into it. The drainage basins of the Blue Nile tributary and the Atbarah tributary comprise the final two regions of the Nile Basin.
The Blue Nile springs from hills in Ethiopia where it originates as a stream named
Abay
near the town of
Gish Abay
Gish
is an
Amharic
word meaning 'source', and Abay is the name of the stream.
49
Gish Abay flows into
Lake Tana
, a large, shallow lake, which has a single outflow where it adopts the "Blue Nile" name. The river then makes a wide loop: first south, then west through a spectacular gorge 2 kilometers (6,600 ft) deep, then north passing through South Sudan into Sudan, where it joins with the White Nile at Khartoum to form the main Nile.
50
Along its course, the Blue Nile generates electricity at several hydropower plants, including the
Tis Abay hydropower project
at the
Blue Nile Falls
, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam near the border between Ethiopia and South Sudan, the
Roseires Dam
near the town of
Ad Damazin
, and the
Sennar Dam
51
The size of the Blue Nile's drainage basin is over 306,000 square km.
52
Atbarah tributary
Main article:
Atbarah River
The Atbarah River is a tributary of the Nile which arises in northern Ethiopia, and joins the Nile about 320 kilometers (200 mi) north of Khartoum.
53
Its drainage basin covers over 204,000 square km.
52
The Atbarah has a heavy flow during and following the
monsoon
season in Ethiopia (summer and fall), but can dry up in the winter and spring. Despite the intermittent nature of the river, it provides more than 10% of the total annual flow of the Nile.
53
Dams on the Atbarah include the
Khashm el-Girba Dam
, the
Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex
, and the
Tekezé Dam
(on the
Tekezé River
tributary).
54
Hydrology
Nile River
Legend
Source, near
Rukarara River
Kagera River
Rusumo Falls
Lake Victoria
Nalubaale dam and power station
[S1]
Measuring station
Lake Kyoga
Murchison Falls
[S2]
Measuring station
Rwenzori Mtns
(highest source)
Lake Edward
Semliki River
Lake Albert
[S3]
Mongalla
near
Juba
Sudd
swamp
Bahr el Ghazal
tributary
Lake No
Sobat
tributary
Confluence of Sobat with Nile
[S4]
at
Malakal
Jebel Aulia Dam
[S5]
at
Khartoum
Gish Abay
, source of Blue Nile
Lake Tana
Blue Nile
Blue Nile Falls
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
Roseires Dam
and reservoir
[S6]
at Roseires Dam
Sennar Dam
[S7]
at Khartoum
Confluence of Blue and White Niles
City of
Khartoum
6th Cataract
(80 km N of Khartoum)
Atbarah
tributary
Tekezé River
joins Atbarah
Khashm el Girba Dam
[S8]
(at dam)
[S9]
(mouth of Atbarah)
Confluence of Atbarah with Nile
5th Cataract
(100 km N of
Atbarah
Merowe Dam
4th Cataract
[S10]
at
Dongola
3rd Cataract
(near
Tombos
Lake Nasser
2nd Cataract
Aswan High Dam
[S11]
Aswan Low Dam
1st Cataract
Asyut Dam
[S12]
at
Cairo
Nile Delta
: Rosetta, Damietta
Mediterranean Sea
Schematic diagram. Distances not to scale.
[S3]
are stations used in Source/Sink tables.
55
Top = upstream/south; Bottom = downstream/north.
The flow of the Nile River varies widely throughout the year. Rates (m
/sec) measured at
Dongola
on the main Nile.
56
Flow and floods
Further information:
Flooding of the Nile
Although the Nile is the
longest river in the world
, it does not have
the largest discharge
. Its flow – about 87 km
per year
– is small compared to other major rivers. The Nile's discharge is only about 1% of the
Amazon
, 6% of the
Congo
, and 12% of the
Yangtze
57
The annual contributions to the main Nile from the three primary tributaries are: 54% from the Blue Nile, 32% from the White Nile (including contributions from the Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat tributaries), and 14% from the Atbarah.
58
The highlands of the White Nile and Blue Nile both experience seasonal rain, but the White Nile's flow into the main Nile is much more constant than the Blue Nile.
This is due to the many lakes and wetlands on the White Nile, which moderate the cyclic effects of seasonal rainfall.
59
As the White Nile passes through the
Sudd
swamps about half the water is lost to evaporation.
60
In contrast, the flow of the Blue Nile varies widely through the year: it floods between July and October, due to
summer monsoon
rains.
The waters of the Blue Nile are so substantial during the summer that the White Nile backs up during this time at the
confluence
61
During the summer floods, the contributions to the main Nile are about 70% from the Blue Nile, about 20% from the Atbarah, and about 10% from the White Nile.
At the peak of the flood, the daily flow into
Lake Nasser
is about 0.71 km
, about three times the annual daily average of 0.23 km
per day.
62
Prior to the construction of dams on the Nile, the flow of the Nile in Egypt varied seasonally: higher in the summer/fall; lower in the winter/spring.
However, following the construction of the
Aswan High Dam
– which created a reservoir that can hold about two years of river flow – the flow downstream from that dam is now more constant year-round.
65
Sediment transport
The Nile carries sediment downstream. The
movement of sediment
is classified as
suspended sediment
(particles suspended in the water) or
bedload
(sediment on the river bottom that rolls or tumbles downstream).
67
Ninety-seven percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nile comes from the Atbarah and Blue Nile, both of which originate in Ethiopia.
68
The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian
rainy season
when rainfall is especially high in the
Ethiopian Highlands
; the rest of the year, the major rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile have a weaker flow.
The soil in the Nile Delta originated as rocks in Ethiopia. The cumulative amount of rock eroded in the past 30 million years from the Ethiopia headwaters of the Nile is about 102,000 km
, which is roughly comparable to the volume of the soil in the Nile Delta (including the underwater portion) which is about 150,000 km
69
Sediment carried by a river into a reservoir can settle in the reservoir and reduce its storage capacity. Sediment accumulated behind the Sennar Dam,
Roseires Dam
(on the Blue Nile), and
Khashm el Girba Dam
(on the Atbarah) has significantly reduced the storage capacity of their reservoirs since they were built.
70
Annual sediment transport measured at several locations are listed below.
71
The bedload percentages are the ratio of bedload sediment to total (bedload and suspended) sediment. This data was collected before the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, which has a significant impact on sediment loads downstream of the dam.
71
Gilgel Abay
, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 0.7% of bedload
El Deim
(at the border of Ethiopia and Sudan): 140 million tonnes
70
Aswan
, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 28% of bedload
Beni Sweif
, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 20% of bedload
Qena
, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 27% of bedload
Sohag
, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, and an additional 13% of bedload
Water sources and sinks
Water balance
in the
Nile Basin
is analyzed using
hydrology
: water input from rain is balanced by water output to the soil, evaporation, and streams.
As the river moves downstream, it gains volume in some regions and loses volume in other regions. A region is a "source" if the region contributes water; conversely, a region is a "sink" if the region removes water.
72
Identifying sources and sinks is important to scientists who study water movement (
hydrology
), as well as policy makers who negotiate water sharing issues.
73
The regions of the Nile Basin that are water sources are the upstream areas including the
Ethiopian Highlands
and the
African Great Lakes
region. The water sink areas are generally found in the downstream regions, including South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.
76
The
water balance
methodology is employed to determine which regions are sources and which are sinks. Water balance is a hydrological principle that states that the water entering a region is balanced by the water leaving a region.
77
For a given region, hydrologists measure (or estimate)
precipitation
evaporation
transpiration
groundwater recharge
, lake-filling rate, and
net streamflow
Evaluating these values will indicate if a region is a source or a sink. Generally, a region is a source if the net streamflow is positive; conversely, a region is a sink if the net streamflow is negative.
78
Sources and sinks: countries
The following table summarizes water balance measurements for countries within the Nile Basin. Portions of countries outside the Nile Basin are excluded from the values. The "Source or Sink" column shows one of these values:
Source
– The country is a significant water source
Sink
– The country is a significant water sink
Neutral
– The country is not a significant source or sink
Most of the per-basin data is presented as annual measurements (usually in km
); but some data is also presented as an equivalent "depth" value (millimeters per year, covering the entire basin).
55
Country water balance (annual)
Country
Source or
Sink
Basin
Area km
Precip km
(depth)
Evap km
(depth)
Water
Bal.
km
Runoff km
(depth)
Burundi
Neutral
13,240
14
(1,092 mm)
13
(951 mm)
(242mm)
DR Congo
Neutral
19,919
23
(1,167mm)
23
(1,142mm)
(21 mm)
Egypt
Sink
235,108
(18 mm)
44
(185 mm)
−39
(0 mm)
Eritrea
Neutral
24,427
14
( 572 mm)
12
(507 mm)
(16 mm)
Ethiopia
Source
363,775
459
(1,262 mm)
295
(812 mm)
164
138
(380 mm)
Kenya
Source
49,513
76
(1,532 mm)
49
(987 mm)
27
23
(465 mm)
Rwanda
Neutral
20,676
21
( 993 mm)
20
(966 mm)
(180 mm)
South
Sudan
Sink
617,256
612
( 991 mm)
757
(1,227 mm)
−146
92
(150 mm)
Sudan
Sink
1,226,660
364
( 297 mm)
445
(363 mm)
−81
23
(19 mm)
Tanzania
Source
120,506
160
(1,327 mm)
122
(1,014 mm)
38
18
(150 mm)
Uganda
Source
236,763
301
(1,271 mm)
276
(1,165 mm)
25
22
(91mm)
Total
(depths are means)
2,927,843
2,048
(699 mm)
2,056
(702 mm)
−8
324
(111 mm)
Sources and sinks: tributaries
The water balance tables of this article contain water flow information measured at the twelve stations shown in this map.
79
Another way of analyzing the water balance of the Nile River is to partition the basin geographically (and ignore national boundaries). The following tables split the Nile Basin into twelve smaller basins, and summarize the water balance data of each of the smaller basins. The data is based on measurements made at a dozen
river measurement stations
55
The stations, shown in the adjacent map, divide the Nile Basin into smaller basins. These basins are each named after their downstream station. For example, the Murchison Falls station (2) is downstream of the Lake Victoria outlet station (1), so the basin between them is named the Murchison Falls basin.
80
aa
White Nile
tributary water balance (annual)
79
Basin's
downstream
station
Source or
Sink
Basin
Area km
Precip km
(depth)
Evap km
(depth)
Water
Bal.
km
Runoff km
(depth)
Discharge km
(rate)
Lake Victoria
outlet
ab
Source
264,259
353
(1,337 mm)
279
(1,055 mm)
74
57
(214 mm)
37
(1,176 m
/sec)
Murchison
Falls
ac
Source
85,513
109
(1,276 mm)
94
(1,105 mm)
15
(102 mm)
30
(946 m
/sec)
Mongalla
ad
Neutral
131,691
159
(1,209 mm)
158
(1,201 mm)
(38 mm)
33
(1,050 m
/sec)
Malakal
ae
Sink
925,160
798
(863 mm)
957
(1,034 mm)
−159
150
(162 mm)
30
(939 m
/sec)
Khartoum
af
Sink
257,130
134
(520 mm)
174
(676 mm)
-40
14
(53 mm)
28
(897 m
/sec)
Blue Nile
tributary water balance (annual)
79
Basin's
downstream
station
Source or
Sink
Basin
Area km
Precip km
(depth)
Evap km
(depth)
Water
Bal.
km
Runoff km
(depth)
Discharge km
(rate)
Roseires
Dam
81
Source
188,296
246
(1,309 mm)
142
(752 mm)
105
70
(372 mm)
49
(1,548 m
/sec)
Khartoum
ag
Neutral
118,651
96
(686 mm)
72
(605 mm)
10
(75 mm)
48
(1,513 m
/sec)
Atbarah
tributary water balance (annual)
79
Basin's
downstream
station
Source or
Sink
Basin
Area km
Precip km
(depth)
Evap km
(depth)
Water
Bal.
km
Runoff km
(depth)
Discharge km
(rate)
Khasm
el Girba
ah
Source
100,318
95
(951 mm)
66
(656 mm)
30
10
(104 mm)
10
(302 m
/sec)
9 Mouth of
Atbarah River
ai
Neutral
104,051
22
(215 mm)
25
(242 mm)
−3
(6 mm)
12
(373 m
/sec)
Main Nile water balance (annual)
79
Basin's
downstream
station
Source or
Sink
Basin
Area km
Precip km
(depth)
Evap km
(depth)
Water
Bal.
km
Runoff km
(depth)
Discharge km
(rate)
10
Dongola
81
Neutral
390,180
34
(87 mm)
45
(116 mm)
−11
(0 mm)
83
(2,622 m
/sec)
11
Aswan
Dam
81
Sink
188,011
(12 mm)
13
(70 mm)
−10
(0 mm)
87
(2,757 m
/sec)
12
Cairo
Delta
aj
Sink
145,293
(18 mm)
12
(85 mm)
−10
(0 mm)
40
(1,251 m
/sec)
Nilometers
Measurements of the Nile's flow have always been essential to help Egyptians manage their safety and irrigation. Simple
gauges
, called
nilometers
, have been used for thousands of years to measure the level of the Nile.
83
An ideal flood in Egypt – not too high and not too low – was a 6-meter (20 ft) rise over the non-flood water level.
45
Any higher and disastrous floods may damage the river communities; any lower, and fertile silt would not be deposited on the croplands.
83
An important nilometer has been in use on
Roda Island
since at least 622 CE; Egyptians kept records of maximum and minimum river levels from that gauge until 1921.
84
Modern gauges to measure the river level began to be installed in the 1860s, and gauges that also measure the river's
current
– which provide more accurate flow information – were installed beginning in 1900.
84
Ecology
Animals
Hippopotamus amphibius
near
Lake Edward
, one of the lakes that feed the Nile
The total number of fish species found in the Nile Basin is estimated at over 800. In the river alone, 128 species are found, belonging to 27 families.
85
The majority of species belong to the four families:
Cichlidae
(cichlids),
Cyprinidae
(carp),
Mormyridae
(elephantfish), and
Mochokidae
(catfish).
86
A number of Cichlid species are found in the African Great Lakes.
85
In addition to fish, animals that sometimes reside in the Nile's waters include
hippos
crocodiles
, and
African buffalo
. Other water dwellers include
molluscs
crabs
, and
shrimp
87
Many animals live in the ecosystems along the riverbanks, including
elephants
antelope
, and
giraffes
87
Snails found in Nile lakes carry
parasitic flatworms
– known as blood flukes – which are responsible for the
schistosomiasis
disease that afflicts livestock and humans.
88
Birds that live on or near the Nile include
herons
kingfishers
ospreys
, and various kinds of
storks
– including
shoebills
87
Some of the bird species are
endemic
to the Nile Basin (such as
blue-winged goose
), while other species have a
cosmopolitan distribution
(including
moorhen
and
osprey
).
89
Several species of heron, ducks, geese, and egrets live in the basin year-round, and 14 species of ducks and geese arrive only for winter residence.
89
Of the gulls and terns in the basin, the vast majority are migratory. During the past thousand years, the ranges of some species have been reduced due to human encroachment on their habitat.
90
Plants
The
white Egyptian lotus
is native to still waters of the Nile Basin.
91
The
Great Lakes
region of the Nile Basin includes plants such as the
water lily
papyrus
, and
water hyacinth
. The water hyacinth is an invasive species, and has adversely impacted the populations of native species in Lake Kyoga.
92
Plants common in the Sudd swamp include species that thrive in deep flooding such as
Vossia
hippo grass
reed mace
ambatch
, and papyrus. The Sudd also hosts species that thrive in shallow flooding, for example
Oryza
antelope grass
, and
Phragmites
93
Pollution
Historically, the water of the Nile was noted for being drinkable, but in the late 20th century, it became less healthy in certain areas.
94
ak
Pollution is most pronounced in Lake Tana, near major cities, and in the Nile Delta.
96
Sources of pollution in the Nile include agricultural, industrial, and household waste. There are 36 industries that discharge their pollution sources directly into the Nile, and 41 into irrigation canals. These types of industries are: chemical, electrical, engineering, fertilizers, food, metal, mining, oil and soap, pulp and paper, textile and wood. There are over 90 agricultural drains that discharge into the Nile that also include
industrial wastewater
97
River pollution is most pronounced between Aswan and the Mediterranean Sea. The pollution there comes from human activities, agricultural runoff, and industrial waste. Concentrations of pollutants increase as the river flows downstream, due to the cumulative effects of pollution sources.
98
The delta is susceptible to accumulated concentrations because of poor flushing actions, exacerbated by a flat topography and heavy silting in the riverbed.
99
In the late 20th century, Lake Victoria experienced increased
eutrophication
resulting in excessive plant growth, which depletes oxygen levels in the water. The eutrophication is due to human activity, deforestation, and poor agricultural practices, and has caused
algal blooms
and a rapid proliferation of water hyacinth, which have disrupted the ecosystem.
100
Conservation and human impact
Murchison Falls
on the White Nile
The Nile Basin was
relatively wet and humid
from 15 thousand years ago (KYA) to 5 KYA, which enabled the start of large-scale agriculture in the Nile Basin around 5 KYA.
101
The growth of agriculture has had an increasing impact on the environment since then, leading to widespread deforestation and soil erosion.
102
The impacts were worsened by
drier conditions
in Africa that
started about 4 KYA
. These arid conditions led to famines, social disruption, and environmental degradation.
102
Several species of animals have become extinct in the Nile Basin due to human activity. The
sacred ibis
was important in the ancient Egyptian religion, and millions of the ibis were ritually sacrificed. The species became locally extinct in Egypt in the late 19th century, but remains common in central and southern Africa.
103
In Egypt, overpopulation and the construction of the Aswan High Dam have led to the extinction or near-extinction of a large number of plant and animal species.
104
The
Nile perch
was native to several places in Africa, including the Congo, but was not present in the Nile River or its lakes until it was surreptitiously introduced to Lake Victoria in the 1950s to create a fishing stock.
105
al
The Nile perch caused the extinction of over 500 species of cichlids in Lake Victoria, which the scientist
Les Kaufman
described as the first mass extinction of vertebrates that scientists have had the opportunity to observe.
105
The Nile perch also led to increased deforestation, because firewood was required to process the fish.
106
The satellite lakes of Lake Kyoga are potentially important for future conservation efforts, because they contain at least 60 species of haplochromines, and have not yet been invaded by the Nile perch.
88
Climate and climate change
Further information:
Climate change in Egypt
This map shows the
Köppen climate classification
zones in the Nile Basin and the surrounding region. The northern part of the basin is a hot, dry desert (Bwh) while the south is cooler and wetter (C and A zones).
107
The climate of the Nile Basin is characterized by a gradient, transitioning from very dry in the north to wetter to the south.
108
The basin can be divided into nine distinct rainfall regions: the northern regions (Egypt and Sudan) are very dry all year; the middle regions (including Ethiopia) have strong peaks of rainfall in the summer; and the southern regions (around Lake Victoria) have two rainfall peaks – in spring and fall.
109
The majority of the rainfall in the Nile Basin is associated with the summer
monsoon
110
The Nile Basin is experiencing climate changes related to the increasing prevalence of
greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere.
111
Some projections for the 21st century predict a temperature increase of 2 to 4 °C.
111
Models of the future climate in the North Africa and Middle East region predict an increase in the frequency and severity of droughts, and increasing variability of precipitation.
112
The Nile Delta is particularly vulnerable, and the combined action of
sea level rise
and lack of sediment replenishment (due to dams on the Nile) may cause one third of the surface area of the Nile Delta to disappear within the next century.
113
Geological history
Further information:
East African Rift
Geological data, as seen in this map of northeast Africa, are used by geologists to reconstruct ancient topography and water flows.
114
The Nile River is a relatively young river which evolved from ancestral river systems that followed significantly different courses. Over millions of years,
tectonic
and environmental forces shifted, separated, and merged rivers, eventually producing the current form of the river.
115
One hypothesis describes the Nile's geological history as a sequence of the following five evolutionary periods.
116
am
The first evolutionary period was from about 20 million years ago (MYA) to 6 MYA. Around 20 MYA, the west flank of the
East African Rift System
began to
uplift
, separating the African Great Lakes region from the Congo basin. About 6 MYA, the ancestral Nile River in Egypt was a relatively short river, originating near the modern
Wadi Howar
and flowing north into the Mediterranean Sea. Lake Victoria did not exist, and the rivers in the Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands did not flow north or connect to the Egyptian Nile.
119
The second evolutionary period was from 6 to 5.4 MYA.
120
Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands probably formed in this period, and a large
paleolake
Obweruka
– existed where the modern Lake Albert and Lake Edward are.
120
The
Messinian salinity crisis
happened in this period: the
Strait of Gibraltar
closed and the
Atlantic Ocean
could no longer fill the Mediterranean Sea, so the sea completely evaporated. The empty Mediterranean caused the ancestral Nile to cut a deep gorge in Egypt, called the Eonile. The river waters flowing through the gorge eroded a canyon several hundred meters below world ocean level at Aswan, and 2,400 meters (7,900 ft) below at Cairo. After the Strait of Gibraltar reopened, the sea refilled and the Eonile became a gulf which eventually filled with sediment.
121
The third evolutionary period was from 2.5 to 0.5 MYA when – for the first time – the Ethiopian waters flowed north and connected to the ancestral Egyptian Nile. The Rwenzori Mountains
uplifted
causing paleolake Obweruka to begin draining to the east (before, it drained to the west) and to start forming Lake Victoria.
an
The waters forming Lake Victoria did not yet drain northward into Sudan or Egypt.
123
The fourth evolutionary period was from 0.5 MYA to 15 KYA. Lake Victoria assumed roughly its modern shape, and the great lakes plateau tilted northward and began intermittently draining into Sudan and connecting to the ancestral Nile in Egypt, forming a series of rivers that approximately traced the course of the modern White Nile. Paleolakes formed in the area of the modern Sudd swamps.
124
The fifth evolutionary period was from 15 KYA to the present. The African Great Lakes assumed their current shapes, and the flow from those lakes north to Sudan was no longer intermittent. Some paleolakes dried out in South Sudan and in Egypt near the
Toshka Lakes
125
During this period, the
summer monsoon
shifted and substantially increased rainfall in the area of Lake Victoria and Lake Albert.
126
The high water levels of both the Blue Nile and White Nile fluctuated widely during this period, with unusually high water levels occurring several times.
127
The present-day course of the Nile was established early in this period.
128
Human history
Prehistory
The Nile (bottom) flows through Egypt's desert, which was much wetter during the
African humid period
101
Early ancestors of the human species lived near the Nile Basin. The
Australopithecus afarensis
fossil
Lucy
was found slightly east of the basin's boundary.
Olduvai Gorge
– site of the first
Homo habilis
fossils – is located just south of the basin.
129
Within the Nile Basin, the
Nyayanga
archaeological site on the east shore of Lake Victoria has
Oldowan
tools dating back 2.6 million years.
130
ao
Human settlements on the banks of the Nile River have been dated to between 12,000 and 20,000 years ago in a settlement near the modern town of
Qurta
(Egypt). These humans carved
petroglyphs
into rock, depicting
aurochs
, birds,
hippopotamids
, gazelle,
hartebeest
, and fish. Some scholars have hypothesized that these peoples, or other peoples that resided nearby, may have domesticated sheep, goats, or cattle.
131
The eastern Sahara – including Egypt and Sudan – was much wetter during the
African humid period
which lasted from about 10,000 to 5,000 years ago. Pastoral herding cultures developed during that period, but when the climate became drier around 3,900 BCE, people were forced to migrate to the Nile River valley to survive. This was the origin of the
Nubian cultures
in Sudan and the Ancient Egyptian civilization.
101
Ancient Egyptian civilization
See also:
Ancient Egyptian agriculture
Ancient Egyptians used boats extensively for transport. This image is from the
Tomb of Pairy
132
The Nile was central to every facet of Egyptian life: it provided food through the crops it watered, and it caused death when droughts led to crop failures and famine. The Nile encouraged the growth of science and government: irrigation, flood predictions and taxation all required new mathematical and administrative skills. Weather prediction and astronomy also developed as a consequence of the Egyptians' need to understand the river and its floods.
133
The
ancient Egyptian calendar
was based on the flood cycle of the Nile. The year was divided into three seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each. The seasons were
Akhet
(literally, 'inundation'),
Peret
('growing'), and
Shemu
('harvest'). Akhet was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving a new layer of fertile soil behind; Peret was the growing season; and Shemu was the harvest season when there were no rains.
134
The Nile influenced their language: compass directions were based on a person facing upstream: the same word could be used for both
up
and
south
; another word for
left
and
east
; and another for
right
and
west
135
They sometimes referred to rain as "Nile in the sky".
136
Ancient Egypt consisted of two regions:
Lower Egypt
(the Nile Delta) and
Upper Egypt
(the Nile Valley, roughly between
Giza
and the first cataract). The Nile played a role in determining the unique character of each region, because the ever-shifting waterways in Lower Egypt meant that transportation routes, settlements, and administrative regions were often forced to relocate. The Lower and Upper regions were each represented by a unique Nile plant:
papyrus
and
sedge
, respectively.
137
Ancient Egypt's southern boundary was – informally – at the river's first cataract (near
Elephantine Island
) because transportation beyond those rapids was difficult.
138
The Egyptians were familiar with the course of the Nile upstream to the sixth cataract (present-day Khartoum), but were not familiar with the river's course (nor its source) beyond that.
139
ap
The Nile led the Egyptians to build the world's first major dam – now known as the
Sadd el-Kafara
– circa 2600 BCE in an attempt to control flooding.
140
aq
Nubian, Ethiopian, and Nilotic cultures
The
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
was led by
Kushite
kings, also known as the Black Pharaohs.
141
South of the second Nile cataract lies
Nubia
, home to a series of cultures along the Nile River (in what is now modern Sudan) that started development at the end of the African humid period.
142
ar
These Nubian cultures developed in parallel with the Egyptian civilization to the north, but they had little contact with each other until the
Old Kingdom of Egypt
around 3,000 BCE.
145
An early Nubian civilization was the
Kerma culture
, extant from about 2600 BCE to 1500 BCE. Kerma culture was originally a pastoral, cattle-oriented culture, but gradually shifted to agriculture as the Sahara dried at the end of the African humid period.
142
Around 780 BCE, the
Kushite Empire
arose along the banks of the Nile, including the Atbarah tributary. The Kushite Empire conquered much of Egypt under the rule of its
Black Pharaohs
as
who led the empire from the cities
Napata
and
Meroë
on the banks of the Nile.
141
After the rise of Christianity, Christian kingdoms in Nubia (including
Nobatia
Makuria
, and
Alodia
) developed along the Nile.
147
In the area occupied by modern
Eritrea
and northern
Ethiopia
, the
Kingdom of Aksum
flourished from the 1st century to 960 CE. Aksum primarily used the Red Sea for transport, but the Atbarah and Blue Nile were also within its realm.
148
The
Funj Sultanate
(1504 to 1821) ruled over the area approximately covered by modern Sudan.
149
The
Ethiopian Empire
(1270–1974) occupied the areas of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea.
148
The Nile Basin is home to the
Nilotic peoples
, a broad group of communities which originated near the Nile in what is now South Sudan, and migrated south and east into present-day Uganda and Kenya.
150
Nilotic peoples include the
Dinka
and
Nuer
, who are South Sudan's largest ethnic groups; both are semi-nomadic
cattle herders
who practice
nomadic pastoralism
, moving their cattle seasonally in response to the Nile's floods.
151
Egypt from Roman era to colonial era
The
Mahmoudiyah Canal
was built by
Muhammad Ali
(ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848) to support irrigation and transportation.
152
The Nile was a major factor in the growth of the
Roman Empire
, which
ruled Egypt
for several centuries. The Romans imported vast amounts of grain from Egypt, grown with the Nile's floodwaters.
153
In the first century, emperor
Trajan
constructed
a canal
connecting the Nile to the
Red Sea
154
Around 642 CE, Arab conquerors brought Islam to Egypt.
155
Between 945 and 977 CE, the Nile floods were exceptionally low; the resulting crop failures caused political instability which led to the rise of the
Fatimid Caliphate
155
Canals in Egypt continued to be built and maintained by the Fatimids (10th and 11th centuries),
Mamluk Sultanate
(13th to 16th centuries), and
Ottoman Egypt
(16th to 19th centuries).
156
Canals were used for agricultural purposes, and also for trade and for military purposes.
156
Although Egyptian civilizations were proficient at canal-building, they did not successfully build dams or reservoirs on the Nile until the 19th century, when cotton – irrigated with Nile waters – became an important cash crop for Egypt.
152
These early dams were built during the rule of
Muhammad Ali
(ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848). The first small dams were constructed in the Nile Delta and near Cairo, and acted to extend the growing season of crops. Ali also built canals including the
Mahmoudiyah Canal
, started in 1818.
152
Ismail Pasha
(Viceroy of Egypt, 1863–1879) built the
Ibrahimiya Canal
– completed in 1873 – that runs parallel to the Nile and is used for irrigation.
157
Search for the source of the Nile
Further information:
European exploration of Africa
Seventeenth century European map of central Africa. The Nile River is labeled
Nilus fl.
Many features in the map are speculative or fanciful.
158
at
Since the time of the ancient Greeks, Europeans have been curious about the source of the Nile and the origin of its floods.
159
Herodotus
was a Greek historian who visited Egypt in 457 BCE and traveled up the Nile to Aswan; he was puzzled by the Nile floods, which began in the summer – a season when Egypt had no rainfall.
127
Geographers in Europe, Africa, and Arabia – dating back to
Eratosthenes
in the second century BCE – speculated that the source was a collection of lakes in central Africa.
160
Many early maps of Africa showed the Nile River originating in large lakes in Africa's interior (see adjacent image) but until the 1600s they were all speculative and not based on firm scientific knowledge.
161
au
The source of the Blue Nile was established as a result of Portuguese interest in Ethiopia: the
Jesuit missionary
Pedro Páez
visited the source –
Gish Abay
– in the early 17th century, and wrote
História da Ethiópia
describing his time in Ethiopia. His accounts do not contain a specific date for his visit to Gish Abay. Later European explorers who reached Ethiopia in the 17th and 18th centuries – including
Jerónimo Lobo
and
James Bruce
– publicized Páez's writings and estimated that he visited the source between 1613 and 1618.
163
The source of the White Nile proved to be more difficult to establish than that of the Blue Nile – Lake Victoria was not definitively established as a major source of the White Nile until 260 years after Gish Abay was identified as the Blue Nile's source.
164
In 1858,
John Hanning Speke
was the first European to see Lake Victoria, and he later found a river flowing out from the north side of the lake which he concluded was the Nile. He did not follow that river from Lake Victoria to Sudan, leading some to doubt his conclusion that the lake's outflow was the Nile.
165
Efforts to precisely pinpoint the farthest source of the White Nile began in the early 20th century when
Richard Kandt
suggested that the source was a tributary of the
Kagera River
in the
Nyungwe Forest
– the Kagera feeds into Lake Victoria.
The source location was refined in 1969 when a group of researchers from
Waseda University
identified a specific tributary of the Kagera.
In 2006, a group of adventurers rediscovered the 1969 location, and placed a large marker on a nearby tree.
In 2009, academics used satellite imagery to further refine the location of the source, placing it at a spring several km from the 1969/2006 source.
Water politics in the modern era
Further information:
Water politics in the Nile Basin
The Nile crosses several international borders, making it a
transboundary river
and the subject of political tensions.
166
Colonial era
After
British colonial rule of Egypt
commenced in 1882,
av
they started additional water projects to enhance cotton production and support the rapidly growing Egyptian population.
168
aw
The first major dam built on the Nile was the
Aswan Low Dam
, completed in 1902. Its height was raised twice: in 1912 and 1933.
169
Other dams built under the colonial regime include the Sennar Dam, built between 1914 and 1925 on the Blue Nile in Sudan; and the
Jebel Aulia Dam
, completed in 1937 near Khartoum.
170
The primary purpose of the dams built in the 20th century was to support irrigation;
hydropower
generation was only a secondary goal.
171
In 1929, an agreement between Egypt and
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
was reached.
172
The agreement provided that Egypt and Sudan utilize 48 and 4 billion cubic meters of the Nile flow per year, respectively. Egypt reserved the right to monitor the Nile flow in the upstream countries, to undertake river-related projects without the consent of upriver nations, and to veto any construction projects that would adversely affect Egypt.
173
Post-colonial era
The
Abu Simbel temples
were relocated to higher ground when the
Aswan High Dam
was built and submerged their original location.
174
Egypt and Sudan became independent from Britain in the mid-1950s.
175
aw
In 1959 Egypt and Sudan updated the 1929 water-sharing agreement. The new agreement allocated the water to be shared between Egypt and Sudan at 55.5 and 18.5 billion cubic meters respectively.
177
Upstream countries within the Nile Basin were excluded from the 1959 agreement – including Ethiopia, which is the source of over two-thirds of the Nile's water.
178
The 1959 agreement included terms permitting Egypt and Sudan to build dams, which they did: Egypt built the
Aswan High Dam
(completed 1970); Sudan built the
Khashm el-Girba Dam
(1964),
Roseires Dam
(1966),
Merowe Dam
(2009), and
Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex
(2017).
178
ax
In 1960, Egypt started building the Aswan High Dam which stores roughly two years' flow of the Nile River.
180
The dam effectively turned the downstream stretch of the Nile (from the dam to the sea) into a large irrigation canal.
181
The dam has positive impacts: more water is available for irrigation, and hydropower has provided more electricity for Egyptian manufacturing. Negative impacts of the dam include poorer water quality, reduced fertility of soil due to lack of new sediment deposited by floods, increased
salinity of soil
, schistosomiasis, habitat loss for native flora and fauna, and displacement of Nubians.
182
The Aswan High Dam flooded a large area of the Nile Valley, and would have submerged several important historical monuments. An
international campaign
to save some monuments from becoming submerged by the new reservoir successfully saved some monuments, including the
Abu Simbel temples
174
The Aswan High Dam also forced the relocation of many
Nubians
that lived in the valley inundated by the new reservoir. The Nubians were removed from their ancestral homelands, and many were forced to migrate to cities in Egypt and Sudan.
183
Late 20th century disagreements and negotiations
Throughout the 20th century, there was a marked imbalance in political power within the Nile Basin: Egypt and Sudan in the north wielded more power than the other ten nations to the south.
184
After Egypt and Sudan created the 1959 agreement, several of the upstream nations (including Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia) began to voice objections to the terms of the agreement, and argued that they were not bound by the agreement because they were not parties to it.
185
The arguments of the upstream nations were that the dams built by Egypt and Sudan protected those two countries from drought, famine, and floods, yet upstream countries such as Ethiopia were still subject to droughts and famine.
186
ay
For example, the Aswan High Dam generated about 10 billion kilowatt-hours per year; and enabled Egyptian farmers to cultivate three harvests per year, compared to a single harvest before the dam.
188
Egyptian leaders often stated that they were willing to employ military force to protect their rights under the 1959 agreement.
189
In the late 20th century, African nations participated in several efforts to establish water-sharing policies – including the
Undugu Commission
(active from 1983 to 1993) and
TECCONILE
(active 1993 to 1998) – but were not successful in creating long-term agreements.
190
In 1999, nine of the ten
az
Nile Basin countries – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda – established the
Nile Basin Initiative
to promote peaceful dialogue regarding issues related to the Nile Basin.
192
Power shift to upstream nations
Further information:
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
The
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
, completed in 2025, generates over 5 gigawatts.
193
At the start of the 21st century, power shifted to the upstream nations as they began to build dams without the consent of Egypt or Sudan.
184
In 2008, Ethiopia built the
Tekezé Dam
without seeking permission of Egypt or Sudan.
194
In 2010, five upstream countries – Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Kenya
ba
– signed a new agreement – the
Cooperative Framework Agreement
– which aimed to allocate waters more equitably for upstream countries. Kenya was motivated to sign the agreement because it had plans to pump water out of Lake Victoria for irrigation. The 2010 agreement was opposed by Egypt and Sudan.
196
In 2011,
South Sudan became independent from Sudan
, becoming the eleventh country in the Nile Basin. In subsequent water disputes, South Sudan allied with the upstream nations rather than with Sudan.
31
In 2011, Ethiopia announced plans to build a large dam on the Blue Nile near the border with Sudan. The dam was later named the
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
(GERD).
197
Ethiopia viewed the GERD as essential to the nation's future, because the electrical power generated by the dam would enable them to significantly increase the quality of life of their population. Egypt was concerned that the dam would imperil the irrigation of their crops because Egypt already uses nearly all of the river water that enters their country, and they were concerned that the new dam would lead to water shortages. Sudan was concerned about safety and water supply.
198
After the dam was announced, Egyptian president
Mohamed Morsi
hinted that military strikes on Ethiopia were an option,
197
and Sudan and Egypt conducted several joint
military exercises
199
Numerous negotiations were conducted between Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt while the dam was constructed and the reservoir was filled.
200
In 2015 the countries signed a "Declaration of Principles" which contained high-level agreements regarding water usage and reservoir filling procedures.
201
bb
In 2019, the United States hosted talks between the involved nations.
201
In 2020, the
African Union
started facilitating talks.
202
That year, Egypt asked the
United Nations Security Council
to intervene, but it declined to do so.
203
In 2021 and 2022, the
UAE
hosted talks.
204
Construction of the GERD dam was completed in 2020, and in 2025 the reservoir was full and most of the dam's generators were producing electricity.
205
Economy
Agriculture
These crops in Egypt (near the
Toshka Lakes
) are the result of
an irrigation system
that pumps Nile water out of
Lake Nasser
206
There is a significant difference in agricultural practices between the northern nations of the Nile Basin (Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan) and the southern nations (Uganda, Ethiopia, etc).
207
The north is primarily a desert, yet the south receives significant rainfall; crops in the north rely primarily on irrigation, whereas the south relies on
rainfall retained in the soil
; crop yields are higher in the north (due to intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides) than in the south; and the north has extensive irrigation infrastructure (dams, canals, etc) supported by governmental policies and international funding sources.
207
The amount of
soil water
used annually for crops in the south is 229 km
, which is more than twice the total annual water flow of the Nile River (about 100 km
).
208
Crop yields in the south are adversely influenced by longer distances to market; in contrast to the north, where nearly all farms are concentrated in a narrow strip along riverbanks with ample transportation opportunities.
209
The lack of rainfall and groundwater leads Egypt to rely on the Nile for virtually all its water needs.
210
Principal crops grown in Egypt include cotton, wheat, corn, rice, sorghum, and fava beans.
210
There are generally two growing seasons in Egypt: summer (cotton) and winter (grains and vegetables).
211
Since the 1950s, Egypt has increasingly used industrial farming techniques (including extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides) to improve crop yield.
212
Egypt's land is 94% desert and 3%
arable land
211
The vast majority of Egypt's farmland is located in the Nile Delta, with the remainder along the banks of the Nile.
213
The primary crops in Sudan are peanuts, cotton, sesame, sugarcane, and
sorghum
. Other crops include millet, wheat, corn, and barley.
214
Sudan's crops draw upon water from both the Blue Nile and White Nile, supported by several dams including the Sennar Dam and Khashm el-Girba Dam.
214
Much of the irrigated land is within the
Gezira Scheme
, an extensive irrigation project started in the 1920s.
215
Fisheries
The
Nile perch
was introduced to Lake Victoria in the 1950s to create a new fishery.
105
The Nile River and its associated lakes have been an important food source for peoples living near the waters since prehistoric times.
216
In the year 2000, the Nile Basin produced about 1.4 million tonnes of fish per year, which is more than half of the total fresh water yield from the entire African continent (2.2 million tonnes).
217
Lake Victoria alone – Africa's largest lake – provided 1 million tonnes.
218
The yield of the lakes of the Nile Basin far exceeds the amount of fish caught in its rivers.
216
All waters of the Nile Basin – with the exception of the Sudd – show evidence of overfishing.
219
In the 1950s, Nile perch and Nile Tilapia were introduced into Lake Victoria in an effort to reverse the shrinking yields of native fishes in the lake; the effort was successful, but led to a decline in the number of native fish species in the lake.
220
Currently, the vast majority of fish caught in Lake Victoria are Nile perch and
Silver cyprinid
(Lake Victoria sardine).
216
Some fisheries – particularly the
Nile perch
– are primarily exported to Europe, rather than consumed locally.
171
Fish farming is carried out in some parts of the basin.
221
Hydropower
Further information:
List of power stations in Egypt
List of power stations in Sudan
List of power stations in Ethiopia
, and
List of power stations in Uganda
Some hydropower stations on the Nile River. "GERD" is the
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
The Nile River and its tributaries power dozens of
hydropower
stations, which collectively have a capacity to generate over 10
gigawatts
(GW) of electrical power.
bc
Prior to the year 2000, there were few dams on the Nile River, but thereafter, governments accelerated the pace of dam construction.
222
Hydropower stations with
capacities
over 100 MW are listed in the table below.
bd
Major hydropower stations in the Nile Basin
be
Hydropower
station
Nearby
landmark
Year
completed
Power
(MW, in 2025)
Tributary
Aswan Low Dam
Aswan
Egypt
1902, 1912
1933, 1985
550
223
Main Nile
Aswan High Dam
Aswan
Egypt
1970
2,100
43
Main Nile
Merowe Dam
Merowe
Sudan
2009
1,250
224
Main Nile
Upper Atbara
and Setit
Showak
Sudan
2017
320
225
Confluence of
Atbarah River
and
Tekezé River
Roseires Dam
Er Roseires
Sudan
1966, 2013
280
226
Blue Nile
Tana Beles
Lake Tana
Ethiopia
2010
460
227
Beles River
Blue Nile
Tekezé Dam
Tekezé River
Ethiopia
2009
300
227
Tekezé River
Atbarah River
Grand Ethiopian
Renaissance Dam
Bameza
Ethiopia
2020
5,150
193
Blue Nile
Fincha
Fincha'a
Ethiopia
1973
134
227
Blue Nile
(Chomen Lake)
Karuma
Karuma Falls
Uganda
2024
600
228
Victoria Nile
Isimba
Kamuli District
Uganda
2019
183
229
Victoria Nile
Bujagali
Bujagali Falls
Uganda
2012
250
230
Victoria Nile
Kiira
Kimaka
Uganda
2003
200
231
Victoria Nile
Nalubaale
Jinja
Uganda
1954
180
232
Victoria Nile
Transportation
Barges  – like this one near
Luxor
, Egypt – are used to carry cargo on the river.
The Nile has a flatter gradient in the north relative to the mountainous southern region – so the northern countries (Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan) have more navigable stretches of water.
233
In Egypt, the river has no major obstacles between the delta and the first cataract at Aswan, and as a consequence that stretch has been utilized heavily for transportation.
234
That stretch could be used even before the arrival of
steamships
, because currents could carry boats downstream, and winds from the north often helped sailboats travel upstream.
235
The Blue Nile is generally not navigable in most places. Instead of the river, Ethiopians and Italian colonizers used an overland route – the
Strada Imperiale
– for north-south transportation in Ethiopia.
236
As recently as 1903, explorers were still researching the Blue Nile to see if it could be used for transportation between Ethiopia and Sudan, but were not successful.
237
In ancient Egypt, the river was the primary mode of transportation, and a wide variety of boats were built – both utilitarian and ceremonial.
132
Egyptian boats were sufficiently sturdy to carry large
obelisks
and stones for building pyramids and temples.
238
bf
In the modern era, the river is still used for transportation, particularly in Egypt, which has four navigable waterways suitable for large ships: two in the delta, one between the delta and the Aswan High Dam, and one in Lake Nasser. Egypt moves 500 million tonnes of cargo on the river per year, which is only about 0.8% of Egypt's total freight movement (the vast majority of freight moves by road or railway).
bg
Cargo transported on the river includes cement, limestone, coal, petroleum products, and phosphates.
241
Upstream from Lake Nasser, the Nile and its tributaries contain waterfalls,
cataracts
, rapids, and dams that make long-distance navigation difficult.
242
Another obstacle to navigation is the
Sudd
, a large swampy
wetland
on the White Nile in South Sudan. Plans to build a canal through the swamp – called the
Jonglei Canal
– were initiated in the early 20th century with the goal of providing more water to grow cotton in Egypt. Construction was briefly started in 1978, but the endeavor was soon halted.
243
Tourism and recreation
Several parts of the river attract tourists. This boat is viewing
Murchison Falls
on the White Nile, between Lake Victoria and Lake Albert.
The Nile River – in particular, the stretch in Egypt – has been one of the world's most popular tourist destinations for millennia, and has been the subject of a vast amount of travel literature.
244
bh
One of the most visited tourist destinations along the Nile is the
Giza pyramid complex
– about 9 kilometers (5.6 mi) from the modern course of the Nile in Cairo – which has been a tourist destination since the time of the Greeks.
245
bf
The stretch of the Nile between Cairo and Aswan has long been a popular destination for tourists: during celebrations surrounding the opening of the
Suez Canal
in 1870, a large group of tourists took a boat ride on that stretch of the river and visited
Luxor
Dendera
Saqqara
Edfu
, and
Philae
244
One of the world's first
travel agencies
Thomas Cook & Son
, started offering tours of the river in 1870 when the Suez Canal opened, and started regular steamboat cruises on the Nile in 1875.
246
Since the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1970, the dam itself has become a tourist attraction, along with the nearby temples that were moved during construction to avoid becoming submerged.
247
The Aswan High Dam also benefited the cruise industry because the river from Aswan to the delta became safely navigable all year.
248
The Nile Basin is home to several parks and nature reserves, including Uganda's
Murchison Falls National Park
249
and Egypt's
Salouga and Ghazal Protected Area
250
The
Bujagali Falls
were once one of Africa's most notable
rafting
sites, but have become submerged due to construction of the
Bujagali Power Station
251
In culture
Art and literature
This ancient Egyptian artwork, "Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes", is within the
Tomb of Menna
in the
Theban Necropolis
252
Nile crocodile
eating fish.
252
bi
Nilotic landscapes
, such as this 2nd century Roman mosaic, often displayed crocodiles and hippos.
253
Personification of the River Nile
is a colossal marble sculpture from
c.
2nd century CE Rome – now in the
Vatican Museum
254
The river was frequently featured in
ancient Egyptian art
, often with kings fishing or harpooning hippopotamuses.
253
Landscape artworks
featuring the Nile River – either directly or allegorically – are called
nilotic landscapes
. Nilotic landscapes are characterized by a river scene featuring plant and animal life, much of which is native to Egypt. Common elements include papyrus, palm trees, fish and water birds, and – less often – felines, monkeys, and crocodile.
253
Nilotic landscapes are also represented in artwork from ancient Greece and
ancient Rome
255
Imperial Roman nilotic art has a larger emphasis on fierce animals, usually including crocodiles and hippopotamus.
255
A notable representation of the Nile in art is the
Personification of the River Nile
, a colossal marble sculpture from
c.
2nd century BCE Rome – now in the
Vatican Museum
bj
The Nile is represented as a reclining man holding sheaves of wheat in his hand. At his side are a
sphinx
– representing Egypt – and sixteen children which allude to sixteen cubits (the ideal height of the annual flood). At the base are crocodiles, pygmies, and hippopotamus.
254
The Nile is seen in artworks that feature four major rivers of the world: Nile (Africa),
Danube
(Europe),
Ganges
(Asia), and
Río de la Plata
(Americas). Examples include the painting
The Four Rivers of Paradise
by
Peter Paul Rubens
(1615)
257
and the fountain in Rome
Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi
designed by
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
(1651).
258
In Bernini's fountain, the Nile is depicted as a man with his head covered in a cloth, symbolizing the mystery of the unknown source of the Nile.
259
The
Hymn to the Nile
was composed and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples; it celebrated the flooding of the Nile and the benefits it brought to Egyptian civilization.
260
Giuseppe Verdi
was commissioned by
Isma'il Pasha
to compose an opera to celebrate the opening of the
Suez Canal
. The opera,
Aida
, was performed at the newly-constructed
Egyptian Royal Opera House
in 1871. The opera's third act is set on the banks of the Nile River.
261
Since the start of construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, Ethiopian musicians have produced songs that celebrate and glorify the Nile and the dam.
262
William Shakespeare
has the character
Marc Antony
describe the Nile floods in the play
Antony and Cleopatra
: "Thus do they, sir: they take the flow o' the Nile By certain scales i' the pyramid; they know, By the height, the lowness, or the mean, if dearth Or foison follow: the higher Nilus swells, The more it promises: as it ebbs, the seedsman Upon the slime and ooze scatters his grain, And shortly comes to harvest."
263
bk
Agatha Christie
wrote the popular 1937 mystery novel
Death on the Nile
, about a murder on a Nile steamboat, which inspired several adaptations.
264
Adrift on the Nile
is a 1966 novel by Egyptian author and
Nobel Prize
winner
Naguib Mahfouz
about a young man who lives on a houseboat on the Nile. The river is a metaphor for a life that he cannot control, leading him to turn his back on society.
265
The Nile plays a prominent role in several
video games
, including
Civilization VI
266
Myth and religion
The Egyptian god
Hapy
was responsible for the annual Nile floods.
267
The Hebrew Bible contains a story about the infant
Moses
being rescued from the Nile.
268
The
cosmology
of the ancient Egyptians was cyclic in nature: rather than viewing life as having a start and end, it was viewed as a perpetual cycle. This cyclic life-view was rooted in the natural world that surrounded the Egyptians, the daily passage of the sun, and the annual floods of the Nile.
269
The sun god
Ra
passed through the sky each day from east to west, and the three phases of the day (sunrise, daytime, and sunset) corresponded to the human lifecycle: birth, life, and death. For this reason, many burial sites were positioned on the west bank of the Nile, where they would be closer to the setting sun.
270
bl
In the
ancient Egyptian religion
, no single god personified the Nile in the same way that the god Ra personified the sun.
271
Gods associated with the river included
Hapy
(god of the annual floods) and
Khnum
(god of the
first cataract
), who were jointly responsible for producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the country's farmland.
267
The Egyptian religion placed the source of the Nile's annual flood at
Elephantine Island
(at the first cataract) where the floodwaters were believed to flow up out of the netherworld.
272
Isis
was a
major deity
in the Egyptian religion, strongly associated with the Nile River. Cults based on Isis spread from Egypt into Europe in the second century BCE.
273
An example of the influence of the cult of Isis in Europe is the
Nile mosaic of Palestrina
, located in Rome and dated to the first century BCE: the 4 by 3 meter mosaic depicts a detailed Nilotic landscape.
274
In
Greek mythology
Nilus
is the god of the Nile River, one of thousands of river-god children of
Titans
Oceanus
and his sister-wife
Tethys
. Nilus was father of the
naiad
Memphis
, mythical founder of the city of
Memphis
275
The Nile River is mentioned in the
Bible
dozens of times, including a story in the
Book of Exodus
about the infant
Moses
being placed in a basket in the river.
268
Some authorities identify the river
Gihon
– which is mentioned in the
Book of Genesis
as one of the four
Rivers of Paradise
– as the Nile River.
268
A story particularly important to the
Coptic peoples
of Egypt is found in the
Book of Matthew
: it recounts how
Joseph
and
Mary
fled to Egypt
and lived near the Nile for several years, thus avoiding
Herod
268
References
Footnotes
An approximate source location was initially determined in 1969 by a group of researchers from
Waseda University
In 2006, a group of adventurers rediscovered that location, and placed a marker on a nearby tree (
2°16′56″S
29°19′53″E
 / 
2.28222°S 29.33139°E
 /
-2.28222; 29.33139
) which is now a minor tourist sight.
In 2009, academics used satellite imagery to refine the location of the source, placing it at a spring (
2°19′35″S
29°21′30″E
 / 
2.32639°S 29.35833°E
 /
-2.32639; 29.35833
) several km from the 1969/2006 location.
The 7,088 km value for the length of the Nile is based on the
Liu 2009
study. This study measured ten rivers around the world using the same methodology: the length was measured along the centerline of the river using satellite imagery. The imagery was collected during the years 1999 to 2002.
The lengths of all rivers vary over time, as the river changes course, sources are refined, deltas change size, or new measurement methodologies are developed.
The title of longest river is somewhat controversial.
Sources stating that the Nile is the longest river include
Liu 2009
Fierro & Nyer 2007
, p. 5.35;
Talbot & Williams 2009
, p. 39;
Dumont 2009
, p. 1; and
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 336.
Discharge rate is 2,757 m
/sec (87 km
/yr) at Aswan.
Between Aswan and the Mediterranean, Egypt withdraws large amounts of water for irrigation, leading to lower discharge values downstream. Near Cairo, the discharge is 1,251 m
/sec (40 km
/yr).
The discharge from the delta into the Mediterranean Sea is only 150 m
/sec (5 km
/yr).
These values were measured before construction of the
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
Other hieroglyphs for 'river' are presented in
Faulkner 1964
, p. 33 and
Allen 2000
, pp. 21, 101.
Some of the cataracts have been submerged by human-made reservoirs.
The source of the Nile leads to the
Rukarara River
, then to the
Mwogo River
, which joins with the
Mbirurume River
to form the
Nyabarongo River
, which leads to the
Kagera River
, which drains into Lake Victoria.
34
The monument erected by Waldecker for the southernmost source is at
3°54′54″S
29°50′16″E
 / 
3.9151°S 29.8379°E
 /
-3.9151; 29.8379
25
The Nile exits Lake Victoria at the town of
Jinja
, which hosts several tourist sights named "source of the Nile" including the
Source of the Nile Bridge
27
The source of the Blue Nile is about 75 km south of
Lake Tana
, at
10°58′12″N
37°11′55″E
 / 
10.9699°N 37.1986°E
 /
10.9699; 37.1986
29
In 2011,
South Sudan broke away from Sudan
, becoming the eleventh country in the Nile Basin.
31
Measured by area, not volume.
Most precipitation in the Bahr el Ghazal basin is lost to evaporation before reaching the Nile.
40
The White Nile region, as defined here, contains only a small portion of the much larger
White Nile
River.
The segment of the Nile River between the Blue/White confluence and the Mediterranean is called the main Nile or the Saharan Nile.
44
Data does not include impacts of the
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
, completed in 2025
Comparisons are using discharge of the Nile as measured at Aswan. The Nile's discharge into the Mediterranean Sea is far less.
As the Blue Nile flow diminishes in the winter, the pent-up waters of the White Nile increase their flow past Khartoum.
63
In April and May, the White Nile supplies about 80% of the main Nile's water. Thus, the areas downstream of Khartoum receive a steady (not to say constant) flow that made irrigation possible year-round.
63
The magnitude of the annual Nile flood can vary widely from year to year. Low-flood periods can last for decades or centuries.
64
The annual flow of the river at
Aswan
is about 84 cubic km; and the capacity of the Aswan High Dam's reservoir is about 160 cubic km.
66
The sediment transport data was gathered over a wide range of years, spanning from 1997 to 2019. Every measurement site had unique collection time spans, specified in
Lemma 2019
, p. 11 and
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 359.
The technical definitions of source and sink used by scientists are more complicated than presented here. For clarity, the definitions of source and sink have been simplified.
Sources and sinks are useful to policy makers when negotiating international water-sharing issues, such as dam construction.
73
In the 21st century, Egypt and Sudan continue to rely on extracting large amounts of water from the Nile for their existence.
74
Some experts predict that the Nile Basin may experience a
water scarcity
problem in the future, if population growth, agricultural needs, and climate change combine to create a scenario where the water demands exceed the amount of water available.
75
The water balance of a region can be represented by equation. There are many water balance equations.
77
A relatively simple equation is:
{\displaystyle P=ET+\Delta S+D+Q}
In this formula, the
precipitation
) received is equal to the sum of the water losses:
evaporation
and
transpiration
ET
),
groundwater recharge
{\displaystyle \Delta S}
), lake-filling (
), and
net streamflow
).
77
Hydrology Table Legend:
55
Precip
- Precipitation (P)
Evap
- Evapotranspiration (ET)
Water Bal
- Precip-ET
Discharge
- River flow at measuring station (average of the entire year)
Source or Sink
- Is basin a significant source or sink of water?
Basin area is the Nile Basin within the country.
For clarity, the names of some stations have been changed to use the names of nearby major geographic features. For example, the Kilo3 station is presented here as "Mouth of the
Atbarah River
". The Paara station is presented here as "
Murchison Falls
". The "Owen Reservoir" station is presented here as "
Lake Victoria
outlet".
The measuring stations are listed in the following tables proceeding from upstream to downstream. The discharge "rate" data is an average of the entire year. The basin data in the table is for each individual basin; it is not cumulative. For example, the runoff of the second basin (Murchison Falls) does not include the runoff of the upstream basin (Lake Victoria outlet).
Measured at
Nalubaale dam
81
Measured at
Paara (Uganda)
, slightly downstream from Murchison Falls.
81
Measured at
Mongalla, South Sudan
, about 40 km downstream (north) of
Juba
81
Malakal is after the confluence of the White Nile and Sobat. It includes both
Bahr el Ghazal
and
Sobat River
tributaries.
81
Measured at
Al Mogran
before the Blue Nile confluence (includes only the White Nile).
81
Includes only Blue Nile (excludes White Nile).
81
Roughly at the midpoint of the Atbarah river.
81
Measured at the Kilo3 station, where the Atbarah joins the Nile.
81
Station is El Ekhsase, near Cairo. Basin data includes the Nile Delta, even though the delta is downstream of the station.
82
Jack Talling wrote "Two characteristics of water from the Lower Nile long attracted attention – that it was of excellent quality for drinking and irrigation, and that it seasonally contained high concentration of silt."
95
The Nile perch was introduced to Lake Victoria by Ugandan authorities in a clandestine effort to create a new fishery; but this has never been acknowledged by Uganda.
105
These five periods were proposed by
Abdelsalam 2018
based on major environmental and tectonic events that impacted the Nile River.
117
Other scientists hypothesize a different set of evolutionary periods; for example, geologist
Rushdi Said
hypothesized eight periods in their book
Said 1993
118
Obweruka existed from about 7.5 MYA to 2.5 MYA.
122
The Nile River and Lake Victoria did not exist in their current forms during the times of
Australopithecus afarensis
Homo habilis
, or the
Oldowan industry
116
The ancient Egyptians were familiar with the Blue Nile's course up to Lake Tana.
139
The
Sadd el-Kafara
failed before it was completed, and never functioned as a dam.
140
Some authorities place the northern limit of Nubia at the First Cataract;
143
others at the Second Cataract.
144
Also called "Kushite Pharaohs".
146
The map was engraved by
Jodocus Hondius
or one of his followers, and published around 1619.
158
An example of an early map that shows the Nile and its source is from the 12th century, when the Arabian geographer
Muhammad al-Idrisi
published a book
Tabula Rogeriana
which showed the Nile flowing from a large lake in Africa's interior.
162
European powers divided up Africa during a process called the
Scramble for Africa
, formalized in the
Berlin Conference
of 1885. Under that agreement, Britain received most of the Nile Basin.
167
Egypt became nominally independent in 1922, but Britain maintained control of foreign policy and kept armed forces near the Suez Canal. Full independence was achieved in 1957 after the
Suez Crisis
176
The 1959 agreement also provided for financial compensation paid from Egypt to Sudan for the displacement of
Nubians
as a result of the new reservoir behind the Aswan High Dam.
179
According to
Sundeep Waslekar
, Nile Basin droughts in the 20th century affected around 170 million people and killed half a million people.
187
From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.
187
South Sudan was not yet a country in 1999, but joined the
Nile Basin Initiative
in 2012.
31
Eritrea has declined to participate in the Nile Basin Initiative.
191
Kenya was not one of the initial signatories, but signed it soon after it was created.
195
The 2015 agreement stipulated that the three countries would use the Nile's waters in a fair and appropriate manner; and they agreed on an approach to filling the reservoir and operating the dam.
201
Total generation capacity for the Nile Basin was computed by summing generation capacity values from the table titled "Major hydropower stations in the Nile Basin". Sources for capacities of individual power stations are identified in that same table.
This table only includes hydropower stations with capacities over 100 MW. Smaller stations including
Assiut Barrage
Jebel Aulia Dam
Naga Hammadi dam
Esna Power Plant
, and
Tis Abay I, II
are not included. Hydropower stations
outside
the Nile Basin are not included, such as Ethiopia's
Gilgel Gibe Dams I
II
, and
III
Colors in the "Landmark" column indicate the country in which the hydropower station is located.
Artwork showing an obelisk on a boat is in the
Deir el-Bahari
mortuary temples
. The Nile River used to be much closer to the Giza Pyramid Complex than it is today, enabling boats to bring stones close to the construction site.
239
Data regarding Egyptian waterborne cargo is from 2023.
240
In 1992, Smithsonian librarian
Martin R. Kalfatovic
documented 1,150 books that described travels on the Nile.
244
Detail of larger artwork in the
Tomb of Menna
in the
Theban Necropolis
252
A colossal sculpture is one twice life size or larger.
256
Quote from
Antony and Cleopatra
(Act 2, Scene 7). "Foison" means a rich harvest.
The west side of the river is where many Egyptian funerary monuments are located, including the
Giza pyramid complex
, the
Memphite Necropolis
, and the
Valley of the Kings
270
Citations
Senay 2014
, p. 8640, Table 5.
Liu 2009
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 277–278.
Liu 2009
Liu 2009
, p. 81.
McCoy 2023
Liu 2009
, pp. 80–81.
Size from
Senay 2014
, p. 8640, Table 5. Ten percent from
Shahin 2002
, p. 272. According to
Hughes 1992
, p. 97, authorities report a variety of values for the size of the Nile Basin because the flat, waterless deserts of Egypt make it difficult to establish a boundary in the northern regions.
Senay 2014
, p. 8639, Table 4.
"Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin",
United Nations
, p. 1.
Hurst 2025
Gardiner 1964
, pp. 43, 623.
Allen 2000
, pp. 21, 101.
Allen 2000
, p. 339,470.
Badawi 2003
, p. 717.
Hurst 2025
Dumont 2009
, p. 6.
Hamilton 2016
, p. 66.
Murray 1923
, p. 8.
Dumont 2009
, pp. 5, 6, 40.
Sutcliffe 2009
, pp. 338, 345.
Haupt 1926
, p. 305.
Ranjan 2024
, p. 24.
Sutcliffe 2009
, pp. 338, 345.
Dumont 2009
, p. 4.
Talling 2009
, p. 390.
Dumont 2009
, p. 5.
Eggermont 2009
, pp. 243–246.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 282.
Collins 2002
, pp. 27–29.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 300–301.
Hughes 1992
, pp. 97, 119, 198.
Warburg 2007
, pp. 475, 483–484.
"Source Du Nil",
Google Maps
"Source Du Nil",
Google Maps
Tvedt 2021
, p. 6.
Walubiri 2018
Sutcliffe 2009
, pp. 340–341.
Camberlin 2009
, pp. 312–314. Map of rainfall intensity over Lake Victoria.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 323–324.
Allan 2009
, p. 753.
Ranjan 2024
, p. 18.
Sutcliffe 2009
, pp. 335–340.
Collins 2002
, p. 5.
Eggermont 2009
, p. 255.
Collins 2002
, pp. 27–46. Overview of African Great Lakes.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 260, 263, 277–278. Furthest source.
Hughes 1992
, pp. 97, 119, 198. Southernmost source.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 214.
Hurst 2025
Sutcliffe 2009
, pp. 336–339.
Hurst 2025
Tvedt 2021
, p. 5. Arabic translation.
Collins 2002
, pp. 47–69. Overview of Sudd.
"Baḥr al-Ghazāl"
Britannica
Sutcliffe 2009
, pp. 352–354.
Dumont 2009
, p. 6.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 44–45.
Shahin 2002
, p. 276.
El-Shabrawy 2009
, p. 149.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 360.
Williams 2009
, p. 62.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 45.
Hamza 2009
, p. 75.
Hurst 2025
Talbot & Williams 2009
, pp. 37–40, 57.
Hamza 2009
, p. 93.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 45.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 323–324.
McKenna 2025
Collins 2002
, pp. 88–104. Overview of Blue Nile.
McKenna 2025
Dumont 2009
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 274, 339. Blue Nile Falls.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 116, 135. Roseires Dam.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 341. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 118, 131, 348. Sennar Dam.
Senay 2014
, p. 8639, Table 3.
Hurst 2025
Dumont 2009
, p. 7.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 339.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 321, 336–337. Tekezé Dam.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 359. Khashm el-Girba Dam.
Hafez 2024
. Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex.
Senay 2014
"Nile Basin Dongola",
Global Runoff Data Center
Tvedt 2021
, p. 4.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 340.
Collins 2002
, p. 11.
Senay 2014
, p. 8639, Table 4. Based on annual discharge figures: Blue Nile 48 km
; White Nile 28 km
; Atbarah 12 km
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 357.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 346.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 5.
Ghabbour 2009
, pp. 503–504.
Hurst 2025
. Summer flood: 25.1 billion ft
per day, or 0.71 km
per day.
Senay 2014
, p. 8639, Table 4. Annual mean measured at
Dongola
station: 83 km
per year, or 0.23 km
per day.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 5.
Collins 2002
, pp. 20–26.
El-Shabrawy 2009
, p. 125.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 5.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 45.
El-Shabrawy 2009
, p. 125.
Senay 2014
, p. 8644, section 3.5.4.
Lemma 2019
, p. 1.
Talbot & Williams 2009
, p. 38.
Talbot & Williams 2009
, p. 37.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 359.
Lemma 2019
, p. 11.
Senay 2014
, p. 8631, Equation (4).
Senay 2014
, p. 8648, Section 4.
Ranjan 2024
, p. 19.
Okidi 1994
, p. 341.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 43–44, 61.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 70.
Senay 2014
, pp. 8641, 8648, Figure 7; Sections 3.5.5, 4; Tables 3,4,5 and 6.
Healy 2007
, pp. 5–6.
Healy 2007
, pp. 5–6.
Senay 2014
, p. 8631, Equation (4)
Senay 2014
, Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink).
Senay 2014
, pp. 8629–8630, Sec. 2.2.
Senay 2014
, Figure 1, Table 2.
Senay 2014
, Figure 1, Table 2, Sec 2.2.5.
Sutcliffe 2009
, pp. 340, 361.
Talling 2009
, p. 25.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 68.
Collins 2002
, pp. 15–20.
Sutcliffe 2009
, pp. 340, 361.
Witte 2009
, pp. 647, 651–652.
Green 2009
, p. 205.
Witte 2009
, p. 647.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 189.
Hurst 2025
Van Damme & Bocxlaer 2009
, pp. 585.
Dumont 2009
, pp. 10–11.
Green & El-Moghraby 2009
, pp. 193, 196–197, 201–202.
Green 2009
, p. 205.
Green 2009a
, p. 705.
Green 2009a
, p. 705.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 53–55, 58, 70.
Green 2009
, pp. 205, 207.
Vijverberg 2009
, p. 166.
Green 2009
, p. 205.
Dumont 2009
, p. 13.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 350.
Hurst 2025
Dumont 2009
, p. 18.
Talling 2009a
, p. 368.
Talling 2009a
, p. 368.
Dumont 2009
, p. 18.
El-Sheekh 2009
, pp. 395–396.
"Nile Basin National Water Quality",
Nile Basin Initiative
, pp. 12–22.
Hegab 2025
Hamza 2009
, p. 75.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 53, 59, 69.
Abotalib 2023
Witte 2009a
, p. 733.
El-Sheekh 2009
, p. 395.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 18.
Kuper & Kröpelin 2006
, pp. 803–807. Egyptian culture.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 47, 57. Egyptian culture.
Shoup 2017
, Articles: "Culture of the Nile", "History of the Nile", "History of Egypt: Ancient", "History of Sudan: Ancient Kush and Nubia", "Atbara River". Nubian (Sudanese) culture in Sudan.
Williams 2009a
, p. 771.
Green 2009a
, p. 718.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 53, 55
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 53–55, 58, 70.
Marshall 2018
, pp. 1542–1543, 1546–1548.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 216.
Lehman 2009
, p. 227.
Green 2009a
, p. 718.
Witte 2009a
, p. 735.
Beck 2018
Camberlin 2009
, p. 307.
Camberlin 2009
, pp. 314–315.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 339.
Camberlin 2009
, pp. 307–310.
Camberlin 2009
, pp. 307, 327–329.
Driouech 2020
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 52–53. The value "one third" is from the UN
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Abdelsalam 2018
, p. 743.
Abdelsalam 2018
, p. 742.
Embabi 2018
, pp. 39–40.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 4. Young river.
Said 1993
, pp. 32–52.
Abdelsalam 2018
, pp. 742, 768, Figures 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D.
Abdelsalam 2018
, p. 768.
Abdelsalam 2018
, p. 761.
Abdelsalam 2018
, pp. 742, 768–770, Figure 30A.
Hamza 2009
, pp. 77–78
Abdelsalam 2018
, pp. 742, 770, Figure 30B.
Abdelsalam 2018
, pp. 742, 763–764, 770, Figure 30B
Talbot & Williams 2009
, pp. 39–40.
Warren 2006
, p. 352.
El Mahmoudi & Gabr 2008
, pp. 53–67.
Embabi 2018
, pp. 39–45.
Abdelsalam 2018
, p. 749.
Abdelsalam 2018
, pp. 742, 770, Figure 30C.
Abdelsalam 2018
, pp. 742, 770, Figure 30D.
Abdelsalam 2018
, pp. 742, 770.
Van Damme & Bocxlaer 2009
, p. 606.
Williams 2009
, pp. 61, 70.
Williams 2009
, pp. 61, 70.
Williams 2009
, p. 70.
Abdelsalam 2018
, pp. 767, 770. Between 15,000 and 12,000 KYA.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 346. Slightly more than 15,000 KYA.
Van Damme & Bocxlaer 2009
, p. 606. Around 12,000 KYA.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 246, 346.
Plummer 2023
Bunbury 2023
, p. 53.
Huyge 2011
Leplongeon 2017
Van de Moortel 2007
Creasman 2010
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 9–10.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 49, 63, 69.
Allen 2000
, p. 103.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 355. Footnote 10.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 62.
Allen 2000
, p. 21.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 61.
Assmann 2001
, p. 59.
Redford 2001
, pp. 17, 305–306, Articles: "Geography", "Lower Egypt".
Redford 2001a
, pp. 464–466, Article: "Upper Egypt".
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 82, 92–93.
Assmann 2001
, pp. 54–55.
Dumont 2009
, p. 6.
Hurst 2025
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 11–12.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 92–95.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 60.
Collins 2002
, pp. 107–115.
Shoup 2017
, Articles: "History of the Nile", "History of Egypt: Ancient", "History of Sudan: Ancient Kush and Nubia", "Atbara River", "Meroe".
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 92–95.
Shoup 2017
, Articles: "Culture of the Nile", "History of the Nile", "History of Egypt: Ancient", "History of Sudan: Ancient Kush and Nubia", "Atbara River". Little contact between Egypt and Sudan: "Culture of the Nile".
Collins 2002
, pp. 39–42. Collins focuses on language groups, and refers to the Kerma as "Cushitic people" based on their use of
Cushitic languages
Appiah & Gates 2005
, pp. 1447.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 93.
Shoup 2017
, Article: "Culture of the Nile".
Shoup 2017
, Article: "History of Egypt: Ancient".
Shoup 2017
, Article: "History of Sudan: Arrival of Christianity and Islam".
Shoup 2017
, Article: "Ethiopia (Abyssinia)".
Collins 2002
, p. 102.
Shoup 2017
, Articles: "Blue Nile River", "History of Sudan: Arrival of Christianity and Islam", "History of Sudan: Modern Period".
Stokes 2009
, pp. 499–500, Article: "Nilotes".
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 138–144.
Collins 2002
, pp. 70–77.
Shoup 2017
, Articles: "Sudd", "Dinka", "Nuer"
Bunbury 2023
, p. 52.
Dumont 2009
, p. 15.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 19–20.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 50.
Collins 2002
, p. 21.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 50–52.
Beaumont 1993
, p. 249.
Shoup 2017
, Article: "Khedive Isma'il 1830-1895".
"Abyssinia",
Library of Congress
Tvedt 2021
, p. 2.
Warburg 2007
, p. 475.
Hurst 2025
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 177–179.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 177–179.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 178.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 324.
Source of Blue Nile: 1613-1618.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 324.
Source of White Nile: 1874.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 174–175.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 173–174.
Collins 2002
, p. 36.
Allan 2009
, pp. 749–751.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 176–177, 317.
Shoup 2017
, Article: "Geography of the Nile".
Dumont 2009
, p. 15.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 59–64.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 52.
Dumont 2009
, p. 15.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 62–63.
Hurst 2025
Ranjan 2024
, p. 22.
Dumont 2009
, p. 17.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 63–64.
Roach 2025
, p. 5.
Ranjan 2024
, p. 22.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 63–64.
Roach 2025
, p. 5.
Fleming & Lothian 1997
, pp. 135–136.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 22–23.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 63–68.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 122–123.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 22–24.
Ranjan 2024
, p. 24.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 22–24.
Dumont 2009
, pp. 15–16.
El-Shabrawy 2009
, p. 125.
Hurst 2025
Bunbury 2023
, p. 52.
Dumont 2009
, p. 16.
El-Shabrawy 2009
, pp. 148–151.
Talling 2009
, p. 29.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 132–133.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 46, 53, 69.
Hassan 2007
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 132–133.
Collins 2002
, pp. 187–189.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 20–21, 25, 32–33.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 336–337, 341–342.
Allan 2009
, pp. 760–768.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 24–25.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 71, 339–344.
Waslekar 2009
, p. 2.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 70.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 24–25.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 82.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 26–27.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 312.
"The Nile Basin Trust Fund",
World Bank Group
Dumont 2009
, p. 16.
Endeshaw 2025
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 336–337.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 244–245.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 244–245.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 25–26.
Roussi 2020
Bunbury 2023
, p. 70.
Ranjan 2024
, p. 27.
Ranjan 2024
, p. 30.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 316.
İlkbahar & Mercan 2023
, pp. 1165–1166.
Roach 2025
, pp. 1–2.
Ranjan 2024
, p. 28.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 29–31.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 30–32.
Ranjan 2024
, pp. 30, 33.
Mureithi 2025
"Desert Agriculture",
Copernicus Programme
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 84–85.
Allan 2009
, pp. 754–758.
Allan 2009
, pp. 754–755.
Allan 2009
, p. 758.
Hamza 2009
, p. 84.
Holt 2026
Holt 2026
Hamza 2009
, p. 85.
Holt 2026
Hamza 2009
, pp. 75, 84.
Sabr 2026
Sabr 2026
Tvedt 2021
, p. 315.
Witte 2009a
, pp. 723–724.
Witte 2009a
, pp. 724–725.
Witte 2009a
, pp. 724–725, 742.
Witte 2009a
, pp. 723–724, 742.
Dumont 2009
, p. 17.
Vijverberg 2009
, p. 182.
Witte 2009a
, p. 723.
Dumont 2009
, p. 17.
El-Shabrawy & Dumont 2009
, p. 119.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 348.
"Aswan Low Dam",
Egypt MOEE
"Merowe Dam - Sudan",
Abu Dhabi Fund for Development
"Upper Atbara Dam",
OPEC Fund for International Development
"Roseires Dam",
IHA
Hailu 2022
, Table 4.
"Karuma",
Uganda Radio Network
"Isimba Power Station",
UEGCL
Griffin 2018
Angurini 2021
Tumwesigye 2011
, p. 10.
Sutcliffe 2009
, p. 336.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 12.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 12, 14.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 64.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 317.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 115–117, 317.
Robins 2008
, p. 126.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 60, Figure 4.6.
Younes 2024
Younes 2024
"Private Sector in River Transport",
EnterpriseAM
"Private Sector in River Transport",
EnterpriseAM
"Current State of River Transport",
EnterpriseAM
Dumont 2009
, pp. 6–7.
Shahin 2002
, pp. 286–287.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 154.
Collins 2002
, pp. 61–64, 195–212.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 47.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 54.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 77.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 85–87.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 71.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 189.
Bunbury 2023
, p. 53.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 219.
Siliotti 1997
, pp. 154–155.
Robins 2008
, pp. 68–69, 97, 126.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 53–54.
Schama 1995
, pp. 282–289.
"Nile",
Vatican Museum
"Personification of the River Nile",
Yale Peabody Museum
Betancourt 2007
, pp. 93, 122, 146, 190.
Versluys 2002
, pp. 3–4, 23, 28–30, 43–50, 55, 65.
"Colossal",
The Concise Oxford Dictionary
Rosenthal 2005
, pp. 41–42.
Schama 1995
, pp. 289–305.
Schama 1995
, p. 302.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 351.
"Hymn to the Nile Flood",
University College London
Tvedt 2021
, p. 43.
Ayenalem 2023
Tvedt 2021
, p. 59.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 77–78.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 72–73.
Tian 2025
, pp. 95, 100–102.
Hart 2005
, pp. 61, 85–86.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 9.
Fleming & Lothian 1997
, pp. 30–31.
Bunbury 2023
, pp. 62–63.
Collins 2002
, pp. 14–15.
Tvedt 2021
, pp. 20–22.
Allen 2000
, p. 104.
Assmann 2001
, pp. 63–64.
Fleming & Lothian 1997
, pp. 15, 108.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 10.
Redford 2001
, p. 147, Article: "Hymns".
Redford 2001a
, pp. 123, 376, Articles: "Re", "Temples".
Tvedt 2021
, p. 10.
Fleming & Lothian 1997
, pp. 18, 29, 60.
Hornung 1982
, pp. 77–79.
Assmann 2001
, pp. 54–55, 63.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 1.
Tvedt 2021
, p. 2.
Smith 1878
, pp. 499, 553–554, 564, 866.
Sources
Books
Allan, John (2009).
"Nile Basin Asymmetries: A Closed Fresh Water Resource, Soil Water Potential, the Political Economy and Nile Transboundary Hydropolitics"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
749–
770.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Allen, James P
(2000).
Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
0521774837
Appiah, A.
Gates, H.L.
, eds. (2005).
Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience
Oxford University Press
ISBN
9780195170559
Assmann, Jan
(2001) [1984].
The Search for God in Ancient Egypt
. Lorton, David transl.
Cornell University Press
ISBN
0801487293
Badawi, Mohammad, ed. (2003).
Al-Muhit Oxford Study Dictionary: English-Arabic
. Academia.
ISBN
995330050X
. Retrieved
31 January
2026
Beaumont, Peter (1993).
Drylands: Environmental Management and Development
Routledge
ISBN
0415004578
. Retrieved
13 March
2026
Betancourt, P.P
(2007).
Introduction to Aegean Art
Institute for Aegean Prehistory
ISBN
9781623030841
. Retrieved
1 January
2026
Bunbury, Judith
; et al. (2023). "The Egyptian Nile". In Wantzen, Karl M. (ed.).
River Culture
UNESCO
. pp.
43–
78.
doi
10.54677/HHMI3947
ISBN
9789231005404
. Retrieved
10 March
2026
Camberlin, Pierre; et al. (2009).
"Nile Basin Climates"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
307–
333.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Collins, Robert
(2002).
The Nile
Yale University Press
ISBN
9780300097641
. Retrieved
16 March
2026
The "Bibliographical Essay" (pp. 245–248) lists books about the Nile River.
Dumont, Henri (2009).
"A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
1–
22.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Eggermont, Hilde; et al. (2009).
"Rwenzori Mountains (Mountains of the Moon): Headwaters of the Nile"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
243–
262.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
El-Shabrawy, Gamal; Dumont, Henri (2009).
"The Fayum Depression"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
95–
124.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
El-Shabrawy, Gamal (2009).
"Lake Nasser-Nubia"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
125–
156.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
El-Sheekh, Mostafa (2009).
"River Nile Pollutants and Their Effect on Life Forms and Water Quality"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
395–
406.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Embabi, N.S. (2018).
Landscapes and Landforms of Egypt
Springer Nature
doi
10.1007/978-3-319-65661-8_4
ISBN
9783319656595
Archived
from the original on 4 February 2020
. Retrieved
4 February
2020
Faulkner, Raymond
(1964) [1962].
A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian
Griffith Institute
. Retrieved
26 March
2026
Fierro, Pedro; Nyer, Evan K. (2007).
The Water Encyclopedia: Hydrologic Data and Internet Resources
CRC Press
ISBN
9781420012583
. Retrieved
24 March
2026
Fleming, Fergus; Lothian, Alan (1997).
The Way to Eternity: Egyptian Myth
. Duncan Baird.
ISBN
0705435032
Gardiner, Alan
(1964) [1927].
Egyptian Grammar
(3rd ed.).
Oxford University Press
. Retrieved
26 March
2026
Ghabbour, Samir (2009).
"The Oligochaeta of the Nile Basin Revisited"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
499–
520.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Green, Jim (2009).
"The Kyoga Catchment"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
205–
214.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Green, Jim (2009a).
"Birds of the Nile"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
705–
720.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Green, Jim; El-Moghraby, Asim (2009).
"Swamps of the Upper White Nile"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
193–
204.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Hamilton, Alan (2016).
Luganda Dictionary and Grammar
. Alan Hamilton.
ISBN
9780954149611
. Retrieved
31 January
2026
Hamza, Waleed (2009).
"The Nile Delta"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
75–
94.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Hart, George
(2005).
The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses
(Second ed.).
Routledge
ISBN
0415344956
. Retrieved
15 January
2026
Hornung, Erik
(1982) [1971].
Conceptions of God in Egypt: The One and the Many
. Translated by
Baines, John
. Original in German.
Cornell University Press
ISBN
9780801412233
. Retrieved
15 January
2026
Hughes, Ralph H.; et al. (1992).
IUCN Directory of African Wetlands
(PDF)
International Union for Conservation of Nature
ISBN
9782880329495
. Retrieved
25 March
2013
Lehman, John (2009).
"Lake Victoria"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
215–
242.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Murray, G. W. (1923).
An English-Nubian Comparative Dictionary
Humphrey Milford
Oxford University Press
. Retrieved
15 January
2026
Okidi, C. O. (1994).
"History of the Nile and Lake Victoria Basins through Treaties"
. In Howell, P.P.; Alan, J. J. (eds.).
The Nile: Sharing a Scarce Resource
Cambridge University Press
. pp.
321–
350.
ISBN
9780521450409
. Retrieved
12 January
2026
Redford, Donald B.
, ed. (2001).
Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
0195138228
. Retrieved
26 March
2026
Redford, Donald B.
, ed. (2001a).
Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
0195138236
. Retrieved
26 March
2026
Roach, Steven (2025). "Introduction: Nile Basin Politics and its Challenges". In Roach, Steven; Hudson, Derrick (eds.).
Nile Basin Politics: From Coordinated to Cooperative Peace
Edward Elgar Publishing
. pp.
1–
16.
doi
10.4337/9781803927176
ISBN
9781803927176
. Retrieved
15 January
2026
Robins, Gay
(2008) [1997].
The Art of Ancient Egypt
Harvard University Press
ISBN
9780674030657
. Retrieved
24 February
2026
Rosenthal, Lisa (2005).
Gender, Politics, and Allegory in the Art of Rubens
Cambridge University Press
ISBN
9780521842440
. Retrieved
15 December
2025
Said, Rushdi
(1993).
The River Nile: Geology, Hydrology, and Utilization
Pergamon Press
ISBN
0080418864
. Retrieved
11 February
2026
Schama, Simon
(1995).
Landscape and Memory
A.A. Knopf
ISBN
9780679402558
. Retrieved
15 December
2025
Shahin, Mamdouh (2002).
Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa
Springer Netherlands
ISBN
9781402008665
. Retrieved
7 January
2026
Shoup, John A.; et al. (2017).
The Nile: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture
Bloomsbury Publishing
ABC-CLIO
ISBN
9798216123323
. Retrieved
14 February
2026
EBook. The hardcover is
ISBN
9781440840401
Siliotti, Alberto
(1997).
Guide to the Valley of the Kings
Barnes & Noble
ISBN
9780760733257
. Retrieved
24 February
2026
Smith, William
(1878).
A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology And Geography
Harper & Brothers
LCCN
04035163
. Retrieved
7 January
2026
Stokes, Jamie (2009).
Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East
. Vol. 2.
Facts On File
ISBN
9781438126760
. Retrieved
13 March
2026
Sutcliffe, John; et al. (2009).
"The Hydrology of the Nile Basin"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
334–
364.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Talbot, Michael; Williams, Martin (2009).
"Cenozoic Evolution of the Nile Basin"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
37–
60.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Talling, Jack (2009).
"History of Scientific Research"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
23–
34.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Talling, Jack (2009a).
"Physical and Chemical Water Characteristics"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
367–
394.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Tian, Tian (2025). "Pharaohs, Labourers and Wonder Builders: Illustrating Ancient Egypt with Game Mechanics in Strategy Games". In Cromwell, Jennifer (ed.).
Ancient Egypt in Video Games
de Gruyter Oldenbourg
. pp.
87–
110.
ISBN
9783111534022
Tvedt, Terje
(2021).
The Nile: History's Greatest River
Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN
9780755616800
. Retrieved
10 December
2025
Van Damme, Dirk; Bocxlaer, Bert (2009).
"Freshwater Molluscs of the Nile Basin, Past and Present"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
. Monographiae Biologicae.
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
585–
630.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Versluys, M. J. (2002).
Aegyptiaca Romana : Nilotic Scenes and the Roman Views of Egypt
Brill Publishers
ISBN
9004124403
. Retrieved
15 January
2026
Vijverberg, Jacobus; et al. (2009).
"Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
163–
192.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Warren, John (2006).
Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons
Springer Science+Business Media
ISBN
3540260110
Williams, Martin; et al. (2009).
"Late Quaternary Environments in Nile Basin"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
61–
72.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Williams, Martin (2009a).
"Human Impact on Nile Basin"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
771–
780.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Witte, Frans; et al. (2009).
"Fish Fauna of the Nile"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
647–
676.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Witte, Frans; et al. (2009a).
"Fisheries of the Nile System"
. In Dumont, Henri (ed.).
The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use
Springer Netherlands
. pp.
723–
748.
ISBN
9781402097263
. Retrieved
1 December
2025
Journals and websites
Abdelsalam, Mohamed (2018).
"The Nile's Journey Through Space and Time: A Geological Perspective"
Earth-Science Reviews
177
Elsevier
742–
773.
doi
10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.01.010
ISSN
0012-8252
. Retrieved
11 February
2026
Abotalib, Abotalib; et al. (2023).
"Irreversible and Large-Scale Heavy Metal Pollution Arising from Increased Damming and Untreated Water Reuse in the Nile Delta"
Earth's Future
11
(3) e2022EF002987.
American Geophysical Union
doi
10.1029/2022EF002987
ISSN
2328-4277
. Retrieved
31 December
2025
Angurini, Tom (2021).
"Eskom Invests in Kiira Dam Water Controllers"
Daily Monitor
. Uganda.
OCLC
44216472
. Retrieved
8 February
2026
Ayenalem, Abebe Yirga; et al. (2023).
"Popular Culture and Nile Hydropolitics: Amharic Songs About the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam"
International Journal of Water Governance
10
TU Delft
doi
10.59490/ijwg.10.2023.7359
ISSN
2211-4505
. Retrieved
26 March
2026
Beck, Hylke; et al. (2018).
"Present and Future Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Maps at 1-km Resolution"
Scientific Data
(1) 180214.
Nature Research
doi
10.1038/sdata.2018.214
ISSN
2052-4463
PMC
6207062
. Retrieved
14 February
2026
Creasman, P. P.
; et al. (2010). "Overland Boat Transportation During the Pharaonic Period: Archaeology and Iconography".
Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections
(3).
University of Arizona Libraries
14–
30.
doi
10.2458/azu_jaei_v02i3_creasman
ISSN
1944-2815
Driouech, Fatima; et al. (2020).
"Assessing Future Changes of Climate Extreme Events in the Cordex-Mena Region Using Regional Climate Model Aladin-Climate"
Earth Systems and Environment
(3).
Springer Nature
477–
492.
doi
10.1007/s41748-020-00169-3
ISSN
2509-9434
El Mahmoudi, A.; Gabr, A. (2008). "Geophysical Surveys to Investigate the Relation Between the Quaternary Nile Channels and the Messinian Nile Canyon at East Nile Delta, Egypt".
Arabian Journal of Geosciences
(1). Springer Nature:
53–
67.
doi
10.1007/s12517-008-0018-9
ISSN
1866-7511
Endeshaw, Dawit (2025).
"Ethiopia Opens Africa's Largest Hydroelectric Dam to Egyptian Protest"
Reuters
. Retrieved
20 January
2026
Griffin, Dan (2018).
"Nearly Completed Dam on White Nile Casts a Long Shadow"
The Irish Times
. Dublin, Ireland.
ISSN
0791-5144
. Retrieved
28 December
2021
Hafez, Ahmed; et al. (2024).
"Assessing the Influences of Future Water Development Projects in Tekeze-Atbara-Setit Basin on the Nile River Inflow at Aswan, Egypt"
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies
56
102007.
Elsevier
doi
10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.102007
ISSN
2214-5818
. Retrieved
31 December
2025
Hailu, Ashebir Dingeto (2022).
"Ethiopia Hydropower Development and Nile Basin Hydro Politics"
AIMS Energy
10
(1). AIMS Press:
87–
101.
doi
10.3934/energy.2022006
ISSN
2333-8334
. Retrieved
9 February
2026
Hassan, Fekri A. (2007).
"The Aswan Dam and the International Rescue Nubia Campaign"
The African Archaeological Review
24
(3/4).
Springer Science+Business Media
73–
94.
doi
10.1007/s10437-007-9018-5
ISSN
0263-0338
Haupt, Paul
(1926).
"Etymological and Critical Notes"
The American Journal of Philology
47
(4).
Johns Hopkins University Press
305–
318.
doi
10.2307/289993
ISSN
0002-9475
. Retrieved
11 February
2026
Healy, R. W.; et al. (2007).
"Water Budgets: Foundations for Effective Water-Resources and Environmental Management"
(PDF)
U.S. Geological Survey
. Retrieved
14 January
2026
Hegab, Mahmoud; et al. (2025).
"Evaluating the Spatial Pattern of Water Quality of the Nile River"
Scientific Reports
15
7626.
Nature Portfolio
doi
10.1038/s41598-025-89982-2
ISSN
2045-2322
PMC
11880377
. Retrieved
31 December
2025
Holt, Peter
; et al. (2026).
"Egypt: Agriculture and Fishing"
Britannica
. Retrieved
7 February
2026
Hurst, Harold Edwin
; et al. (2025).
"Nile River"
Britannica
. Retrieved
11 December
2025
Huyge, Dirk; et al. (21 November 2011).
"First Evidence of Pleistocene Rock Art in North Africa: Securing the Age of the Qurta Petroglyphs (Egypt) Through OSL Dating"
Antiquity
85
(330).
Cambridge University Press
1184–
1193.
doi
10.1017/S0003598X00061998
. Retrieved
14 March
2026
İlkbahar, Hasan; Mercan, Muhammed Hüseyin (2023).
"Hydro-Hegemony, Counter-Hegemony And Neoclassical Realism on the Nile Basin: An Analysis of Egypt's Response to the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (Gerd)"
Journal of Asian and African Studies
60
(2).
Sage Publishing
7–
8.
doi
10.1177/00219096231188953
ISSN
0021-9096
Kuper, R.; Kröpelin, S. (2006).
"Climate-Controlled Holocene Occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa's Evolution"
Science
313
(5788).
American Association for the Advancement of Science
803–
807.
doi
10.1126/science.1130989
. Retrieved
3 March
2026
Lemma, Hanibal; et al. (2019).
"Bedload Transport Measurements in the Gilgel Abay River, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia"
Journal of Hydrology
577
123968.
Elsevier
doi
10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123968
ISSN
1879-2707
. Retrieved
31 December
2025
Leplongeon, Alice (27 December 2017).
"Technological Variability in the Late Palaeolithic Lithic Industries of the Egyptian Nile Valley: The Case of the Silsilian and Afian Industries"
PLOS ONE
12
(12) e0188824.
Public Library of Science
doi
10.1371/journal.pone.0188824
ISSN
1932-6203
. Retrieved
14 March
2026
Liu, Shaochuang; et al. (2009).
"Pinpointing the Sources and Measuring the Lengths of the Principal Rivers of the World"
International Journal of Digital Earth
(1).
Taylor & Francis
80–
87.
doi
10.1080/17538940902746082
ISSN
1753-8955
Archived
from the original on 23 December 2018
. Retrieved
23 December
2018
Marshall, Brian (2018).
"Guilty as Charged: Nile Perch Was the Cause of the Haplochromine Decline in Lake Victoria"
Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences
75
(9).
Canadian Science Publishing
1542–
1559.
doi
10.1139/cjfas-2017-0056
ISSN
0706-652X
. Retrieved
31 December
2025
McCoy, Terrence; et al. (20 June 2023).
"The Nile is the World's Longest River? The Amazon Would Like a Word"
Washington Post
. Retrieved
24 March
2026
McKenna, Amy; et al. (2025).
"Blue Nile River"
Britannica
. Retrieved
31 December
2025
Mureithi, Carlos (9 September 2025).
"Ethiopia Inaugurates Africa's Largest Hydroelectric Dam as Egypt Rift Deepens"
The Guardian
. Retrieved
15 February
2026
Plummer, Thomas W.; et al. (10 February 2023).
"Expanded Geographic Distribution and Dietary Strategies of the Earliest Oldowan Hominins and Paranthropus"
Science
379
(6632).
American Association for the Advancement of Science
561–
566.
doi
10.1126/science.abo7452
ISSN
0036-8075
Ranjan, Amit (2024).
"Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Dispute: Implications, Negotiations, and Mediations"
Journal of Contemporary African Studies
42
(1).
Routledge
18–
36.
doi
10.1080/02589001.2023.2287425
ISSN
0258-9001
Roussi, Antoaneta (2020).
"Row over Africa's Largest Dam in Danger of Escalating, Warn Scientists"
Nature
583
(7817).
Nature Portfolio
501–
502.
doi
10.1038/d41586-020-02124-8
ISSN
0028-0836
Sabr, Mohy el-Din; et al. (2026).
"Sudan: Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing"
Britannica
. Retrieved
7 February
2026
Senay, Gabriel; et al. (2014).
"Understanding the Hydrologic Sources and Sinks in the Nile Basin Using Multisource Climate and Remote Sensing Data Sets"
Water Resources Research
50
(11).
American Geophysical Union
8625–
8650.
doi
10.1002/2013WR015231
ISSN
1944-7973
. Retrieved
23 December
2025
Tumwesigye, Robert; et al. (2011).
Key Issues in Uganda's Energy Sector
(PDF)
International Institute for Environment and Development
ISBN
9781843698319
. Retrieved
7 February
2026
Van de Moortel, Aleydis (2007).
"Sacred and Secular: Ancient Egyptian Ships and Boats (Book Review)"
American Journal of Archaeology
111
(4).
Archaeological Institute of America
doi
10.3764/ajaonline1114.VandeMoortel
ISSN
1939-828X
. Retrieved
11 February
2026
Walubiri, Moses (16 October 2018).
"New Nile Bridge Is Fifth Longest of Its Kind in Africa"
New Vision
. Retrieved
16 October
2018
Warburg, Gabriel
(2007).
"The Search for the Sources of the White Nile and Egyptian-Sudanese Relations"
Middle Eastern Studies
43
(3).
Taylor & Francis
475–
486.
ISSN
0026-3206
Waslekar, Sundeep
(2009).
"Blue Peace for the Nile"
(PDF)
Strategic Foresight Group
. Retrieved
20 January
2026
Younes, Gamal; et al. (2024).
"The Pyramid Builders' Waterways: Reconstructing the Ancient Topography of Khufu's Pharaonic Harbour at Giza, Egypt"
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
53
104303.
Elsevier
doi
10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104303
ISSN
2352-409X
Unknown author
"Abyssinia, Or the Empire of Prester John"
Library of Congress
Jodocus Hondius
. 1619
. Retrieved
11 February
2026
"A Look into the Current State of the River Transport Sector"
EnterpriseAM
. 16 July 2025
. Retrieved
11 February
2026
"Aswan Dam (1,2) Electric Hydro Power Plant"
Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy
. 2011. Archived from
the original
on 20 July 2011
. Retrieved
2 January
2011
"Baḥr Al-Ghazāl"
Britannica
. 2025
. Retrieved
7 January
2026
"Colossal"
Concise Oxford English Dictionary
Oxford University Press
. 2001. p. 282.
ISBN
0198604386
. Retrieved
27 December
2025
"Desert Agriculture in Egypt"
Copernicus: Europe's Eyes on Earth
European Union Space Programme
. 3 February 2024
. Retrieved
12 February
2026
"Gov't Wants the Private Sector to Get in on Developing Egypt's River Transport"
EnterpriseAM
. 5 April 2023
. Retrieved
11 February
2026
"Hymn to the Nile Flood"
Digital Egypt for Universities
University College London
. 2000
. Retrieved
27 March
2026
"Isimba Hydropower Station"
Uganda Electricity Generation Company Limited
. 1 February 2026
. Retrieved
7 February
2026
"The 600 MW Karuma Hydropower Plant Commissioned"
The Independent (Uganda)
Uganda Radio Network
. 26 September 2024
. Retrieved
3 August
2025
"Merowe Dam - Sudan"
Abu Dhabi Fund for Development
. 2024
. Retrieved
13 April
2026
"Nile"
Vatican Museum
. Retrieved
14 January
2026
"Nile Basin - Station: Dongola"
Global Runoff Data Center
University of New Hampshire
. Retrieved
12 February
2026
"Nile Basin National Water Quality Monitoring Baseline Study Report for Egypt"
Nile Basin Initiative
. 2005
. Retrieved
31 December
2025
"Personification of the River Nile"
Yale Peabody Museum
. Retrieved
14 January
2026
"Sudan - Roseires"
International Hydropower Association
. 2022
. Retrieved
9 February
2026
"Source Du Nil"
Google Maps
Google
. 18 March 2026
. Retrieved
18 March
2026
"The Nile Basin Trust Fund"
World Bank Group
. 14 January 2016
. Retrieved
20 January
2026
"Upper Atbara Dam Complex Project"
OPEC Fund for International Development
. 2026
. Retrieved
12 April
2026
Water Accounting in the Nile River Basin
Food and Agriculture Organization
United Nations
. 2020.
doi
10.4060/ca9895en
ISBN
9789251329825
. Retrieved
11 December
2025
Nile
Tributaries
Atbarah River
Bahr el Ghazal
Blue Nile
Kagera River
Mountain Nile
Bahr al Jabal
Sobat River
Victoria Nile
White Nile
Dams, powerplants, and waterfalls
Aswan High Dam
Aswan Low Dam
Bujagali Falls
Bujagali Power Station
Cataracts of the Nile
Great Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
Khashm el-Girba Dam
Murchison Falls
Merowe Dam
Nalubaale dam
Owen Falls Dam
Roseires Dam
Sennar Dam
Tekezé Dam
Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex
Lakes and reservoirs
African Great Lakes
Lake Albert
Lake Edward
Lake Keilak
Lake Kivu
Lake Kundi
Lake Kyoga
Lake Moeris
Lake Nasser-Nubia
Lake No
Lake Tana
Lake Victoria
Sudd
History, government, and politics
Climate change in Egypt
Nile Basin Initiative
Scramble for Africa
Water politics in the Nile Basin
People
Muhammad Ali of Egypt
Samuel Baker
Richard Francis Burton
James Augustus Grant
Pedro Páez
John Hanning Speke
Henry Morton Stanley
Other
Flooding of the Nile
Nilometer
Nile Basin
Nile Delta
Nilotic landscape
Nilotic languages
Nilotic peoples
Pollution
Egypt
topics
History
Chronology
Prehistoric
Ancient
topics
Achaemenid
27th Dynasty
31st Dynasty
Ptolemaic
Battle of Actium
Lighthouse of Alexandria
Roman
Diocese of Egypt
Library of Alexandria
Christian
Sassanid
Muslim
Rashidun Caliphate
Fustat
Islamization
Tulunid dynasty
Ikhshidid dynasty
Fatimid Caliphate
Crusader invasions
Ayyubid dynasty
Mamluk Sultanate
Mamluk
Ottoman
Ottoman Egypt
Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt
Muhammad Ali dynasty
Nahda
Khedivate
Egyptian–Ethiopian War
Urabi revolt
Modern
French occupation
Revolt of Cairo
British occupation
1919 revolution
Sultanate
World War II
Kingdom
1948 Arab–Israeli War
Republic
Nasser era
1952 Egyptian revolution
Land reform
Suez Crisis
United Arab Republic
Six-Day War
Sadat era
Yom Kippur War
Egyptian–Libyan War
Assassination of Anwar Sadat
Mubarak era
2010s Crisis
2011 Egyptian revolution
2013 Rabaa massacre
By topic
Anarchism
Capital
Cigarette industry
Constitution
Copts
Genetic
Jews
Muslim Brotherhood
1928–1938
1939–1954
1954–present
Parliament
Population
Postal
Saladin
Timekeeping devices
By city
Alexandria
Cairo
Port Said
Geography
Cities
Climate
Earthquakes
Environmental issues
Fossils
Geology
Halfaya Pass
Islands
Lakes
Mount Sinai
Nile Delta
Northern coast
Oases
Qattara Depression
Red Sea Riviera
Rivers
Nile
Sinai Peninsula
Suez Canal
Towns and villages
Wildlife
Politics
Administrative divisions
Governorates
Civil Code
Corruption
Conscription
Constitution
Elections
Foreign relations
Missions
Islamic extremism
Judiciary
Law enforcement
Massacres
Military
Supreme Council
Nationality law
Parliament
Passport
Political parties
President
list
Prime Minister
list
Proposed new capital
Refugees of the Syrian civil war
Terrorism
Terrorism and tourism
Twin towns and sister cities
Economy
Agriculture
Banking
National Bank
Companies
Economic regions
Egyptian stock exchange
Egyptian pound
Energy
Entrepreneurship policies
Fishing
Impact on the environment
Lighthouses
Military industry
Mining
Mines
Nuclear program
Power stations
Aswan Dam
Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces
Tallest buildings
Telecommunications
Internet
Tourism
Cultural tourism
Transport
Airlines
Airports
Railway stations
Water supply and sanitation
Water resources management
Society
General
Abortion
Animal welfare
Billionaires
Cannabis
Capital punishment
Censuses
Corruption
Crime
Human trafficking
Mass sexual assault
Rape
Demographics
Diaspora
Education
Academic grading
Law schools
Medical schools
Schools
Universities
Families
Abaza family
Feminism
Gender inequality
Health
Healthcare
Hospitals
Housing
Human rights
Freedom of religion
LGBT rights
International rankings
Languages
Egyptian Arabic
Saʽidi Arabic
Sign Language
Liberalism
Literature
Prostitution
Religion
Baháʼí
Blasphemy law
Christianity
Catholic dioceses
Coptic Churches
Hinduism
Identification card controversy
Irreligion
Islam
Ahmadiyya
Mosques
Niqāb
Judaism
Synagogues
Scientology
Smoking
Units of measurement
Vehicle registration plates
Waste management
Women
Culture
Architecture
Art (ancient)
Art (contemporary)
Botanical gardens
Castles
Cinema
Clothing in ancient Egypt
Dance in ancient Egypt
Belly dance
Almah
Raqs sharqi
Baladi
Tahtib
Tanoura
Zaffa
Cuisine
Coat of arms
Cuisine
Films
Beer
Wine
National symbols
Flag
list
regions
Football
Football clubs
Football stadiums
Egyptians
Mass media
Magazines
Newspapers
Radio
TV
Museums
Music
Mythology
National anthem
Sport
Olympics
Public holidays
World Heritage Sites
Category
Portal
WikiProject
Commons
Ancient Egypt
topics
Glossary of artifacts
Index
Agriculture
Architecture
Labyrinth
Obelisks
Pylon
Revival
Astronomy
Art
Painting
Portraiture
Beauty and cosmetics
Chronology
Cities
List
Clothing
Cuisine
Dance
Dynasties
Funerary practices
Great Royal Wives
List
Hieroglyphs
Cursive hieroglyphs
History
Language
Demotic
Hieratic
Literature
Mathematics
Medicine
Military
Music
Mythology
People
Pharaohs
List
Titulary
Philosophy
Population history of Egypt
Race controversy
Pottery
Prehistoric Egypt
Religion
Scribes
Sites
Capitals
District
Technology
Trade
Egypt–Mesopotamia relations
Egyptology
Egyptologists
Museums
Ancient Egypt portal
Category
Commons
Outline
WikiProject
Nile
at Wikipedia's
sister projects
Definitions
from Wiktionary
Media
from Commons
Quotations
from Wikiquote
Texts
from Wikisource
Textbooks
from Wikibooks
Travel guides
from Wikivoyage
Authority control databases
International
VIAF
GND
FAST
WorldCat
National
United States
France
BnF data
Japan
Czech Republic
Spain
Croatia
Israel
Geographic
Pleiades
Other
IdRef
NARA
İslâm Ansiklopedisi
Yale LUX
Retrieved from "
Categories
Nile
Ancient Egyptian religion
Geography of ancient Egypt
Hebrew Bible rivers
International rivers of Africa
National parks of Egypt
Nile basin
Rivers in art
Rivers of Burundi
Rivers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Rivers of Egypt
Rivers of Eritrea
Rivers of Ethiopia
Rivers of Kenya
Rivers of Rwanda
Rivers of South Sudan
Rivers of Sudan
Rivers of Tanzania
Rivers of Uganda
Water transport in Egypt
Hidden categories:
Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas
Pages using the WikiHiero extension
Articles with short description
Short description is different from Wikidata
Good articles
Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
Use dmy dates from April 2026
Use American English from December 2025
All Wikipedia articles written in American English
Coordinates on Wikidata
Articles containing Latin-language text
Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text
Articles containing Ancient Egyptian-language text
Articles containing Arabic-language text
Articles containing Amharic-language text
Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images
Nile
Add topic