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(PDF) 3D Reconstruction and Uncertainty Modelling using Fuzzy Logic of Archeological Structures – applied to the Temple of Diana in Nemi, Italy
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3D Reconstruction and Uncertainty Modelling using Fuzzy Logic of Archeological Structures – applied to the Temple of Diana in Nemi, Italy
Francesca Diosono
2015
November 23, 2024
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Abstract
In the recent years, virtual 3D reconstructions of archaeological sites have gained large attention from various fields of science. Procedural modelling approaches have emerged as appropriate to model and visualize reconstructed ancient structures. The process of reconstructing historical building structures involves ambiguities and uncertainties. On an archaeological site, excavated and surveyed findings such as ruins, located in their original positions, provide reliable foundations for a 3D reconstruction. On the contrary, findings, such as debris of walls, roofs, columns, etc. are not less important, but implicate different levels of certainties for a 3D model, depending on the archaeological knowledge and interpretation. On one hand, this work provides a virtual 3D reconstructing of an ancient Roman temple named ''Sanctuary of Diana'' located in Nemi, Italy, in different levels of detail using a procedural modelling approach. On the other hand, we present a fuzzy logic approach to quantify and visualize the uncertainty of the temple reconstruction.
Figures (11)
Figure 1. Orthophoto (left) and 2D GIS data (right), taken in 2013, showing the ruins of the Temple of Diana
Figure 2. Simplified CGA shape workflow of the reconstruction of the Nemi temple
Figure 3. Temple modelling, top, evolving model; left, footprint; right, solution, created using CityEngine
Figure 4. LoD1 (left), LoD2 (centre), and LoD3 (right), created using CityEngine
Table 1. Reliability values of the temple objects
Figure 5. Reconstruction uncertainty using different colour gradients: red-green colour gradient (left), and light blue to dark blue gradient (right), created using CityEngine
Figure 6. Reconstruction uncertainty via transparency concept, created using CityEngine
Figure 8. Sequence of various resolutions of timber texture, created using CityEngine Figure 7. Swipe tool for comparison of gradient and transparency scheme, created using CityEngine
Figure 9. Reconstruction of uncertainty using various resolution values on the left picture the pediment reliability is 0.7, created using CityEngine. Contrary to the pediment timbers on the right picture has 0 reliability.
Figure 10. Overall temple reconstruction uncertainty increases during stepwise temple construction, created using CityEngine (from left: remains - steps - main roof - main door - antefixes - altar)
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ARTICLE

3D Reconstruction and Uncertainty Modelling
Using Fuzzy Logic of Archaeological Structures:
${protocol}://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/cart.51.3.3160 - Saturday, July 14, 2018 1:24:32 PM - University of Pennsylvania IP Address:165.123.34.86

Applied to the Temple of Diana in Nemi, Italy
Mariana Danielová
Independent Scholar / Prague / Czech Republic

Holger Kumke
Department of Cartography (LFK) / Technische Universität München / Munich / Germany

Stefan Peters
Geospatial Information Infrastructure Research Group / Universiti Teknologi, Malaysia / Johor / Malaysia

ABSTRACT

In the recent years, virtual 3D reconstructions of archaeological sites have gained large attention from various ﬁelds of
science. Procedural modelling approaches have emerged as appropriate to model and visualize reconstructed ancient
structures. The process of reconstructing historical building structures involves ambiguities and uncertainties. On an
archaeological site, excavated and surveyed ﬁndings such as ruins, located in their original positions, provide reliable
foundations for a 3D reconstruction. On the contrary, ﬁndings, such as debris of walls, roofs, columns, etc. are not less
important, but implicate different levels of certainties for a 3D model, depending on the archaeological knowledge
and interpretation. On one hand, this work provides a virtual 3D reconstructing of an ancient Roman temple named
‘‘Sanctuary of Diana’’ located in Nemi, Italy, in different levels of detail using a procedural modelling approach. On the
other hand, we present a fuzzy logic approach to quantify and visualize the uncertainty of the temple reconstruction.

Keywords: uncertainty visualization, archaeological reconstruction, procedural modelling

RÉSUMÉ
Depuis quelques années, de nombreux scientiﬁques de divers domaines s’intéressent aux reconstructions virtuelles
tridimensionnelles de sites archéologiques. Les approches de modélisation procédurale sont apparues comme de bonnes
façons de modéliser et de visualiser les structures anciennes ainsi reconstruites. Le processus de reconstruction de
bâtiments historiques comporte son lot d’ambiguı̈tés et d’incertitudes. Sur un site archéologique, l’excavation et l’étude
de ruines encore dans leur position d’origine, par exemple, fournissent une base solide pour la reconstruction tridimen-
sionnelle. Tout aussi importantes, les découvertes de débris de murs, toits, colonnes ou autres impliquent au contraire
différents niveaux de certitude pour le modèle tridimensionnel, selon le savoir et l’interprétation des archéologues. Dans
un premier temps, cet article propose une reconstruction virtuelle tridimensionnelle d’un temple de l’Antiquité romaine –
le sanctuaire de Diane à Nemi, en Italie – offrant différents niveaux de détail et fondée sur une approche de modélisation
procédurale. Dans un deuxième temps, nous présentons l’approche de logique ﬂoue utilisée pour quantiﬁer et visualiser
l’incertitude de la reconstruction du temple.

Mots clés : visualisation de l’incertitude, reconstruction archéologique, modélisation procédurale

Introduction vations are located in the northern part of the Nemi
basin. This basin is a former volcanic crater and its south-
The archaeological site investigated in this article, the ern part is covered by a lake with the same name. Ancient
Sanctuary of Diana, is located in the municipality of structures were made out of basaltic rocks. Since 1984,
Nemi in central Italy. Nemi village, belonging to the prov- this area has been part of the Parco Naturale dei Castelli
ince of Rome, is situated 30 km southeast of Rome. Exca- Romani national park. The sanctuary covers an area of

Cartographica 51:3, 2016, pp. 137–146 6 University of Toronto Press doi:10.3138/cart.51.3.3160 137

Mariana Danielová et al.
${protocol}://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/cart.51.3.3160 - Saturday, July 14, 2018 1:24:32 PM - University of Pennsylvania IP Address:165.123.34.86

Figure 1. Orthophoto (left) and 2D GIS data (right), taken in 2013, showing the ruins of the Temple of Diana

about two hectares and it was rediscovered about two the detection of subsurface structures (Filser and others
centuries ago (Ghini and Diosono 2012). 2013). Based on surveying campaigns, an Archaeological
The name of the temple, ‘‘Diana,’’ relates to Diana Geographic Information System (A-GIS) was established.
Nemorensis, sometimes also known as Diana of Nemi Figure 1 (right) displays surveyed and modelled temple
or Diana of the Wood, who was a goddess worshipped in geodata showing different parts of the temple ruins. The
ancient Roman religion. According to Roman mythology, concept and implementation of the A-GIS applied to the
Diana was goddess of the hunt, the moon, and birthing; Sanctuary of Diana was introduced by Peters and others
moreover, she is usually associated with wild animals and (2013).
woodland (Léger 2013). This temple was built in the third This work aims to visually reconstruct the Temple of
century AD and extended in two further construction Diana virtually in 3D using the procedural modelling
phases (Ghini and Diosono 2012). For the uncertainty techniques in CityEngine software. Moreover, the goal is
reconstruction, we used the temple’s stage after the third to investigate the uncertainty of archaeological recon-
construction phase in the first century AD, led by the structions, as applied to the Temple of Diana in Nemi,
Roman emperor Caligula and connected by the Via Virbia and to provide different visual solutions expressing this
to one of the most important roads in Rome, the Via ambiguity that are compatible with the procedural model-
Appia, which linked Rome and what is today known as ling in CityEngine.
Brindisi. The only remains of the Temple of Diana are in
the form of excavated ruins, as illustrated in Figure 1 (left) Visual 3D Reconstruction of Ancient Structures
showing an orthophoto captured in 2013 by a research
group from Technische Universität München (Peters and Visualizing cultural heritage sites is an interdisciplinary
others 2013). and complex task involving underlying excavation and
The temple covers an area of about 70 50 m. Archaeo- geodetic measurement data of the remaining ancient struc-
logical studies, in accordance with modern scientific tures, archaeological investigations and resulting interpreta-
methods, began in 1989. Since 2012 the excavation has tions (conceptual reconstruction), and technical realization
been geodetically observed using GPS, total station, level- in form of 3D modelling and visualization. Frischer and
ing, remotely piloted aircraft system for orthophoto others (2000), Denard (2012), and Lopez-Menchero and
generation, laser scanning, and geoelectric surveys for Grande (2011) have emphasized the importance and need

138 Cartographica 51:3, 2016, pp. 137–146 6 University of Toronto Press doi:10.3138/cart.51.3.3160

3D Reconstruction and Uncertainty Modelling Using Fuzzy Logic of Archaeological Structures

of 3D virtual models of cultural heritage sites for scientists Uncertainty in Archaeological Reconstructions
as well as for the public. The London Charter and Seville
Charter provide important technical, aesthetic, and scien- Uncertainty in cartography can be caused not only by the
tific standards regarding the procedure of establishing underlying geodata, but also by data processing and visu-
digital reconstructions of historical sites (Denard 2012). alization. Definitions for ‘‘uncertainty’’ in the literature
A crucial aspect of reconstructed archaeological sites is are not consistent. Pang (2001) stated that ‘‘uncertainty is
the appropriate representation. a multi-faceted characterization about data, whether from
${protocol}://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/cart.51.3.3160 - Saturday, July 14, 2018 1:24:32 PM - University of Pennsylvania IP Address:165.123.34.86

Various techniques exist for 3D modelling that are suit- measurements and observations of some phenomenon
able for reconstructing archaeological sites. Some of the and predictions made from them. It may include several
most commonly used technologies are Computer Aided concepts including error, accuracy, precision, validity,
Design (CAD), Building Information Modelling (BIM), quality, variability, noise, completeness, confidence and
and procedural modelling. Procedural modelling contain- reliability’’ (2). Visual models are crucial for public im-
ing design grammars has been employed in design com- pressions of the past (Denard 2012), however, illustrated
puting and architectural theory, as for example in work reconstructions may also lead to false interpretation, in
of Duarte and others (2007), Mathias and others (2011), particular if uncertain and inexact information or vague
and Müller and others (2006a). The most renowned and assumptions are visualized (Haegler and others 2009).
sophisticated procedural modelling software is CityEngine, Therefore, we see a strong demand for including uncer-
which provides a ‘‘unique conceptual design and modeling tainty information in visual archaeological reconstruction
solution for the efficient creation of 3D cities and build- models. Furthermore, in addition to perceiving ambiguity
ings’’ (ESRI 2016). Procedural modelling using Computer in archaeological interpretations, the map user might also
Graphics Architecture (CGA) shape grammar (as in miss information or misunderstand the illustrated infor-
CityEngine) has been proven to be well-suited for archaeo- mation due to data generalization, in particular within
logical purposes because historical information is often avail- lower levels of detail (LoDs), but also due to the use
able only in fragments, including archaeological remains/ of photorealistic representations, which can likened the
ruins, former architectural ‘‘rules’’ derived from other virtual model to a photograph that has naturally no
buildings, and additional sources such as archaeological uncertainties.
texts. Therefore, to achieve the final virtual model, these To gain exact knowledge about which users draw incorrect
fragments have to be synthesized (Noghani and others conclusions from reconstruction visualizations, compre-
2012). According to Müller and others (2006b), this hensive user tests need to be performed. In our context,
synthesis is predominantly done by humans. Procedural we focus on determination and visualization of uncer-
modelling and CGA shapes seems to constitute a good tainties in archaeological interpretations. Archaeological
platform for the following reasons: first, procedural model- reconstructions are mostly visualized without any infor-
ling offers space for testing hypotheses by adjusting defined mation about which parts still exist and which parts are
parameters. And secondly, the rules are written in a way assumptions, their level of uncertainty is not provided.
that they are understandable for humans also and they Sifniotis and others (2006) argued for the importance of
could be more comprehensive than many pages of textual visually differentiate between the existing archaeological
description (Müller and others 2006a). remains and possible assumptions. The assumptions cor-
This project is based on CityEngine, software that has respond to different uncertainties, so that in this case
been successfully introduced into the archaeological field archaeological uncertainty can be defined as ‘‘an archeo-
of research (Müller and others 2006b). The main reasons logical expert’s level of confidence in an interpretation
why CityEngine was chosen for this project are the possi- deriving from gathered evidence’’ (Sifniotis and others
bility of testing several hypotheses, the implementation of 2010, 1).
levels of detail, and potential solutions for expressing un-
certainty (Haegler and others 2009). Procedural modelling uncertainty modelling of archaeological
using CityEngine has been verified as a suitable technique reconstructions
for various archaeological reconstructions. Examples in-
According to Hermon and Niccolucci (2003), reliability
clude Dylla and others (2008) rebuilding ancient Rome;
and uncertainty of represented archaeological data can
Maı̈m and others (2007) reconstructing the Roman city
be solved by implementing fuzzy set theory. In literature,
Pompeii, including its population; and Müller and others
two major case studies were published: first by Hermon
(2006b) producing models of Mayan buildings in Xkipché.
and Niccolucci (2003) and second by Tepavčević and
Irregular or very complex structures (e.g., statues) are needed Stojaković (2013).
for the reconstruction. Their geometries can be created
The first major case study was carried out by Hermon and
in other software (e.g., AutoCAD or SketchUp) and then
Niccolucci (2003), who integrated fuzzy logic concepts
imported into and used in CityEngine.

Cartographica 51:3, 2016, pp. 137–146 6 University of Toronto Press doi:10.3138/cart.51.3.3160 139

Mariana Danielová et al.

within archaeological classification, proving that it helps sponding fuzzy set. Correction factors K characterize as-
to increase reliability of the archaeological results. The sessment of the probabilities to the resulting attributes:
authors defined the creation of an archaeological model for instance, shape factor Kf , style factor Ks , and their
as a ‘‘stepwise process in which one starts from an initial arithmetic mean Kc . Thus the correction factors gain values
model M0, possibly empty, placed at position x0; at between 0 and 1. Probabilities of occurrence of every
step n a new model Mn+1 is built from Mn adding a new detail and parameter of the object incorporate adequate
detail mn þ 1 in an absolute position xn+1’’ (Hermon and correction factors. The final result is a table showing a
${protocol}://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/cart.51.3.3160 - Saturday, July 14, 2018 1:24:32 PM - University of Pennsylvania IP Address:165.123.34.86

Niccolucci 2003, 29). Positions (x) are vectors that unique list of probabilities of the single characteristics added in a
determine the positions of objects in space. The process of sequence of predefined steps. The resulting visualization
creating an architectural model can be explained with an proves that fuzzy logic can be nicely combined with pro-
example of a temple reconstruction. In the beginning, cedural modelling and CGA shape grammar.
only a representation of archaeological remains is equiva-
lent to M0 . Then, reconstructed walls are added, with uncertainty visualization in archaeological
attributes of height and material. The adding of the first reconstructions
wall is equal to the adding of the first detail m1 at position
x1. When the last wall is created, we derive the new model Griethe and Schumann (2006), MacEachren and others
Mk . Other features like windows, doors, columns, roof, (2005), as well as Slocum and others (2009) provided com-
and so on, are then added. Every step increases the com- prehensive description about existing concepts and ap-
plexity of the model, which in turn reduces the model’s proaches for visualizing uncertainties of geographic data.
reliability. Basically, the values of visual variables of points, lines,
and/or polygons can be correlated with uncertainty informa-
To compute the reliability of a virtual model, Hermon
tion. Gershon (1998) distinguished intrinsic visual variables
and Niccolucci (2003) established a scale for reliability as
(position, size, colour, saturation, transparency, lighting/
an interval [0, 1], where 0 is ‘‘totally unreliable’’ and 1 is
shading, texture, crispness, and clarity/resolution) and
‘‘absolutely reliable.’’ Next, reference has to be given to
extrinsic visual variables (added/integrated objects such as
the model because the model is not reliable by itself, only
arrows, glyphs, bars, charts, text labels, dials, and objects
when it is referred to a specific problem. It is important to
of different shapes such as buffers). Nonetheless, the usage
highlight that this approach does not consider any time
of glyphs can be visually overwhelming (MacEachren and
frame, so the model is assumed to be temporally reliable.
others 2005).
The reliability function r can be considered as a fuzzy
truth value of models that uses the minimum of the fuzzy Regarding polygons (e.g., building walls), either visual
truth function f of its operands. The problem of reliability variables of the polygon fill can be adapted, or edges
is then split into three components. First, absolute relia- (polygon borders) might be rendered differently accord-
bility r(a) taking into account the reliability of the object ing to the uncertainty. Approaches dealing with uncer-
per se. Second, relative reliability r(r), which considers the tainty in archaeological reconstructions can be found in
compatibility of the object with the context, which presents Sifniotis and others (2010), Sifniotis and others (2006),
previously chosen details and the general characteristics of and Strothotte and others (1999). Haegler and others
the model. Third, a positional component of reliability (2009) stated that ‘‘in order to make the underlying
exists r(p) that is also dependent on newly added details uncertainty visible, it has been proposed to encode this
with respect to the previously generated model. The relia- uncertainty with different levels of transparency in the
bility of the final model M can be defined as: rendering, or of decoloration of the textures’’ (1). To im-
prove visual exploration of uncertainties, in particular of
r(M) ¼ min k ¼ 1, . . . n (r0, r(a) k, r(r) k, r(p) k) 3D building reconstructions, ‘‘side by side’’ illustrations –
as in Sifniotis (2012) and Tepavčević and Stojaković
where r 0 is the reliability of the initial model and the (2013) – offer comparisons using different and/or separate
reliability of each newly added detail is divided into its displays. Uncertainty information embedded rendered in
absolute, relative, and positional component. Thus the an adjacent map also avoid overloading the map infor-
final reliability equals the lowest reliability of its sequen- mation. Furthermore user interactions, animations and/
tially added details, but the result depends on the order or dynamic symbol actions can also be used to represent
in which the details are added because the reliability index uncertainty information.
can vary according to the characteristics of the models
created in previous steps.
Reconstruction and Uncertainty Visualization of the
The second major case study was implemented by Temple of Diana of Nemi
Tepavčević and Stojaković (2013) who developed another
approach for object groups enhanced by the theory of 3d temple modelling
probability. Contrary to reliability components used by
Hermon and Niccolucci (2003), the authors defined correc- Given information and initial data included archaeological
tion factors describing the grade of objects in the corre- interpretations, surveyed remains of the temple ruin (shape

140 Cartographica 51:3, 2016, pp. 137–146 6 University of Toronto Press doi:10.3138/cart.51.3.3160

3D Reconstruction and Uncertainty Modelling Using Fuzzy Logic of Archaeological Structures
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Figure 2. Simpliﬁed CGA shape workﬂow of the reconstruction of the Nemi temple

Figure 3. Temple modelling, top, evolving model; left, footprint; right, solution, created using CityEngine

files), and photos of the site. The 3D procedural modelling of 131 parameter-based rules by means of proportional
workflow consists of the following successive steps: (1) relations. Our concept enables parameter modification
defining temple parameters, (2) modelling terminate without distorting the entire model. Complex shapes
shapes (shapes with complicated geometries that need to (statues, podium structures, etc.) were modelled outside
be modelled outside of the CityEngine software and then of CityEngine using SketchUp and SketchUp 3D Ware-
imported as terminate shapes), (3) determining colours house and then imported into the procedural modelling
and textures, (4) encoding design rules, and (5) establish- software. For a realistic representation of visible temple
ing visual outputs for three different levels of detail. The material (bronze, wood, plaster, stone), we decided to
entire temple was reconstructed by implementing a total use raster templates from different sources (such as

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Mariana Danielová et al.
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Figure 4. LoD1 (left), LoD2 (centre), and LoD3 (right), created using CityEngine

plaintextures.com, lughertexture.com, textureking.com, and In addition to using realistic colours and textures, temple
photobucket.com) and apply them to the appropriate object objects could also be visually distinguished using a quali-
textures. tative colour scheme.
Figure 2 illustrates the simplified CGA shape workflow of
the Nemi temple reconstruction. The process starts with uncertainty calculation using a fuzzy logic model
the initial shape of the footprint of the temple, called
To derive reliability of the temple reconstruction, we de-
Model, which is split into two parts: Podium and Staircase.
veloped a new fuzzy logic model for determination of
These parts are then extruded, modified, split again, and
uncertainty in archaeological reconstructions that is based
resized, resulting in additional temple parts such as Steps
on the fuzzy logic uncertainty models of Hermon and
or Walls. Since procedural modelling is an iterative pro-
Niccolucci (2003) and Tepavčević and Stojaković (2013)
cess, these parts are subsequently compiled to produce a
while combining the advantages of both methods. As in
more detailed model of the temple.
Hermon and Niccolucci (2003), we build a stepwise pro-
Figure 3 represents the temple reconstruction modelling. cess that starts with an initial model M0 where each step
On the top, the iteratively evolving temple model is represents addition of a new detail mn, so at step n a
shown in five steps that add successively more details. On model Mn+1 is created by adding detail (in this work the
the lower left-hand side, footprint parts are displayed term ‘‘detail’’ is equal to ‘‘object’’) mn to the model Mn .
wherein columns and walls of different widths are de- Furthermore, we define the reliability scale as an interval
fined. The definition of all the parameters within the of [0, 1], where 0 relates to the most uncertainty and 1
temple was done according to the workflow mentioned refers to a fully reliable object. Furthermore, the overall
in the beginning of this section. An exemplary 3D recon- object’s reliability is divided into three components to
struction output is shown on the right; roof tiles and side specify the varying uncertainty of its parameters. Compo-
walls are turned off to provide a view into the temple nents are based on the correction factors introduced by
interior. Tepavčević and Stojaković (2013) as well as on the relia-
Procedural modelling using CityEngine allows implement- bility components presented by Hermon and Niccolucci
ing different LoDs within one rule file. LoDs are encoded (2003). First, the positional component of reliability r(p)
as different parameters of an attribute. We adjusted three describes the uncertainty of the object’s placement. Sec-
LoDs for our requirements. Thus, LoD1 shows only the ond, the dimensional component r(d) presents the degree
coloured mass model without any textures. The imple- of reliability related to the knowledge of the object’s
mentation of terminate shapes is mostly omitted, and for dimension. Third, style reliability r(s) evaluates the style
the essential parts of the temple, like columns, the original of added objects, for instance the reliability of the struc-
detailed assets are replaced with simple cylindrical or ture of the column shaft. Subsequently, we define the
cuboid elements. This view could be used for the naviga- overall reliability of an object rn as the minimum of its
tion of a virtual camera or to provide a basic overview of reliability components, as shown in the following formula:
the temple’s characteristics. LoD2 includes all the statues,
column structures, the podium, and so on. The colours rn min(r (p)n , r (d)n , r (s)n)
remain the same as in LoD1. This representation is con-
Consequently, we derive the overall reliability for the
sidered to be standard for scientific analysis and explo-
entire model r(Mn+1), as shown in the following formula,
ration of the temple. LoD2 aims to provide the user a
via the minimum of its reliability components, whereby rn
complete idea of the temple’s visual appearance. Finally,
is equal r(Mn):
LoD3 is enriched by various textures of materials. The
patterns of the textures are more visible when zooming in. r(Mn+1) ¼ min(r(p)n+1, r (d)n+1, r (s)n+1)
Thus the visualization appears to be almost photorealistic.
Figure 4 displays all three LoDs. Table 1 lists numerical evaluations of each reliability com-
ponent, which were determined via a formal discussion

142 Cartographica 51:3, 2016, pp. 137–146 6 University of Toronto Press doi:10.3138/cart.51.3.3160

3D Reconstruction and Uncertainty Modelling Using Fuzzy Logic of Archaeological Structures

Table 1. Reliability values of the temple objects
ID Object Variation r r(p) r(d) r(d)
0 remains – 1 1 1 1
1 podium – 1 1 1 1
2 steps no sides 0.8 1 0.8 0.8
with sides 0.5 1 0.8 0.5
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3 wall 8.5 m (Diastyle) 0.8 1 0.8 0.9
7.5 m (Eustyle) 0.6 1 0.6 0.9
...
21 altar – 0 0.2 0.1 0

with the responsible archeologists, and which contain 21 from red to green, as shown in Figure 5 (left). Green
steps of model generation. So 21 objects were stepwise represents the most certain and red the most uncertain
added to the model to generate the final virtual temple re- reconstruction. Red as a ‘‘signal color’’ directs the viewer’s
construction in CityEngine. Each of these objects includes eye to significantly uncertain reconstructed temple objects.
the three reliability components described earlier. A drawback of this method is that the model’s realistic
Finally, it is important to note a disadvantage of our colours and textures are lost. Instead of using a colour
uncertainty quantification method and a solution for gradient of two different colours, different values of one
minimizing this negative effect. The disadvantage lies in colour could also be used (e.g., from light blue to dark
the strong dependence of the resulting reliability value blue as illustrated in Figure 5 (right).
on the order in which the details and objects are added. Second, we used an opaque-transparent scheme wherein
To overcome this drawback and retain better results, the the transparency parameter ‘‘alpha’’ expresses the uncer-
objects should not be added randomly. Added objects tainty of the object. As can be seen in Figure 6, increased
need to be divided into two groups: construction elements transparency leads to less certainty of a reconstructed
and decoration elements. The construction objects m1–11 object. Realistic colours and textures are preserved while
are added according to the order of the graduating temple at the same time uncertainty information is provided.
reconstruction: for instance, walls are added after the The main disadvantage of this solution is that highly un-
podium is generated and before the roof is created. Next, certain objects are fully (or nearly complete) transparent,
the decoration elements m12–21 are added in accordance and thus (almost) invisible. Another drawback is that
with their reliability value: the more reliable the object is, semi-transparency of visually overlapping objects might
the sooner it is added. This approach will maintain higher lead to confusing and misinterpretation. To remedy those
model reliability in the sequence of consecutive models situations, the user could select objects of interest only or
for the maximum possible time. Furthermore, different rotate the scene.
modelling approaches – such as models based on the Interactive exploration tools (zoom, pan, rotate, addi-
possibility theory, transferable belief model, or generalized tional details provided after object selection, selecting
Bayesian theorem, as suggested by Sifniotis (2012) – between different LoDs, etc.) provide a comprehensive
might avoid the disadvantage of the dependency of the insight into the reconstructed 3D temple as well into
final reliability result on the order of the added details. visualized uncertainty information. The drawbacks of
But for our case study, also regarding the complexity of the colour gradient and transparent schemes mentioned
the provided archaeological information, the uncertainty earlier can be reduced by using an interactive Swipe tool
quantification method we proposed appears to be the that allows direct comparison between two different
most appropriate. layers: the user could swipe between a realistic-looking
model and a colour-gradient model (see Figure 7). More-
visualizations of temple reconstruction uncertainty over, while comparing a transparent layer with a realistic
layer, users can easily detect which objects are missing and
The uncertainty of each reconstructed temple object should
thus where the biggest uncertainties occur.
be easily understandable to the viewer. We decided to im-
plement five different schemes for mapping uncertainty, The suggested third option involves reflecting uncertainty
based on related studies and the technical capabilities of by means of the resolution of the object texture. The
CityEngine. higher resolution an object’s texture has, the more certain
is its reconstruction, as illustrated in Figure 8.
First, we decided to express the uncertainty of each indi-
vidual temple object by implementing a colour gradient

Cartographica 51:3, 2016, pp. 137–146 6 University of Toronto Press doi:10.3138/cart.51.3.3160 143

Mariana Danielová et al.
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Figure 5. Reconstruction uncertainty using different colour gradients: red-green colour gradient (left), and light blue to
dark blue gradient (right), created using CityEngine

The reliability value is encoded directly to the textures
used for the realistic representation of the temple, so the
temple appearance data is not lost. Figure 9 presents the
temple’s textures as modified according to corresponding
uncertainty values. Alternatively, different values of one
colour could be applied to various resolutions, which
might facilitate the comparison of different temple ob-
jects. Using CityEngine software, one drawback is that
textures are sometimes stretched or squeezed so that their
readability is reduced. Moreover, readability will suffer
when the viewing distance is changed. Furthermore, the
Figure 6. Reconstruction uncertainty via transparency implementation of an understandable legend would be a
concept, created using CityEngine rather difficult task.
As fourth possible scheme, we propose a solution for
expressing and comparing colour-based uncertainty of
different models by using side-by-side illustrations, as
in Figure 10. Instead of expressing the uncertainty for
individual temple elements, the colours express the overall
reliability for the entire temple model. The models differ
in the amount of added details of the reconstruction
described in ‘‘Uncertainty Calculation Using a Fuzzy Logic
Model’’ so that the overall temple reconstruction uncer-
tainty increases during stepwise temple construction.
The last, fifth, option we would like to mention is to pro-
vide uncertainty information via interactive use – by
means of click-able objects. When the user clicks on a de-
Figure 7. Swipe tool for comparison of gradient and sired object, additional information about the uncertainty
transparency scheme, created using CityEngine values appears. One important aspect is that a broad
exploration of the reconstruction and its uncertainty of
all temple details can be ensured only if the needed inter-
activity is provided. In addition to pan, zoom, and rotate,
such interactivity includes the options to display only
certain objects of interest or to disable certain temple
objects, such as for instance the roof or some outer walls
to provide a view into the temple interior. To finally verify
Figure 8. Sequence of various resolutions of timber our uncertainty visualization suggestions and assumptions,
texture, created using CityEngine a comprehensive user test needs to be performed – which
is considered as future work.

144 Cartographica 51:3, 2016, pp. 137–146 6 University of Toronto Press doi:10.3138/cart.51.3.3160

Figure 9. Reconstruction of uncertainty using various resolution values on the left picture the pediment reliability is 0.7,
created using CityEngine. Contrary to the pediment timbers on the right picture has 0 reliability.

Author Information

Mariana Danielová is an alumni of the international
master program Cartography master. Which is a joint pro-
gram of Technical University Munich, Germany, Technical
University Vienna, Austria, and Technical University Dresden,
Figure 10. Overall temple reconstruction uncertainty Germany. Her master thesis topic was: Visual reconstruction
increases during stepwise temple construction, created of archaeological data of the Sanctuary of Diana at Nemi,
using CityEngine (from left: remains – steps – main roof – Italy. E-mail:
[email protected]
main door – anteﬁxes – altar)
Holger Kumke is an Academic Councillor at the Chair of
Cartography, Technical University Munich, Germany. He
Conclusion holds a Diploma in Geodesy from the Technical University
of Munich. His research interests focus on cartographic
To conclude this article, we have proven that procedural visualisation, high mountain cartography and map projec-
modelling is suitable for the 3D virtual reconstruction tion. E-mail:
[email protected]
of ancient buildings. Using the Temple of Diana in Nemi, Stefan Peters is a GIS expert and Cartographer. His general
Italy, as a use case, we applied procedural modelling not research interest is directed towards cartographic and
only for reconstructing the temple, but also for imple- visual analytical solutions for a better understanding of
menting a proposing reconstruction uncertainty model. spatio-temporal geographic data and phenomena in both,
Procedural modelling allows easy model adaption and 2D and 3D. His research interest include also the spatio-
efficient performance when implementing different un- temporal modeling and reconstruction of architectural
certainty visualization concepts. The proposed reconstruc- heritages. He holds a Ph.D. in Cartography as well as a
tion uncertainty quantification method was found to be Diploma Engineering Degree in Geodesy and Geoinforma-
the most suitable solution for our study scenario and the tion, both obtained at the Technical University of Munich
nature of available archaeological information. We have (TUM). Recently, he has been working as a Senior Lecturer
proposed several concepts for the reconstruction un- as a member of the 3D GIS Research Group at the Depart-
certainty visualization, including colour gradient, trans- ment of Geoinformation, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
parency scheme, side-by-side visualization, interactive, (UTM). E-mail:
[email protected]
clickable objects, and varying texture resolution. The tech-
niques using colour and transparency schemes appear to References
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Francesca Diosono
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Path Tracking Control of Self-Reconfigurable Robot hTetro With Four Differential Drive Units
kristin wood
IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters, 2020
The research interest in mobile robots with independent steering wheels has been increasing over recent years due to their high mobility and better payload capacity over the systems using omnidirectional wheels. However, with more controllable degrees of freedom, almost all of the platforms include redundancy, which are modeled using the instantaneous center of rotation (ICR). This paper deals with a Tetris-inspired floor cleaning robot hTetro which consists of four interconnected differential-drive units. Each module has a differential drive unit which can steer individually. Differing from most other steerable wheeled mobile robots, the wheel arrangement of this robot changes because of its self-reconfigurability. In this paper, we proposed a path tracking controller that can handle discontinuous trajectories and sudden orientation changes for hTetro. Singularity problems are resolved on both the mechanical aspect and the control aspect. The controller is tested experimentally with the self-reconfigurable robotic platform hTetro, and results are discussed.
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Reflections on the Biowatch Dispute – Reviewing the fundamental rules on costs In the light of the needs of constitutional and/or public interest litigation
Tracy-Lynn Humby
Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal/Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad, 2009
Using as a case study the recent decision on costs in the Biowatch matter, this article critically examines the traditional fundamental rules on costs in the light of the needs of constitutional and a fortiori public interest litigation. The fundamental rules on costs are taken to include the two traditional principles (that costs are a matter of judicial discretion and that to a successful party should be awarded his costs), the requirement that the discretion be exercised judicially, the test for interference in costs orders in a court of appeal, and the characterisation of costs orders as requiring the exercise of only a narrow discretion on appeal. In the light of the decisions in the Biowatch matter it is argued that the current rules do not meet the new needs of constitutional and/or public interest litigation as regards access to justice, equal protection and benefit of the law, proportionality, and the accountability of the judiciary. Suggestions are made for possible reform.
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Life after lockdown: making workplaces safer
Ujwala U Ukey
International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health, 2020
Considering the relentless nature of spread of COVID-19 with no end in sight, many countries have now decided to lift off some restrictions and allow some non-essential services, at least in those areas which are not severely hit by COVID-19. Lack of planning for reopening can result in a cascade of failures as employers are not aware of how to address challenges of COVID-19 with limited resources under pandemic conditions. Undoubtedly this demands lots of modifications at the workplaces that will require various strategies including primarily development and implementation of the plan and maintaining and revising it from time to time. Thorough literature search was conducted for this purpose on varied search engines applying key terms as ‘COVID-19’ and ‘return to work’ and ‘safe workplaces’ and ‘life after lockdown’ which revealed different elaborate guidelines framed by various competent authorities in relation to reopening workplaces after lockdown of COVID-19 pandemic. The curre...
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Diachronic Demorphologization and Constructionalization of Compounds from the Perspective of Distributed Morphology and Cartography
Yoshiki Ogawa
Interdisciplinary Information Sciences, 2014
As for the morphosyntactic size of a compound, it has occasionally been suggested that some of the N-N compounds can be larger than derived words but are smaller than phrases , ) or that some of the V-V compound are words, while others are phrases , Nishiyama (1998)). However, exactly how large each compound is remains controversial, partly because their nature is synchronically variable in terms of phonology, morphology, syntax, and/or semantics. In relation to this problem, there has been a long-standing issue of which of morphology and syntax should deal with the internal structure of these two types of compound and others. Here arises a set of reciprocative discussions between the lexicalists and anti-lexicalists over the data that belong to morphosyntax, and yet no settlement has been reached so far, because both types of approach have as much defects as merits. With these problems recalcitrant to a synchronic analysis in mind, I will shed a diachronic perspective on them. More specifically, this article launches a simple hypothesis that the morphosyntactic size of a compound tends to be diachronically enlarged from the domain of morphology to that of syntax, as is known by the names such as demorphologization and/or constructionalization. I will collect relevant data from the Corpus of Historical American English (COHA) and the literature on the traditional Japanese linguistics. Then, I will provide a morphosyntactic analysis of the diachronic generalization, in terms of two outstanding syntactic theories: Distributed Morphology Marantz (1993), Marantz (1997)) and Cartography (Cinque (2003, 2006)). Three kinds of data presented in support of the above hypothesis are: (i) the demorphologization of many combining forms including -phobia, -holic, psycho-, techno-, their reanalysis as independent words, and their development as N-N compounds, (ii) the emergence of the resultative construction from the corresponding V-A form in English, and (iii) the development of the syntactic V-V compounds from the lexical V-V compounds such as kami-kiru 'bite-cut' and yomi-kiru 'read-cut' in the history of Japanese (Aoki (2010)). I will argue that these three types of diachronic changes are the instances of what I call ''syntactic constructionalization'' at the so-called ''word'' level, the VP/vP-level, and the AspectP-level, respectively.
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A fuzzy logic approach to reliability in archaeological virtual reconstruction
Sorin Hermon
… of the Past, …, 2004
In this paper, a new approach to a numeric definition of reliability for archaeological reconstruction models is proposed, basing on fuzzy logic. This approach allows to introduce for this important concept a numerical value based on verifiable elements, making possible a scientific evaluations of such reconstructions, After characterizing the process of building a reconstruction model from archaeological data and discussing the principal features of this reliability definition, the paper examines in detail the evaluation of reliability in a simple example. Suggestions for further research, including hints for a graphical representation of reliability in computer models and desirable options in user’s interface, conclude the paper
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Uncertainty Visualization Approaches for 3D Models of Castles Restituted from Archeological Knowledge
Tania Landes
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In the cultural heritage field, several specialists like archaeologists, architects, geomaticians, historians, etc. are used to work together. With the upcoming technologies allowing to capture efficiently data in the field, to digitize historical documents, to collect worldwide information related to the monuments under study, the wish to summarize all the sources of data (including the knowledge of the specialists) into one 3D model is a big challenge. In order to guarantee the reliability of the proposed reconstructed 3D model, it is of crucial importance to integrate the level of uncertainty assigned to it. From a geometric point of view, uncertainty is often defined, quantified and expressed with the help of statistical measures. However, for objects reconstructed based on archaeological assumptions, statistical measures are not appropriate. This paper focuses on the decomposition of 3D models into levels of uncertainties (LoUs) and on the best way to visualize them through two case studies: the castle of Kagenfels and the Horbourg-Wihr Castellum, both located in Alsace, France. The first one is well documented through still ongoing excavations around its remains, whereas the second one disappeared under the urbanization of the city. An approach enabling, on the 3D models, not only to quantify but also to visualize uncertainties coming from archaeological assumptions is addressed. Finally, the efficiency of the approach for qualifying the proposed 3D model of the reconstructed castle regarding its reliability is demonstrated.
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3D Modelling as a Scientific Research Tool in Archaeology
Sorin Hermon
This paper addresses two key requirements for the use of Virtual Reality (VR) and three dimensional digital modelling (3D) of archaeological objects (sites, structures or artefacts) as valuable research tools: data transparency and reliability of reconstruction. Both requirements are necessary for a scientific review of the 3D outcome; while data transparency allows an evaluation of the raw data used for the digital reconstruction, reliability refers to a method of (subjective) quantification of the research results, by the researchers themselves. This method, based on the concept of fuzzy logic, allows the major steps in the decision making process of the 3D outcome to be numerically evaluated by assigning a “reliability index”, based on the “weighted importance” and “consistency” of each component of the 3D outcome. Finally, the paper will present a research framework and interface, based on open source technology, to demonstrate the use of the abovementioned concepts.
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Using fuzzy logic to manage uncertain multi-modal data in an archaeological GIS
Cyril de Runz
… Symposium on Spatial …, 2007
Into an archaeological GIS, stored information is in spatio-temporal multi-modal form. Dates are estimated according to excavation data. Localizations are determined by several tools such as GPS, radar,. . . All of these imply some uncertainty, for which fuzzy logic becomes a common use. By representing data by fuzzy number depending on specific modalities, we obtain fuzzy spatio-temporal data. In this paper, we propose to illustrate the interest of fuzzy data representation in archaeology. As Roman streets in Reims usually form segments of lines, we apply the fuzzy Hough transform to those fuzzy multi-modal data to estimate their presence in accordance with given periods. According to experts, we propose to visualize in GIS archaeological data and simulations obtained by merging this fuzzy information.
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INFORMATION PROCESSES IN VIRTUAL 3D RECONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN THREE-BAY DOUBLE ARCH OF MUSTI (TUNISIA
Jakub Franczuk
Virtual Archaeology Review, 2025
The case study focuses on the virtual hypothetical 3D reconstruction of the Roman Three-bay Double Arch of Musti, Tunisia. This work, part of the AFRIPAL project, aims to enhance understanding of the Romanization and urban development of Musti between the 5th century BC and the 3rd century AD. It builds on research by Professor Naïdè Ferchiou, who provided a detailed reconstruction hypothesis based on measurements and documentation from the 1990s. Modern techniques such as LiDAR scanning, photogrammetry, Building Information Modeling (BIM), and parametric modelling were employed to visualize and verify this reconstruction. Scans of existing architectural fragments were used to create high and low-polygon models, enabling the testing of various hypotheses. The study highlights the use of tools like Reality Capture, Archicad, Rhino, and Grasshopper to reconstruct historical monuments, focusing on accuracy in modelling and detailed parametric representations. One of the main challenges was reconstructing the arch despite significant alterations due to centuries of redevelopment and later modifications. That challenge was addressed by cross-referencing historical documentation with modern scanning technologies and photogrammetry. Textured mesh and BREP modelling were incorporated with virtual anastylosis of elements to hypothesize the original structure. The study concludes by showcasing photorealistic visualizations of the reconstructed arch and discussing the potential for automating aspects of the reconstruction process using modern software. This work brings to life an ancient Roman monument and sets a workflow for future detailed virtual reconstructions of cultural architectural heritage.
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Monstrous hybridity of social information technologies: Through the lens of photorealism and non-photorealism in archaeological visualization
Isto Huvila
The Information Society
The entanglement of social information technologies and their users unfolds as a problem if "wrong" users enmesh with "wrong" technologies. A long-standing debate on the merits of photorealism versus non-photorealism in archaeological visualization provides an educating example of such a "problematic" or in Haraway's words, monstrous social information technology. This article shows how a closer look at the perceived monstrosities of social information technologies can help us understand how people conceptualize information, technologies, and other people and their role in information interactions as they unfold as part of information work. It shows how a lifelike photorealistic visualization together with its spectator forms a cyborg, which is a monstrous runaway "object" when it drives with its own cultural force a programme that contradicts with other programmes considered important. The parallels in the critiques of archaeological visualizations and other informational cyborgs in information researchincluding search engines, information systems and servicessuggest usefulness of a monstrous perspective in the analysis of social information technologies in general.
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A Bibliometric Data Analysis of Multi-Criteria Decision Making Methods in Heritage Buildings
Diana Kalibatienė
JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT, 2019
Numerous countries are trying to find the best solution for conservation, restoration or reuse of the heritage buildings, preserving their cultural, historical, ethnic and spiritual values. The scientists, researchers and government are analysing the problems concerning with heritage building's, like seismic issues, energy saving, sustainability, structures, materials and adaptive reuse. Since, heritage buildings' reuse and preservation are characterized by multiple criteria, a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) methods are useful in finding rational solutions for the previously mentioned problems. The current paper aims to overview papers on the MCDM approaches application in regard to heritage buildings' reuse and preservation area. This study employs a bibliometric data analysis to explore state-of-the-art of the defined topic and an in-deep analysis-to synthesize the knowledge domain and critically evaluate a thorough literature in the analysed topic. As a result, scientific maps were created to reveal the knowledge domain of MCDM approaches in heritage buildings' reuse and preservation. Finally, research gaps and future research directions are identified. Results of the analysis shows that till now MCDM approaches are not widely used in solving heritage buildings reuse and preservation issues. Moreover, there is luck of complex problem solving approach in cultural heritage buildings area.
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Metabolic Pathways Underpinning Lymphocyte Differentiation and Responses in Health and Disease
Rizgar Mageed
Immunometabolism
Lymphocytes mount protective immunity from infectious pathogens and from cancer. Their engagement by target antigens prompt activation, differentiation to effector cells and proliferation. These responses require energy that is generated by cellular metabolic processes, such as glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm while oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria. Energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate is generated from the uptake of glucose, amino acids and free fatty acids. Important recent evidence indicates that naïve and activated lymphocytes and functionally distinct subsets preferentially use different metabolic pathways for their energy needs. Thus, effector Th17 cells primarily use glycolysis to generate energy required for their activities. Memory T and B cells and regulatory T cells, in contrast, rely on mitochondrial metabolism for their energy requirements. Naïve T and B are in a quiescent state with small mitochondria. Extrinsic factors such as oxygen tension and intrinsic substrates can also influence the choice of metabolic pathways and functional flexibility. Studies of lymphocytes in disease states reveal alterations to choices of metabolic pathways from those in lymphocytes in healthy individuals. This article provides an overview of metabolic pathways required for energy generation during homeostasis and those induced during cellular differentiation and responses. Furthermore, we explore available evidence for altered metabolic pathway induction in some autoimmune diseases. A focus of the overview will be on helper T lymphocytes involved in chronic inflammation and those that regulate the immune response. The report alludes to the potential that targeting metabolic pathways could provide a strategy for the treatment of chronic diseases.
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How Do We Deal with Uncertain Information? Effects of Verbal and Visual Expressions of Uncertainty on Learning
Dominik Lengyel
Educational Psychology Review
Based on the knowledge generation model for visual analytics including uncertainty propagation and human trust building (Sacha et al. 2016), the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2014), the multimedia principle (Butcher, 2014), and previous studies on the effects of different uncertainty visualization styles, an integrated theoretical approach is proposed to examine the influence of different degrees of information uncertainty and different uncertainty visualization styles on processing pictures of two archeological reconstructions with accompanying audio explanations presented in a multimedia learning environment. A 4 × 3 design with condition (without uncertainty visualization vs. stop light colors vs. geometric contrast vs. both uncertainty visualizations) as the between-subjects factor and uncertainty value (uncertain vs. medium vs. certain) as the within-subject factor was used. The results showed that appearance of certain content, its uncertainty values, and the...
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