Northern Rhodesia - Wikipedia

Northern Rhodesia - Wikipedia
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27°30′E
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14.5°S 27.5°E
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-14.5; 27.5
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1911–1964 British protectorate in Southern Africa
Northern Rhodesia
1911–1964
Flag
Coat of arms
Anthem:
God Save the Queen
(1952–1964)
God Save the King
(1911–1952)
Status
Territory of the British South Africa Company (1911–1924)
Protectorate
of the United Kingdom (1924–1953, 1963–1964)
Division of the
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
(1953–1963)
Capital
Livingstone
(until 1935)
Lusaka
(from 1935)
Common languages
(official)
Bemba
Nyanja
Tonga
and
Lozi
widely spoken
Monarch
• 1911–1936
George V
• 1936
Edward VIII
• 1936–1952
George VI
• 1952–1964
Elizabeth II
Governor
• 1911–1921 (first)
Lawrence Aubrey Wallace
• 1959–1964 (last)
Evelyn Hone
Prime Minister
• 1964
Kenneth Kaunda
Legislature
Legislative Council
Historical era
Interwar period
Cold War
Company rule
1911
• British protectorate
1 April 1924
Federated with S. Rhodesia and Nyasaland
1953–1963
• Independence
24 October 1964
Area
• Total
751,925 km
(290,320 sq mi)
Currency
Southern Rhodesian pound
Preceded by
Succeeded by
1924:
Company rule in Rhodesia
1963:
Federation of
Rhodesia and
Nyasaland
1953:
Federation of
Rhodesia and
Nyasaland
1964:
Zambia
Today part of
Zambia
Northern Rhodesia
was a British
protectorate
in
Southern Africa
, now the independent country of
Zambia
. It was formed in 1911 by
amalgamating
the two earlier protectorates of
Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia
and
North-Eastern Rhodesia
It was initially administered, as were the two earlier protectorates, by the
British South Africa Company
(BSAC), a
chartered company
, on behalf of the British Government. From 1924, it was administered by the British Government as a protectorate, under similar conditions to other British-administered protectorates, and the special provisions required when it was administered by BSAC were terminated.
Although under the BSAC charter it had features of a
charter colony
, the BSAC's treaties with local rulers, and British legislation, gave it the status of a protectorate. The territory attracted a relatively small number of European settlers, but from the time they first secured political representation, they agitated for white minority rule, either as a separate entity or associated with
Southern Rhodesia
and possibly
Nyasaland
. The mineral wealth of Northern Rhodesia made full amalgamation attractive to Southern Rhodesian politicians, but the British Government preferred a looser association to include Nyasaland. This was intended to protect Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland from discriminatory Southern Rhodesian laws. The
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
formed in 1953 was intensely unpopular among the vast African majority and its formation hastened calls for majority rule. As a result of this pressure, the country became independent in 1964 as
Zambia
The geographical, as opposed to political, term "
Rhodesia
" referred to a region generally comprising the areas that are today
Zambia
and
Zimbabwe
From 1964, it only referred to the former
Southern Rhodesia
British South Africa Company
edit
Establishment of BSAC rule
edit
Cecil Rhodes
(1853–1902)
Main article:
British South Africa Company
The name "Rhodesia" was derived from
Cecil John Rhodes
, the
British
capitalist and empire-builder who was a guiding figure in British expansion north of the
Limpopo River
into south-central Africa. Rhodes pushed British influence into the region by obtaining
mineral rights
from local chiefs under questionable treaties. After making a vast fortune in mining in South Africa, it was his ambition to extend the
British Empire
north, all the way to
Cairo
if possible, although this was far beyond the resources of any commercial company to achieve. Rhodes' main focus was south of the
Zambezi
, in Mashonaland and the coastal areas to its east, and when the expected wealth of Mashonaland did not materialise, there was little money left for significant development in the area north of the Zambezi, which he wanted to be held as cheaply as possible.
Although Rhodes sent European
settlers
into the territory that became
Southern Rhodesia
, he limited his involvement north of the
Zambezi
to encouraging and financing British
expeditions
to bring it into the British
sphere of influence
British missionaries had already established themselves in
Nyasaland
, and in 1890 the British government's
Colonial Office
sent
Harry Johnston
to this area, where he proclaimed a protectorate, later named the
British Central Africa Protectorate
. The charter of BSAC contained only vague limits on the northern extent of the company's sphere of activities, and Rhodes sent
emissaries
Joseph Thomson
and
Alfred Sharpe
to make treaties with chiefs in the area west of Nyasaland. Rhodes also considered
Barotseland
as a suitable area for British South Africa Company operations and as a gateway to the copper deposits of Katanga.
Lewanika
, king of the
Lozi
people of Barotseland sought European protection because of internal unrest and the threat of Ndebele raids. With the help of
François Coillard
of the
Paris Evangelical Missionary Society
, he drafted a petition seeking a British protectorate in 1889, but the Colonial Office took no immediate action on it. However, Rhodes sent Frank Elliott Lochner to Barotseland to obtain a concession and offered to pay the expenses of a protectorate there. Lochner told Lewanika that BSAC represented the British government, and on 27 June 1890, Lewanika consented to an exclusive mineral concession. This (the Lochner Concession) gave the company mining rights over the whole area in which Lewanika was paramount ruler in exchange for an annual subsidy and the promise of British protection, a promise that Lochner had no authority to give. However, the BSAC advised the Foreign Office that the Lozi had accepted British protection.
10
As a result, Barotseland was claimed to be within the British sphere of influence under the
Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1891
, although its boundary with Angola was not fixed until 1905.
11
In 1889, although Britain recognised the rights of the
International Association of the Congo
to large sections of the Congo basin, which formed the
Congo Free State
under the personal rule of
King Leopold II of the Belgians
, it did not accept its effective occupation of
Katanga
, which was known to have copper and was thought might also have gold. Rhodes, possibly prompted by Harry Johnston, wanted a mineral concession for the BSAC in Katanga. He sent Alfred Sharpe to obtain a treaty from its ruler,
Msiri
which would grant the concession and create a British protectorate over his kingdom.
12
13
King Leopold II
was also interested in Katanga and Rhodes suffered one of his few setbacks when, in April 1891, a Belgian expedition led by
Paul Le Marinel
obtained Msiri's agreement to
Congo Free State
personnel entering his territory, which they did in force in 1892. This treaty produced the anomaly of the
Congo Pedicle
14
Fixing boundaries
edit
After the
Congress of Berlin
, powers seeking to acquire African territory agreed to enter into treaties with local rulers and to make bi-lateral treaties with other European powers. By one series of agreements made between 1890 and 1910,
Lewanika
granted concessions covering a poorly defined area of
Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia
, and a second series covering a disputed part of North-Eastern Rhodesia was negotiated by Joseph Thomson and Alfred Sharpe with local chiefs in 1890 and 1891.
15
The Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1891 signed in
Lisbon
on 11 June 1891 between the United Kingdom and
Portugal
fixed the boundary between the territories administered by the British South Africa Company in North-Eastern Rhodesia and
Portuguese Mozambique
. It declared that Barotseland was within the British sphere of influence, and fixed the boundary between the British South Africa Company administered territory of
North-Western Rhodesia
(now in Zambia), and
Portuguese Angola
although its boundary with Angola was not marked-out on the ground until later.
16
17
The northern border of the British territory in North-Eastern Rhodesia and the
British Central Africa Protectorate
was agreed as part of an
Anglo-German Convention
in 1890, which also fixed the very short boundary between North-Western Rhodesia and
German South-West Africa
, now
Namibia
. The boundary between the
Congo Free State
and British territory was fixed by a treaty in 1894, although there were some minor adjustments up to the 1930s.
18
Boundaries with other British territories were fixed by Orders-in-Council. The border between the British Central Africa Protectorate and North-Eastern Rhodesia was fixed in 1891 at the
drainage divide
between Lake Malawi and the
Luangwa River
19
and that between North-Western Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia became the
Zambezi
River in 1898.
20
BSAC administration
edit
The area of what became Northern Rhodesia, including
Barotseland
and land as far as
Nyasaland
to the east and to Katanga and
Lake Tanganyika
to the north, was placed under BSAC administration by an Order-in-Council of 9 May 1891, but no BSAC Administrator was sent to Barotseland until 1895, and the first Administrator, Forbes, who remained until 1897, did little to establish an administration there.
21
Before 1911, Northern Rhodesia was administered as two separate territories,
Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia
and
North-Eastern Rhodesia
. The former was recognised as British territory by the Barotseland and North-Western Rhodesia Order-in-Council of 1899 and the latter by the North-Eastern Rhodesia Order-in-Council of 1900. Both Orders-in-Council regularised the position of the BSAC Administrators, the first of whom were appointed in 1895. Both Order-in-Councils confirmed that the territories had the status of protectorates, with the Colonial Office ultimately responsible for the welfare of their indigenous populations, despite BSAC administration.
citation needed
The Colonial Office retained the ultimate responsibility for these territory, and the
High Commissioner
for South Africa had the power to approve or reject all BSAC legislation.
22
At first,
Harry Johnston
in Nyasaland was the local representative of the Colonial Office and the High Commissioner. Rhodes financed much of the British presence in Nyasaland and worked closely with Johnston and his successor, Alfred Sharpe, so he could use them as emissaries and their Nyasaland
troops
as enforcers, particularly in North-Eastern Rhodesia. This territory and North-Western Rhodesia were considered by Rhodes and his colonisers to be a "tropical dependency" rather than a northward extension of white-settler controlled southern Africa. In 1895, Rhodes asked his American scout
Frederick Russell Burnham
to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the region, and it was during this trek that Burnham discovered major copper deposits along the
Kafue River
23
In 1911 the BSAC merged the two territories as 'Northern Rhodesia'.
24
The arms of the
British South Africa Company
Under British South Africa Company rule, the company-appointed Administrator had powers similar to those of the governor of a British colony or protectorate, except that certain decisions of the Administrator affecting Europeans had to be approved by the
High Commissioner for South Africa
to be valid. The High Commissioner could also make, alter or repeal proclamations for the administration of justice, taxation, and public order without reference to the Administrator, although this power was never used.
25
In this period the Administrator was assisted neither by an
Executive Council
nor a
Legislative council
, as was common in British-ruled territories. There was an Advisory Council, which fulfilled most of the functions of such bodies, and which until 1917 consisted entirely of senior officials. There was no obligation for the company to form a body to consult residents, but after 1917 nominees were added to represent the small European
minority
: Northern Rhodesia had no elected representation while under BSAC rule.
26
There were five nominated members: four represented the former North-Western Rhodesia and one represented North-Eastern Rhodesia.
Hut tax
was first collected in North-Eastern Rhodesia in 1901 and was slowly extended through North-Western Rhodesia between 1904 and 1913. It was charged at different rates in different districts but was supposed to be equivalent to two months' wages, to encourage or force local Africans into the system of wage labour. Its introduction generally caused little unrest, and any protests were quickly suppressed. Before 1920, it was commonly charged at five
shillings
a year, but in 1920 the rate of hut tax was sharply increased, and often doubled, to provide more workers for the Southern Rhodesian mines, particularly the coal mines of
Wankie
27
At this time the Company considered the principal economic benefit of Northern Rhodesia to be as a reservoir for
migrant labour
which could be called upon for Southern Rhodesia.
Law and security
edit
British
common law
became the basis of the administration of Southern and Northern Rhodesia, unlike
Roman Dutch law
which applied in South Africa. In 1889, the British South African Company was given the power to establish a police force and administer justice within Northern Rhodesia. In the case of African natives appearing before courts, the Company was instructed to have regard to the customs and laws of their tribe or nation. An Order in Council of 1900 created the High Court of North-Eastern Rhodesia which took control of civil and criminal justice; it was not until 1906 that North-Western Rhodesia received the same. In 1911 the two were amalgamated into the
High Court of Northern Rhodesia
The British South African Company considered that its territory north of the Zambezi was more suitable for a largely African police force than a European one. However, at first, the British South Africa Police patrolled the north of the Zambezi in North Western Rhodesia, although its European troops were expensive and prone to diseases. This force and its replacements were paramilitaries, although there was a small force of European civil police in the towns. The British South Africa Police were replaced by the Barotse Native Police force, which was formed in 1902 (other sources date this as 1899 or 1901). This had a high proportion of European NCOs as well as all European officers and was merged with the civil police to form the Northern Rhodesia Police in 1911. Initially, Harry Johnston in the
British Central Africa Protectorate
had responsibility for North Eastern Rhodesia, and Central Africa forces including Sikh and African troops were used there until 1899. Until 1903, local magistrates recruited their own local police, but in that year a North Eastern Rhodesia Constabulary was formed, which had only a few white officers; all its NCOs and troopers were African. This was also merged into the Northern Rhodesia Police in 1912, which then numbered only 18 European and 775 African in six companies, divided between the headquarters of the various districts.
28
29
Railway developments
edit
The British South Africa Company was responsible for building the Rhodesian railway system in the period of primary construction which ended in 1911 when the main line through Northern Rhodesia crossed the Congo border to reach the Katanga copper mines. Rhodes' original intention was for a railway extending across the
Zambezi
to
Lake Tanganyika
, but when little gold was found in Mashonaland, he accepted that the scheme to reach Lake Tanganyika had no economic justification. Railways built by private companies needed traffic that can pay high freight rates, such as large quantities of minerals.
30
A line from
Kimberley
reached Bulawayo in 1897; this was extended to cross the Victoria Falls in 1902. The next section was through
Livingstone
to
Broken Hill
, which the railway reached in 1906. The British South Africa Company had been assured that there would be plentiful traffic from its lead and zinc mines, but this did not materialise because of technical mining problems. The railway could not meet the costs of the construction loans, and the only area likely to generate sufficient mineral traffic to relieve these debts was Katanga. Initially, the Congo Free State had concluded that Katanga's copper deposits were not rich enough to justify the capital cost of building a railway to the coast, but expeditions between 1899 and 1901 proved their value. Copper deposits found in Northern Rhodesia before the First World War proved uneconomic to develop.
31
In 1906,
Union Minière du Haut Katanga
was formed to exploit the Katanga mines. King Leopold wanted a railway entirely in Congolese territory, linked to the Congo River, but in 1908, he agreed with the British South Africa Company to continue the Rhodesian railway to
Elizabethville
and the mines. Between 1912, when full-scale copper production began, until 1928 when a Congolese line was completed, almost all of Katanga's copper was shipped over the Rhodesian network. The railway's revenue from Katanga copper enabled it to carry other goods at low rates. Large-scale development of the Copperbelt only began in the late 1920s, with an increasing world market for copper. Transport was no problem as only short branches had to be built to connect the Copperbelt to the main line.
32
The end of BSAC rule
edit
Almost from the start of European settlement, the settlers in Northern Rhodesia were hostile to the BSAC administration and its commercial position. The company opposed the settlers' political aspirations and refused to allow them to elect representatives to the Advisory Council, limiting them to a few nominated members.
33
Following a judgement by the
Privy Council
that the land in Southern Rhodesia belonged to the British Crown not the BSAC, opinion among settlers in Southern Rhodesia turned to favour
responsible government
and in 1923 this was granted. This left Northern Rhodesia in a difficult position since the British South Africa Company had believed it owned the land in both territories and some settlers suggested that the ownership in Northern Rhodesia should also be referred to the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
. However, the British South Africa Company insisted that its claims were unchallengeable and persuaded the United Kingdom government to enter into direct negotiations over the future administration of Northern Rhodesia.
As a result, a settlement was achieved by which Northern Rhodesia remained a protectorate but came under the British government, with its administrative machinery taken over by the
Colonial Office
, while the British South Africa Company retained extensive areas of freehold property and the protectorate's mineral rights. It was also agreed that half of the proceeds of land sales in the former North-Western Rhodesia would go to the Company. On 1 April 1924,
Herbert Stanley
was appointed as Governor and Northern Rhodesia became an official
Protectorate
of the United Kingdom, with its capital in
Livingstone
. The capital was moved to
Lusaka
in 1935.
Under the Administration of the British South Africa Company, the Administrator had similar powers to those of a colonial governor, except that certain powers were reserved to the High Commissioner for South Africa. There was neither an
Executive Council
nor a legislative council, but only an Advisory Council, consisting entirely of nominees. The Northern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1924
transferred to the Governor any power or jurisdiction previously held by the Administrator or vested in the High Commissioner for South Africa. The Order also provided for an Executive Council consisting of six ex-officio senior officials and any other official or unofficial members Governor wished to appoint. At the same time, a legislative council was established, consisting of the Governor and up to nine official members, and five unofficial members who were to be elected by the small European
minority
numbering 4,000 people only, as none of the African population had the right to vote.
25
Colonial period
edit
Mining developments
edit
The most important factor in the colony's economy was copper. Ancient surface copper workings were known at
Bwana Mkubwa
Luanshya
and Kansanshi (near
Solwezi
), all except the latter on what later became known as the
Copperbelt
and exploration in 1895 by the British South Africa Company's celebrated American scout,
Frederick Russell Burnham
, who led and oversaw the massive Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. expedition first established for Westerners that major copper deposits existed in Central Africa.
34
Along the
Kafue River
in then Northern Rhodesia, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered natives wearing copper bracelets.
35
Later, the
British South Africa Company
built towns along the river and a railway to transport the copper through
Mozambique
36
BSAC claimed to own mineral rights over the whole of Northern Rhodesia under concessions granted between 1890 and 1910 by
Lewanika
covering a poorly defined area of North-Western Rhodesia or negotiated by Joseph Thomson and Alfred Sharpe in 1890 and 1891 with local chiefs in a disputed area of North-Eastern Rhodesia. This claim was accepted by the British Government.
15
After the Charter ended, BSAC joined a group of nine South African and British companies which financed the development of
Nchanga Mines
, to prevent them falling under US control. However, its main concern was to receive royalties.
37
However significant they were, these copper deposits could not be exploited commercially until the Southern Rhodesian railway had extended across the Zambezi and continued northward, to reach the
Belgian Congo
border, which it did in 1909. By that time, mining had started in
Katanga
, where rich
copper oxide
ores occurred near the surface. In Northern Rhodesia, the surface ores were of poorer quality, and copper was only worked intermittently at Bwana Mkubwa until in 1924 rich
copper sulphide
ores were discovered about 100 feet below the surface.
38
Prior to 1924, there had not been significant exploitation of Northern Rhodesia's mineral resources: there was some cattle farming in Barotseland, but Northern Rhodesia had attracted little white settlement, in contrast to its southern neighbour. Unlike Southern Rhodesia, which had seen a flood of fortune-seeking prospectors seeking to set up independent mines, Northern Rhodesia's mining policy was to agree large-scale deals with major commercial mining companies.
Large-scale mining on the Northern Rhodesian Copperbelt started after 1924 and was mainly financed from the United States of America and South Africa.
Chester Beatty
's and
Sir Edmund Davis
's Selection Trust already had an interest in the fairly small
Bwana Mkubwa
copper mine, which had opened in 1901 on the site of ancient mineral workings at the southern end of the Copperbelt, and Beatty was responsible for the development of the
Roan Antelope
mine at
Luanshya
in 1926. Copper was becoming much more valuable as more of it was needed for
electrical components
and the
motor industry
. In 1927, Beatty sold a one-third interest in Roan Antelope to the American Metal Company (AMC), whose interests were in refining and selling metals, and in 1928 he formed
Rhodesian Selection Trust
(RST – later renamed Roan Selection Trust) to finance further mining developments. Beatty then sold his controlling interest in RST to AMC in 1930, becoming AMC's largest shareholder. AMC's commitment to RST allowed it to bring the
Mufulira
mine into partial production in 1930, although it only became fully operational in 1933, because of the
Great Depression
39
40
South African interest in the Copperbelt was led the
Anglo American Corporation
, which gained an interest in the Bwana Mkubwa company in 1924 and acquired a one-third interest in Mufulira in 1928. Also in 1928, Anglo American acquired control of the
Nkana
mine at
Kitwe
and formed Rhodesian Anglo American, whose other shareholders included US and South African finance houses and the British South Africa Company (BSAC). As BSAC exchanged its own shares for Rhodesian Anglo American ones, Rhodesian Anglo American now became a major shareholder in BSAC. Both Roan Antelope and Nkana started commercial production in 1931.
41
42
At first, very little British capital was invested in the Copperbelt. However, in 1929 it seemed possible that a fourth source of copper,
Nchanga Mines
, might fall under US control: as an American
cartel
which sought to restrict supply to increase prices then already controlled three-quarters of world copper production, the British government encouraged a group of nine "British" companies to finance Nchanga. This group was dominated by Rhodesian Anglo American, so truly British participation was still limited. In 1931 the ownership of Bwana Mkubwa and Nchanga was amalgamated into the Rhokana Corporation, in which Rhodesian Anglo American also predominated. The situation in 1931 was that Rhodesian Selection Trust (RST) owned Roan Antelope and a dominant interest in Mufulira, while Rhokana Corporation owned the remained of Mufulira, Nkana, Nchanga and Bwana Mkubwa. The shareholding structure of RST and particularly of Rhokana was complex.
43
44
While at first the existence this cartel encouraged investment, consumers sought alternative and cheaper materials and with the economic downturn, the price of copper crashed in 1931. An international agreement restricted output. This caused a catastrophe in Northern Rhodesia where many employees were sacked and put an end to hopes which many Europeans had held of turning Northern Rhodesia into another white dominion like Southern Rhodesia. Many settlers took this opportunity to move back to Southern Rhodesia, while Africans returned to their farms.
Economic recovery
edit
Despite the economic crash, large firms were still able to maintain a
profit
. The fact that unemployed workers had left meant there were no increases in taxation, and labour costs remained low. At a 1932 conference of copper producers in New York, the Rhodesian companies objected to further market intervention, and when no agreement could be made, the previous restrictions on competition lapsed. This placed the Northern Rhodesians in a very powerful position. Meanwhile, the British South Africa Company sold its remaining Southern Rhodesian holdings to the Southern Rhodesian government in 1933 giving it the capital to invest in developing other mines. It negotiated an agreement between
Rhodesia Railways
and the copper mine companies for exclusive use and used resources freed up to buy a major stake in the Anglo American Corporation. By the end of the 1930s, Northern Rhodesian copper mining was booming.
Legislative Council
edit
Pre-war
edit
When Northern Rhodesia became a Protectorate under the British Empire on 1 April 1924, a Legislative Council was established on which the
Governor of Northern Rhodesia
sat
ex officio
as Presiding Officer. The initial council consisted entirely of nominated members, as no procedure existed at the time for holding elections. However, the members were divided between the "official members" who held executive posts in the administration of the Protectorate, and the "unofficial members" who held no posts.
45
In 1926, a system of election was worked out and the first election was held for five elected unofficial members, who took their seats together with nine nominated official members. An elector in Northern Rhodesia had to be a United Kingdom citizen, a requirement which practically ruled out Africans who were
British Protected Persons
. In addition, would-be electors were required to fill in an application form in English, and to have an annual income of at least £200 or occupy immovable property worth £250 (tribal or community occupation of such property was specifically excluded).
46
In 1929, the number of unofficial members was increased to seven. This failed to meet settler aspirations and in 1937 their members demanded parity if numbers with the nine official members, and seats on the Executive Council, until then wholly composed of officials: this demand was rejected. In 1938, there was the first acknowledgement of the need to represent the opinions of Africans, and one nominated unofficial European member was added for this purpose, replacing one of the nominated officials, so that the official and unofficial members each numbered eight.
47
In 1941 one additional member was added to both the nominated officials and the elected unofficials, for a total of ten unofficials (nine elected) and nine nominated officials.
Post-war
edit
The Legislative Assembly with Colonial Secretary
Arthur Creech Jones
(far right) in 1949
In 1945, there was an increase in the number of unofficial European members representing Africans from one to three, and an additional two nominated unofficials were introduced for a total of five. From 1948, the African Representative Council recommended two African unofficial members for nomination by the Governor.
48
1948 saw the replacement of the Governor by a Speaker, who also sat
ex officio
, and the introduction of two members nominated on the advice of the African Representative Council.
An Order-in-Council coming into effect on 31 December 1953 provided for a new Legislative Council to consist of a Speaker
ex officio
, eight nominated officials, twelve elected unofficials, four African unofficial members nominated by the Governor on the advice the African Representative Council, and two nominated unofficial European members representing the interests of Africans.
49
The nominated officials were identified as the Chief Secretary, Attorney General, Financial Secretary, and Secretary for Native Affairs, and four others.
1959 Order-in-Council
edit
1959 saw a large increase in the proportion of elected members. The Legislative Council then consisted of the Speaker and 30 members. All but eight of these members were to be elected: the eight nominated were the same four named posts as before, two others, and two nominated unofficial members (who were not specifically responsible for African interests). These two members were retained to provide that there were some members who could be called upon for Ministerial duties if there were too few elected members willing to do so.
The 22 elected members were organised in such a way as to ensure that there were eight African and 14 Europeans. The electoral roll was divided into 'General' and 'Special' with Special voters having much lower financial requirements than General voters so that the majority of Special voters were Africans (the nationality requirement had been varied so that
British Protected Persons
were eligible to vote). In the towns in which a majority of Europeans lived, there were twelve constituencies; special voters could have no more than one-third of the influence on the total.
In the rural areas where most Africans lived, six special constituencies were drawn. Both general and special voters participated in the elections and their votes counted for equal weight, although the majority of voters were Africans. In the special constituency areas, there were two composite 'Reserved European seats', in which special voters were restricted to one-third of the influence. There were also two 'Reserved African seats' in the areas of the ordinary constituencies, although all votes counted in full.
50
Law
edit
Before the end of BSAC administration, Northern Rhodesian law was in conformity with the laws of
England and Wales
and its High Court of Northern Rhodesia was ultimately subordinate to those of the United Kingdom. This continued after 1924; all United Kingdom statutes in force on 17 August 1911 were applied to Northern Rhodesia, together with those of later years if specific to the Protectorate. Where Africans were parties before courts, Native law and customs were applied, except if they were "repugnant to natural justice or morality", or inconsistent with any other law in force.
51
Subsidiary Courts
edit
Below the High Court were Magistrates' Courts which fell into four classes:
Courts of Provincial Commissioners, Senior Resident Magistrates and Resident Magistrates. In criminal matters, such courts could impose sentences of imprisonment for up to three years; in civil matters, they were limited to awards of £200 and for recovery of land worth up to £144 annual rent.
Courts of District Commissioners. In criminal matters, they could impose sentences of imprisonment for up to one year without confirmation by the High Court; they could also impose up to three years' imprisonment with the High Court's consent. Their civil jurisdiction was limited to £100.
Courts of District Officers.
Courts of Cadets attached to the Provincial Administration.
Criminal trials for treason, murder and manslaughter, or attempts and conspiracies to commit them, were reserved for the High Court. Civil matters relating to constitutional issues, wills and marriages were also restricted to the High Court.
Native Courts
edit
The Native Courts Ordinance 1937 allowed the Governor to issue a warrant recognising native courts. Their jurisdiction only covered natives but extended to criminal and civil jurisdiction. Native courts were not allowed to impose the death penalty, nor try
witchcraft
without permission. There was also provision for a Native Court of Appeal, but if not established, appeal was to the Provincial Commissioner and thence to the High Court.
Chief Justices of North-Eastern Rhodesia
edit
Incumbent
Tenure
Notes
Took office
Left office
Sir Leicester Paul Beaufort
1901
1911
Chief Justices of Northern Rhodesia
edit
Incumbent
Tenure
Notes
Took office
Left office
Cyril Gerard Brooke Francis
52
1941
afterwards
Chief Justice of Bermuda
, 1941
Sir
Herbert Charles Fahie Cox
53
54
1945
1951
afterwards
Chief Justice of Tanganyika
Sir
Arthur Werner Lewey
55
1951
1955
Sir
(Edward) Peter Stubbs Bell
1955
1957
Died in office
John Bowes Griffin
1957
1957
acting Chief Justice
Sir George Paterson
1957
1961
Sir
Diarmaid William Conroy
1961
1964
afterwards
Chief Justice of Zambia
, 1964–1965
Governing the people
edit
Lord Passfield
From the 1890s and until after the end of BSAC administration, a policy of Direct Rule over Africans was operated, within the limits of what was possible with very small numbers of white District Officers. Except in
Barotseland
, these officers deprived traditional
chiefs
of their powers of administering justice, and deposed troublesome ones, although most chiefs accepted their reduced role as local agents of the District Officers. By the late 1920s, the idea of Indirect Rule that
Lord Lugard
had proposed in "The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa" had gained favour. Lugard suggested that, in colonies where climate and geography precluded extensive European settlement, African interests should be recognised as paramount and the development of such colonies must benefit their indigenous population as well as the economic interests of the colonial power. However, what was introduced into Northern Rhodesia in 1930 as a policy of Indirect Rule was little different in practice to the previous policy. Although some legitimate traditional chiefs and other appointed chiefs and headmen were nominated as Native Authorities, they had limited judicial powers and very limited financial resources to build up any institutions of self-government within their communities. Apart from in Barotseland, the District Officers still retained most of their former powers, and used the Native Authorities as intermediaries.
56
57
In June 1930, the Colonial Secretary of the
Labour
Government,
Lord Passfield
, published his Memorandum on Native Policy in East and Central Africa. His statement of colonial policy was an emphatic reassertion of the principle of paramountcy of African interests, which his predecessor as Colonial Secretary, the
Conservative
Leo Amery
, has attempted to water-down in 1927 when setting up the
Hilton Young Commission
. Passfield's Memorandum stated that no further white minority governments would be permitted, dismissing settler aspirations of self-government in Kenya and Northern Rhodesia. This turned Northern Rhodesian Europeans against association with East Africa towards union with Southern Rhodesia. In 1933, a substantial minority in the Northern Rhodesian legislature favoured amalgamation with Southern Rhodesia, despite vigorous African opposition. However, the majority of settlers were still cautious about being marginalised by the much greater numbers of Europeans in Southern Rhodesia.
58
59
From 1943, six Provincial Councils were set up to form a second tier of African representative institutions above the Native Authorities. These were purely advisory bodies, whose advice the Provincial Commissioner need not accept. Most of the members of the Provincial Councils were rural and many were chiefs, but some educated urban Africans were included. In 1946, a third tier was added with the formation of an African Representative Council for the whole protectorate, whose members were nominated by the Provincial Councils. The African Representative Council was also largely advisory, but was later able to make recommendations for Africans to be nominated as members of the Legislative Council.
60
Land policies
edit
In Northern Rhodesia, the British South Africa Company claimed ownership of all the unalienated land in the territory, and the right to alienate it. Europeans occupied land along the line of the railway and near the towns, but at first there was no land shortage, as the population density was low and the European population was small. In 1913, BSAC drew up plans for Native Reserves along Southern Rhodesian lines, outside which Africans would have no right to own or occupy land, but these plans were not put into effect under company administration. However, reserves were created in 1928 and 1929 in the northern and eastern parts of the protectorate, and about half the land adjacent to the line of the main railway line was reserved for European settlement and farming. In 1938, it was reported that the Native Reserves were overcrowded, while much of the land reserved for Europeans was unoccupied and unused.
61
In 1918, the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
of the United Kingdom had rejected the British South Africa Company claims to unalienated land in Southern Rhodesia, and this raised questions about the company's claim to unalienated land north of the Zambezi. However, the company's claim in Northern Rhodesia was based on concessions granted rather than conquest and, although a Northern Rhodesian parliamentary Committee in 1921 recommended that these claims also should be referred to the Privy Council, the British government preferred to negotiate an overall settlement for the end of BSAC administration in Northern Rhodesia. This effectively acknowledged the company's claim.
62
Under an Agreement of 29 September 1923, the Northern Rhodesian government took over the entire control of lands previously controlled by BSAC from 1 April 1924, paying the company half the net rents and the proceeds of certain land sales.
63
Opposition to minority rule
edit
Firstly,
independent African churches
such as the Ethiopian Church in Barotseland,
Kitawala
or the Watchtower movement and others rejected European missionary control and promoted
Millennialism
doctrines that the authorities considered
seditious
. They were not generally politically active, but the Watchtower movement was supposedly involved in the 1935 Copperbelt riots, probably incorrectly. Secondly, Africans educated by missions or abroad sought social, economic and political advancement through voluntary associations, often called "Welfare Associations". Their protests were muted until the early 1930s, and concentrated on improving African education and agriculture, with political representation a distant aspiration. However, several of the Welfare Associations on the Copperbelt were involved in the 1935 disturbances.
64
Hut tax
was gradually introduced to different areas of Northern Rhodesia between 1901 and 1913. Its introduction generally caused little unrest, but in 1909–10 the Gwembe branch of the
Tonga people
staged a relatively non-violent protest against its introduction, which was severely suppressed. A sharp increase in the rate of Hut tax in 1920 caused unrest, as did the 1935 increase in the tax rate on the Copperbelt.
65
In 1935, the Northern Rhodesian government proposed to increase the rates of tax paid by African miners working on the Copperbelt, while reducing it in rural areas. Although the Provincial Commissioners had been told about the change on 11 January 1935, it was not until 20 May that the Native Tax Amendment Ordinance was signed, with rates implemented as of 1 January 1935. This retrospective increase outraged the miners, who already had grievances about low pay and poor conditions, and also with the
Pass laws
which had been introduced in 1927 and required Africans to have permits to live and work on the Copperbelt. It provoked an all-out
Copperbelt strike
which lasted from 22 May to 25 May in three of the four mines in the area, namely
Mufulira
Nkana
and
Roan Antelope
. British South Africa Police were sent from
Southern Rhodesia
to Nkana to suppress it. When, on 29 May, police in
Luanshya
attempted to disperse a group of Africans, violence erupted and six Africans were shot dead. The loss of life shocked both sides and the strike was suspended while a Commission of Inquiry was set up. It concluded that the way the increases were announced was the key factor, and that if they had been introduced calmly, they would have been accepted.
66
One effect of the
strike
was the establishment of tribal elders' advisory councils for Africans across the Copperbelt, following a system introduced at the Roan Antelope mine. These councils acted as minor courts, referring other matters to the mine compound manager or district organiser. Native courts operated outside the urban areas and eventually these were introduced to the towns.
Mufulira
was the first, in 1938, and by the end of 1940 they existed in
Kitwe
Luanshya
Ndola
and
Chingola
on the Copperbelt,
Lusaka
and
Broken Hill
in the centre of the country, and
Livingstone
on the border with Southern Rhodesia. Simultaneously, African Urban Advisory Councils were established in the main Copperbelt towns. Relations between Africans and Europeans were often strained.
67
A second round of labour hostilities broke out in March 1940. This was prompted by successful
wildcat strike action
by European miners at two Copperbelt mines, who demanded increased basic pay, a war bonus and a
closed shop
to prevent the advancement of African miners. The European strikers' demands were largely conceded, including an agreement on preventing the permanent "dilution of labour". This was followed by a refusal to grant a proportionate increase of pay to African miners, who then went on strike despite the offer of slightly increased bonus payments. The government urged the mine-owners to increase the African miners' pay, but following a confrontation between workers collecting their pay and diehard strikers, it also tried to force the miners to return to work, using troops of the Northern Rhodesian Regiment. In the violence that followed, the troops fired on the strikers, causing 13 deaths immediately and four later. The Colonial Secretary forced the Governor to hold a Commission of Inquiry, which found that conditions at Nkana and Mufulira had little changed from 1935, although at
Nchanga
and
Roan Antelope
no strike had happened. It recommended increases in pay and improvements in conditions, which the mine-owners agreed, and also that African miners should be eligible for jobs previously reserved for European miners. This last recommendation was not implemented then, but was gradually introduced after 1943.
68
69
Second World War
edit
During the
Second World War
, Northern Rhodesian military units participated on the side of the United Kingdom. Specifically, Northern Rhodesian forces were involved in the
East African Campaign
, the
Battle of Madagascar
and in
Burma
. Later in the war, the British government's
Ministry of Supply
entered into agreements with the Northern Rhodesian and Canadian copper mines to supply all the copper needed by the armed forces for set prices. This removed free competition and therefore kept prices down; as British companies, the main copper producers were also subject to the Excess Profits Tax. However they did have a guaranteed market, and in 1943 the Ministry of Supply paid half of the cost of an expansion programme planned for the Nchanga mine.
There was
an election in 1941
Roy Welensky
, a leader in the
Rhodesian Railway Workers' Union
who had been elected in 1938, set up the
Northern Rhodesian Labour Party
as a party favouring amalgamation earlier in the year. All five candidates of the party were elected. This development was spotted in London where
Labour Party
MPs were concerned that the demand, if granted, would diminish the position of the Africans of Northern Rhodesia. Welensky led a move in the Legislative Council to restrict the British South Africa Company's mineral rights which garnered African support; the Company agreed in 1949 to assign 20% of its revenues to the Government, and to transfer all its remaining rights in 1986.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
edit
Early attempts at association
edit
Main article:
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
Map of the
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
As early as 1915, the British South Africa Company proposed amalgamating Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia, but this was rejected by the Southern Rhodesian legislature in 1917, as it might have prevented Southern Rhodesia obtaining self-government.
70
This option was again rejected in 1921, for the same reason. After the Southern Rhodesian electorate voted for self-determination in 1922, this objection ceased, and in 1927 the Conservative Colonial Secretary, Leo Amery gave Southern Rhodesia settlers the impression that he supported their claim to acquire the more productive parts of Northern Rhodesia.
71
At the end of the
First World War
, the European population of Northern Rhodesia was tiny, about 3,000 compared with ten times as many in Southern Rhodesia, but it increased rapidly after the discovery of the
Copperbelt
in the 1920s. Northern Rhodesian settlers wanted self-government for the European minority electorate, separate from Southern Rhodesia. However, once the British government appeared to reject the idea of further white minority governments in Africa, talk of amalgamation resumed.
72
In 1927, the British government appointed the
Hilton Young Commission
on the possible closer union of the British territories in East and Central Africa. Its majority thought that Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland should seek closer links with East Africa, but the minority report favoured linking these two territories with Southern Rhodesia on economic grounds. Even before the Commission's report was published, there were discussions between the Northern Rhodesian settlers and the Southern Rhodesian government on the terms of a total union of the two Rhodesias as a single colony. Northern Rhodesian settlers were only prepared to join Southern Rhodesia if there were no other way to achieve minority rule.
73
74
When Northern Rhodesia's mining industry suffered a major downturn in the 1930s, its representatives pushed for amalgamation in January 1936 at
Victoria Falls
, but the Southern Rhodesian Labour Party who blocked it, because the British government objected to Southern Rhodesian policies of job reservation and
segregation
being applied in the north.
75
Shortly after the Copperbelt strike of 1935 there was an election to the legislative council, in which all candidates supported investigating the
amalgamation
of Northern and Southern Rhodesia. After a conference at
Victoria Falls
between the elected members and representatives of the Southern Rhodesian political parties in January 1936 resolved in favour of amalgamation "under a constitution conferring the right of complete self-government". The United Kingdom government initially refused to set up a
Royal Commission
, but following pressure from Europeans in both the Rhodesias, particularly from
Godfrey Huggins
, who had been the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia since 1933, the British government agreed in 1937 to set up one, as the
Bledisloe Commission
, whose chairman was
Lord Bledisloe
. Its terms if reference were to consider a possible closer association between the two Rhodesias and Nyasaland.
76
Federation implemented
edit
The Bledisloe Commission reported in March 1939, and suggested that Africans could benefit socially and economically from European enterprise. However, it thought that two major changes would be necessary: firstly, to moderate Southern Rhodesian racial policies, and secondly, to give some form of representation of African interests in the legislatures of each territory.
77
The Commission considered the complete amalgamation of the three territories, and thought that it would be more difficult to plan future development in a looser federal union. It did not favour an alternative under which Southern Rhodesia would absorb the Copperbelt. Despite the almost unanimous African opposition to amalgamation with Southern Rhodesia, the Commission advocated it at some time in the future, However, a majority of Commission members ruled amalgamation out as an immediate possibility, because of African concerns and objections. This majority favoured an early union of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland into one unit which would co-operate economically with Southern Rhodesia as a possible first step to uniting all three territories later.
78
79
80
Northern Rhodesia's white population were severely disappointed, but the outbreak of the Second World War fundamentally changed the economic and political situation, as Northern Rhodesian copper became a vital resource in winning the war.
During the Second World War, co-operation between the three territories increased with a joint secretariat in 1941 and an advisory Central African Council in 1945, made up of the three Governors and one leading European politician from each territory. Post-war British governments were persuaded that closer association in Central Africa would cut costs, and they agreed to a federal solution, not the full amalgamation that the Southern Rhodesian government preferred. The first post-war Colonial Secretary from 1946 to 1950,
Arthur Creech Jones
of the Labour Party, was reluctant to discuss any plans for amalgamation with
Godfrey Huggins
, the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia because of opposition from Africans and from within his own party. He did not entirely rule out federation, which had been proposed by a conference held at Victoria Falls in 1949 between the Southern Rhodesian government, and the elected, or "unofficial" members of the Northern Rhodesia Legislative Council led by
Roy Welensky
, without any Africans present. It was left to his successor in post in 1950 to 1951,
James Griffiths
, to begin exploratory talks with Huggins and Welensky representing the white minorities of both Rhodesias, subject to the opinion of the majority African populations being ascertained. After a change in the British government in 1951, the incoming Conservative Colonial Secretary,
Oliver Lyttelton
removed the condition of sounding out African opinion in November 1951 and pushed ahead against strong African opposition. After further revisions of the proposals for federation, agreement was reached. Following a
positive referendum
result in Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia joined the
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
when it was created in 1953.
81
82
Opposition to Federation
edit
In 1946, the Federation of African Welfare Societies was formed, uniting the Welfare Societies that had been set up by educated Africans in towns in the 1930s to discuss local affairs in English. In 1948 the Federation changed its name to the
Northern Rhodesia Congress
and
Godwin Mbikusita Lewanika
, who had an aristocratic Barotse background, became its first president. In the late 1940s several local trade unions representing African miners merged to form the
Northern Rhodesian African Mineworkers' Union
. Under Mbikusita Lewanika, Congress gradually developed as a political force. It had some radical policies, but Mbikusita Lewanika favoured gradualism and dialogue with the settler minority. In 1950 and 1951 he failed to deliver a strong anti-Federation message and in 1951 Mbikusita Lewanika was voted out of office and replaced by the more radical
Harry Nkumbula
83
Harry Nkumbula, a schoolteacher from
Kitwe
, had been given a scholarship to study in London, where he met
Hastings Banda
. The main African objections to the Federation were summed up in a joint memorandum prepared by Nkumbula for Northern Rhodesia and Banda for Nyasaland in 1950, shortly before Nkumbula returned to Northern Rhodesia. These objections were that political domination by the white minority of Southern Rhodesia would prevent greater African political participation, and that control by Southern Rhodesian politicians would lead to an extension of racial discrimination and segregation. Nkumbula returned to Northern Rhodesia in 1950 to fight against Federation and against Mbikusita Lewanika's leadership of Congress. His radicalism caused some chiefs and conservatives to withdraw their support from Congress, but the Northern Rhodesian African National Congress, as the party was renamed in 1951, was able to persuade the African Representative Council to recommend two of its members to be African-nominated members of the Legislative Council in 1951.
83
Shortly after its formation, the Federal government attempted to take control of African affairs from the British Colonial Office, proving the fears of Nkumbula and Banda were justified. It also scaled back the fairly modest British post-war proposals for African development.
84
The Northern Rhodesian African National Congress had been a rather small, largely urban, party under Mbikusita Lewanika, but Nkumbula used opposition to Federation to increase its membership. In 1951,
Kenneth Kaunda
, formerly a teacher, became Organising Secretary for Congress in the Northern Province, and in 1953 he moved to Lusaka as Secretary General of Congress, under Nkumbula's presidency. The efforts of Congress, including a failed general strike in March 1953, could not prevent the imposition of Federation, and apart from some urban protests, it was sullenly accepted by the African majority. Both Kaunda and Nkumbula began to advocate self-government under African majority rule, rather than just increased African representation in the existing colonial institutions. In addition to demanding the break-up of Federation, Congress targeted local grievances, such as
the "colour bar"
, the denial of certain jobs or services to Africans and low pay and poor conditions for African workers. Kaunda was prominent in organising
boycotts
and
sit-ins
, but in 1955 both he and Nkumbula were imprisoned for two months.
85
Imprisonment radicalised Kaunda, who intensified the campaign of economic boycotts and disobedience on his release, but it had the opposite effect on Nkumbula, who had already acted indecisively over the 1953 general strike. Nkumbula's leadership became increasingly autocratic and it was alleged he was using party funds for his own benefit. However, Kaunda continued to support Nkumbula even though in 1956 Nkumbula attempted to end the campaign against the colour bar. Kaunda's estrangement from Nkumbula grew when he spent six months in Britain working with the Labour party on
decolonisation
, but the final rupture came only in October 1958 when Nkumbula tried to purge Congress of his opponents and assume sweeping powers over the party. In that month, Kaunda and most of the younger, more radical members left to form the
Zambia African National Congress
, with Kaunda as president.
86
End of Federation and independence
edit
After the defection of Kaunda and the radicals, Nkumbula decided that the Northern Rhodesian African National Congress would contest the Legislative Council elections to be held under the 1959 Order-in-Council in October 1959. To increase the chances of Congress, he entered into electoral pacts with white liberals. Kaunda and the Zambia African National Congress planned to boycott these elections, regarding the 1959 franchise as racially biased.
87
However, before the elections a
State of emergency
had been declared in Nyasaland and Banda and many of his followers had been detained without trial, following claims that they had planned the indiscriminate killing of Europeans and Asians, and of African opponents, the so-called "murder plot". Shortly afterwards, on 12 March 1959, the governor of Northern Rhodesia also declared a State of emergency there, arrested 45 Zambia African National Congress including Kaunda and banned the party. Kaunda later received a 19-month prison sentence for conspiracy, although no credible evidence of conspiracy was produced. The declaration of States of emergency in both Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland marked the end of attempts by their nationalist parties to work within the colonial system, and the start of a push for immediate and full independence.
88
Although Nkumbula and his party won several seats in the October 1959 elections, he made little use of Kaunda's enforced absence and managed to alienate another section of the Northern Rhodesian African National Congress who, with former Zambia African National Congress members, formed the
United National Independence Party
in October 1959. When Kaunda was released from prison in January 1960, he assumed its leadership. Nkumbula and what was left of Congress retained support in the south of the country, where he had always maintained a strong following among the Ila and
plateau Tonga
peoples, but the United National Independence Party was dominant elsewhere.
89
90
Sir
Roy Welensky
, a Northern Rhodesian settler who was the Federal Prime Minister from November 1956 had convinced
Alan Lennox-Boyd
, Colonial Secretary from 1954 to 1959, to support Federation and to agree that the pace of African advancement would be gradual. This remained the view of the British cabinet under
Harold Macmillan
until after the declaration of the States of emergency, when it decided to set up a Royal Commission on the future of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland to be held in 1960. This became the
Monckton Commission
, which concluded that the Federation could not be maintained except by force or through massive changes in racial legislation. It advocated a majority of African members in the Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesian legislatures and giving these territories the option to leave the Federation after five years.
91
92
Iain Macleod
replaced Lennox-Boyd as Colonial Secretary in October 1959: he soon released Banda and negotiated a constitution for responsible government for Nyasaland with him, to follow elections in 1961 that would lead to an African majority on the Legislative Council. However, Macleod was more cautious on political change in Northern Rhodesia. A plan for a Legislative Council with an African majority (16 African members to 14 Europeans) was strongly opposed by Welensky, and under pressure from cabinet colleagues, Macleod accepted Welensky's proposal for a council of 45 members, 15 of whom would be elected by a largely African electoral roll, 15 by a largely European roll, 14 by both rolls jointly and 1 by Asians. As well as greatly inflating the value of votes on the largely European roll, there was a further requirement in the 14 so-called "national" constituencies that successful candidates had to gain at least 10% of the African votes and 10% of the European ones. This complicated franchise, which also required voters to have a relatively high income, was used in elections of October 1962. In this, Kaunda's United National Independence Party gained only 14 seats with around 60% of the valid votes; the mainly European Federal party gained 16 seats with 17% of votes, and Nkumbula's Congress held the balance of power with 7 seats: only 37 of the 45 seats were filled, as in many of the "national" constituencies, no party gained 10% of both African and European votes.
93
94
Although Congress had arranged before the election with the Federal party that their voters would vote for the other's candidates in some "national" constituencies, Nkumbula agreed to work in a coalition which had Kaunda as Prime Minister, and the two and their parties worked in reasonable harmony until a pre-independence election on 1964 where, with a much wider franchise, the
United National Independence Party
gained 55 of the 75 parliamentary seats. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was formally dissolved on 31 December 1963, and the country became the independent Republic of Zambia on 24 October 1964, with Kaunda as President.
95
96
Demographics
edit
Year
Population
Natives
Europeans
Coloured
Asiatic
1911
826,000
1,497
1923
1,000,000
3,750
1925
1,140,642
4,624
1931
1,372,235
13,846
1932
1,382,705
10,553
1933
1,371,213
11,278
1935
1,366,425
10,000
1940
1,366,641
15,188
1943
18,745
1945
1,631,146
21,371
1946
1,634,980
21,919
1951
1,700,577
37,221
1,092
2,529
1954
2,040,000
60,000
1,400
4,600
1956
2,110,000
64,800
1,550
5,400
1960
2,340,000
76,000
2,000
8,000
1961
2,430,000
75,000
1,900
7,900
1963
3,460,000
74,000
2,300
8,900
Source:
Whitaker's Almanack
1953 stamps of Northern Rhodesia marking the birth centennial of Cecil Rhodes
Culture
edit
Postage stamps
edit
The British government issued postage stamps for Northern Rhodesia from 1925 to 1963. See
Postage stamps and postal history of Northern Rhodesia
for more details.
Northern Rhodesia Olympic Team badge
1964 Olympics
edit
Northern Rhodesia is the only country to have changed its name and flag between the opening and closing ceremonies of an
Olympic Games
. The country entered the
1964 Summer Olympics
as Northern Rhodesia, and left in the closing ceremony as Zambia on 24 October, the day independence was formally declared.
See also
edit
Bibliography of the history of Zambia
A history of Zambia
Zambia portal
Notes
edit
Although a protectorate, its official name was simply Northern Rhodesia.
References
edit
Northern Rhodesia Order in Council 1911 (
SR&O 1911
/438)
Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia Order in Council, 1899, S.E.O. 1901 No. 567 (as amended, S.R.O. Rev. 1904, V.)
North-Eastern Rhodesia Order in Council 1900 (
SR&O 1900
/89)
Commonwealth and Colonial Law
by
Kenneth Roberts-Wray
, London, Stevens, 1966. p. 753
Northern Rhodesia Order in Council 1924 (
SR&O 1924
/324), S.R.O. & S.I. Rev VIII, 154
Zambia Independence Act 1964
(c. 65)
"Merriam-Webster online dictionary"
Archived
from the original on 21 April 2009
. Retrieved
25 October
2005
Galbraith (1974)
, pp. 87, 202–03.
Galbraith (1974)
, pp. 101–03.
Galbraith (1974)
, pp. 211–15, 217–19.
Galbraith (1974)
, p. 222.
Galbraith (1974)
, pp. 103–04.
NRZAM website: Alfred Sharpe's Travels in the Northern Province and Katanga.
Archived
30 October 2020 at the
Wayback Machine
The
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David Gordon, (2000). Decentralized Despots or Contingent Chiefs: Comparing Colonial Chiefs in Northern Rhodesia and the Belgian Congo. KwaZulu-Natal History and African Studies Seminar, University of Natal, Durban.
Government of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), (1964). White Paper on British South Africa Company's claims to Mineral Royalties, pp. 1135, 1138.
Galbraith (1974)
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G. D. Clough, (1924). The Constitutional Changes in Northern Rhodesia and Matters Incidental to the Transition, Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law, Third Series, Vol. 6, No. 4 pp. 279–80.
Rotberg (1965)
, p. 26.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 40–41, 45, 75–76.
L H Gann, (1958). The Birth of a Plural Society: The Development of Northern Rhodesia under the British South Africa Company, 1894–1914, pp. 67, 74–75, 106–07.
J G Pike, (1969). Malawi: A Political and Economic History, pp. 87, 90–92.
J Lunn, (1992). The Political Economy of Primary Railway Construction in the Rhodesias, 1890–1911, The Journal of African History, Vol. 33, No. 2 pp. 239, 244.
S Katzenellenbogen, (1974). Zambia and Rhodesia: Prisoners of the Past: A Note on the History of Railway Politics in Central Africa, African Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 290, pp. 63–64.
S Katzenellenbogen, (1974). Zambia and Rhodesia: Prisoners of the Past: A Note on the History of Railway Politics in Central Africa, pp. 65–66.
P Slinn, (1971). Commercial Concessions and Politics during the Colonial Period: The Role of the British South Africa Company in Northern Rhodesia 1890–1964, p. 369.
Baxter, T.W.; E.E. Burke (1970).
Guide to the Historical Manuscripts in the National Archives of Rhodesia
. p. 67.
Burnham, Frederick Russell
(1926).
Scouting on Two Continents
. Doubleday, Page & company. pp. 2, Chapters 3 & 4.
OCLC
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Africa and the Americas: culture, politics, and history : a multidisciplinary encyclopedia, Volume 2 Transatlantic relations series
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ISBN
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S Cunningham, (1981). The Copper Industry in Zambia: Foreign Mining Companies in a Developing Country, pp. 57–58.
R W Steel, (1957) The Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia, pp. 83–84.
A D Roberts. (1982). Notes towards a Financial History of Copper Mining in Northern Rhodesia, Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 348.
S Cunningham, (1981). The Copper Industry in Zambia: Foreign Mining Companies in a Developing Country, Praeger, pp. 61, 68, 118.
A D Roberts. (1982). Notes towards a Financial History of Copper Mining in Northern Rhodesia, pp. 348–49.
S Cunningham, (1981). The Copper Industry in Zambia: Foreign Mining Companies in a Developing Country, pp. 53–55
A D Roberts. (1982). Notes towards a Financial History of Copper Mining in Northern Rhodesia, pp. 349–50.
S Cunningham, (1981). The Copper Industry in Zambia: Foreign Mining Companies in a Developing Country, pp. 57–58, 81.
G. D. Clough, (1924). The Constitutional Changes in Northern Rhodesia and Matters Incidental to the Transition, p. 279.
Davison, J.W. (1948).
The Northern Rhodesian Legislative Council
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24.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 109–10, 199.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 206, 208.
Rotberg (1965)
, p. 234.
Clegg, Edward (1960).
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. Oxford:
Oxford University Press
. pp.
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70.
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"No. 35097"
The London Gazette
. 7 March 1941. p. 1364.
"No. 37457"
The London Gazette
. 5 February 1946. p. 818.
"No. 39391"
The London Gazette
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"No. 39417"
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. 25 December 1951. p. 6707.
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Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 47–50.
H. I Wetherell, (1979) Settler Expansionism in Central Africa: The Imperial Response of 1931 and Subsequent Implications, pp. 218, 225.
B Raftopoulos and A S Mlambo, editors (2009) Becoming Zimbabwe: A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008, p. 87.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 199, 207.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 37–38.
Memorandum by the Colonial Secretary on Rhodesia, 19 April 1923.
Archived
22 October 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
G. D. Clough, (1924). The Constitutional Changes in Northern Rhodesia and Matters Incidental to the Transition, Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law, Third Series, Vol. 6, No. 4 p. 281.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 56–60, 124–26, 136–39.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 45, 75–76.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 51, 165–66.
Jenkins, E.E. (1937).
Report of an Inquiry into the Causes of a Disturbance at Nkana on the 4th and 5 November 1937
. Lusaka: Government Printer.
Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Disturbances in the Copperbelt, Northern Rhodesia, July 1940
. Lusaka: Government Printer.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 169, 171–73, 176.
B Raftopoulos and A S Mlambo, editors (2009) Becoming Zimbabwe: A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008, African Books Collective, p. 86.
ISBN
978-1-77922-083-7
H. I Wetherell, (1979) Settler Expansionism in Central Africa: The Imperial Response of 1931 and Subsequent Implications, African Affairs, Vol. 78, No. 311, pp. 214–16, 225.
H. I Wetherell, (1979) Settler Expansionism in Central Africa: The Imperial Response of 1931 and Subsequent Implications, pp. 216–17.
C Leys and C Pratt, (1960) A New Deal in Central Africa, Praeger, pp. 4–5.
H. I Wetherell, (1979) Settler Expansionism in Central Africa: The Imperial Response of 1931 and Subsequent Implications, pp. 215–16.
C Leys and C Pratt, (1960) A New Deal in Central Africa, p. 9.
C Leys and C Pratt, (1960) A New Deal in Central Africa, pp. 9–10.
M Chanock, (1977). Unconsummated union: Britain, Rhodesia and South Africa, 1900–45, Manchester University Press, p. 229.
ISBN
978-0-7190-0634-0
M Chanock, (1977). Unconsummated union: Britain, Rhodesia and South Africa, 1900–45, p. 230.
H. I Wetherell, (1979) Settler Expansionism in Central Africa: The Imperial Response of 1931 and Subsequent Implications, p. 223.
B Raftopoulos and A S Mlambo, editors (2009) Becoming Zimbabwe: A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008, pp. 87–88.
E. Windrich, (1975). The Rhodesian Problem: A Documentary Record 1923–1973, Routledge pp. 22–25.
ISBN
978-0-7100-8080-6
A Okoth, (2006). A History of Africa: African Nationalism and the de-colonisation process, [1915–1995], Volume 2 East African Publishers, p. 101.
ISBN
978-9966-25-358-3
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 226, 229–34, 269–70.
A C Ross, (2009). Colonialism to Cabinet Crisis, African Books Collective, p. 62.
ISBN
99908-87-75-6
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 239, 249–51, 262–63.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 278, 285, 289–91.
A Roberts, (1976). A History of Zambia, Africana Publishing Company, p. 220.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 297, 299–301.
B Raftopoulos and A S Mlambo, editors (2009) Becoming Zimbabwe: A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008, African Books Collective, p. 92.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 301, 307–10.
R Blake, (1977). A History of Rhodesia, Knopf p. 331.
ISBN
0-394-48068-6
P Murray, (2005). British Documents on the End of Empire: Central Africa, Part I, Vol. 9, pp. lxxiv–v, lxxx.
ISBN
978-0-11-290586-8
P Murray, (2005). British Documents on the End of Empire: Central Africa, pp. lxxxi–iv.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 311–12, 315.
Rotberg (1965)
, pp. 315–16.
A Roberts, (1976).A History of Zambia, pp. 221–23.
Bibliography
edit
Brownlie, I. (1979).
African Boundaries: A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopaedia
. Hurst & Co.
ISBN
978-0-903983-87-7
Galbraith, J. S. (1974).
Crown and Charter: The Early Years of the British South Africa Company
. University of California Press.
ISBN
978-0-520-02693-3
Keppel-Jones, A. (1983).
Rhodes and Rhodesia: The White Conquest of Zimbabwe 1884–1902
. McGill-Queen's Press.
ISBN
978-0-7735-6103-8
Rotberg, R. I. (1965). "The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873–1964".
Journal of the International African Institute
(3). Cambridge (Mass): Harvard University Press.
Tindall, P. E. N. (1968) [UK edition 1967].
A History of Central Africa
. New York; Washington, D.C.: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers.
LCCN
68-19541
OCLC
441027
External links
edit
Wikisource
has the text of the 1922
Encyclopædia Britannica
article "
Rhodesia
".
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Northern Rhodesia
Hillier, Alfred Peter
; Cana, Frank Richardson (1911).
"Rhodesia"
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). pp.
1004–
1008.
The Great North Road
, Northern Rhodesians worldwide
Northern Rhodesia and Zambia
, photographs and information from the 1950s and 1960s
A Brief Guide to Northern Rhodesia
Former
British Empire
and current
British Overseas Territories
Legend
Former territory
Current territory
*Current
Commonwealth realm
Current member of the
Commonwealth of Nations
Europe
Corsica
1794–1796
Gibraltar
since 1713
Heligoland
1807–1890
Ionian Islands
1809–1864
pre 1800 acts of Union Ireland
Lordship of Ireland
1177–1542
Kingdom of Ireland
(1542–1800 de facto client state; 1719-1800 de jure dependency)
Fully annexed into the UK
Irish Free State
1921–1931
Malta
Protectorate
1800–1813
Colony
1813–1964
Minorca
1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802
Africa
Basutoland
Lesotho
) 1868–1966
Bechuanaland
Botswana
) 1884–1966
Cameroons
13
1919–1961
Cape Colony
1795–1803
Cape of Good Hope
1806–1910
Central Africa
1891–1907
East Africa
1895–1920
Egypt
1882–1922
The Gambia
1816–1965
Gold Coast
Ghana
) 1874–1957
Kenya
1920–1963
Lagos
1862–1906
Madeira
1807–1808
Mauritius
1810–1968
Natal
1856–1910
Niger Coast
1884–1900
Nigeria
1914–1960
Northern Nigeria
1900–1914
Northern Rhodesia
15
1924–1964
Nyasaland
1891–1964
Orange River
1900–1910
Seychelles
1903–1976
Sierra Leone
1792–1961
Somaliland
1884–1960
South Africa
1910–1931
South-West Africa
12
1915–1931
Southern Rhodesia
14
1923–1965 and 1979–1980
Southern Nigeria
1900–1914
Swaziland
1893–1968
Sudan
1899–1956
Tanganyika
13
1922–1961
Transvaal
1900–1910
Uganda
1890–1962
Zanzibar
1890–1963
Zululand
1887–1897
12
Now
Namibia
13
League of Nations mandate
. British Cameroons is now part of
Cameroon
and
Nigeria
, while Tanganyika is part of
Tanzania
14
Self-governing
Southern Rhodesia
unilaterally declared independence
in 1965 (as
Rhodesia
) and continued as an
unrecognised
state until the 1979
Lancaster House Agreement
. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.
15
Now
Zambia
Asia
Aden Colony
1839–1967
Afghanistan
1839–1842
Protectorate
1879–1919
Akrotiri and Dhekelia
since 1960 (before as part of
Cyprus
Bencoolen
1685–1824
Banka
and
Billiton
1812–1824
Bengal
1757–1947
Bhutan
(protectorate) 1907–1949
Borneo
1874–1963
British Indian Ocean Territory
since 1965 (before as part of
Mauritius
and
Seychelles
26
Burma
1824–1948
Brunei
1888–1984
Ceylon
1795–1948
Cyprus
1878–1960
Hong Kong
1841–1997
India
18
1858–1947
Java
1811–1816
Kuwait
1918–1961
Labuan
1848–1946
Malaya
1819–1826
Federated States
1895–1946
Unfederated States
1885–1946
Union
1946–1948
Federation
1948–1957
Malacca
1824–1946
Crown Colony
1946–1957
Maldives
1796–1965
Manila and Cavite
1762–1764
Mesopotamia
19
1920–1932
Muscat and Oman
1891–1971
North Borneo
1882–1963
Crown Colony
1946–1963
Padang
1781–1784 and 1795–1819
Palestine
19
1923–1948
Penang
1786–1946
Crown Colony
1946–1957
Pulo Condore
1702–1705
Sarawak
1841–1946
Crown Colony
1946–1963
Singapore
1946–1963
South Vietnam
1945–1946
Straits Settlements
1826–1946
Transjordan
1921–1946
Trucial States
1892–1971
Weihai
1898–1930
18
Now
India
Pakistan
and
Bangladesh
19
League of Nations mandate
. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the
Anglo-Iraqi Treaty
26
Legitimacy of territorial establishment
disputed
North America
Anguilla
since 1650
Antigua
1632–1860
Antigua and Barbuda
1860–1981
Bahamas
1670–1973
Barbados
1624–1966
Bay Islands
1643–1860
Belize
1871–1981
Bermuda
since 1619
British Arctic Territories
16th c.–1880
British Columbia
1858–1866
1866–1871
Cape Breton Island
1754–1820
Dominica
1763–1978
East Florida
1763–1783
Grenada
1762–1974
Canada
Lower
1791–1841
Upper
1791–1841
Province
1841–1867
Dominion
1867–1931
Carolina
1663–1712
Cayman Islands
since 1670
Columbia District
Oregon Country
1818–1846
Connecticut
1636–1776
Delaware
1701–1776
East Jersey
1674–1702
Georgia
1733–1776
Jamaica
1655–1962
Leeward Islands
1671–1816, 1833–1960
Massachusetts Bay
1629–1691
Province
, 1691–1776
Maryland
1632–1776
Montserrat
since 1632
Mosquito Coast
1655–1860
Nevis
1628–1983
New Albion
1579
New Brunswick
1784–1867
New England
1686–1689
New Hampshire
1680–1776
New Haven
1637–1662
New Jersey
1665–1674 and 1702–1776
New York
1664–1776
Newfoundland
1907–1949
Newfoundland and Labrador
1583–1907
North Carolina
1712–1776
North-Western Territory
1859–1870
Nova Scotia
1713–1867
Paulet affair
1843
Prince Edward Island
1763–1873
Pennsylvania
1681–1776
Plymouth
1620–1691
Quebec
1763–1791*
Queen Charlotte Islands
1853–1863
Rhode Island
1636–1776
Rupert's Land
1670–1870
Saint Croix
1625–1650
Saint Kitts
1623–1983
Saint Kitts and Nevis
1882–1983
Saint Lucia
1605–1979
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
1627–1979
Saybrook
1635–1644
South Carolina
1712–1776
Stickeen
1862–1863
Trinidad and Tobago
1889–1962
Turks and Caicos Islands
since 1799
Vancouver Island
1849–1866
Virgin Islands
since 1666
Virginia
1607–1776
West Florida
1763–1783
West Indies Federation
1958–1962
Associated States
1967–1983
West Jersey
1674–1702
Windward Islands
1833–1960
South America
Providence Island
1631–1641
Willoughbyland
1651–1667
Saint Andrew and Providence Islands
1670–1688
Guiana
1831–1966
Now a
department
of
Colombia
Oceania
New South Wales
1788–1901
Van Diemen's Land
Tasmania
1803–1901
Auckland Islands
20
1807–1863
New Hebrides
21
1824–1980
Queensland
1824–1901
Swan River
Western Australia
1829–1901
South Australia
1836–1901
Pitcairn Islands
since 1838
New Zealand
1841–1907
North Australia
1846–1847
Victoria
1851–1901
Fiji
1874–1970
Western Pacific Territories
1877–1976
British New Guinea
1884–1902
Rarotonga
Cook Islands
20
1888–1901
Union Islands
20
1889–1948
Gilbert and Ellice Islands
22
1892–1979
Solomon Islands
1893–1978
Tonga
1900–1970
Niue
20
1900–1974
Australia
1901–1942
New Zealand
1907–1947
Samoa
1914–1962
Nauru
1919–1942 and 1945–1968
20
Now part of the
Realm of New Zealand
21
Now
Vanuatu
22
Now
Kiribati
and
Tuvalu
Antarctica and the South Atlantic
Saint Helena
23
since 1658
Ascension Island
23
since 1815
Tristan da Cunha
23
since 1816
Falkland Islands
since 1833
Australian Antarctic Territory
(transferred to the
Commonwealth of Australia
1841–1933
Ross Dependency
(transferred to the
Realm of New Zealand
1841–1947
British Antarctic Territory
24
since 1908
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
25
since 1908
Occupied by Argentina during the
Falklands War
of April–June 1982.
23
Since 2009 part of
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.
24
Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the
Antarctic Treaty
25
Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985
Historical flags of the British Empire
Anglosphere
culture
Category
Portal
Regions
of
Africa
Central
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Cape Lopez
Mayombe
Igboland
Mbaise
Pool Malebo
Congo Basin
Chad Basin
Cameroonian Highlands forests
East Sudanian savanna
Congolian rainforests
Ouaddaï highlands
Ennedi Plateau
East
African Great Lakes
Albertine Rift
East African Rift
Great Rift Valley
Gregory Rift
Rift Valley lakes
Virunga Mountains
Kavirondo
Zanj
East African montane forests
Eastern Arc Mountains
Serengeti
Horn of Africa
Afar Triangle
Al-Habash
Barbaria
Danakil Alps
Danakil Desert
Ethiopian Highlands
Dahlak Archipelago
Hanish Islands
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Tadjoura
Red Sea
Indian Ocean islands
Comoro Islands
Lamu Archipelago
Madagascar
Central Highlands
Northern Highlands
Zanzibar Archipelago
Swahili coast
North
Eastern Desert
Maghreb
Ancient Libya
Atlas Mountains
Barbary Coast
Gibraltar Arc
Ifriqiya
Nile Valley
Nile Delta
Bashmur
Cataracts of the Nile
Darfur
Lower Egypt
Lower Nubia
Middle Egypt
Nile Delta
Nuba Mountains
Nubia
The Sudans
Upper Egypt
Tibesti Mountains
Western Sahara
South
Rhodesia
North
South
Thembuland
Succulent Karoo
Nama Karoo
Bushveld
Maputaland
Highveld
Fynbos
Indian Ocean coastal belt
Albany thickets
Cape Floristic Region
Skeleton Coast
Kalahari Desert
Okavango Delta
Cape Peninsula
False Bay
West
Pepper Coast
Gold Coast
Slave Coast
Ivory Coast
Cape Palmas
Cape Mesurado
Guinea region
Guinean Forests of West Africa
Upper Guinean forests
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Guinean forest-savanna mosaic
Guinea Highlands
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Niger Basin
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Inner Niger Delta
West Sudanian savanna
Yorubaland
Macro-regions
Aethiopia
Afromontane
Arab world
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Françafrique
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List of countries where Arabic is an official language
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MENASA
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Middle East and North Africa
Miombo woodlands
Mittelafrika
Negroland
Northeast Africa
Portuguese-speaking African countries
Sahara
Sahel
Southeast Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sudanian savanna
Tropical Africa
Zambezian region
14°30′S
27°30′E
 / 
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Retrieved from "
Categories
Northern Rhodesia
Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa
States and territories established in 1924
1911 establishments in Africa
1964 disestablishments in Africa
1924 establishments in the British Empire
1964 disestablishments in the British Empire
Countries and territories where English is an official language
Zambia and the Commonwealth of Nations
States and territories disestablished in 1964
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Northern Rhodesia
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