(PDF) Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music

Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music Dr. Adam Stansbie Department of Music, University of Sheffield, United Kingdom

www.adamstansbie.com Electroacoustic music occupies a curious position within the arts. On the one hand, it appears to be aligned with the plastic arts, such as painting and sculpture; composers often refer to the haptic, kinaesthetic and even proprioceptive nature of their compositional acts in terms of crafting, moulding and sculpting sounds in the studio. On the other hand, electroacoustic music appears be aligned with the performing arts, such as drama, dance and most forms of instrumental music; the proliferation of diffusion systems and the increasing sophistication of tools for real-time spatiali- sation lend credence to associations with traditional notions of performance practice. This paper seeks to demystify this ostensible paradox. It starts considering an ontological distinction that holds between the plastic arts and the performing arts, goes on to consider whether electroacoustic music is ontologically similar to one or the other, and concludes with the following point: electroacoustic music may be characterised by either plasticity or performance but, in many cases, it falls between these polarities. This observation may help to explain why some philosophers, aesthe- ticians and musicologists have struggled to accept electroacoustic music whilst enabling one to identify where the unique value of this exciting and uncompromising art-form resides. Throughout its sixty-year history, most forms of electroa- composed spaces and listening spaces (Smalley 1991), 1 coustic music have been compared with the plastic arts. Simon Emmerson has considered what it is to perform For example, James Urmson (1976), Levi-Strauss (1969) ‘live’ in the context of electronic music (Emmerson and Nicholas Wolterstorff (1980) have compared works 2007), and this author has sought to rationalise and ex- of musique concrète with works of painting, Stan God- plain the varied constituents that coalesce within an ide- lovitch has associated works of electronic music with alised electroacoustic performance (Stansbie 2013). sculptures (Godlovitch 1998), Linda Ferguson has com- This paper considers whether electroacoustic music is pared works of tape composition with works of sculp- one of the plastic arts, the performing arts, or both. It ture, painting and film (Ferguson 1984), and Stephen 2 starts by introducing and explaining an ontological dis- Davies has compared electronic music with film (Davies tinction that holds between the plastic arts and the per- 2004). Such comparisons are certainly not lost on practi- forming arts, based upon Richard Wollheim’s well-known tioners. For example, Pierre Schaeffer, founder of mu- type theory (Wollheim 1980) and Stephen Davies’ notion sique concrète, once suggested that the term musique of thick and thin works (Davies 2004). It goes on to con- plastique might be more appropriate (Schaeffer 1952: sider which, from an ontological perspective, electroa- 115) and Rick Nance’s recent Compositional Explorations coustic music most closely resembles, before concluding of Plastic Sound considered how notions of plasticity may with the following point: electroacoustic music may be inform compositional practice (Nance 2007). aligned with the plastic arts or the performing arts, but Curiously, electroacoustic music has also been linked works are, in many cases, characterised by plasticity and with the performing arts. Such links were evident from performance, falling between these ostensible polarities. the very beginnings of musique concrète, with Sym- This observation may help to explain why some philoso- phonie pour un homme seul, a musical composition by phers, aestheticians and musicologists have struggled to Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Henry composed in 1949– understand and even accept electroacoustic music. 1950, being performed using the potentiomètre d'espace However, it also enables one to identify where the - a purpose-built performance system that was designed unique value of this exciting and uncompromising art- for the real-time spatial control of sound distribution in form ultimately resides. Future research goals are briefly concert. Today, large diffusion systems are often used to identified at the end of the paper. facilitate the performance of electroacoustic music in concert and the associated performance-related inten- tions have been widely discussed. For example, Jonty The type theory Harrison’s numerous papers have considered ways of reinforcing musical structure and space within perfor- In Art and its Objects, Richard Wollheim outlined his in- mance (Harrison 1999a; 1999b; 2000; 2010; 2011), Denis fluential ontological account of art, known as the type Smalley has discussed the relations that hold between theory (Wollheim 1980). This section introduces and ex- Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) 1 Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music plains Wollheim’s theory before demonstrating how it ent ways, which Wollheim describes using the term in- enables one to differentiate between the plastic arts and terpretation: the performing arts. This point is generally covered by saying that in such cases there is essentially an element of interpretation, where for The term type is commonly used by philosophers to de- these purposes interpretation may be regarded as the pro- scribe rather puzzling cases in which objects and events duction of a token that has properties in excess of those of seem to hover between an abstract mode of existence the type (Wollheim 1980: 82) and a concrete mode of existence. For example, in Mod- At this stage, one may begin to elaborate a distinction ern Philosophy: an Introduction and Survey, Roger Scru- that holds between the plastic arts and the performing ton uses the term type to describe the Ford Cortina: arts; the former typically strive for instantial uniformity If I refer to the Form Cortina, I do not refer to one particular whereas the latter typically strive for instantial novelty. car, but to a type of car. The individual Cortinas are ‘tokens’ To demonstrate this point, we shall consider three cases: of this type. (Scruton 2004: 84) a work of painting, a work of photography and a work of Scruton goes on to suggest that we discuss types (such as instrumental music. the Ford Cortina) as though identifying a particular physi- cal objects. However, he suggests that types are only A work of painting is a type that has just one token – the really encountered and understood through their various paint-covered canvass. In this case, all of the properties instances, known as tokens. This is because a type, unlike of the type are shared by the token itself and, as a result, a token, is an abstract, generalised entity, lacking a par- it is reasonable to assume that the painting achieves a ticular location in time and space: degree of instantial uniformity that is common to other plastic arts, such as carving and non-cast sculpture. By The Ford Cortina [...] is to be described and explained in contrast, a work of photography may have numerous terms of concrete processes in the spatio-temporal world. Nevertheless, there is no place where the Ford Cortina is. It tokens – prints. These tokens may have properties that remains aloof from the world of its tokens, just as numbers are not shared with the associated type, since they may, do. (Scruton 2004: 84-85) for example, be printed in various different sizes and With this in mind, Scruton suggests that types straddle a onto various different surfaces. Even so, all of the prints fundamental ontological divide between concrete and will be derived from the same negative or digital image abstract modes of existence (Scruton 2004: 84; 1999: and, as a result, the vast majority of the type’s properties 104); types do not exist in the concrete, spatiotemporal will be encountered in its various tokens meaning, once world. However, they are encountered in, or through, again, that the photographic type assumes a degree of their various concrete manifestations. Thus, the type: “is instantial uniformity common to the plastic arts. A work an abstract object, which itself bears the predicates of of instrumental music may also have numerous tokens - the individuals that exemplify it” (Scruton 1999: 104). performances and recordings. However, the type is a schematic formation that may be instantiated in numer- In 1980, Richard Wollheim suggested that works of art ous different ways, typically meaning that a type’s tokens can be described as types that are – like all types - en- will display a wide variety of instantial novelty. This point countered in or through their various tokens. Thus, a has been raised by Stan Godlovitch, who says: work of photography is a type that is encountered in or [In the case of music] novelty and variety are openly sought through its various prints and a work of music is a type and positively virtuous. As an individualist art, making mu- that is encountered in or through its various performanc- sical instances is distinguished from passive, routine, pre- es and recordings. In these cases, prints, performances dictable forms of instantiating as occur in mechanical repli- and recordings are tokens of artistic types. cation strictly governed under the aegis of a determinate stereotype. […] Creative music-making falls at the liberal Wollheim went on to suggest that types have various end of instantiation and, thus, requires a context of under- determination conductive to substantial discretion, control, properties that determine, at least in part, the nature of and variety despite the fixity of the type. (Godlovitch 1998: the type’s tokens. In some cases, types have a large 89). number of properties and, as a result, their various to- kens are characterised by instantial uniformity. In other Godlovitch goes on to flesh out the notion of underde- cases, they have relatively few properties and, as a re- termination, saying that musical works: “massively un- sult, their various tokens will be characterised by instan- derdetermine whatever emerges during a performance” tial novelty. Thus: “[...] not every property that can be (Godlovitch 1998: 82). He goes on to clarify this state- predicated of the former [a token] ipso facto belongs to ment: the latter [a type]” (Wollheim 1980, p.82) and this im- [...] works do not underdetermine performances quite on plies that artistic types are, in some cases, schematic analogy with schematic diagrams in electronics which per- mit a limited range of substitutions but which nevertheless formations that may be instantiated in numerous differ- manage the critical details of real circuits. Better, perhaps, 2 Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music to conceive them in the way fossilized bone underdeter- Electroacoustic music as a plastic art mines the creatures the palaeontology reconstitutes, all the soft tissue, the physiology, the behaviour, the very life de- The previous section suggested that the plastic arts are manding the palaeontology’s creative intervention. But this is not quite right either unless the musician’s task were characterised by instantial uniformity. In this section, we largely reconstructive of past musical life, and so largely a consider whether the same applies to works of electroa- matter of fitting hypotheses to the elaborated facts. [...] coustic music; we shall start by considering the methods Better yet to conceive notated works as being frameworks, employed in the creation of such music before consider- like story lines, scenarios, or scripts awaiting completion ing whether such methods produce instantial uniformity. through collaboration by players and the receptive approv- al of the musical community and its audiences. (Godlovitch The methods employed by electroacoustic composers 1998: 82) are, in many cases, similar to those employed by plastic Godlovitch’s notion of underdetermination is similar to artists; both work directly with the materials of their art Stephen Davies’ notion of thick and thin works. In Musi- which, in the case of electroacoustic music, is sound. The cal Works and Performances: a philosophical exploration, compositional process typically begins when a composer 4 Davies, a well-known type theorist, suggests that musical records a sound or a set of sounds, first selecting some- works are schematic formations that leave open a degree thing (a sound source) to record before exploring the of indeterminacy; the extent, depth and saturation of chosen source by exciting it in numerous different ways schematisation will depend upon the work in question to produce a varied range of sounds. Once captured, and, as a result, one may suggest that works can be recorded sounds will be auditioned and assessed by the placed on a continuum with thin works at one end and composer, enabling them to make compositional deci- thick works at the other: sions on the basis of audibly verifiable criteria: If it is thin, [...] most of the qualities of a performance are The assessment of material and processes is made through aspects of the performer’s interpretation, not of the work the perceptual response of the composer as ‘first listener’, as such. The thinner they are, the freer is the performer to in a process based on actual (concrete) aural experience, control aspects of the performance. Pieces specified only as and using the ear/brain mechanism most immediately to a melody and chord sequence are thin. Some tin pan alley hand (the composer’s) as representative of the (presuma- songs are of this kind. For them, the player creates the bly similar, though not identical) mechanisms of other hu- larger structure of the performance by deciding on the man beings. (Harrison 1999b: 118) number of repeats, variations, elaborations, links and the like [...] By contrast, if the work is thick, a great many of the In this respect, electroacoustic music shares the meth- properties heard in a performance are crucial to its identity ods, techniques and concerns of musique concrète. and must be reproduced in a fully faithful rendition of the Pierre Schaeffer introduced the term musique concrète work. The thicker the work, the more the composer con- to describe a compositional method in which composers trols the sonic detail of its accurate instances. Igor Stravin- sky’s The Rite of Spring (1913) is a thick work by comparison engage directly with recorded sound materials, and he with Mozart's Divertimento in D, K. 136. Thicker yet is Ed- sought to differentiate this method from that of the in- gard Varèse's Déserts (1954) for tape, wind, percussion, and strumental composer who does not work directly, or piano, because the contribution made by the tape is both concretely, with sounds but indirectly, with abstract no- 3 essential to the work’s identity and extremely specific. (Davies 2004: 20). tational systems (Emmerson and Smalley 2001; Dack 5 2002; Schaeffer 1966) . Thus, electroacoustic composers Davies concludes with the following ontological observa- are, like their musique concrète (and plastic art) coun- tion: works for performance are: “always thinner [...] terparts: “dealing with the “stuff” or “matter” directly than any of their accurate renditions” (Davies 2004: 20). presented” (Dack 2002: 4). Godlovitch’s notion of underdetermination and Davies’ The electroacoustic composer may, as a result of an aural notion of thick and thin works enable one to explain how assessment, choose to use recorded sounds without any musical types may produce the kind of instantial novelty further modification or transformation. However, it is common to the performing arts. Crucially, the perform- likely that the composer will, at the very least, edit these ing arts require an act of performance to fill-in the areas sounds, or, as is often the case, transform or manipulate of schematic indeterminacy and this marks a radical dis- them during the compositional process. In many cases, tinction from those plastic arts, which are, for the most electroacoustic composers employ digital sound pro- part, replete types that lack indeterminacies. Thus, the cessing tools and computer programmes to facilitate the plastic arts are characterised by instantial uniformity manipulation of sounds. At this stage, we find another whereas the performing arts are characterised by instan- commonality with the plastic arts; sound processing tools tial novelty. afford a degree of direct, hands-on control that has strik- With the above in mind, we shall now consider whether ing parallels with direct manipulation of physical materi- electroacoustic music can be described (from an ontolog- als common to the various plastic arts, such as painting ical perspective) as a plastic art or a performing art. and sculpture. Some electroacoustic composers clearly Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) 3 Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music support this view, often referring to the haptic, kinaes- The above point leads Davies to suggest that composers thetic and even proprioceptive nature of their composi- of electronic music issue tapes or discs rather than musi- tional acts (Nance 2007: 13). cal scores and, as a result, their works are mediated by a decoding device rather than a performer’s efforts. In The electroacoustic composer may spend a considerable other words, electronic music is so detailed that it can be length of time manipulating and transforming sound ma- presented without recourse to agential acts on the part terials before starting to combine sounds to form of a composer and thus electronic music is: “created for phrases and larger structures. Eventually, the piece will playback, not for performance” (Davies 2004: 25). be finalised and copies may be issued on a given medi- um, such as magnetic tape, vinyl disc or, as is now com- Similar views may be found in the writings of Stan God- mon, CD or DVD. At this stage, the composer has finished lovitch (1998), who refers to “‘pre-cast’ or ‘presented’ recording, manipulating and structuring sounds and has music” that has “been utterly and finally set up in ad- thus completed the compositional process. Clearly, given vance” (Godlovitch 1998: 101), before saying: “Like the use of a medium, the electroacoustic work may be bronze, it is cast, and persists historically independent of accessed at will by a listener; this affords a degree of and uninfluenced by any performance traditions. By fix- accessibility and repeatability that is once again com- ing the last detail of each sound, nothing remains for any monly associated with the plastic arts. performer to do” (Godlovitch 1998: 117-118). A similar view is held by Andrew Kania, who says: With the above in mind, it is not surprising to discover that some theorists have highlighted plasticity rather Shortly after the Second World War, some classical com- posers began focusing on producing works that did not re- than performance when considering certain electroa- quire any performance. Using technology developed to coustic traditions, clearly believing that such methods record and reproduce the sounds of performances, they must result in instantial uniformity. For example, in 1983, began creating tapes that when played back produced Linda Ferguson considered some of the compositional sound events that could not be considered an accurate rec- ord of any performance occurring in the studio, in any processes typically employed in the creation of tape sense. [...] In such ‘electronic music’, the sound of the work, compositions and, after discussing sound recording and in an important sense, came straight from the composer, manipulation, suggested that it is not possible to perform without the mediation of a performing artist. (Kania 2005: tape compositions on the grounds that: “The expressive 134-135) element of performance – interpretation - is not admit- In this short statement, we find one of the clearest ex- ted in tape composition, and the expressive content is amples of what one may call the fixity view; Kania be- already present, concretely determined by the compos- lieves that the electroacoustic composer predetermines er.” (Ferguson 1983: 20). A similar view has been pro- sounds, and this: “results in tapes (or other media) for posed by Stephen Davies who, in Musical Works and Per- playback rather than pieces for performance” (Kania formances; a Philosophical Exploration, considers the 2005: 34). Clearly, he believes that the methods em- compositional methods employed in the creation of elec- ployed during the compositional process result in works tronic music (Davies 2004: 25). Like Ferguson, Davies that are characterised by instantial uniformity, meaning considers the compositional methods involved in the that they cannot be performed. This would, according to creation of electronic music, noting that the composer the ontological distinction outlined in the previous sec- has an unprecedented degree of control over their cho- tion, support the idea of electroacoustic music as a plas- sen sound materials: tic art. In electronic compositions, the composer works more or less directly with the sounds that concern her, rather than Some electroacoustic composers appear to support the instructing others on how to make them, and this allows to plasticity view outlined above, perhaps believing that her much more control of their detail, which she is able to their works are replete or fixed formations. Simon Em- incorporate within her work by giving it an electronic repre- merson described such composers as idealists, suggest- sentation [...]. (Davies 2004: 28) ing that they prioritise: “the composer’s ideal soundfield He goes on to suggest that this compositional method as heard in the studio of creation. Some composers and produces music that is extremely detailed: performers (the ‘idealists’) believe that this needs no The electronic work, because it comes via a tape, record, or further interpretation, merely the optimal adjustment of disc, is at the level of acoustic detail that these media are loudspeaker placement and setting the overall sound capable of storing and later conveying. Because an elec- level.” (Emmerson 2007: 148). The existence of idealists tronic work is sounded directly when it is instanced, the would seem to support the notion of electroacoustic properties defining it are at the same level of detail as those characterizing performances, whereas the work- music as a plastic art. However, we must now consider defining properties of pieces created for performance are whether such an ideal may be achieved and, in doing so, not so fine-grained. (Davies 2004: 26-27) we shall consider the case for describing electroacoustic music as a performing art. 4 Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music Electroacoustic music as a performing art the loudspeakers, matches that of the studio. The conse- quences of this have been discussed by Jonty Harrison: In this section, we shall briefly consider some of the vari- If a stereo piece is played over a stereo pair of loudspeakers ous ways in which electroacoustic music is presented. (even large speakers) in a large hall, the image will be even This will enable us to assess whether such music can al- less stable and controllable than in a domestic space, and low for, and even presuppose, instantial novelty. will certainly not be the same for everyone in the audience […] Listeners at the extreme left or right of the audience Works of electroacoustic music are typically presented will receive a very unbalanced image; someone on the front using a loudspeaker or set of loudspeakers. In theory, row will have a ‘hole in the middle’ effect, whilst a listener this enables one to present instances of a work without on the back row is, to all intents and purposes, hearing a mono signal! (Harrison 1999: 121) any significant qualitative differences (instantial uni- formity). However, in practice, this is rarely achievable; The potential for inadequate listening positions is com- electroacoustic works are, as Jonty Harrison points out, pounded by the problem of phase cancellation. This of- typically composed in a studio but presented in concert ten occurs in cases where there is a substantial distance 6 halls or similar public performance venues (Harrison between a loudspeaker and a listener and is particularly 1999) and, as Simon Emmerson points out: “The studio pronounced in cases where temperature and humidity does not resemble a concert hall” (Emmerson 2008: variations and air movements create unwanted and con- 148). We shall briefly explore Emmerson’s point and thus tinually varying changes in the phase of a signal (Doherty identify some of the key differences between studios and 1998: 9-10). This may, in some cases, result in variations concert halls. in the phase relationship between the left and right loud- 7 speakers, potentially cancelling out certain frequencies The process of decoding audio is never transparent – but also affecting the listener’s ability to locate sounds by the type of the encoded medium employed, the algo- destroying spatial cues (Rumsey and McCormick 2006: rithm or method used to access the code, the type of 446). Along similar lines, the acoustic qualities of the loudspeaker system used to replay the sound, the specif- 8 concert hall are likely to differ from the acoustic qualities ic type of loudspeaker employed , the placement and of the studio. According to Frank Henriksen, such differ- number of loudspeakers, the various objects situated in ences are likely to reflect, diffract and absorb sounds in front of and around the loudspeakers, the position of ways that the composer cannot necessarily anticipate in listeners relative to the loudspeakers and the acoustic the composition studio (Henriksen 2002: 72-75). He goes qualities of the listening space are amongst the various on to suggest that reflections, diffractions and absorption factors influencing such a process. Thus, the instantiation affect the spectral makeup, spatial location and, most process, no matter where it takes place, has an impact importantly, the dynamic contours of a given work (Hen- upon the sounds that emerge. riksen 2002: 72-75). The composition studio seeks to marginalise the various One may argue that the effects of concert halls are una- factors influencing the decoding process by offering a voidable, incidental and largely irrelevant to both com- relatively stable, often bespoke, listening environment; posers and listeners. However, this view, should it be the room acoustic, the studio layout and the available encountered, is starkly at odds with the epistemic prac- equipment may (or may not) be ideal. However, such tices of (most) electroacoustic composers; since these features are unlikely to change throughout the composi- composers spend a significant proportion of the compo- tional process, and, as a result, the composer may be- sitional process sculpting, crafting and shaping their cho- come accustomed to the studio environment and thus sen sound materials, it is reasonable to assume that the anticipate, or even forget, the influence that the studio qualitative differences between instances of their works exerts upon the encoding and decoding of sounds. In are deemed to be highly problematic. This observation is, short, the composition studio offers the illusion of decod- in effect, a reversal of the ontological claims of Ferguson, ing transparency. By contrast, the concert hall may offer Davies, Godlovitch and Kania; reverberation, reflection a relatively stable listening environment. However, it is and absorption are problematic because the composer likely to differ, often substantially, from the listening en- 10 has such a high degree of control over sound materials . vironment found in the studio. The most obvious differ- ence is that of scale; the concert hall, by virtue of the The above point may be demonstrated by reference to requirement to engage an audience, is likely to be much Denis Smalley’s notion of spatial consonance and disso- 9 larger than the composition studio and this often means nance (Smalley 1991). In Spatial experience in Electro- that it is difficult, if not impossible, to replicate the condi- Acoustic Music, Smalley suggests that electroacoustic tions under which a composition was created; it is par- composers think of spatial imaging as a means of en- ticularly difficult to ensure that the position of the loud- hancing the sounding properties inherent in sound mate- speakers, and the position of the listener(s) in relation to rials and their structural functions, before describing Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) 5 Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music such imaging, as considered by the composer and com- engages directly with the control interface and is able to posed into the work, as a composed space (Smalley regulate the level of the signal being sent from the 1991: 123). He goes on to note that the composed space source to the loudspeaker array. This typically involves is typically transferred to a listening space, such as a con- the real-time movement of faders on a mixing desk, ena- cert hall, before differentiating between the composed bling the performer to increase or decrease the amount space and the listening space, noting that the former will of signal being sent from the decoding device to any giv- have been embedded in the musical content of a work en loudspeaker, or set of loudspeakers, within the array. whereas the latter will usually lie outside the composer’s In doing so, the diffuser is able to situate or place sound control. Despite this, the listener is confronted with what materials at individual or multiple points within the space Smalley refers to as a superimposed space – a nesting of and, by increasing the signal sent to one (or more) set(s) the composed spaces within a listening space (Smalley of speakers whilst decreasing the signal of others, create 1991: 123). This nesting process may have certain signifi- the impression that the sound moves from one to the cant consequences, as outlined below: other. The vast majority of agential acts combine place- The superimposition process causes acoustical changes ments and movements, thus severing the distinction out- which have consequences for the perception of musical lined above. For example, a sound diffuser may start a content and structure, particularly in public spaces. The particular performance with sound materials located at public space, where listeners are distanced from loud- specific points in the listening space and proceed to speakers, undermines the sonic articulation and clarity con- sidered so important and dealt with so carefully by the move, sculpt and shape those sounds within the space, composer in the studio-space where the work was created. perhaps eventually arriving at another specific placement This is the negative consequence of the act of transference. before moving off again. In doing so, the diffuser is able (Smalley 1991: 123) to act with fluidity and spontaneity, respond to the musi- Smalley goes on to suggest that the superimposition pro- cal materials in real-time and make decisions about the cess does not necessarily have a negative impact upon a acoustic influence of the listening space and the relative given instantiation and, to demonstrate this point, he position of the audience as the performance develops. introduces the terms spatial consonance and spatial dis- Accordingly, the diffuser may create the impression of sonance as a means of discussing the relationship be- intimacy, immensity, elevation, envelopment, distance, tween the composed space and the listening space surprise, and so on. (Smalley 1991: 123). In some cases, the spatial images With the above in mind, there are good reasons for asso- present in electroacoustic works are consonant with the ciating electroacoustic music with the performing arts. listening space. However, this is not always the case; an This is clearly what composers have in mind when they intimate, composed-space presented within a large lis- describe sound diffusion systems as instruments, ensem- tening-space (dissonant spatial relationship) may result bles or orchestras and the practice of sound diffusion as in a loss of intimacy that will potentially obstruct the lis- a form of playing, as is clear from Simon Emmerson’s tener’s apprehension of the musical content (Smalley 11 discussion of two diffusion systems : 1991: 123). Both looked superb in addition to their sounding – but I will With the above point mind, one may agree with Jonty not say they intrinsically ‘sounded superb’ because, of Harrison, who suggests that: “it is the medium which is course, as an instrument they had to be played by perform- ers, and the concept of virtuosity still applies. There can be fixed, not the music” (Harrison 1999a: 1). Harrison goes ‘good’ or ‘poor’ performances. This seems strangely at odds on to note that the influence of listening spaces will re- with the developing philosophy in the field which stressed main problematic unless something radical is done; he is the ‘transparency’ of the technology. (Emmerson 2007: 85- referring to the need for performance agents who are, in 86) the electroacoustic tradition, associated with the prac- Further to this, it seems reasonable to suggest that elec- tice of sound diffusion (Harrison 1999a). We shall briefly troacoustic composers, particularly those familiar with consider such a practice in order to assess whether this the practice of sound diffusion, often consider the vari- creates a sense of instantial novelty. ous possibilities that diffusion presents during the crea- In order to negate the various issues described above, tion of their works. In such cases, composers make com- electroacoustic composers often diffuse their works us- positional decisions with these various possibilities in ing a diffusion system – a bespoke software and hard- mind and, as a result, their works presuppose acts of ware system that links a decoding device (such as a CD sound diffusion. This point is supported by Jonty Harrison player, a DVD player or a computer hard-drive) to a loud- who, in Sound, space, sculpture: some thoughts on the speaker array via some sort of mix engine and control ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ of sound diffusion, makes the interface (Mooney 2005: 169). The control interface is following claim: typically the point of agential contact; the human agent 6 Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music [Electroacoustic music] grows, mutates, evolves, permitting Some composers address this ostensible paradox by pro- a certain fluidity and flexibility in the final aural manifesta- ducing two version of the same piece. For example, in a tion of the sound (along the lines of Varèse’s thinking on the development of crystals), thereby permitting diffusion recent talk, Jonty Harrison explained that he created two the possibility of further expanding the underlying argu- versions of a stereo acousmatic work called Hot Air ment. (Harrison 1999b: 125) (1995); Harrison explained the difference between these Harrison goes on to clarify this point: versions as follows: The simple fact is: much electroacoustic music, particularly I knew that the work would be premiered on the GRM’s that in the musique concrète and acousmatic tradition is in- Acousmonium on the deep stage of the Salle Olivier Mes- tended to be diffused, has the variability of performance siaen. The piece contains a very long ‘Mediterranean underlying its aesthetic base. (Harrison 1999b: 124) nightscape’ section which recedes very slowly into the dis- tance, to the vanishing point [...]. I knew that I would be In this context, the term variability is particularly signifi- able to sustain this structural effect in diffusion, but when I came to release the work on CD, I shortened this section, cant, since it implies that electroacoustic works are not feeling it was too long for a personal or domestic listening (like most of their plastic counterparts) replete, determi- context, without the benefits of diffusion and real loud- nate entities, but schematic, indeterminate formations speakers in distant positions. (Harrison 2011: 6) that may be instantiated in a variety of different ways. In The difference between the two versions of Hot Air, sug- other words, electroacoustic works may underdetermine gests one way in which a work may be characterised by their various instances and are therefore potentially thin both plasticity and performance; the version that is for types that have thick tokens. This clearly aligns such performance underdetermines a particular act of diffu- works with the performing arts and, in particular, their sion in which materials slowly recede into the distance scored, instrumental counterparts; both encourage a whereas the version that is for CD listening offers the degree of variability, presuppose diverse instantial acts. listener a replete, fully-determined listening experience that is (arguably) less compromised by the absence of sound diffusion. Combining plasticity and performance Despite the above, it is rare to find that a composer has Thus far, this paper has considered the idea that some radically altered the structure of a composition to ac- electroacoustic composers strive for instantial uniformity count for different listening situations; the vast majority and thus create works that are replete or fixed during the of composers make a single version of their works which compositional process; such works seem to be more they are happy to present in concert and to release on a closely aligned with the plastic arts. It has also consid- CD or DVD. With this in mind, one may argue that the ered the idea that some electroacoustic composers strive situation described above is relatively common, particu- for instantial novelty, and thus create works that under- larly in the age of recording technology. For example, we determine their instances; such works seem to be more often find that works of classical music, which were orig- closely aligned with the performing arts. Curiously, there inally intended for concert performance, may be record- seems to be a third possibility that requires our atten- ed and released on CD. Alternatively, works of rock mu- tion; many electroacoustic works seem to be character- sic, which have been composed in a studio and realised ised by both plasticity and performance, falling between using a fixed medium, may be performed live in concert. these ostensible polarities. The remainder of this section This situation has been discussed, at length, by Andrew explores this idea. Kania, who reaches the following conclusion: Electroacoustic composers may produce works that are “Classical and jazz are alike in being live performance tradi- intended for concert diffusion. However, the same com- tions. This results in the similar attitude each takes towards posers are often happy to issue their musical works on recording technology, using it to produce, in a sense, dura- ble performances. Yet, the classical tradition is centred CDs or DVDs, thus enabling listeners to instantiate the around enduring works, which are the creations of com- music within a number of different listening contexts posers, while in jazz the primary focus of critical attention is (such as home-listening or studio-listening) in which ephemeral performances, so that the tradition cannot be sound diffusion unavailable. In such cases, the work said to contain works in the same sense as in the classical tradition. Rock music, on the other hand, while including an would appear to strive for both instantial novelty, when important practice of live performances, is centrally a rec- presented in a concert hall, and instantial uniformity, orded art, whose works are replete recordings that mani- when presented elsewhere. As a result, a curious situa- fest songs which can be performed live, without the works tion emerges; works appear to be characterised by both themselves being performances of those songs, and with- plasticity and performance, since their instances appear out the songs being works in their own right.” (Kania 2008: 15). to be uniform in some cases and qualitatively distinct in others. With this in mind, it is tempting to suggest that electroa- coustic music is, from an ontological position, similar to Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) 7 Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music rock music, offering replete recordings that manifest ontological account of electroacoustic music. This will works that can be performed live. Yet this suggestion enable us to develop a greater understanding of the implies that variability is only ascribed to the perfor- unique nature of electroacoustic music, similarities and mance and not to the work itself; as previously men- differences between other art forms, the nature of per- tioned, much electroacoustic music has performance formance interpretation in electroacoustic music, the underlying its aesthetic base; such variety does not sud- ability to differentiate between authentic and inauthen- denly emerge in performance, for it has been deter- tic instances, amongst others. mined in advance, being crucial to the work itself (Harri- son 1999b: 124). Perhaps, then, electroacoustic music seems more closely related to works of classical music, References being intended for performance but using technology to Brown, L. (1996). Musical Works, Improvisation, and the Princi- produce, in a sense, durable performances. Yet this does ple of Continuity. In: Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criti- not seem quite right, either; in the electroacoustic tradi- cism, Vol. 54 (1), pp. 353-369. tion, technologies are not used to document or capture Dack, J. (2001). Diffusion as performance. In: G. Lasker, J. Lily, performances but to compose works; we do not hear and J. Rhodes, eds., Systems Research in the Arts, Vol- anything akin to a once-upon-a-time performance when ume III: Music, Environmental Design & the Choreogra- listening to an electroacoustic work via a CD. phy of Space, Vol. 3 (1), pp. 81–88. With the above in mind, it is, perhaps, worth developing Dack, J. (2002). Abstract and Concrete. In: Journal of Electroa- an ontological account that stresses the unique nature of coustic Music, Vol. 14 (1), pp. 2-7. electroacoustic music; rather than focussing upon plas- Davies, S. (2004). Musical Works and Performances: A Philo- ticity and performance, one may suggest that electroa- sophical Exploration. Oxford: Oxford University Press. coustic works fall between these ostensible polarities. Echard, W. (2008). Subject to a Trace: The Virtuality of Record- There are two possibilities. Firstly, one might suggest ed Music. In: M. Dogantan-Dack, ed. Recorded Music: that works of electroacoustic music underdetermine Philosophical and Critical Reflections. Middlesex: Mid- their instances, and produce instantial novelty that oc- dlesex University Press, pp. 22-40. curs either in the concert hall or in other listening situa- Emmerson, S. (2007a). Living Electronic Music. Aldershot: Ash- tions. Alternatively, one might suggest that electroacous- gate Publishing Limited. tic works occupy two simultaneous positions on Davies’ Emmerson, S. (2007b). Seeing (or not seeing) the Loudspeaker; thick-thin continuum being, on the one hand, thick Seeing (or not seeing) the Music. In: F. Barriere and C. enough to be released on a CD and, on the other hand, Clozier, eds., De la relation entre audition et vision dans thin enough to be performed in concert. It does not mat- la création en musique electroacoustique/The relation- ship between hearing and seeing in the creation of elec- ter which of these options we choose. However, a failure troacoustic music. Bourges: Editions Mnemosyne, pp. to acknowledge the unique nature of electroacoustic 85-88. music is surely the cause of much ontological confusion, Emmerson, S., and Smalley, D. (2001). D. Electro-acoustic Mu- and the reason why some philosophers, aestheticians sic. Grove Music Online. Available from: and musicologists have struggled to accept and under- stand electroacoustic music. Ontological theorising is, <http://www.grovemusic.com/index.html> [Accessed 18 May 2007] therefore, essential if we are to identify and celebrate the unique nature of this exciting and uncompromising Ferguson, L. (1983). Tape Composition: An Art Form in Search art form that appears to fall between plasticity and per- of its Metaphysics. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criti- cism, Vol. 42 (1), pp. 17-27. formance. Godlovitch, S. (1998). Musical Performance: A Philosophical Study. London: Routledge. Conclusion Gracyk, T. (2009). Ontological Contextualism. In: S. Davies et al. eds., A Companion to Aesthetics, 2nd edn. Malden: This paper has considered electroacoustic music in rela- Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 449-452. tion to the plastic arts and the performing arts. It started Harrison, J. (1995). Hot Air. In: Articles indéfinis (CD – IMED by suggesting that electroacoustic music is one of the 9627). empreintes DIGITALes, 1996. plastic arts, went on to suggest that it is one of the per- forming arts and concluded with the following claim: Harrison, J. (1999a). Diffusion: theories and practices, with par- ticular reference to the BEAST system. In: eContact, Vol. electroacoustic music may be characterised by plasticity 2.4. Available from: and performance or, as is more likely, it falls between these ostensible polarities. Further research is needed, < http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/Diffusion/Beast.htm > [Accessed 23 June 2010] particularly in terms of the development of a bespoke 8 Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music Harrison, J. (1999b). Sound, space, sculpture: some thoughts on Smalley, D. (1991). Spatial experience in Electro-Acoustic Music. the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ of sound diffusion. In: Or- In: L’Espace du Son II. Ohain: Musiques et Researches, ganised Sound, Vol. 3 (2), pp. 117-127. pp. 121-124. Harrison, J. (2000). Imaginary Space – Spaces in the Imagina- Smalley, D. (2007). Space-form and the acousmatic image. In: tion: Australasian Computer Music Conference 1999 Organised Sound, Vol. 12 (1), pp. 35-58. Keynote Address. In: eContact, Vol. 3.2. Available from: Stansbie, A. (2013). The Acousmatic Musical Performance: an <http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/ACMA/ACMConference. ontological investigation. PhD dissertation. London: City htm> [Accessed 23 June 2010] University. Harrison, J., and Wilson, S. (2010). Rethinking the BEAST: Re- Thomasson, A. (2004). The Ontology of Art. In: P. Kivy, ed. The cent developments in multichannel composition at Bir- Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 78- mingham ElectroAcoustic Sound Theatre. In: Organised 92. Sound, Vol. 15 (3), pp. 239–250. Urmson, J. (1976). The Performing Arts. In: G. Anscombe, ed. Harrison, J. (2011). Time, Space, Structure(s): Issues in the crea- Contemporary British Philosophy; Fourth Series. Lon- tion and perception of multidimensional form in don: Muirhead Library of Philosophy, pp. 239-252. acousmatic music. Paper presented at: Form in Electro- acoustic Music. Institute of Creative Technologies, De Wollheim, R. (1980). Art and its Objects, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Montfort University, Leicester, 20th Feb 2011. Cambridge University Press. Henriksen, F. E. (2002). Space in Electroacoustic Music: Compo- Wolterstorff, N. (1980). Works and Worlds of Art. Oxford: Clar- sition, Performance and Perception of Musical Space. endon Press. PhD dissertation. London: City University. Hofweber, T. (2012). Logic and Ontology. In: E. Zalta, ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Available from: <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2012/entries/l 1 For the sake of clarity, this paper is primarily concerned with a particu- ogic-ontology/>. [Accessed 17 August 2012] lar type of electroacoustic music known as acousmatic music, alt- Kania, A. (2005). Pieces of Music: The Ontology of Classical, hough various other types are mentioned throughout. In this context, Rock and Jazz Music. PhD Thesis: University of Mary- the term acousmatic describes a listening situation in which the land. source or cause of a sound is not presented (visually) to a listener and thus acousmatic music refers to music which utilises or explores this Kania, A. (2008). Works, Recordings, Performances: Classical, listening situation. Rock, Jazz. In: M. Dogantan-Dack, ed., Recorded Music: Philosophical and Critical Reflections. Middlesex: Mid- dlesex University Press, pp. 3-21. 2 Ontology is a branch of metaphysical philosophy that is concerned with the nature of being or existence. It is often described as the the- Kilpatrick, S., and Stansbie, A. (2011). Materialising Time and ory of objects and their ties, providing criteria for distinguishing dif- Space in Acousamtic Music. In: A. Vande Gorne, ed., ferent types or kinds of objects, enabling one to unpick the various L’Espace du Son III. Ohain: Musiques et Recherches, pp. relations that such objects enter into (Hofweber 2012: 1). For more 55-62. information, see: Stansbie (2013). Levi-Strauss, C. (1969). The Raw and the Cooked. New York: Harper & Row. 3 Davies’ thick-thin thesis does not seek to quantify the various sounds occurring during a given performance: “performances of thin works Mooney, J. (2005). Sound Diffusion Systems for the Live Perfor- are as replete with acoustic information as are those of thick works, mance of Electroacoustic Music. An Inclusive Approach but, for performances of thin works, more of this information is ref- led by Technological and Aesthetical consideration of erable to the performance than to the work” (Davies 2004: 20). Thus, the Electroacoustic idiom and an Evaluation of Existing large orchestral works are not necessarily any thicker than solo piano Systems. PhD Thesis: The University of Sheffield. works. Nance, R. (2007). Compositional Explorations of Plastic Sound. 4 Composers may also synthesise sounds, using a process described by PhD Thesis: DeMontfort University. Emmerson and Smalley: “Creating a sound through synthesis requires Rohrbaugh, G. (2005). The Ontology of Art. In: B. Gaut and D. the composer to design the constituents of a sound and their McIver Lopes, eds., The Routledge Companion to Aes- evolution according to a particular method – for example, building thetics, 2nd edn. New York: Routledge, pp. 241-254. sounds based on waveforms, constructing sounds out of the briefest sound-grains, or specifying the parameters of models based on the Rumsey, F., and McCormick, T. (2006). Sound and Recording: an behaviour of the voice, instruments and other sounding bodies.” introduction, 5th edn. Oxford: Focal Press. (Emmerson and Smalley 2001: 1). Schaeffer, P. (1952). A la recherche d’une musique concrète. 5 Paris: du Seuil. Schaeffer’s use of the term concrète served to emphasis the differ- ence between his compositional techniques and a perceived over- Schaeffer, P. (1966). Traité des objets musicaux. Paris: du Seuil. formalisation of abstract serial techniques employed by many of his contemporaries. John Dack provides a comprehensive overview of the various differences, noting that the specific meaning is often un- Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013) 9 Dr. Adam Stansbie – Between Plasticity and Performance: an ontological account of electroacoustic music clear since the term concrete can be used as both an adjective and a noun (Dack 2002). 6 This is not to suggest that the concert hall is the best place for the presentation of electroacoustic works: “Leaving aside the interesting but thorny question, not strictly relevant in the current context, of whether the ‘concert’, with its behaviour codes and anachronistic rituals, is the most appropriate format for electroacoustic music anyway, the last half century has nevertheless seen much of this kind of public presentation.” (Harrison 1999: 120). 7 This point has been made, at length, by Brown (1996) and Echard (2008). 8 Harrison and Wilson have noted that loudspeakers: “[...] cannot be treated as strictly neutral and transparent conveyors of fully and ideally realised sound material” (Harrison and Wilson 2010: 240). 9 There are various other differences which may be less obvious. For example, the performance system may use a different algorithm to access the code and it may use various different loudspeakers than those employed during the creation of a work. These factors all influence the decoding process and, crucially, differentiate the decoding process from that encountered in the studio. 10 Jonty Harrison appears to agree with this point: “[…] it seems strange that the acoustic peculiarities of the public playback space itself are frequently given little consideration in [tape playback]” (Harrison 2000: 1). 11 Emmerson is referring to the Gmebaphone/Cybernéphone and the GRM Acousmonium. For more information see: Stansbie (2013). 10 Proceedings of Korean Electro-Acoustic Music Society's 2013 Annual Conference (KEAMSAC2013)