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Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies* by Eve Jochnowitz Oh, the world will grow younger And life will be easier And every complainer will become a singer It will happen soon, my brothers.1 —Morris Winchevsky T he words of “The Future” (Di Tsukunft), a poem written by Morris Winchevsky in 1919, imagine a world better in every possible way. Winchevsky’s vibrant and expansive vision was representative of the views of countless Jewish activists across any number of ideologies in his time, before the devastation of the Second World War made this kind of optimism forever impossible. Among the Yiddish speakers in the United States before the Second World War, as in the old country, Socialism, Anarchism, Zionism, and Aguda (an Orthodox political movement founded as a reaction against the other contemporary revolutionary Jewish movements) offered wide-ranging visions of a better future that Jews might bring about for themselves. For many, radical politics were accompanied, or even completely overshadowed, by radical changes in diet. The availability of industrial food alleviated some concerns about bacterial and septic contamination in the food supply while raising other concerns about the nature of food and the role of big business.2 Economic and agricultural crises led to widespread fear that food might not be reliably available and, in fact, nurses and social workers noted the effects of hunger on health, energy, and recovery times from illness and injury on poor people, many newly poor 45 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 46 Eve Jochnowitz in the Depression years (Ziegelman and Coe 73; see also Poppendieck). In his second inaugural address, President Roosevelt estimated that one third of the nation was ill-nourished. Changing roles of women and innovations in kitchen technology remade family meals and mealtimes (Jochnowitz, “Feasting on the Future”). Some Jews, seeking to hasten a kinder, more rational, or healthier future, found a cause in vegetarianism.3 Contemporary journalists and satirists found in vegetarians and vegetarianism endless material for ridicule. Vegetarian practice calls for deliberate avoidance of animal foods. Normative Jewish practice, which forbids the combination of meat and dairy foods, offers, in the dishes of the dairy repertoire, a built-in meatless (though not fishless) cuisine for Jewish vegetarians to adopt and adapt. While arguments have been made that the roots of Jewish vegetarianism are in Jewish Scripture (see, for instance, Rendsburg; Schwartz; Green), and while Jewish individuals may have followed a vegetarian diet (Schwartz 171–77), the Jewish vegetarian movements in Europe and the Americas are largely modern phenomena rooted in the optimism, and also in the crises and upheavals, of the early twentieth century. These primarily secular vegetarian movements are new; they are informed by the advances of early twentieth-century technology and also beholden to the naiveté of the same period. Different vegetarians have differing practices regarding liminal foods such as fish, eggs and milk products. The Jewish vegetarian sources in Yiddish cited here from the early twentieth century all reject fish, but use eggs and dairy products, sometimes quite lavishly. Authors from the first half of the century follow the assumption that vegetarianism includes eggs and milk but excludes fish, and do not feel any need to remark on this. Later writers address the differing branches of vegetarianism inspired by veganism, macrobiotics, and ayurvedic cooking. Writing in 1991, Malky Eisenberger, the author the cookbooks Maykholim tsum gezunt and Food for Health, comments that most vegetarians are comfortable eating eggs, adding “After all, eggs are not animal protein; it is just the egg” (Jochnowitz, “Health, Revolution and a Yidisher Tam” 56; Eisenberger; Food for Health Cookbook). The diversity of practices among vegetarians, and the fact that many adopted and discarded various stringencies over the years, paired with Alter Kacyzne’s assertion that “vegetarianism is a private thing” (5–6)4 all make it difficult to estimate how many Jews in the early twentieth century practiced vegetarianism, considered themselves vegetarians, or both. When the movement was at its peak in the 1930s, certainly there must have been tens of thousands of Jews who were vegetarians of some sort. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 47 Figure 1: Nayes Folshtendiges Kokhbukh Fir di Yidishe Kikhe, Vienna, 1854 The first printed cookbook published in Yiddish of which I am aware is Nayes folshtendiges kokhbukh fir di yidishe kikhe published in Vienna in 1854 (fig. 1).5 This anonymous volume was inward-looking, emphasizing the religious obligations of the Jewish homemaker, and provided detailed instructions for kashering meat and the ritual separation of a small portion of dough from one’s bread. The text in the book (though not the title page) was printed in the semi-cursive vaybertaytsh typeface that had been used for devotional women’s literature in earlier centuries, but was falling out of use by the nineteenth century (Harshav). Oyzer Bloshteyn’s much larger Kokhbukh far Yidishe Froyen, published in Vilna in 1896, was outward-looking. Bloshteyn collected and translated 668 recipes from cookbooks published in German and other languages to expand and enrich the repertoire of the Jewish homemaker.6 Vegetarian cookbooks published in Yiddish provided recipes to guide homemakers who explored a new diet or simply wanted to add vegetarian dishes to their culinary repertoire. They also presented arguments for adopting a EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Eve Jochnowitz Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 48 vegetarian diet and might even include inspiring poems and helpful hints for running a household. As Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett has noted, cookbooks published in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Yiddish for an immigrant community are about fixing people as well as fixing food: Attempts to change the Jewish diet, whether to make it more elegant, more adherent to kashrut, more scientific, more American, or less bourgeois, took a variety of forms in the Yiddish cookbooks published in America. Some authors condemned Old World cuisine and promulgated Anglo-American cooking in its stead, others promoted vegetarianism. (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Kitchen Judaism” 86) Indeed, all of these improvements to the Jewish diet concerned the writers of Yiddish vegetarian treatises and cookbooks. Varied and sometimes contradictory ideologies led the authors to the conclusion of promoting a vegetarian diet. YIDDISH VEGETARIAN IDEOLOGIES Figure 2: Lo Tirtsah, New York, 1899 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 49 The 1899 book Lo Tirtsah (Thou Shalt not Kill) by Aaron Frankel (fig. 2) lays out a heartfelt plea for vegetarianism based, as the title makes plain, on resistance to killing.7 Arguments for a kinder and simpler life are illustrated with quotes from Hebrew scripture and the Jewish liturgy. The author predicts that a peaceful vegetarian world will only come about after dreadful cataclysm. While the book contains no recipes, Frankel does comment in the closing chapter “[a] person of today’s world cannot live on raisins and almonds. A many-layered kugel cannot satisfy a modern character” (book 4, p. 94). Frankel’s view owes more to traditional religious culture than to the modern political and religious ideologies then gaining ground in the Jewish world, but while many Christian reformers of the late nineteenth century found justification for vegetarianism in scripture, Frankel is a minority within a minority among Jewish vegetarians. Figure 3: Gezund un Lebn, New York, 1905 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 50 Eve Jochnowitz The journal Gezund un Lebn (fig. 3) published in New York in 1905–06 by Dr. Leonard Landes, while not strictly vegetarian, encouraged vegetarianism and gave advice as well on how to be attractive to women (“be nice” and “offer compliments”) (“Der Umgang Mit Froyen” 15), and warned against the dangers of drinking tea, criticizing people, talking too much, and cruelty to animals (“Tey Trinken” 63; “Tsufil Kritikirn Yenem” 19; “Redn Tsufil” 21; “Umgang Mit Khayes” 27). The cover of the first issue placed a photograph of a beautiful young woman in traditional dress looking after her cows in the center of a lavish Art Nouveau border, indicating that the editor looks to the future while continuing to cherish tradition. Figure 4: Der Naturis (un Vegetarier), New York, 1920 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 51 Der Naturist (un Vegetarier) (The Naturist [and Vegetarian]) (fig. 4) may be the earliest vegetarian journal published in Yiddish. It offered only one recipe in its first and only issue. The recipe was for a “tsimes” made with grated raw apple, brown sugar, and cinnamon, and came with a promise that more substantial dishes from Jewish and American cuisine would be forthcoming in future issues (Littauer 28). The questions and answers column advised that the only vegetarian part of Swiss cheese is the holes (29).8 The front cover had quotations from the Baal Shem Tov and Rabbi Nakhman of Bratslav, revered figures of the Hasidic world, hinting that the editor might have taken inspiration from religious sources, but the content of the journal is entirely secular, quoting extensively from Lev Tolstoy, Rabindranath Tagore, and the American Transcendentalists. Figure 5: Di Vegetarishe Velt: A Monatshrift far der Humanitarishn Gedank, New York, 1921 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 52 Eve Jochnowitz The hyper-modern design of Di Vegetarishe Velt (fig. 5) shows that this journal is all about the future. A recipe column by “Mulb-A-Dlog,” probably a pseudonym for the editor-in-chief, Haym Goldblum, offers recipes for “Ge-vedzh” (ghivetch, a Balkan vegetable stew), a potato and barley sauce, and an ingenious recipe for a pea soup and roast, in which the pea-broth is the base for a vegetable soup, and the cooked peas, mixed with eggs and corn flakes (!), are made into a roast to be stuffed with a savory mushroom and onion stuffing (27–28). The second issue has recipes for spinach, asparagus, salsify, cauliflower, and artichokes (25–27). The editors looked toward the future in their editorials about identity and feeling, and address as well the problems of the present, such as the draconian immigration laws enacted in 1920 (Horowitz 1). The journal published reviews, stories, and poems, and, in the first issue, “The Vegetarian Hymn” (fig. 6). Figure 6: Vegetarisher Himn from Issue 1 of Di Vegetarishe Velt EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 53 The Vegetarian Hymn Chorus: Blessed be he Blessed be he Who regards life with mercy Blessed be he Blessed be he Who feels the pain and suffering of others Solo: Blessed be he Who has the power To eat no flesh and spill no blood Blessed be he Whose humane heart Protects every creature From woe and pain Blessed be he Who considers, who strives Who seeks spirit in all And just like a mentsh, lives. (Horowitz 1) The author of this hymn appropriates the formal structures of Jewish prayer to deliver a primarily secular message rooted in the Yiddish cultural and ethical humanism. The reiteration of “Blessed be He” relocates the center of gratitude and agency from the divine to the human being making an ethical choice. The hymn is arranged for a mixed chorus and tenor soloist. Choral singing had become an enormously popular activity among American Jews who associated with progressive movements and such workers’ choruses as The Workmen’s Circle Chorus (associated with a socialist institution) and the Jewish People’s Philharmonic Chorus (associated with the Communist Party) (Schappes 234–35). EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 54 Eve Jochnowitz Figure 7: Vegetarizm by Elisee Reclus, 1921 Chayyim Goldblum’s introduction to his translation of Elisee Reclus’s Vegetarizm (fig. 7) notes that mistreatment of animals is inseparable from mistreatment of one’s fellow humans. Reclus starts from personal experience to address the issues facing the newly reformed world (13). EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 55 Figure 8: Der Vegetarisher Gedank, Los Angeles, 1930 Two very different writers made the case for vegetarianism as the food of the future in the pages of the journal Der Vegetarisher Gedank (Vegetarian Thought) (fig. 8). In the first issue, Melech Ravitch wrote: We vegetarians are people of the future. We are not heroes or martyrs. Anyone who willingly decides to be a vegetarian even for just a week finds in vegetarianism great joy, inner happiness and often, the greatest delight in one’s life. What kind of heroism is it not to want to be a graveyard for animals? What kind of martyrdom is it to be happy? But we are people of the future because of our sharp, piercing insight to see the suffering of others, because the person of the present can see everything except suffering. (5) Sholem Aleichem, in his very own style, made a similar point in a letter to Joseph Perper: EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 56 Eve Jochnowitz What a remarkable coincidence! Just as I received your lovely letter, I received a letter from Dr. Zamenhof, the mastermind of Esperanto, asking my permission to publish some of my stories in Esperanto. Vegetarianism and Esperanto stem from the same ideological root. I am utterly convinced that very soon, nu, let’s say in a thousand or two thousand years, all people will be vegetarian, all will speak one language, Esperanto, and all will observe one faith, Judaism, of course. What interests me as a Jew is if all the people in the world were suddenly to adopt your faith, (that is, vegetarianism), including the Jews, (I hope that by THEN our rights will be the same as all mortals, even in the “Jewish Pale”)9 what would be the lamentable fate of our kosher butchers, and rabbis, and the question about kosher and unkosher, and all the discussion on meat and milk, and the milkhik plate and the fleyshik pot, and the meat tax?10 My God, what an upheaval! I am not joking. (Perper 2) Of course, he is joking but, in the larger sense, it is no joke. Sholem Aleichem is making gentle sport of the wide-eyed idealism and heartbreaking hopefulness of the Esperantists and vegetarians. Perper seems to have taken the letter quite literally. No recipes or any discussion of food or cooking appear in the four issues of Der Vegetarisher Gedank, and all the contributions are by men, though one article “Di froy als vegetarier” (“The Woman As a Vegetarian”) addresses the forces attracting and repelling women from vegetarianism: The woman lags behind the man philosophically and is reluctant to embrace new ideological intellectual movements . . . women are more conservative than men . . . too often the woman is the slave to the family’s needs . . . It is hard to fight the meat eater in the woman, almost impossible to steer her off the fleyshik, bloody path. But she has positive characteristics. It is not her nature to be a drunkard or glutton. She is gentle and full of sympathy. She is no slave to food like the man who has to have his schnapps before dinner, his beefsteak for dinner, and his cigar after dinner. (Pinsker) The futurists of the Jewish vegetarian movement seem to have been stuck solidly in the past as far as women were concerned. The remark about a woman being “slave to the family’s needs” seems to be a perfect opportunity to address the practical issues of shopping, cooking, and eating for vegetarians, but the EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 57 author does not see these to be issues that would be relevant to women considering vegetarianism. No recipes or any articles related to food, cooking, eating, or provisioning appeared in any issue of Der Vegetarisher Gedank. It is possible that the recipe writer “Mulb-A-Dlog” of Di Vegetarishe Velt felt the need to use a pseudonym because he or she felt that recipes were not as serious or worthy as his or her other writing. Figure 9: Dos Kol fun dem Vegetarier, New York, 1952 The editors of Dos kol fun dem vegetarier (The Voice of the Vegetarian) (fig. 9) (Davis) follow the path that Aaron Frankel had set out in choosing vegetarianism for ethical reasons, but rather than drawing examples from Jewish sacred texts, they look to the classics and modern secular literature to provide a humanist ethical vegetarian point of view. This booklet includes essays by Melech Ravitch and Tolstoy, a poem by Kadia Molodowsky, and fragments from Plutarch and Ovid translated into Yiddish.11 “The Vegetarian Hymn,” by J. Pirazhnikoff, is the concluding chapter (fig. 10). EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 58 Eve Jochnowitz Figure 10: Vegetarian Hymn from Dos Kol fun dem Vegetarier EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 59 Figure 11: Grave of Menahem Morgenstern, New Mount Carmel Cemetery, New York The same brilliant juxtaposition of traditional Jewish religious form and secular vegetarian content appears on Menahem Morgenstren’s tombstone in New Mount Carmel Cemetery in Queens (fig. 11).12 The epitaph reads: Benjamin Menahem Nakhke Morgenstern Ethical Vegetarian (May his soul be bound up in the bonds of life) The Torah of truth was in his mouth and no injustice was ever found on his lips; he walked in peace and righteousness, and no injustice was ever on his lips; he walked in truth and righteousness, and he turned many away from sin. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 60 Eve Jochnowitz The verses are a Yiddish translation from the opening of the book of Micah. Taking a path that goes opposite to the usual Jewish method of reading texts, looking for abstract metaphors in concrete examples, this epitaph selects an abstract quotation and makes it very concrete. The Torah of truth was in Morgenstern’s actual, ethically-inclined mouth. No injustice was on his actual lips because he did not eat meat. Whether Morgenstern was a husband and father (his obituary in Dos kol fun dem vegeterairer indicates he was) (Davis 6) is not mentioned on his monument, which memorializes only his devotion to ethical vegetarianism. Figure 12: Do we have to eat meat? New York, 1956 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 61 The vegetarian polemic Darfn mir esn fleysh? (Do we have to eat meat?) by Benzion Liber (fig. 12) is also primarily concerned with ethical issues related to meat consumption. Darfn mir esn fleysh? sees the killing of animals as a danger not only to the souls of the humans involved but also to the very civilization which allows such a practice to continue. This move to extend the moral concern of vegetarianism to include the societal consequences of individual food choices intimates the increasing relevance of the role of social activism related to rejecting meat. Vegetarian cookbooks present opposition to conventional food practices (Miller and Hardman 111–12) and, in so doing, present opposition to cold convention itself. Figure 13: Originele Yidishe Familyen Kokh Bukh, undated, circa 1920 Hinde Amchanitzki was a chef and restaurateur who had some fame as a cookbook author in her lifetime and had another moment of renewed fame in EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 62 Eve Jochnowitz 2010 when her tombstone, which for unknown reasons had never been placed on her grave, was discovered on the Lower East Side (Roberts). Amchanitzki’s Ler-bukh vi azoy tsu kokhn un bakn was published in 1901. A second edition, titled Origineler Yidisher familyen kokh bukh, most probably edited by her daughter, came out about twenty years later (the second book is undated) (fig. 13). The second edition differs from the first in that it has added sections on “Vedzsheteybel un vegetarish makholim” (vegetable and vegetarian foods) reflecting the currency vegetarianism had gained in the first decades of the twentieth century. Traditional northeastern Yiddish recipes from Amchanitzki’s native region such as sweet jams made from beets and radishes are joined by recipes for health foods such as “Graham bread,” “Hygienic yeast bread,” nut cutlets, bean cutlets, and pineapple sorbet. None of Amchanitzki’s meat recipes are deleted from the later edition, and nothing in her book suggests that she shares Frankel’s opinions on slaughter. The inclusion of vegetarian and health-food recipes seems to be an attempt by her daughter to bring the book up-to-date and was probably entirely market-driven.13 Figure 14: Vegetarishe Kokh Bukh “Ratsionale Narung,” New York, 1926 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 63 Abraham Mishulow’s Gezunt un Shpayz (Health and Nutrition) and its companion volume, Abraham and Shifra Mishelow’s Vegetarishe Kokhbukh “Ratsionale Nahrung” (Vegetarian Cook Book “Rational Nourishment”) (fig. 14) were both published in 1926. The gorgeous graphic on the title page, with its lush plenitude of fresh fruits and vegetables, is typical of images found on menus in Yiddish dairy and vegetarian restaurants and resorts of the first half of the twentieth century. Dairy restaurants (which served fish, but no meat) and vegetarian restaurants (where no fish was served) and resorts like the VitaRay House in Freeland New Jersey, owned by Victor and Hannah Tofilowsky, Hamburger’s Evergreen Vegetarian Health Farm in Farmingdale, NJ, The Vegetarian Health Food Resort in Bushkill, PA, and Shaffer’s Vegetarian Hotel in Woodridge New York, were very popular, attracting clients, many or even most of whom were not vegetarian. The first volume begins with a poem “Why I am a vegetarian!” (punctuation in the original) by Herman Schildkraut, and continues with an essay by Mishulow on food, exercise and disease. The second volume includes many recipes by Shifra Mishulow. Mishelow’s recipes make use of some ingredients that may still have been exotic to American cooks, such as asparagus, Brussels sprouts, salsify, tomatoes, and even kale (a vegetable that in 1926 had not yet had its Cinderella moment). Recipes such as those for sandwiches, chowders, and a “Hamburger Omelet” (a two-layer omelet of yolks mixed with breadcrumbs topped with whipped egg whites) are mostly drawn from American cookery and health food cookery, but a few Jewish dishes, such as kugels (called teygekhts here) and some interesting hybrids, such as pumpkin Flodn, are included.14 Both books feature ads for health foods and meat substitutes such as Protose and Nutose. Readers familiar with the names Protose and Nutose from Moshe Nadir’s satirical story noted below may be surprised, as I was, to learn that Protose and Nutose were actual meat substitutes available in the twentieth century. Along with Nutolin and Savita, they were created by John Harvey Kellogg, most famous for having invented flaked breakfast cereal, made by the Battle Creek Food Company, later Kellogg’s (Shprintzen). The Mishelows argue that a vegetarian diet is the best and most rational diet. In his introduction Abraham Mishelow invokes Hippocrates and discusses the importance of introducing scientific nutrition to the Yiddish reader. In her introduction, Shifra Mishelow invokes Dr. Pavlov, speaks of the importance of the appearance and flavor of food as well as its nutritional value, and makes the interesting point that a meat-based diet is actually more limited than a diet based on vegetables. Her colorful palette of vegetable dishes makes EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 64 Eve Jochnowitz the case for the variety possible in a vegetarian kitchen. While the Mishelows’ inclusion of Schildkraut’s poem shows them to be sympathetic to the humanitarian case for vegetarianism, it is their dedication to science and reason that drives their choices. The Mishelows’ argument that a vegetarian diet is both healthy and rational allowed the vegetarians of the early twentieth century to reclaim some of the power over their bodies and lives that they may have feared surrendered to the bewildering technological advances in science and industry. By choosing vegetarianism, they could put into action their ethical and ideological concerns to meet the advances of the future while simultaneously providing a mechanism to address the very anxieties these advances provoked. Figure 15: Protose and Nutose from Gezunt un Shpayz, 1926 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 65 Figure 16: Kokh-Bukh far Gezuntheyt, New York, 1931 Lena Brown’s 1931 Kokh Bukh far gezuntheyt (Cook Book for Health) begins with a poem “people awake” warning of the dangers not only of “bad foods” but also “bad drinks, drug, and dope.” While the Mishelows promote vegetarianism because it is rational, Brown’s approach to vegetarianism is solidly based on health. “Our civilized cuisine,” she writes, “does us great harm” (9). Brown’s cuisine, featuring latkes, knishes, blintzes, and teygelekh is closer to traditional Eastern European Jewish cooking than Shifra Mishelow’s but there is also avocado salad, dandelion salad, and a “Greek salad” made with cabbage, carrots, peppers, apples, tomatoes and olives. The book includes a recipe for vegetarian gefilte fish, showing that Brown was sensitive to the challenges faced by Jewish homemakers, and which dishes they could not live without. The main ingredient for Brown’s vegetarian gefilte fish is what she calls “oyster plent” (oyster plant or salsify).15 Brown’s recipe for stuffed vegetable turkey EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 66 Eve Jochnowitz provides a list of ingredients and then directs the cook to “make it look like a turkey” (Brown 69). In addition to recipes, Brown offers fifty-five commandments for health (e.g., “eat enough raw fruits and vegetables,” “get plenty of fresh air”), tips for caring for one’s hair, nails, teeth, and skin, and a guide to bathing (39–43).16 In her introduction, she recounts coming to America and seeing that people had become estranged from nature and that their health suffered as a result. Her argument for vegetarianism is as a cure for the exhausted bodies of industrial workers. Brown’s back-to-nature ethos echoes the concerns of contemporary writers like Kallet and Schlink that the benefits of industrialization and modernization are not without costs. Her championing of all-natural ingredients (no Protose or Nutose appear in her book) may have made her seem old-fashioned at the time, but in retrospect make her the most futuristic of all the writers cited herein. THE LEGACY I know of only one vegetarian cookbook written in Yiddish after 1950, Eisenberger’s Maykholim Tsum Gezunt (Food for Health), privately published in 1989. Eisenberger is an heir to Lena Brown, Shifra Mishelow, and “Mulb-aDlog” in her energy, originality, passion, and generosity, but not by any means in her ideology. Eisenberger belongs to New York’s Hasidic community, and was inspired to try vegetarian cooking only for health reasons after reading Adele Davis. Since Jewish law permits eating meat, it would be unseemly to consider another practice more compassionate (Jochnowitz, “Health, Revolution and a Yidisher Tam” 54). If Eisenberger is not an heir to the Yiddish vegetarian writers of the early twentieth century, neither are contemporary Jewish vegetarian writers who see vegetarianism as the logical completion of halacha, Jewish religious practice (Schwartz; see also Jewish Veg; Kalechofsky and Rasiel). The writers who are the closest heirs to Mishelow and Brown among second and third wave vegetarians are the authors of The Political Palate Cookbooks by the Bloodroot Collective (Bloodroot Collective et al., Political Palate; Beaven et al., Second Seasonal Political Palate; Beaven et al., Perennial Political Palate), who explicitly link radical eating to radical thinking, and show great fondness for traditional Jewish cooking. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 67 THE BACKLASH The mainstream Jewish press, especially the Yiddish dailies The Forward, Varheit, and Der Tog, was more likely to look upon growing enthusiasm for vegetarianism as a threat to continuity in Jewish cooking. Dr. Melech Chmelnitzki warned readers about “the flaws and dangers of a vegetarian diet” (6). An article in the English-language supplement to The Forward in 1929 expressed concern that American fads like “the Almighty Salad” and mayonnaise were winning Jews away from traditional dishes. It concluded: And if Mother, in her zeal to take off pounds, turns Vegetarian, in come the protoses and the nutoses to add to Father’s woes. As if it were not enough that the good old hunk of gefilte fish has been emasculated! As if he didn’t suffer enough pain from missing the good old aroma of goosefat, now that mother uses Crisco! But if he asks for some herring, he’ll get anchovies. And anything, oh, anything, for some kasha varnishkes! But no—the calories forbid it. (Berg) The article does not even consider that vegetarianism is rooted in anything but the desire to “take off pounds.” Both vegetarianism and dietary innovations in general are introduced by “mother,” and it is Father who is missing the good old ways. The dismissal of vegetarian concerns as simply “female” and the description of men as victims of the whims of the female household cook points out an interesting power dynamic. While it may be that men run the editorial pages, women are making executive decisions and fostering integration into American society. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 68 Eve Jochnowitz Figure 17: “Vi Azoy a Fraydenker Shlogt Kapores,” Der Sheygets, 1930 Cookbooks, pamphlets, and menus in Yiddish show only that a number of Yiddish speakers were interested in vegetarianism. Vegetarian restaurants and resorts may have catered to a largely non-vegetarian clientele. The most convincing evidence of the presence and relevance of the Yiddish vegetarian movement is to be found not in the work of its proponents but in the opposition. The popular press in the early decades of the twentieth century found vegetarians and vegetarianism to provide fertile ground for sport. In the cartoon above, “How a freethinker performs the Kaparoth ceremony,” a “freethinker,” dressed in modern clothing but identifiably Jewish, holds his hands over the head of a rooster in the position of a parent blessing a child on the eve of the Sabbath and says: “May you have a good year, dear chicken, may you know of no trouble, and may I be your atonement!” (fig. 17).17 In “Nutose un Protose” Moshe Nadir skewered vegetarians and vegetarian restaurant dishes made from Protose and Nutose in particular. In the story, the imprisoned narrator relates the events leading up to his crime. At the urging of a friend who tells him “your body is a graveyard!” he tried a vegetarian restaurant where all the dishes were made with Protose and Nutose. After choosing between Protose soup or Nutose soup, Protose steak or Nutose steak, Protose or Nutose side dishes and Protose or Nutose beverages, he goes mad and it is finally revealed that he is in jail for killing the waiter. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 69 “The Grossmans,” Isaac Rosenfeld’s comic and elegiac memoir of a family falling into dysfunction, finds in their kitchen the seeds of their despair: I too go to the kitchen, on the way passing the bedroom where, when I look in, I see a heap of soiled underwear on the bed. Ada’s presence is palpable in the kitchen. These are her knives hanging blade down from a rack, her dishes, her pots and pans, her pantry, loaded with health foods, Nutose, Protose, dried figs, jars of wild honey, products of Battle Creek. Figure 18: “In a Vegetarisher Restorant” from The Forward, 1917 This strip, titled “In a vegetarian restaurant” (“In a Vegetarisher Restorant”) (fig. 18) has five panels, reading right to left.18 A customer is seated at a table in a restaurant with a portrait of Leo Tolstoy on the wall. In the first panel, the waiter says, “Believe me, mister, I will give you a piece of vegetarian fish that you will enjoy so much, you’ll think it’s real.” The customer is unimpressed, but in the second panel he admits that it does indeed look like real fish, and the waiter adds that it is impossible to distinguish from real fish. In the third the customer enthusiastically says the vegetarian fish is even better than real fish and asks if the waiter can bring a cement steak. In the fourth panel, he is enjoying the steak; even the bones seem real. In the fifth panel, the scene shifts to the kitchen where the chef is slaughtering a turkey, and the caption helpfully explains that the reason the food tastes so good is that it is real meat. The elaborate con is therefore vegetarianism itself. These bitter satirical takes on vegetarians and vegetarian food are evidence that even while Yiddish-speaking vegetarians may have been few in number, their cultural significance was disproportionately large. While most American Jewish immigrants and their children may not have chosen vegetarianism, they were stirred by the same impulses to improve themselves EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 70 Eve Jochnowitz and their society. Striving to be more moral or more rational, healthier or happier, closer to Jewish tradition or closer to classical civilization, Jewish Americans in the early twentieth century believed they could make a saner, safer future, and could do so by saner and safer eating. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 71 Notes *. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I am grateful to Amanda Miriam Khaye Seigel of the New York Public Library for her extraordinary efforts. Di Tsukunft in Mlotek et al. (86–87). Two works that expressed these concerns are Kallet and Schlink, and Schlink, cited in Levenstein. Jews were by no means the only population seeking an optimistic food future. In 1932, the artist and activist Filippo Marinetti wrote in his Futurist Cookbook: “The Futurist culinary revolution has the lofty, noble and universally expedient aim of changing radically the eating habits of our race, strengthening it, dynamizing it and spiritualizing it with brand new food combinations. . . . Until now men have fed themselves like ants, rats, cats or oxen. . . . It is not by chance that this work is published during a world economic crisis, which has clearly inspired a dangerous and depressing panic. . . . We propose as an antidote to this panic a Futurist way of cooking, that is: optimism at the table!” (21). Alter-Sholem Kacyzne, 1885–1941, was a photographer famous for the masterwork Poyln, a book of photographs of Jewish life in prewar Poland. He was also a writer and poet. I am grateful to William Oshrin for bringing this book to my attention. Bloshteyn; see Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Cookbooks.” The earliest printed books in Yiddish were religious manuals for women published in Krakow in 1534–35. See Turniansky. The title page indicates that the book is a translation from an 1896 English version, but while copies of the Yiddish translation can be found in several major collections, I have as yet been unable to turn up a copy of the English original. The English original must have been a very different book. Loy Tirtsah relies heavily on such Yiddish narrative techniques as Ivri-Taytsh, beginning a sentence with a line in Hebrew from scripture and then translating or explaining it in Yiddish, that it would be difficult and awkward in English. The book is heavily salted and peppered as well with untranslated biblical verses that the reader is expected to recognize without explanation. It is unclear whether Littauer was concerned with non-vegetarian rennet used to make cheese or if he was in fact an early vegan. The journal has many baffling jokes the editor clearly found hilarious. The Pale of Settlement—the part of Eastern Europe occupied by the Russian Empire in the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including most of Poland and Ukraine, and all of Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, and Moldova. The taxes on kosher meat levied by Jewish communities were a source of bitter dissension and targets of reformers in the old country. Mendele Moykher Sforim’s 1869 play Di Takse is a biting satirical take on the subject. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 72 Eve Jochnowitz 11. Meylekh Ravitsh (1893–1976) is famous for modernist poetry and essays as well as his memoirs, in which he recounts his adoption of vegetarianism. Lev Tolstoy (1828–1910), the world-renowned Russian novelist and reformer, was especially revered in Jewish vegetarian circles (see fig. 18). Kadia Molodowski (1894–1975) wrote poetry and essays on literary and political matters. She was a fierce critic of Yiddish writers who failed to treat the work of their female colleagues seriously. Plutarch (46–120 bce) was a historian who argued for vegetarianism on moral and physiological grounds. Ovid (43 bce–17 ce) was a poet and disciple of Pythagoras. 12. I came upon Morgenstern’s monument purely by chance. I was visiting the grave of the Yiddish poet Anna Margolin, close by. 13. The later edition of the book was published commercially and more widely advertised than the first, but the vegetarian recipes may not be entirely responsible for its success. 14. Flodn, or fludn, is a flaky, multi-layered pastry filled with lemon preserves, apples, walnuts, or poppy seeds. See Jochnowitz, “All You Need Is a Potato.” 15. Salsify is also mentioned in Mulb-A-Dlog, “Di Vegetarishe Kikh,” no. 2 (26), Mishulow and Mishulow (84–85), and in Liber (26). Liber calls the vegetable salsifay. The Yiddish word for this vegetable is tsign-berdl, or goat’s beard, but the Mishelows, Brown and Liber all seem to have encountered it first in English. I have prepared Brown’s recipe for vegetarian gefilte fish. It is delicious and can fool ardent fish enthusiasts. 16. The section on bathing includes showers, hot baths, cold baths, and also “air baths.” Brown urges her readers to spend at least a few minutes a day walking around naked. 17. Shlogn kapores is the practice of waving a living chicken over one’s head in the days immediately before Yom Kippur (the day of atonement) while reciting the formula “This is my substitute, my atonement. This chicken will die while I will begin a good long life and peace.” The prayer is part of the high holiday liturgy, but at least since the thirteenth century such distinguished rabbis as the Rashba have held the practice to be pagan superstition and Joseph Karo, the sixteenth-century author of the code of Jewish law Shulhan Arukh urged the abandonment of this “foolish custom.” See, for instance, Bloch (160). 18. This strip probably appeared in The Forward in 1917. The undated clipping is from the Zuni Maud collection at YIVO. I am grateful to Eddy Portnoy for bringing this document to my attention. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 73 Works Cited Amchanitzki, H. Der Origineler Idisher Familyen Kokh Bukh. nd. ————. Lehr-Bukh Vi Azoy Tsu Kokhen Un Baken. 1901. Beaven, Betsey et al. The Second Seasonal Political Palate: A Feminist Vegetarian Cookbook. Sanguinaria, 1984. ————. The Perennial Political Palate: The Third Feminist Vegetarian Cookbook. Sanguinaria, 1993. Berg, Temmy. “Jewish Cooking on the Wane.” Forward, 14 April 1929, p. 6. Bloch, Abraham P. The Biblical and Historical Background of the Jewish Holy Days. KTAV, 1977. Bloodroot Collective et al. The Political Palate: A Feminist Vegetarian Cookbook Sanguinaria, 1980. Bloshteyn, O. Kokh-Bukh Far Yudishe Froyen. Matz, 1896. Brown, Lena. Kokh-Bukh Far Gezuntheyt. Jankovitz, 1931. Chmelnitzki, Melech. “Iz Fleysh an Umnatirlekh Ernarung Far Menshen.” Jewish Daily Forward, 30 June 1929, p. 6. Davis, Nathan Samuel. Dos Kol Fun Dem Vegetarier. New York, 1952. Eisenberger, Malky. Food for Health Cookbook. Eindruk, 1991. ————. Maykholim Tsum Gezunt: Mit Ariber 100 Retseptn. Eindruk, 1989. Frankel, Aaron H. Lo Tirtsah: Eyn Obhandlung Iber Vegetaryanizm. Rabinovits, 1899. 4 vols. Green, Joe. The Jewish Vegetarian Tradition. 2nd ed., Johannesburg, 1969. Microform. Harshav, Benjamin. The Meaning of Yiddish. Univ. of California, 1990. Horowitz, Isaac. “Komentarn.” Di Vegetarishe Velt, vol. 1, no. 2, 1921, p. 1. Jewish Veg, www.jewishveg.org. Accessed 21 Sept. 2017. Jochnowitz, Eve. “All You Need Is a Potato: The Culinary Performances of Grushenka Abramova.” Women and Performance, vol. 21, no. 3, 2011, pp. 367–84. ————. “Feasting on the Future: Foods of the World of Tomorrow at the New York World’s Fair of 1939–40.” Performance Research, vol. 4, no. 1, 1999, pp. 110–20. ————. “Health, Revolution and a Yidisher Tam: Reading Yiddish Vegetarian Cookbooks as Women’s Literature.” Di Froyen: Women and Yiddish, edited by Purlaine Lieberman, Jewish Women’s Resource Center, 1997, pp. 52–56. Kacyzne, Alter. “Vegtarizm Iz a Private Zakh.” Der Vegetarisher Gedank, vol. 1, no. 3, March 1930, pp. 5–6. Kalechofsky, Roberta, and Rosa Rasiel. The Jewish Vegetarian Year Cookbook. Micah, 1997. Kallet, Arthur, and F. J. Schlink. 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs: Dangers in Everyday Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics. Vanguard, 1933. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. “Cookbooks.” YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, 2010, www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Cookbooks. Accessed 30 Aug. 2017. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. 74 Eve Jochnowitz ————. “Kitchen Judaism.” Getting Comfortable in New York: The American Jewish Home, 1880–1950, edited by Susan L Braunstein and Jenna Weissman Joselit, Indiana Univ., 1990, pp. 75–105. Landes, Leonard. “Der Umgang Mit Froyen.” Gezund un Lebn, vol. 1, no. 1, Nov. 1905, p. 15. ————. “Redn Tsufil.” Gezund un Lebn, vol. 1, no. 1, Nov. 1905, p. 21. ————. “Tey Trinken.” Gezund un Lebn, vol. 1, no. 4, Feb. 1906, p. 63. ————. “Tsufil Kritikirn Yenem.” Gezund un Lebn, vol. 1, no. 1, Nov. 1905, p. 19. ————. “Umgang Mit Khayes.” Gezund un Lebn, vol. 1, no. 1, 1905, p. 27. Levenstein, Harvey A. Paradox of Plenty: A Social History of Eating in Modern America. Oxford Univ., 1993. Liber, Benzion. Darfn Mir Esn Fleysh? Gedanken Vegn Vegetarianizm. Translated by Philip Rubin, Jacob Fine, 1956. Littauer, Moses Isaac. Der Naturist (Un Vegetarier), vol. 1, no. 1, April 1920. ————. “Tsimes.” Der Naturist (Un Vegetarier), vol. 1, no. 1, 1920, p. 28. Marinetti, F. T. The Futurist Cookbook. Bedford Arts, 1989. Mendele Mokher Sforim. Di Takse. 1869. Play. Miller, Laura J., and Emilie Hardman. “By the Pinch and Pound: Less and More Protest in American Vegetarian Cookbooks from the Nineteenth Century to the Present.” Protest on the Page: Essays on Print and the Culture of Dissent since 1865, edited by James L. Baughman, Jennifer Ratner-Rosenhagen and James Philip Danky, Univ. of Wisconsin, 2015, pp. 111–36. Mishulow, Abraham B. Gezunt Un Shpayz. New York, 1926. Mishulow, Abraham B., and Shifrah I. Mishulow. Vegetarishe Koch Buch. New York, 1926. Mlotek, Eleanor G. et al. Songs of Generations: New Pearls of Yiddish Song. New Workmen’s Circle, 2004. [In Yiddish texts, with accompanying material in English and Yiddish.] Mulb-A-Dlog. “Di Vegetarishe Kikh.” Di Vegetarishe Velt, vol. 1, no. 2, 1921, pp. 25–27. ————. “Di Vegetarishe Kikh.” Di Vegetarishe Velt, vol. 1, no. 1, 1921, pp. 22–28. Nadir, Isaac Moishe. “Notus un Protus.” Oyf Gelekhter. Verbe, 1919, pp. 74–79. Nayes Folshtendiges Kokhbukh Fir Di Yidishe Kikhe: Ayn Unentberlikhes Handbukh Fir Yidish Froyen Und Tokhter Nebst Forshrift Fon Flaysh Kosher Makhen Und Khale Nemen, Iberhoypt Iber Raynlikhkayt Und Kashrut. Adalbert della Torre, 1854. Perper, Joseph. “Sholem Aleichem Un Zayn Batsiung Tsum Vegetarizm.” Der Vegetarisher Gedank, vol. 1, no. 3, March 1930, pp. 2–3. Pinsker, V. “Di Froy Als Vegetarier.” Der Vegetarisher Gedank, vol. 1, no. 2, 1930, pp. 5–6, 11. Pirazshnikov, J. “Vegetarisher Himn.” Di Vegetarishe Velt, vol. 1, no. 1, 1921, p. 13. Poppendieck, Janet. Breadlines Knee-Deep in Wheat: Food Assistance in the Great Depression. Rutgers Univ., 1986. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. A Younger World: Vegetarian Writing and Recipes in Yiddish as Political Strategies 75 Ravitch, Melech. “A Vort Vegn Nisht Fresn Fleysh.” Der Vegetarisher Gedank, vol. 1, no. 1, Nov. 1929, pp. 5–6. Reclus, Elisée, and Chayyim Goldblum. Vegetarizm mit eynteylung un E. Reklu’s biografye fun iberzetser. Nyu Yorker Vegetarier Fareyn, 1921. Rendsburg, Gary. “The Vegetarian Ideal in the Bible.” Food and Judaism, edited by Leonard J. Greenspoon, Studies in Jewish Civilization, Creighton Univ., 2005, pp. 319–34. Roberts, Sam. “The Curious Mystery of the Sidewalk Tombstone.” New York Times, 8 July 2010, p. A19. Rosenfeld, Isaac. “The Grossmans.” Southwest Review, vol. 37, no. 3, Summer 1952, 212–20. Schappes, Morris U. The Jews in the United States: A Pictorial History, 1654 to the Present. Citadel, 1958. Schlink, F. J. Eat, Drink and Be Wary. Consumers’ Research, 1935. Microform. Schwartz, Richard H. Judaism and Vegetarianism. 1st ed., Exposition, 1982. Shprintzen, Adam D. “Looks Like Meat, Smells Like Meat, Tastes Like Meat: Battle Creek, Protose and the Making of Modern Vegetarianism.” Food. Culture, and Society, vol. 15, no. 1, 2012, pp. 113–28. Turniansky, Chava. “Yiddish Literature before 1800.” YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, 2016, www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Yiddish_Literature/ Yiddish_Literature_before_1800. Accessed 30 Aug. 2017. “Vi Azoy a Fraydenker Shlogt Kapores.” Der Sheygets, 3 Oct. 1930. Ziegelman, Jane, and Andrew Coe. A Square Meal: A Culinary History of the Great Depression. 1st ed., HarperCollins, 2017. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650 Copyright © 2017. Purdue University Press. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. EBSCO Publishing : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/3/2020 2:51 PM via UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AN: 1662064 ; Hochman, Leah, Ross, Steven Joseph, Ansell, Lisa.; Tastes of Faith : Jewish Eating in the United States Account: s8873650