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Publications from the National Museum Studies in Archaeology & History Vol. 20:5 Jelling Series Edited by Anne Pedersen & Per Kristian Madsen Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Edited by Anne Pedersen & Per Kristian Madsen PNM Publications from the National Museum. Studies in Archaeology & History vol. 20:5. Jelling Series Copenhagen 2023 Contents Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Publications from the National Museum, Studies in Archaeology & History vol. 20:5. Jelling Series Edited by Anne Pedersen & Per Kristian Madsen © The authors, University Press of Southern Denmark and the National Museum of Denmark 2023 All rights reserved Preface 7 1. Introduction Anne Pedersen and Per Kristian Madsen 11 9. Churches and ancient monuments Part I – The Stone Church at Jelling 10. Denmark’s earliest stone churches – from Estrid to c. 1100 2. The Romanesque stone church at Jelling Thomas Bertelsen 179 PNM Editorial Board: Head of Research Michael Andersen Research Coordinator Thomas Grane Senior Researcher Mette Marie Hald Senior Researcher Mikkel Venborg Pedersen Thomas Bertelsen 27 Cover design: Pia Breinholt/Stine Raun Nissen Layout: Stine Raun Nissen Translation and English revision: Patrick Laurence Marsden Printed by Specialtrykkeriet Arco A/S Published by University Press of Southern Denmark Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M ISBN: 978 87 7602 379 9 Published with financial support of: The Bikuben Foundation Anne Pedersen 161 3. Archaeological investigations of the foundations of Jelling Church 11. The Romanesque tufa churches of Denmark – with particular focus on East Jutland Hans Mikkelsen 65 Thomas Bertelsen 199 4. Rebuilding and additions – Jelling Church in the Late Middle Ages 12. Enlargements of Romanesque churches in Denmark Thomas Bertelsen 89 Thomas Bertelsen 225 5. T he belfry on the South Mound 13. Early medieval churches – a choice of materials Anne Pedersen 103 Part II – The Murals in Jelling Church 6. The frescoes in the chancel of Jelling Church – their discovery, destruction and reconstruction Sissel F. Plathe and Klaus Støttrup Jensen 115 Cover: The east chancel wall of Jelling Church, exposed calcareous tufa masonry and foundations. Survey: Stine A. Højbjerg 2012 Part III – Jelling Church in an Early Medieval Context Thomas Bertelsen and Per Kristian Madsen 255 Bibliography 271 Appendix 1: Dendrochronological investigations of Romanesque tufa churches in East Jutland 7. From wall to fresco, the west wall of the chancel of Jelling Church Thomas Bertelsen 283 Sissel F. Plathe with contributions by Peder Bøllingtoft 149 Appendix 2: Coring into prehistoric mounds next to early medieval stone churches – methods and results 8. The Jelling workshop – early Romanesque frescoes in the Vejle and Horsens area of East Jutland Anne Pedersen, Peter Steen Henriksen and Henrik Breuning-Madsen (†) 291 Sissel F. Plathe 153 List of authors 310 Appendix 2 Coring into prehistoric mounds next to early medieval stone churches – methods and results Anne Pedersen, Peter Steen Henriksen and Henrik Breuning-Madsen † As part of the National Museum’s Jelling Project (2008-15), boreholes were drilled into the North and South Mound at Jelling in 2009 by a research team from the Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management at Copenhagen University, the National Museum and the School of Culture and Society at Aarhus University. The methods resembled those which were applied at Jelling in 1861 in an attempt to locate a burial chamber in the South Mound (Figs 1 and 2), and provided new information about the structure, composition and history of the two mounds, particularly the origins of the supposed ‘well’ at the top of the North Mound (Breu­ ning-Madsen et al. 2012; also Breuning-Madsen & Holst 2023). The favourable conditions and observations at Jelling led to a more extensive initiative aimed at clarifying the hydrology and, if possible, the exact date of other man-made burial mounds next to early medieval churches. Four mounds were selected in 2013: Klangshøj (Vennebjerg) in North Jutland, Herslev in East Jutland, Randbøl c. 15km south-west of Jellling and Bredhøj near Holstebro in western Jutland; the latter was not associated with a church and is therefore not included in the following catalogue (Kristensen & Breuning-Madsen 2014). Based on the positive results from Klangshøj, the project continued in 2014-15. Most of the selected 290 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church burial mounds are located in Jutland, but the project also included two mounds next to medieval churches in eastern Denmark, Hårlev on Zealand and Elmelunde on the island of Møn (Fig. 3).1 Method and source critical issues The coring was carried out using a hand-driven auger for stony soils, consisting of an auger head, 7.5cm in diameter and c. 15cm high, that was fitted with a handgrip and 1-metre extensions. The extracted cores (Fig. 4) were visually analysed, and samples of soil and macrofossils were taken for further analysis (including texture, organic C, pH, total P and N, and to a lesser extent iron and aluminium) and for 14 C dating where relevant (Jessen 2016). At Klangs­ høj, the water that accumulated in the boreholes was also sampled. The location of the borings was in each case determined by the overall aim to gain as much information as possible about the hydrology of the mounds with the least possible number of cores. The exact location and level of each borehole was recorded with differential GPS.2 As at Jelling, plant remains were preserved in Klangshøj (Vennebjerg) and could be used for datAppendix 2 291 Mesolithic 2. Vennebjerg Early Neolithic 1. Bjergby Late Neolithic 3. Serritslev Bronze Age 5. Vigsø Iron Age/Viking Age 4. Nørre Tranders 8. Flejsborg 6. Kallerup 7. Ydby 12. Rom No date 50 km 9. Ravnkilde 13. Fabjerg 10. Rimsø 11. Krogsbæk 14. Mejrup 15. Bølling 16. Nørre Snede 17. Randbøl 19. Øster Torsted 21. Bryndum 22. Jerne Fig. 1. Drilling with a hand-held auger into the South Mound at Jelling under the supervision of King Frederik VII. This was undertaken in an unsuccessful attempt to locate the burial chamber of King Gorm. Drawing by Jacob Kornerup, 11 August 1861. The National Museum. Jelling 18. Herslev 20. Vamdrup 24. Hårlev 25. Elmelunde 23. Tandslet Fig. 2. Drilling into the South Mound at Jelling in 2009. As in 1861, a hand-held auger is being used. As the depth increases, the handle of the auger is extended. Photo: Mads Kähler Holst 2009. 292 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Fig. 3. Distribution of burial mounds selected for coring in 2013-15. The numbers refer to the catalogue. The dates are based on charcoal in the fill samples. The mounds at Vigsø, Flejsborg, Herslev and Tandslet were too damaged for sampling to be undertaken; the mound at Elmelunde may not be a burial mound. Graphics: Peter Steen Henriksen. ing purposes. Fragments of charcoal were also extracted when this was possible. However, the 14C dates of charcoal recovered from the mound fill at Jelling, from Klangshøj and Hother’s Mound at Hårlev revealed a source critical issue that had not been previously considered. The charcoal fragments from Vennebjerg yielded a date corresponding to that of the plant remains, but at Jelling the charcoal dated to the Early Roman Iron Age, and the fragments from Hother’s Mound were dated to the Middle Neolithic, even though a burnt twig from the bottom layer had indicated that the mound was erected in the Late Iron Age (Henriksen et al. 2019). These results suggest that, even in the Viking Age, there were still large amounts of ancient charcoal in the plough soil from the burning of woodlands in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. The very early dates, based on small pieces of charcoal recovered from the turf fill in the mounds next to churches, therefore do not give an accurate date for the construction of mounds. Only datable organic material with a secure context and origin (i.e. plant remains from, for instance, the surface of turf blocks and cremation layers) can be used to date the mounds. It is nevertheless likely that the mounds examined (with the possible exception of Elmelunde) are prehistoric, based on many similar mounds dated by means of artefacts (King Ran’s Mound below) or association with a prehistoric mound group (see Pedersen 2010, 90-94). Similar, although less dramatic, differences in 14C dates have been noted in the case of Skalundahögen, Västergötland, Sweden. Four samples of plant remains suggest that the mound dates to the Vendel Period (c. AD 550-800), with the variations possibly indicative of more than one building phase, whereas one charcoal sample dates to the Migration Period (c. AD 375-550). The charcoal sample comes from the bottom layer, which is interpreted as the original vegetation surface (Nilson 2009, 26-30). Appendix 2 293 Catalogue For each site, the catalogue provides a brief introduction to the church and landscape, followed by a description of the mound, and the results of the coring and 14C dating. References are given for publications of the church and/or mound, general descriptions of the parish and to the National Sites and Monuments Record = NSMR [Fund og Fortidsminder]. Fig. 4. Preserved plant remains in a core sample from Klangshøj next to Gl. Vennebjerg Church, Vendsyssel. Photo: Peter Steen Henriksen 2013. 1. Bjergby Romanesque stone church (nave and chancel of granite ashlars) with later porch. The church is situated in an elevated, hilly landscape and can be seen from a distance. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, north of the church chancel. Height c. 3m, diam. c. 20m (in 1925). The top has been levelled to form a flat surface c. 8m in diam., which functions as the foundation for a belfry supported by four flat, sunken stones (Fig. 5.7). No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2014 and samples were extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of clayey moraine sand with clear turf structures at the bottom. Beta-418293: conventional radiocarbon age 2530 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 795 to 745; Cal BC 685 to 664 and Cal BC 645 to 550 (Beta Report September 15, 2015). References: Trap Danmark VI,1, 197-99. NSMR, Bjergby Parish no. 9. Conservation no. 041317. 2. Vennebjerg Romanesque stone church (nave and chancel of granite ashlars) with late medieval tower, vestry and porch. The church is situated on high-lying ground on the Vennebjerg ‘island’, a Weichselian moraine elevation of gravel and sand rising above the surrounding Yoldia flatlands. The highest point of the landscape is the mound Klangshøj to the west of the 294 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church church. The church is visible from all sides and is a known navigation mark dedicated to Saint Andrew. Large mound (Klangshøj), partly natural, west of the church, immediately outside the churchyard wall (Fig. 9.5). Height c. 7m, diam. c. 45m (in 1924). Examination in 2001 revealed that only the top part of the mound is artificial. The mound was erected at the highest point in the landscape, on a natural elevation, the western side of which was cut to create a steep slope to the foot of the mound. The eastern side of the mound is cut by the churchyard wall. According to local legend, there was a spring, Krykke-Karens kilde (Crutch Karen’s spring), on the northern side of the mound, and a wet depression in the north side near the top is said to have been a sacred spring; the well was originally lined with wood. This has not been confirmed. In addition, according to legend, a Prince Klank was buried in the mound (Sites and Monuments Record for 1924). No artefacts have been recovered. Coring into the mound was carried out in August and November 2013; a total of 9 holes were drilled, and samples of the fill were extracted for macrofossil analysis and dating. Samples of water that had accumulated in the boreholes were also taken for chemical analysis. Well-preserved plant remains, occasionally greenish in colour, were observed in three of the cores that were extracted, indicating that the mound was composed of turf blocks mainly taken from heathland (Fig. 4). The samples contained different grain sizes, ranging from fine sand to clay. The hydrological conditions in the mound resemble those documented in the North and South Mounds at Jelling, with a permeable bioturbation zone over- Fig. 5. Mound in the south-east corner of Serritslev churchyard, Vendsyssel, viewed from the west. Photo: Sandie Holst 2014. laying almost impermeable turf layers, thus resulting in the formation of a perched groundwater table in the transition zone. This suggests that, like at Jelling, the wet depression at the top of the mound was caused by internal processes. The mound is 14C dated to the Late Viking Age. It is not known whether the depression on top of the mound is associated with an intrusion, or whether the mound covers a prominent Viking-Age burial. Beta-358585: conventional radiocarbon age 1060 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal AD 900 to 920 and Cal AD 940 to 1020 (Beta Report September 17, 2013). References: Breuning-Madsen et al. 2016. Kristensen & Breuning-Madsen 2014. Schmidt 1926, 131 (legend). Trap Danmark VI,1, 222-24. NSMR, Vennebjerg Parish no. 10. Conservation no. 05122. 3. Serritslev Romanesque stone church (nave and chancel of granite ashlars) with a late medieval brick porch. The church is situated in a sandy, moraine landscape; the highest point (51m a.s.l.) is to the east in the parish. Prehistoric mound (Klanghøj) in the churchyard, south-east of the church (Fig. 5). Height 4.25m, diam. 28-30m (in 1908). The churchyard wall cuts the southern and eastern foot of the mound, and the top of the east side has been dug away. The top of the mound is flat and supports a timber belfry. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2014, and samples were extracted for analysis. The mound presumably dates to the Bronze Age. The fill consisted of diluvial sand, in some places with turf structures. Beta-418290: conventional radiocarbon age 5530 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 4445 to 4415 and Cal BA 4405 to 4335 (Beta Report September 15, 2015). References: Trap Danmark VI,1, 347-48. NSMR, Serritslev Parish no. 38. Conservation no. 07138. Appendix 2 295 4. Nørre Tranders, Aalborg Romanesque stone church (apse, chancel and nave of granite ashlars) with late medieval tower and porch; the oldest parts from the second half of the twelfth century. The church is located on high ground to the east of Aalborg, south of the Limfjord, and functioned as a navigation mark (Fig. 9.8). According to local legend, the large mound in the churchyard covers the burials of Danes and Norwegians who fell in a battle at the Limfjord. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, north-west of the church. Height 3m, diam. 25m (in 1954). The top of the mound has been levelled to a surface c. 16m wide; several recent burials were noted in 1887. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2014, and samples extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of coarse diluvial sand without turf structures. Beta-418287: conventional radiocarbon age 4660 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 3520 to 3365 (Beta Report September 15, 2015). References: Trap Danmark VI,3, 824-26. NSMR, Nørre Tranders Parish no. 1. Conservation no. 11135. 5. Vigsø Stone church (nave and chancel of limestone blocks with fieldstones and flint), presumably Romanesque, with recent porch. The church occupies a somewhat lonely location, in a coastal landscape on the eastern part of the Hanstholm chalk ‘island’. To the west, the landscape is dominated by areas of drifted sand and sand dunes with old beach ridges. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, west of the church next to the churchyard wall. Height 1.75m, diam. 24m (in 1912). The mound is located on a natural elevation in the landscape, together with several other mounds, 500-800m away from the church. It is irregular in shape, probably due to sand erosion; its top is flat with four minor depressions, presumably associated with the foundations of a wooden belfry. The mound was severely damaged by the construction of a gun emplacement during the 296 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Second World War. No known archaeological excavation. The mound was considered too disturbed to be sampled. References: Trap Danmark VI,2, 554-56. NSMR, Vigsø Parish no. 5. Conservation no. 10054. Fig. 6. Mound in Ravnkilde churchyard, North Jutland. A rune stone found at the entrance to the church has been placed on the mound. The original position of the rune stone is unknown. Photo: Sandie Holst 2015. 6. Kallerup Medieval stone church, presumably of early medieval (Romanesque) origin, rebuilt in 1687. The church is situated in hilly terrain, the highest point of which is the mound Kirkehøj (45m a.s.l.), from where there are panoramic views to the north, west and south. Prehistoric mound (Kirkehøj), west of the church, outside the churchyard wall. Height 5m, diam. 30m (in 1912). The mound lies on a natural hill; part of the northern side has collapsed into a gravel pit. It was noted in 1876 that the mound had a depression at the top. No known archaeological excavation. Boreholes were drilled into the mound in 2014, and samples extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of coarse moraine sand with obvious turf structures at the bottom. Beta-418286: conventional radiocarbon age 4160 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 2880 to 2830 and Cal BC 2820 to 2625 (Beta Report September 15, 2015). References: Trap Danmark VI,2, 596-98. NSMR, Kallerup Parish no. 33. Conservation no. 13049. group of prehistoric mounds is preserved on highlying ground a few hundred metres to the east of the church and a row of mounds follows an east-west orientated elevation around 350m to the north-east. A road branching off from the main road passes between the two groups. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, north-east of the church. Height 2.2m, diam. 18m (in 1915). The top is flat with small depressions, which may be associated with earlier burials on top of the mound. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2014, and samples were extracted for analysis. The fill consisted of moraine clay with only faintly discernible turf structures. Beta-418288: conventional radiocarbon age 4280 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 2915 to 2880 (Beta Report September 15, 2015). References: Trap Danmark VI,2, 668-72. NSMR, Ydby Parish no. 69. Conservation no. 160387. 7. Ydby Romanesque stone church (nave and chancel of granite ashlars) with tower and porch from c. 1500; severely damaged by fire 1742. The church is visible from the main traffic route northwards through Thy and from it there are commanding views of the Limfjord. Apart from the mound in the churchyard, remains of two other mounds are recorded to the west and north of the churchyard wall. A large 8. Flejsborg Romanesque stone church (nave and chancel of granite ashlars). The church is situated in a hilly landscape cut by low-lying areas running north-east to south-west. The highest point is the mound Storhøj (56m a.s.l.) near the church. In the church porch is a rune stone (DR 132) that was found in 1851 beneath the belfry. The inscription reads: ‘Þorkell placed the stone in memory of ... ... son, his father’. Prehistoric mound (Storhøj), north of the churchyard. Height 4.3m, diam. 27m (in 1953). The mound is damaged and the sides cut to the north, northeast, west and south. No known archaeological excavation. The mound was too damaged for sampling. References: Trap Danmark VI,3, 1185-86. NSMR, Flejsborg Parish no. 5. Conservation no. 140923. 9. Ravnkilde Romanesque stone church (with nave of granite ashlars). Remains of a Romanesque tufa floor were identified in 1949, and a restoration in 1984 revealed that the chancel was constructed of calcareous tufa (Fig. 11.2). The church is situated to the west of a deep, north-south-orientated river valley (an Ice-Age tunnel valley) in a predominantly hilly and highlying landscape. Amongst the highest points is the mound Kirkehøj, south of Ravnkilde (82m a.s.l.). Holy wells are recorded on the hill Kirkebakken. A rune stone (DR 134), found in 1859 lying at the entrance to the church with an inscription facing upwards, has been placed on the mound in the cemetery. The inscription reads: ‘Asser estate-steward, Køgir’s (?) son, carved these runes in memory of (his) lady Ásboð/Ásmóð’. Appendix 2 297 Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, north-east of the church (Fig. 6). Height 3.40-3.80m, diam. c. 23m. The top of the mound has been flattened to a surface that is c. 10m in diam. Modern burials have cut the mound foot in several places. No known archaeological excavation. Coring in the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples were extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of diluvial sand with few traces of turf structures. Beta-422585, Ravnkilde 217: conventional radiocarbon age 3050 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 1405 to 1220 (Beta Report). References: Hansen 1990a. Trap Danmark VI,3, 1160-65. NSMR, Ravnkilde Parish no. 12. Conservation no. 1611112. 10. Rimsø, Djursland Romanesque stone church (chancel and nave of granite ashlars) with late medieval tower and porch. The church is situated in an undulating IceAge landscape with sandy soils. A rune stone (DR 114), discovered in the southern wall of the church in 1832, was removed in 1875 and placed on the mound in the cemetery in 1889. The inscription reads: ‘Þórir, Einráði’s brother, raised this stone in memory of his mother and ... death is the worst (misfortune) for a son’. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, east of the church (Fig. 7). Height 2m, diam. 25m. A depression in the southern side of the mound towards the centre was recorded in 1886, and it is possible that the mound has been dug into. Coring in the mound Fig. 7. Mound in Rimsø churchyard, Djursland. A rune stone found in the church has been placed on the mound. Peter Steen Henriksen is preparing to undertake the coring, whilst Professor Henrik BreuningMadsen records the process and sampling. Photo: Sandie Holst 2014. Fig. 8. The mound next to the abandoned Krogsbæk Church, East Jutland. Unsigned watercolour, 1932. The National Museum. was carried out in 2014, and samples were extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of diluvial sand without turf structures. Beta-418291: conventional radiocarbon age 4250 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 2905 to 2875 (Beta Report September 15, 2015). References: Trap Danmark VII,2, 925-27. NSMR, Rimsø Parish no. 12. Conservation no. 201816. 11. Krogsbæk Abandoned Romanesque church demolished in 1901; the porch remained in use as a chapel until the 1960s. The outline and foundations of the church are visible in the churchyard; the churchyard (c. 75-78 x 45-60m) and stone wall are preserved (Fig. 8). The church is situated in a hilly landscape, the highest point at 55m a.s.l. 298 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, south-west of the church and partly cut by the churchyard wall. Height 1.75m, diam. 15m (in 1948). The top of the mound is partly damaged by a timber-built belfry from the nineteenth century. No known archaeological excavation. Coring in the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples were extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of sandy moraine material without turf structures. Beta-422588, Krogsbaek 100-130: conventional radiocarbon age 3510 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 1915 to 1745 (Beta Report). References: Trap Danmark VII,2, 901-2. NSMR, Krogsbæk Parish no. 7. Conservation no. 211521. Appendix 2 299 12. Rom Romanesque church (apse, chancel and nave of granite ashlars) with late medieval tower. The parish lies on the border between a hilly moraine landscape and an extensive heath plain. A row of prehistoric mounds runs through the parish, along an ancient traffic route from the Viborg area to the North Sea coast, just south of Bovbjerg. The row divides into two, with one part passing the church. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, north-east of the church next to the eastern churchyard wall. Height 2m, diam. 22m (in 1943). The top of the mound is flattened, and the eastern side is cut by the churchyard wall. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2014, and samples extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of diluvial sand with faint turf structures at the bottom. Beta-418289: conventional radiocarbon age 4210 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 2895 to 2855, Cal BC 2810 to 2750 and Cal BC 2720 to 2700 (Beta Report September 15, 2015). References: Trap Danmark IX,1, 186-189. NSMR, Rom Parish no. 19. Conservation no. 190254. 13. Fabjerg Romanesque stone church (nave and chancel of granite ashlars) with late medieval tower and porch. The church is situated in a landscape dominated by hilly moraine to the north and flat terrain to the south; the boundary between the two landscape types follows the main stationary line of the last Ice Age. A prominent row of mounds runs through the parish alongside the Lemvig-Struer road. Small prehistoric mound, c. 50m south of the church immediately outside the churchyard. Height 2m, diam. 12m. The mound has been disturbed by several old potato clamps. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2014, and samples extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of diluvial sand with obvious turf structures at the bottom. 300 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church removed in 1876) was located in the churchyard to the west of the church. Prehistoric mound (Fladhøj) in the churchyard, c. 45m east-north-east of the church (Fig. 9). Height 2m, diam. 27m. The top of the mound has been flattened. According to legend, the three men who built the churches at Mejrup, Måbjerg and Møborg were buried in the mound. The same is said of a mound in Måbjerg churchyard. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples were extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of diluvial sand. Beta-422584, Mejrup 170-178: conventional radiocarbon age 3430 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 1870 to 1845, Cal BC 1810 to 1800 and Cal BC 1775 to 1660 (Beta Report). References: DK, Ringkøbing Amt 1998-, Mejrup, 1773-1838. Trap Danmark IX,1, 254-55. NSMR, Mejrup Parish no. 54. Conservation no. 210473. Fig. 9. Mejrup Church viewed from the north-east with Fladhøj in the foreground. Photo: Mogens Vedsø 1998. Beta-418292: conventional radiocarbon age 4050 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 2830 to 2820; Cal 2660 to 2650 and Cal BC 2635 to 2485 (Beta Report September 15, 2015). References: Trap Danmark IX,1, 212-215. NSMR, Fabjerg Parish no. 50. Conservation no. 1902117. 14. Mejrup Romanesque stone church (nave and chancel of granite ashlars) with a late medieval tower and porch. The church is situated in a landscape dominated by a sandy heath plain to the north and a hilly moraine landscape to the south. A prominent row of burial mounds, including the mound Fladhøj next to the church, runs through the parish from Smedvad, close to Mejrup Church and to Albæk. Apart from Fladhøj, a smaller mound (Mejrum Parish no. 55, 15. Bølling Romanesque stone church (chancel and nave of granite ashlars and fieldstones) with a late medieval porch and extension to the nave, and a tower from 1916. The church is situated in an undulating landscape on a hill formation (bakkeø), with the heath plain of Skjern Å to the south. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, north-west of the church. Height 2m, diam. 16m (in 1951). The stone churchyard wall has been constructed up to the north and west side of the mound. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples extracted for analysis. The fill consisted of fine diluvial sand with clear podsolic turf structures. Beta-422589, Bolling 175-195: conventional radiocarbon age 4140 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 2875 to 2615 and Cal BC 2605 to 2580 (Beta Report). References: Trap Danmark IX,1, 520-22. NSMR, Bølling Parish no. 44. Conservation no. 270350. 16. Nørre Snede Romanesque church (apse, chancel and nave of granite ashlars) with late medieval tower and porch. The oldest parts were presumably built in the first half of the twelfth century. The church is situated in hilly terrain cut by meltwater valleys; the highest point is Bavnehøj (128 m a.s.l.) south of Nørre Snede. According to legend, two mounds in the churchyard covered the remains of ‘King Snio or Snede and his Queen’ (Pont. Atlas IV, 476); nineteenth-century maps only record one mound. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, east of the church. Height 1.75m, diam. 15m (in 1951). The top has been flattened at some point, possibly to make room for a belfry. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples extracted for analysis. The fill mainly consisted of diluvial sand without turf structures. Beta-422583, Nr. Snede 180-193: conventional radiocarbon age 3420 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 1865 to 1850 and Cal BC 1770 to 1640 (Beta Report). References: Trap Danmark VIII,2, 650-56. NSMR, Nørre Snede Parish no. 1. Conservation no. 2709105. 17. Randbøl Romanesque stone church (chancel and nave of granite ashlars) built c. AD 1150 with late medieval tower and eighteenth-century porch. The church is situated in a landscape of sand and gravel meltwater material from the last Ice Age. According to a legend reported to professor Ole Worm in Copenhagen by the local vicar in 1638, the church was named Randbøl after the mythical King Ran, who was said to have built the church and been buried in the mound to the north of it (PrI I, 197). Around the church are several other prehistoric mounds. The largest of these, four in a row a few hundred metres to the north, were supposedly erected for the king’s officers (Fig. 9.10), whilst his men were laid to rest in cairns further north (not visible in the woods today). Appendix 2 301 Prehistoric mound (King Ran’s Mound) in the churchyard, immediately north of the church (Fig. 9.9). Height 4.5m, diam. 30m (in 1952). The top has been flattened by digging, surface 15m in diam. J.J.A. Worsaae undertook an excavation of the mound in August 1840. Judging by the recovered artefacts, the mound was erected in the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age. Coring into the mound was carried out in September 2013, with a total of three holes drilled. The fill mainly consisted of dry, grey-brown diluvial material made up of coarse sand and gravel, with numerous stones, which prevented drilling beyond 105, 90 and 141cm in the three borings. No undecomposed plant remains or welldefined turf structures were encountered, and further sampling for analysis was abandoned. References: DK, Vejle amt 2005-, Randbøl, 2963-2966. Kristensen & Breuning-Madsen 2014. Trap Danmark VIII,3, 1108-1113. Worsaae 1841a, 149-152 (local legends). NSMR, Randbøl Parish no. 37. Conservation no. 310818. 18. Herslev, East Jutland Romanesque church (the original chancel and eastern part of the nave of granite ashlars), with late and post-medieval extensions and porch. The church is situated on a clayey moraine, well-suited for agriculture, cut by the steep Elbo tunnel valley to the east. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, north-west of the church. Height 3m, diam. 28m (in 1909). The top has been flattened and there was previously (before 1909) a timber belfry situated here. The northern side (c. 2.5m) of the mound located outside the stone wall of the churchyard has suffered plough damage, and modern burials have been placed at the foot of the mound to the south and on the eastern slope. In 1977, the church bells were moved from the gable of the church to a new belfry on top of the mound. Coring into the mound was carried out in August 2013. The first attempts were abandoned, as the mound fill mainly consisted of building waste. The original mound fill was encountered beneath the waste material in the fourth bor302 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church ing. The fill mainly consisted of grey to grey-black clay containing varying amounts of water. There were no undecomposed plant remains and no further analyses were undertaken. References: Kristensen & Breuning-Madsen 2014. Trap Danmark VIII,3, 1198-1200. NSMR, Herslev Parish no. 2. Conservation no. 33101. 19. Øster Torsted, Egtved Parish Abandoned medieval church (chancel and nave) next to an isolated mound, Kirkehøj, recorded in 1907 and at that time said to be the site of a demolished church. The church site was identified in 1934 and excavated. It is situated in the south-western part of Egtved Parish. The old main road from Ribe through Egtved to Vejle runs to the south of the site. The landscape to the north of the church site slopes downwards to the wetlands of Torsted Bæk, Kirkemosen and a little further east to Møllemosen. The name Torsted may refer to an ancient cult site in the vicinity. Prehistoric mound (Kirkehøj), c. 27m north-west of a demolished church. Height 3.2m, diam. 22m. The top has been flattened and at the centre is a small overgrown hole. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples were extracted for analysis. The fill consisted of diluvial sand with obvious turf structures. Beta-422586, Oester Torsted 95-120: conventional radiocarbon age 2960 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 1260 to 1075 and Cal BC 1065 to 1055 (Beta Report). References: Lund 2011. NSMR, Egtved Parish no. 190. Conservation no. 320827. Fig. 10. Vamdrup Church and the mound north-west of the church, 1865. Painter unknown. Kongeåmuseet. 20. Vamdrup Romanesque church (nave and originally also chancel of granite ashlars), with late medieval porch and tower (replaced by a new tower). The church is situated in a landscape dominated by meltwater plains and in some places hilly moraine. Apart from the large mound north-west of the church, a smaller mound (Vamdrup Parish no. 47) was previously located south of the church. Judging by two Single-Grave-Culture battle axes recovered from the site before 1925, the latter mound may date to the Neolithic period. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, north-west of the church. Height 3.5-3.8m, diam. 32-34m (in 1954). The mound top is flat, the surface 8m in diam. The mound was flattened, presumably to form the foundation for a belfry (Fig. 10, Fig. 5.4; seen also in a photograph from 1919); about halfway up the side a broad ledge runs all the way round the circumference. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples extracted for analysis. The fill consisted of diluvial sand with obvious turf structures. Beta-422587, Vamdrup 298: conventional radiocarbon age 3650 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 2130 to 2080 and Cal BC 2060 to 1940 (Beta Report). References: NSMR, Vamdrup Parish no. 31. Conservation no. 35085. Appendix 2 303 Fig. 11. Bryndum Church viewed from the north-east. Drawing by Jacob Kornerup, 1865. The National Museum. 21. Bryndum Romanesque stone church from c. 1250 with later additions. Dendrochronological analysis indicates that construction began in the 1240s. The church was situated between two prehistoric mounds (Fig. 11). The mound Baunehøj immediately to the west of the churchyard was removed around 1870 and was reported to have contained urn cremations in 1891. Apart from the remaining mound to the east of the church (Fig. 12), another two are recorded north of the churchyard, and there were possibly other mounds nearby, although the evidence was noted as being uncertain in the early 1900s. In 2016, Sydvestjyske Museer excavated a Viking-Age cemetery to the south of the churchyard. The cemetery consisted of 14 inhumation burials with traces of coffins, but no preserved skeletal material (Bryndum 304 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Fig. 12. Prehistoric mound east of Bryndum Church. At the top, the research team is preparing to undertake coring. Photo: Sandie Holst 2015. Parish no. 382). A pair of oval brooches of Berdal type date the cemetery to the ninth century. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, east-southeast of the church. Height 2.8m, diam. 26m (in 1943). The top of the mound is flat, the surface 8m in diam. The mound is cut at the edge and at the top. No known recorded archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples extracted for dating. The fill consisted of diluvial sand with faintly visible turf structures. Presumably Bronze Age. Beta-422591, Bryndum 205-235: conventional radiocarbon age 4180 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 2885 to 2835 and Cal BC 2815 to 2665 (Beta Report). References: DK, Ribe Amt 1979-2003, Bryndum, 1911-67; Jensen 2016 NSMR, Bryndum Parish no. 93; Conservation no. 330327. 22. Jerne, Esbjerg Romanesque church (apse, chancel and nave of granite ashlars) with late medieval tower, porch and vestry. The previously independent parish was incorporated into Esbjerg in 1945. The church is located on the eastern outskirts of present-day Esbjerg, in partially hilly island terrain, which rises to 28m a.s.l. at Jerne Church. The mound in the churchyard forms part of a larger group of mounds 1-200m to the north and especially south of the church. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, south of the church, next to the southern churchyard wall. Height 1.8m, diam. 18m. The top of the mound is flat; a local vicar named Bötker was buried here around 1790. The southern foot of the mound has been damaged by the churchyard wall. No known archaeological excavation. Coring into the mound was carried out in 2015, and samples extracted for analysis. The fill consisted of diluvial sand with turf structures. Beta-422590, Jerne 150-200: conventional radiocarbon age 4320 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 3010 to 2975, Cal BC 2965 to 2950 and Cal BC 2940 to 2890 (Beta Report). References: Trap Danmark IX,2, 733-35. NSMR, Jerne Parish no. 90. Conservation no 34035. Appendix 2 305 Fig. 13. The closed belfry next to Tandslet Church, rising above the surroundings on top of a prehistoric burial mound, now bounded by fieldstones. Photo: Sandie Holst 2015. Fig. 14. Aerial view of Hårlev Church and King Hother’s Mound east of the church, from the south. Photo: Hans Stiesdal 1966. 23. Tandslet, Als 24. Hårlev, Stevns, eastern Zealand Romanesque church (apse, chancel and nave of fieldstones and brick) from c. AD 1200 with late medieval vestry and porch. The church is situated in a moraine landscape, to the south below 30m a.s.l., to the north hilly and up to 60m a.s.l. The main road westwards from the Little Belt coast passes to the south of Tandslet Church and churchyard. Prehistoric mound in the churchyard, east-southeast of the church. Height 2m, diam. 17m. A closed wooden belfry stands on top of the mound (Fig. 13). No known archaeological excavation. The mound was too damaged by the construction of the belfry for sampling to be undertaken. References: Trap Danmark X,3, 1252-57. NSMR, Tandslet Parish no. 30. Conservation no. 43132. Late Romanesque stone church (apse, chancel, nave and remains of a tower of chalk ashlars) with late medieval tower, vestry and porch. The church is situated in a relatively flat landscape, which is slightly hilly to the north, rising to about 28m a.s.l. The clayey moraine is amongst the best agricultural land on Zealand. The parish is bounded to the south by Tryggevælde Å, and the Tryggevælde rune stone (DR 230, today in the National Museum) is said to come from Hårlev Parish. The inscription reads: ‘Ragnhildr, Ulfr’s sister, placed this stone and made this mound, and this ship(-setting) in memory of her husband Gunnulfr, a clamorous man, Nerfir’s son. Few will now be born better than him. A warlock(?) be he who damages(?) this stone or drags it (away) from here’. A mythical king, King Hother, is said to have been buried in the mound immediately to the east of the church (Worm 1643, 5, 38; Pont. Atlas VI, 394). A report from 1814 mentions four large stones in the churchyard, possibly the remains of a megalithic tomb (Adamsen & Jensen 1998, 441-442). Prehistoric mound (Hothershøj, also Kongehøj and Kirkehøj) in the churchyard, east of the church. Height c. 5m, diam. c. 32m (in 1941) (Fig. 14; also Fig. 9.7). The mound was reported to be the second largest in the parish in 1875. The top has been flattened, the surface c. 16-17m in diam. The western foot of the mound was damaged by burials in the 1950s. Coring was carried out in October 2014, and samples extracted for analysis. 14C dating of a charred twig found at a depth of 5.2 m indicates that the mound was erected in the Iron Age, in the fifth or sixth century AD. Beta-397187: conventional radiocarbon age 1560 +/- 30 BP; 2 sigma calibrated result: Cal AD 420 to 570 (Beta Report December 1, 2014). 306 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church References: Henriksen 2014. Trap Danmark IV,1, 147-50. NSMR, Hårlev Parish no. 8. Conservation no. 362810. 25. Elmelunde, Møn Romanesque stone church (central part of mixed stone; late Romanesque western end and Gothic eastern end of brick) with late medieval tower and porch, and a vestry presumably from around 1700. The oldest parts were built around AD 1075. The church is situated in the north-eastern part of the island of Møn, in a moraine landscape of hilly terrain to the east of Elmelunde. The high-lying church has functioned as a navigation mark (Fig. 15). The Appendix 2 307 Notes 1. The coring in eastern Denmark was arranged in collaboration with the project Pre-Christian Cult Sites at the National Museum and followed the same principles as at Jelling. As a first trial attempt, Klokkehøj near Sæby Church east of Lake Tissø was investigated, although this was unsuccessful. A further six mounds were selected: apart from King Hother’s Mound in Hårlev (no. 24) and a mound at Elmelunde (no. 25), four mounds situated close to Viking-Age high-status settlements (and therefore not included in the present study): Gadehøj and a mound at Ågård west of Lake Tissø, and Mysselhøj and Hyldehøj near Gammel Lejre. 2. Records and samples are kept at the Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Copenhagen University, and at the Department of Environmental Archaeology and Material Science of the National Museum; Beta Reports in the National Museum Archives. The joint results and data from the corings for the Jelling Project, apart from Klangshøj (Vennebjerg), are presented in a report by Maria Jessen (2016), Copenhagen University. Fig. 15. Elmelunde Church in the late nineteenth century, viewed from the east with the mound in the foreground and the town of Stege in the background. Print after drawing by F. Richardt. The National Museum. main road through the area and westwards to Zealand passes through Elmelunde, immediately to the north of the church. Mound in the churchyard, east of the church. Height 3m, diam. 20m (in 1945). The sides have been cut, and the top of the mound is flat. Coring was carried out in October 2014, and samples extracted for analysis. Judging by the unexpectedly high gravel content in the mound fill compared to the surrounding soil (mainly moraine sand), it is debatable whether the mound is prehistoric. According to the first description of the mound in the national monument survey from 1880, ‘old reports’ mentioned that masonry had been encountered when digging into the mound. It is therefore 308 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church possible that it functioned as a foundation for an unspecified building, rather than being used for the purpose of burial. No datable items were found in the samples. References: Henriksen 2014. Trap Danmark IV,1, 351-55. NSMR, Elmelunde Parish no. 35. Conservation no. 412911. Appendix 2 309 Bibliography Source editions Aggesen = S. Aggesøn: Kortfattet Historie om Danmarks Konger. Edited by M.Cl. Gertz, Sven Aggesøns Historiske Skrifter. Copenhagen 1917. 31-90. Adam = Adam von Bremen. Edited by W. Trillmich, Quellen des 9. und 11. Jahrhunderts zur Geschichte der hamburgischen Kirche und des Reiches. Berlin 1961. DD = Diplomatarium Danicum/Danmarks Riges Breve, DSL – Det Danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab, Copenhagen 1932-. Den eldre Gulatingslova. Edited by B. Eithun, M. Rindal & T. Ulset. Oslo 1994. Gesta = Notkeri Gesta Karoli. Edited by R. Rau, Quellen zur Karolingischen Reichsgeschichte 3. Berlin 1966. 321-427. 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Publications from the National Museum Studies in Archaeology & History Vol. 20:5 Jelling Series Edited by Anne Pedersen & Per Kristian Madsen Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Edited by Anne Pedersen & Per Kristian Madsen PNM Publications from the National Museum. Studies in Archaeology & History vol. 20:5. Jelling Series Copenhagen 2023 Contents Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Publications from the National Museum, Studies in Archaeology & History vol. 20:5. Jelling Series Edited by Anne Pedersen & Per Kristian Madsen © The authors, University Press of Southern Denmark and the National Museum of Denmark 2023 All rights reserved Preface 7 1. Introduction Anne Pedersen and Per Kristian Madsen 11 9. Churches and ancient monuments Part I – The Stone Church at Jelling 10. Denmark’s earliest stone churches – from Estrid to c. 1100 2. The Romanesque stone church at Jelling Thomas Bertelsen 179 PNM Editorial Board: Head of Research Michael Andersen Research Coordinator Thomas Grane Senior Researcher Mette Marie Hald Senior Researcher Mikkel Venborg Pedersen Thomas Bertelsen 27 Cover design: Pia Breinholt/Stine Raun Nissen Layout: Stine Raun Nissen Translation and English revision: Patrick Laurence Marsden Printed by Specialtrykkeriet Arco A/S Published by University Press of Southern Denmark Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M ISBN: 978 87 7602 379 9 Published with financial support of: The Bikuben Foundation Anne Pedersen 161 3. Archaeological investigations of the foundations of Jelling Church 11. The Romanesque tufa churches of Denmark – with particular focus on East Jutland Hans Mikkelsen 65 Thomas Bertelsen 199 4. Rebuilding and additions – Jelling Church in the Late Middle Ages 12. Enlargements of Romanesque churches in Denmark Thomas Bertelsen 89 Thomas Bertelsen 225 5. T he belfry on the South Mound 13. Early medieval churches – a choice of materials Anne Pedersen 103 Part II – The Murals in Jelling Church 6. The frescoes in the chancel of Jelling Church – their discovery, destruction and reconstruction Sissel F. Plathe and Klaus Støttrup Jensen 115 Cover: The east chancel wall of Jelling Church, exposed calcareous tufa masonry and foundations. Survey: Stine A. Højbjerg 2012 Part III – Jelling Church in an Early Medieval Context Thomas Bertelsen and Per Kristian Madsen 255 Bibliography 271 Appendix 1: Dendrochronological investigations of Romanesque tufa churches in East Jutland 7. From wall to fresco, the west wall of the chancel of Jelling Church Thomas Bertelsen 283 Sissel F. Plathe with contributions by Peder Bøllingtoft 149 Appendix 2: Coring into prehistoric mounds next to early medieval stone churches – methods and results 8. The Jelling workshop – early Romanesque frescoes in the Vejle and Horsens area of East Jutland Anne Pedersen, Peter Steen Henriksen and Henrik Breuning-Madsen (†) 291 Sissel F. Plathe 153 List of authors 310 Part III Jelling Church in an Early Medieval Context Chapter 9 Churches and ancient monuments Anne Pedersen One of the notable features of Jelling Church is its prominent location between the two great mounds that were long associated with the royal couple Gorm and Thyra. While there was never much doubt that the southern mound was constructed in the Viking Age, it was suggested by the excavator Ejnar Dygg­ve in 1942 that the core of the North Mound was a far smaller mound from the Bronze Age (Dyggve 1948). Coring in 2009 provided the basis for an alternative interpretation, i.e. that the core and the extended super structure above a mantel of large fieldstones were constructed within very few years of each other.1 Thus, the entire North Mound may have been erected in the Viking Age as part of the monument complex. Nonetheless, the landscape surrounding Jelling Church previously did include several ancient monuments: an undated and no longer visible mound c. 300m to the north-west, the Bronze-Age mound Sortehøj 400m to the north-east (excavated in 1861), and Mangehøjene, a group of prehistoric mounds 1-1.5km north of the church, of which only three are preserved today (Figs 9.1 and 9.2). Drawing upon his experience from excavations and studies in the Mediterranean, Dyggve proposed that the royal estate, which was mentioned by the chronicler Sven Aggesen around AD 1185 and presumed to be near the royal burials, should be envisaged not as a fortified site surrounded by moats 160 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church (a medieval tradition), but instead as a wood-built palatium situated close to the royal sanctuary in an agrarian landscape dominated by ancient burial mounds. Dyggve’s views implied that not only the use of archaic monument types for the tenth-century royal burials but also the depth of time manifested in the burial mounds of much earlier generations were significant variables behind the choice of landscape setting (Dyggve 1955, 134; 1964, 14). The location and proximity to ancient monuments were maintained when the stone church was built between the two royal mounds – a combination that was deemed worthy of note by the chronicler Saxo around AD 1200 (Saxo, Book 10, Ch. 6). The Romanesque stone church represents a final stage in the monument sequence at Jelling, and it completes the transformation of the complex from a commemorative and ceremonial place rooted in pagan tradition to a Christian place of worship and common burial. The location of the church and its cemetery next to an ancient, pagan monument is not unique to Jelling. In his dissertation Hørg, Hov og Kirke (1966), Olaf Olsen published a map of known prehistoric burial mounds associated with medieval churches; the mounds were situated either within the enclosed, consecrated churchyard or up to 100m from the churchyard boundary (Fig. 9.3). This survey identified 156 medieval churches that were Churches and ancient monuments 161 Fig. 9.3. Distribution of prehistoric mounds in the immediate vicinity of medieval churches. After Olsen 1966. Fig. 9.1. Jelling Church between King Gorm’s Mound (left) and Queen Thyra’s Mound (right), viewed from the north-east. In the foreground is part of the Bronze-Age mound Sortehøj, which was excavated in 1861. Watercolour by J.J. Fyhn, 1814. The National Museum. Fig. 9.2. Mangehøjene (the Many Mounds) north-east of Jelling. Watercolour by J. Magnus-Petersen, 1875. The National Museum. 162 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church located next to one or more presumed prehistoric mounds, of which there was a total of 263 (Olsen 1966, 268-69). Several source critical issues were evident, including the uncertain date of many of the mounds, their state of preservation and the nature of the information provided in the National Sites and Monuments Record (Olsen 1966, 267). This is illustrated by a large mound, that was around 20m in diameter and 4.5m high, north of Karlstrup Church in East Zealand, which was disregarded by Olsen. Judging by an excavation in 1965, it was not a prehistoric burial, as had long been believed, but was instead a pile of building debris from the church. A later excavation in the 1980s revealed that the mound was in fact a motte-like structure, which was situated within the moat surrounding a medieval manor site to the north of the church. The manor site was dated by finds and traces of bildings to AD 1000-1300 (Nielsen 1993). The church lies south of the bailey but is enclosed within its outer defences. Included in Olsen’s survey, but also related to settlement activity, is a mound in the churchyard south of Skjoldborg Church in northern Jutland, which appears to be the result of continued occupation of the site in the Early Iron Age rather than a burial mound, although it may have been perceived as such when the church was built.2 The date of the mounds Far from all burial mounds next to early churches have been securely dated. Of the 263 mounds recorded in the 1966 survey, 47 could be dated by artefacts or other definite criteria to the Neolithic or Bronze Age, whilst others, which appear to be part of larger mound groups, are likely to be from the Bronze Age (Olsen 1966, 268). Megalithic tombs are sometimes present, such as near Ølstrup Church in western Jutland, where the core of a mound in the churchyard, to west of the church, has proved to be a stone-built tomb, which was covered by drifted Churches and ancient monuments 163 Fig. 9.4. Ølstrup Church, West Jutland, viewed from the north-east, 1883. The top of the mound has been used for burials in modern times. Drawing by architect Erik Schiødte. The National Museum. sand and was later enlarged with a mound consisting of turfs, probably in the Bronze Age (Fig. 9.4; Eriksen 1989). Like other prehistoric monuments, many of the mounds next to churches have been given specific names, most often a name associated with the church and its functions or a name referring to a mythical person, and local legends have emerged over time. The origins of these legends are often obscure. Some were recorded in the early seventeenth century, when local clergymen were requested to send reports of any ancient relics in their parish to professor and antiquarian Ole Worm in Copenhagen. Other legends appear to have arisen at an even later date. Little was noted about the royal mounds at Jelling in the parish report to Worm, apart from the unexplained presence of a well at the top of the North Mound (PrI I, 190). In a description of the monuments from 1721, the clergyman Mourits Mouritsen Høyer wrote that the water in the supposed well at the top of the North Mound was sacred and had healing properties, until one day a man used the water to cure the eyes of his blind horse. The horse recovered but the man went blind, and the well was desecrated.3 As part of the Jelling Project, boreholes were drilled in 2009 to determine the structure of the mound and the origins of its turf fill, and if possible, explain the origins of the well. The turf blocks proved to 164 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church be remarkably well-preserved due to the wet conditions in the mound, and when the boreholes were left open, water accumulated in them.4 It therefore became clear that the presumed well was a product of natural processes in the mound, combined with an intrusion from the top sometime after the burial (Breuning-Madsen et al. 2012). This positive result led to further coring over the following years to determine whether similar hydrological conditions could be found in other large, flat-topped mounds next to churches, and if so, whether they were also constructed in the Viking Age. One of the first mounds to be targeted was Klangs­ høj, the name of which refers to the sound of the church bell (see Chapter 5). The mound is situated in North Jutland, west of Gammel Vennebjerg Church, which dates back to the twelfth century. It is partly natural, and only the top is an ancient burial mound (Fig. 9.5). The high ground provides impressive views of the surrounding landscape, and the church was a known navigation mark (Fig. 9.6). A report to professor Worm states only that the church is situated on a tall hill or mound (PrI I, 15). According to local legend, however, until around 1900 there was a holy well just to the north of the top of the mound, where there was a water-filled depression (Schmidt 1926, 131). When a local farmer washed his scab-covered ox in the water, this also lost its healing powers. Fig. 9.5. Klangshøj west of Gammel Vennebjerg Church, North Jutland. A 14C date from a core sample (coring in 2013) suggests that the mound was constructed in the tenth century. Photo: Niels Clemmensen. Fig. 9.6. View to the west from Klangshøj west of Gammel Vennebjerg Church. In the background is the lighthouse of Rubjerg Knude, facing out towards Jammerbugten and the North Sea. Photo: Sandie Holst 2013. Churches and ancient monuments 165 Fig. 9.7. King Hother’s Mound east of Hårlev Church, East Zealand. A 14C date (coring in 2014) suggests that the mound was constructed in the fifth or sixth century. Photo: Lisbeth Imer 2018. Fig. 9.8. Nørre Tranders Church south of the Limfjord is situated on the highest ground in the parish, close to a prehistoric burial mound. The church is visible from a distance and functioned as a landmark for those navigating the narrow eastern part of the fjord. Photo: Jan Slot Carlsen. Although this may have been a migrating legend, which was associated with the mound in order to explain the accumulation of water at the top, it could also indicate that the structure and hydrological conditions of the mound fill resembled those in the two mounds at Jelling. Coring in 2013 confirmed that the mound was constructed of heather turf blocks which were almost better preserved than those at Jelling (Appendix 2, Fig. 4; Breuning-Madsen et al. 2016). A 14C date of the plant remains indicated that the mound was indeed constructed in the Viking Age, probably in the tenth century,5 and although there is no known record of a burial, it is conceivable that the depression at the top of the mound was the result of a later intrusion. Two other mounds located next to Romanesque stone churches closer to Jelling were examined in 2013, but with less promising results. A mound at Herslev contained a considerable amount of building debris, whereas no organic remains were recovered from the so-called King Ran’s Mound at Randbøl, medieval churches are prehistoric burial mounds and, judging by their size and prominent position in the landscape, are most often from the Bronze Age. In contrast, few churches are associated with a Viking-Age burial mound. Apart from Jelling, the survey from 1966 only includes six other examples, including Sahl Church in north-western Jutland. At Sahl, several mounds forming a group named Sahlshøje or Kirkehøje were recorded to the south and south-east of the churchyard in 1880. One of these, dated by artefacts to the Bronze Age, had been reused for an equestrian burial in the tenth century, the burial thus being roughly contemporary with the North Mound at Jelling.9 The place-name Sahl (hall) suggests that there was a settlement (or family) of some wealth and status in the vicinity (Christensen 2010, 87-89), although it is uncertain whether, if so, this relates to the Viking Age or the medieval period, when the church acquired its golden altar.10 166 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church around 15km south-west of Jelling.6 Another mound associated with a similarly mythical king, King Hother, east of Hårlev Church on Zealand, was examined in 2014 (Fig. 9.7). A 14C date of preserved organic remains suggests that it was constructed in the fifth or sixth century AD.7 Further mounds were examined in 2014-15, and although dating of recovered charcoal fragments from the mound fill has proved less conclusive than the dating of preserved macrofossils (Henriksen et al. 2019), the mounds all appear to be of prehistoric origin, except perhaps a mound immediately east of Elmelunde Church on the island of Møn (Appendix 2, Fig. 15).8 Reports recorded in the Elmelunde parish survey of 1880 state that masonry (unspecified) was encountered in the mound from time to time; it may therefore be contemporary with or later than the church, which is dated to shortly before 1100. With reservations concerning the dating method, the 14C dates support the results from Olsen’s 1966 survey, indicating that most of the mounds next to Location The age of a burial mound is just one possible variable to consider. The location of a church, whether in relation to a burial mound in or immediately outside the churchyard, or indeed in any other place, was probably at least partly governed by the surrounding landscape. Prominent features, such as high vantage points or steep slopes rising above a river valley, would ensure that a church had a high degree of visibility, just as they had done in previous centuries for the monuments of the dead. In many cases, it is noted that a church functioned as a navigation mark (Fig. 9.8).11 Well-established traffic routes passing near to ancient burial mounds were no doubt also significant and are indirectly reflected by some of the names given to the mounds. Kirkehøj (Church Mound) may thus designate a mound next to the church, but also one on the way to the church or a mound from which the church could be seen, and even, as demonstrated by archaeology, the site of a Churches and ancient monuments 167 Fig. 9.9. Randbøl Church and King Ran’s Mound viewed from the north-east. Photo: Anne Pedersen 2012 long-forgotten, demolished church. When building the church, there appears to have been no definite preference as to where it should be built in relation to a given mound, and, irrespective of preference, the final choice was probably determined by the available space and practical issues. Nonetheless, slightly more churches stand to the south of a burial mound than to the north of one in a churchyard, an orientation which resembles that of several VikingAge cemeteries laid out next to burial mounds (see Pedersen 2010, 76-77). One of the most impressive examples is Randbøl Church which, located only a few metres south of the large, flat-topped King Ran’s Mound, constitutes a visual parallel to the North Mound and church at Jelling (Fig. 9.9). The mound measures 30m in diameter and is 4.5m high. According to local legend, the mythical King Ran is said to have died in a battle at Kongensdal (the King’s Valley) near Randbøl and was subsequently buried in the mound which gave its name to the church (PrI I, 197). Legend also has it that the ‘ministers’ of the king lie buried in Firhøjene, a row of four large mounds a few hundred metres north of the church (Fig. 9.10). A similar story relates to Jelling, where local legend associated several mounds on Jelling Mark, to the west in the parish, with members of King Gorm’s retinue, his ‘ministers’ (Bæksted 1944, 23; Adamsen & Jensen 1995, 62). Whether or not King Ran at Randbøl actually existed cannot be determined. Although 168 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church flat-topped mounds are known from the period c. AD 300-1050, there is no record of an Iron-Age (or Viking-Age) burial from the mound in Randbøl, which was investigated by J.J.A. Worsaae in 1840.12 Several urn cremations from the later Bronze Age and two flint arrows were recovered, which were by no means spectacular finds, but confirm the prehistoric origins of the mound. The legends are difficult to date. They may well be secondary, late or post-medieval traditions based on the proximity of the mound and church, and were therefore an attempt to explain the origin of the name of the village, rather than genuine memories of past events. Naming prominent features is one way for a community to establish and communicate a spatial and temporal relationship with its physical environment. Such a development might also explain the peculiar name, King Snio, which was given to a mound next to Nørre Snede Church in the eighteenth century.13 Similar legends are known from other mounds, one of which is King Hother’s Mound (also called Kongehøj or Kirkehøj, the King’s mound or Church Mound) that is mentioned above.14 It was believed to be associated with the Viking-Age rune stone from Tryggevælde (DR 230), but is most likely of a Late Iron-Age date. West of Humlum Church in Jutland was another Kongehøj, that is no longer preserved, from which a large urn containing burnt bones, two gold spiral rings and 44 turquoise glass beads was recovered in the late nineteenth century.15 Fig. 9.10. Firhøje (the Four Mounds) north of Randbøl Church, viewed from the south-west. Photo: Anne Pedersen 2012. Prior to this discovery, several other urn cremations had been found, which confirm the Bronze-Age date of the mound. In most cases, the churches were built next to the ancient monuments, but not always. The best-known example is Hørning Church in East Jutland, where a burial mound was removed to make way for a small wooden church, presumably in the late eleventh century (see also Chapter 5). The carved and painted beam (Fig. 10.1), which was discovered in the wall of the present stone church in 1887 and later dendrochronologically dated to AD 1060-70, probably came from this early wooden church (Bonde et al. 1991). The grave beneath the mound contained the remains of an elaborately dressed woman who, at some point in the second half of the tenth century, had been laid to rest in the body of a wagon surrounded by various items, including a copper-alloy basin placed on a small wooden table (Voss 1991). The grave had suffered no damage when the mound was removed around 75 years after the burial. This was hardly a coincidence and suggests that, two or three generations after the funeral, the people responsible for the church were not only aware of the burial, but wished to preserve and incorporate it beneath the new building despite its pagan nature. Other burials located beneath medieval churches are much older. In Væggerløse Church on Falster dating from c. 1200, an excavation for a heating pipe in 1956 revealed a stone paving beneath the chancel, from which a bronze sword, a fragment of a bronze razor and a stone strike-a-light from the Early Bronze Age period II were recovered (Aner & Kersten 1977, 67, Pl. 45). The finds indicate that the church was built on the site of a Bronze-Age mound. Whether it had been deliberately removed prior to the building of the church or much earlier is not known, but the central grave was not destroyed. In Roskilde, an excavation of Saint Jørgensbjerg Church in 1953 revealed the foundations of an earlier church which, judging by a hoard of 110 silver coins found at the bottom of a foundation trench, had been erected around 1030 (Olsen 1961, 15; also Jensen 1995, 38). The church stood on the site of a turf-built Bronze-Age mound (Olsen 1961, 31-34). Neolithic burials have been recorded, for instance in Gislinge Church on Zealand, where three covering stones were found lying in a row during restoration work in the early 1900s; beneath these were skeletal remains and a flint axe which were left in situ.16 It was said (in 1776) of Holtug Church on Zealand that it stood on the site of an old ‘pagan altar’, most likely a megalithic tomb, hence the name Dyssehøj. Stone artefacts have been discovered in the churchyard, and the church accounts from 1740 state that an elevated area between the church door and churchyard wall had been dug through to prevent rainwater from entering the church.17 Some ancient burials no doubt went unnoticed. Excavation of a chapel, which was added to Tved Church on Churches and ancient monuments 169 Fig. 9.11. Ås Church, Västergötland, Sweden, viewed from the south-east. The church has been erected on a hill next to a watercourse. Excavations in the 1970s confirmed that the hill was a mound, originally 4050m in diameter and 5-6m high. A trial excavation on the north side of the church revealed a cremation burial from the Late Iron Age or Viking Age. Photo: Robin Gullbrandsson/Västergötlands Museum 2021. Funen in 1910, revealed several graves surrounded by large stones, presumably dating to the Early Roman Iron Age.18 In this case, the association of the church and graves may be entirely coincidental, as the earlier graves would probably not have been visible above the surface. Medieval churches are approximately evenly distributed across Denmark,19 and a location next to an ancient burial mound was evidently not the only option when choosing a site for a church. Most of the examples by far are found in Jutland, particularly northern Jutland (Fig. 9.3), and it is tempting to speculate whether ancient monuments played a more significant role in this region than in eastern Denmark. The distribution pattern in Jutland roughly corresponds with the distribution of all known prehistoric burial mounds in this geographical area (see Jensen 2002, 145), suggesting that churches located next to mounds were most common in areas where there was a high density of such monuments. The lower density of churches next to burial mounds in eastern Denmark may thus partially reflect the lower density of burial mounds, particularly large Bronze-Age mounds that are over 2m high, which mainly seem to be concentrated in northern and north-western Jutland (Jensen 2002, 146; also Olsen 1966, fig. 48). Differences in the intensity of early modern land improvement and economic development, and the associated greater risk to ancient 170 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church monuments in eastern Denmark over the past centuries should, however, also be taken into account. Many mounds may have been removed before any record was made (Baudou 1985). Having said this, the distribution pattern correlates with the known examples of secondary Viking-Age burials and the reuse of prehistoric mounds as focal points for Viking-Age cemeteries, which also seems to be most common in Jutland, indicating that the past played an important role in ritual and funerary practices in the centuries before churches were built (Pedersen 2006, 147, fig. 2). Turning to neighbouring Sweden and Norway, similar examples of early medieval churches are located next to or even on top of large burial mounds, which were erected in the near or distant past (see Andrén 2002, 323-326). One such church is Ås in Västergötland, presumably from the first half of the twelfth century (Fig. 9.11). Excavation in the late 1970s confirmed that the church was constructed on a large artificial mound, which was 40-50m in diameter and probably originally 4-5m high. It was thus smaller than the North and South Mounds at Jelling, but nevertheless of considerable size. A trial excavation immediately outside the northern facade of the church in 1983 revealed a cremation burial beneath a layer of stones, at a depth of 3.5m on the original ground surface. Apart from human bones and a variety of animal bones, the cremation layer Fig. 9.12. Forsby Church, Västergötland, viewed from the north-east. The church is located on top of a pagan burial mound, 40-45m in diameter and c. 3m high. Photo: Robin Gullbrandsson/ Västergötlands Museum 2017. contained three iron rivets, and the burial probably dates to the Late Iron Age or Viking Age (Dahlberg 1998, 74; Theliander 2005, 168). In the 1740s, a rune stone from the first half of the eleventh century (Vg 112) was incorporated into the north-east wall of the chancel. Its inscription is almost identical to the inscription on a rune stone from Hobro in eastern Jutland (DR 127), which states that ‘Þórir raised this stone in memory of Karl the good, his partner, a very good drengr’ (Moltke 1985, 380). This stone was recorded in Hobro churchyard in 1623 but was subsequently moved several times. Forsby Church, also in Västergötland and like Ås Church dating from the first half of the twelfth century, has an equally impressive location on top of an Iron-Age mound, which is 40-45m in diameter and around 3m high (Fig. 9.12; Andrén 2013). Apart from a lime kiln, probably from the time when the church was built, an excavation in 2002 revealed three burials, which were north-south orientated and thus presumably pagan. Close to the Jelling Monuments in terms of size is Skalundahögen, the most impressive of the great mounds in Västergötland, which measures c. 60m in diameter and is 6m high. Samples extracted by coring in 1996 have been 14C dated to the Late Iron Age (Bratt 2008, 33; Nilson 2009). Around 250m south-east of the mound is Skalunda Church, which according to reports from the late seventeenth cen- tury was a particularly important church; it was said to be the oldest in the region and people often travelled great distances to it in order to participate in services and bury their dead (Dahlberg 1998, 74). A rune stone (Vg 45) found shortly before 1871 in the floor of the church was moved and raised in the churchyard, on a small elevation that proved to contain charcoal, ash and burnt bones, indicating that it was also a burial mound. In an analysis of churches and church building in Trøndelag, northern Norway, Jan Brendalsmo has demonstrated that most of the churches built before c. 1200 AD were located on farms, with many of these including evidence of some form of pre-Christian cult activity. More than 60% of these churches were built on or close to the pagan cemetery, and quite often next to a great mound (Brendalsmo 2006, 137-145). Similar figures apply in other regions, such as Vestfold in south-eastern Norway. This clear continuity probably partly reflects the spatial organisation of the landscape, which was dominated by farms rather than villages like in southern Scandinavian, and it may have seemed an obvious choice after the Conversion to bury the dead close to their ancestors and to continue worship in the accustomed places (Brendalsmo 2006, 142-145). Norwegian laws contain references to ancestral mounds (ættarhaugr). The Eidsivating ecclesiastical law states that no one shall dig in the Churches and ancient monuments 171 ancestral mound of another, and according to a later ecclesiastical law for the Borgarting, everyone should be buried in the parish churchyard or in the place where their ancestors have had their mound since ancient times (Rindal 2004, 197).20 Whether such burial continuity was practised in Denmark is more difficult to determine. Excavations at Lisbjerg near Aarhus suggest a different kind of continuity. Here, the Romanesque stone church was built on the site of a wooden church that had replaced a Viking-Age hall, with a separate enclosure situated within a larger enclosure (Jeppesen & Madsen 1997; Jeppesen 2004). The layout is very similar to the spatial organisation of major Viking-Age residences, such as Tissø on Zealand (see Jørgensen 2002). It is also reminiscent of that at Jelling, where a sequence of wooden buildings, at least one probably dedicated as a church, and the later stone church were placed in the available space to the south of the North Mound, and at the centre of the tenth-century palisade enclosure (Jessen et al. 2023). Viking-Age burials and rune stones Sahl Church was one of the only seven examples, including Jelling and Hørning, noted by Olsen in 1966 in which a church had been built next to a Viking-Age burial or cemetery (Olsen 1966, 268270, fig. 47). When compared with the number of churches associated with prehistoric burial mounds, the number was remarkably low, suggesting that although a church might be built next to an ancient burial mound, there was little evidence of direct continuity in space or time between pagan Viking-Age burial sites and the later early Christian cemeteries (and churches). However, as demonstrated by Klangshøj in Gammel Vennebjerg, other Viking-Age mounds may yet be identified and, judging by recent excavations at Haldum and Bryndum in Jutland and Kirke-Hyllinge on Zealand, it may have been more common to locate a church close to a Viking-Age cemetery than was previously assumed. Haldum Church north-west of Aarhus dates back to the early twelfth century. It is situated on highlying ground, with traces of several burial mounds to the east of the churchyard, presumably dating to the 172 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church Early Bronze Age c. BC 1400-1200.21 Excavations in 2004 and 2006 uncovered a Viking-Age cemetery with inhumations and a few cremation graves, located immediately to the south and south-west of the churchyard boundary (Jeppesen & Schwarz 2007). All the datable artefacts, including two axe heads and remains of a box constructed like the square casket from Bamberg in Germany, are typical of the tenth century. The cemetery next to Bryndum Church in West Jutland, which presumably dates from around 1200, is slightly older. Excavated in 2016, it consisted of 14 inhumation burials with traces of coffins but no preserved skeletal material. A circular brooch fashioned from an insular fitting and a pair of oval brooches of Berdal type date the cemetery to the ninth century.22 It is located to the south of a Bronze-Age burial mound, Baunehøj (removed around 1870), outside the western gate of the churchyard.23 Kirke-Hyllinge Church, among the oldest stone churches on Zealand from the early twelfth century, is located on the highest point in the landscape, from where there are views of Isefjord to the west and Roskilde Fjord to the east. Here, an inhumation cemetery was excavated in 2009 to the north and west of the churchyard boundary (Ulriksen 2011, fig. 3). The cemetery was associated with a presumed Bronze-Age mound, which was originally as much as c. 23m in diameter, just outside the churchyard.24 The burials did not contain high-status items and were generally north-south orientated, indicating their pre-Christian date. Artefacts recovered from the graves and with metal detectors from the ploughsoil suggest that the cemetery was of a Late Iron-Age and Viking-Age date. In all three cases, the burial mounds were probably visible when the stone church was built. It is uncertain, however, whether memory of the cemeteries under the ground still persisted after two to three centuries and whether their presence was significant. No archaeological evidence is available from the interiors of the three churches and it is therefore not known whether they, like Lisbjerg Church, replaced older buildings of wood or stone dating back to the eleventh century. If so, the chronological gap between cemetery and church would be much narrower. Fig. 9.13. Burial mound north-west of Fuglie Church and churchyard, Scania, viewed from the east. The rune stone Fuglie 1 can be seen close to the top of the mound. After Wimmer 1904-05. The cemeteries have been dated by means of artefacts and at Kirke-Hyllinge also by the north-south orientation of the graves. Many Viking-Age graves share characteristics, such as an east-west orientation or lack of artefacts, with early Christian burials, and it is possible that some of the individuals who were interred in an apparently pre-Christian cemetery were in fact Christian. Burial continuity and the question of where the early Christians were buried before the building of churches has been much debated (for instance, Gräslund 2001; Andrén 2002, 323). Practices probably varied, but many newly converted people were probably buried in the common cemeteries of their ancestors. A fully excavated cemetery at Bogla in Småland, Sweden, provides an insight into how this might have been managed (Artelius & Kristensson 2006). The cemetery was in use from the eighth to the second half of the eleventh century, after which it was abandoned, probably when the first church was built around 700m to the south-west. The cemetery consisted of twenty stone settings of different shape, including a possible ship setting, six ploughed-out mounds, six inhumations and one cremation. The graves were deliberately grouped along a narrow hill and its slopes. The mounds, and between them the inhumation graves, were located on the north and eastern slopes, where remains of a small horseshoe-shaped structure were located. Whereas pagan traditions dominated the western part of the cemetery, the late tenth- and eleventh-century burials in the northern and eastern part showed evidence of a growing Christian influence and a change in overall symbolism. A wood and stone fence erected in the Late Viking Age enclosed this part of the cemetery to the north and east (Artelius & Kristensson 2006, 148, fig. 2). The fence is interpreted as a Christian projection of distance, a separation of man from nature, and thus as a demarcation of Christian space within the surrounding landscape. There was no fence along the western side of the cemetery, nor was there a dividing fence through the cemetery or a clear distinction between pagan and Christian. Instead, customs changed gradually from grave to grave, the continued use of the cemetery indicating a strong connection with the past and perhaps an unwillingness to break with the ancestors and the place (Artelius & Kristensson 2006, 149-152). Less than 1km from the Bogla cemetery, an eleventh-century rune stone (Sm121) stands outside the present-day Rogberga churchyard. The inscription states that Kettil raised the monument to Lek (?), his mother’s brother, perhaps in order to emphasise his claim to his uncle’s inheritance.25 The rune stone does not exhibit any Christian traits, and it is possible that Kettil was one of the individuals buried in the Bogla cemetery. At Fuglie in Scania, a rune stone (Fuglie 1, DR 259) is situated on top of a large, presumably Bronze-Age, burial mound, located north-west of Fuglie Church, outside the churchyard wall (Fig. 9.13; Anglert 2003, 119). The inscription, in this case Christian, states that ‘Ønd Churches and ancient monuments 173 Fig. 9.14. Rune stone discovered in 1802 in the north-west wall of Sønder Kirkeby Church, Falster (DR 220). The rune stone dates to c. 950-1000. It was cut before being inserted into the wall, and the ship motif at the top (originally the side) is incomplete. The inscription reads ‘(Sa)sser raised this stone in memory of Asgot, his brother, and he met death on Go(tland). Þor hallow (these) runes’. Photo: Roberto Fortuna 2014. set up this stone in memory of Øde, his brother. He met death on Gotland. God help his soul’. Although it has been moved several times more recently, the rune stone is known to have stood on top of the burial mound in the early seventeenth century. A second rune stone (Fuglie 2, DR 260), which according to a local report supposedly came from a destroyed burial mound nearby, had been incorporated into a stone wall at Toftegården near the church in 1841 (Wimmer 1904-05, 66-70). The mound, Torstens kulle, may have been named after the man commemorated on the rune stone. In his discussion of continuity, Olsen noted that around half of the Danish rune stones had been found in church buildings or, like the third rune stone at Jelling, in churchyard walls (Olsen 1966, 272-273; also Appendix 2). It seems unlikely that they were transported over any great distance. Instead, many were probably originally raised close to the sites of the later churches and reflect the status of local families and those who were in possession of power in the period up to and immediately after the Conversion (Nielsen 2004, 89-91; Imer 2016, 174 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church 190-191; Wienberg 2016, 281-283). Where the original location of a rune stone can be determined, the aim appears to have been to ensure the best possible exposure for the memorial and its embodied statements (Nielsen 2005, 126-137; see also Chapter 13). Monumentality and visibility were therefore important factors. Rune stones were a suitable building material, and this has traditionally been used to explain their reuse by the early church builders (Fig. 9.14). Within the framework of the Conversion, reuse has also been interpreted as a means of breaking the power of old traditions and beliefs. However, incorporating the rune stone into the body of the church may have served another, more subtle purpose. For example, a rune stone functioning as a threshold stone at the entrance to a church (Fig. 9.15) may not have been placed there randomly or in a disrespectful way but, particularly where the inscription was visible, to establish a link to the more recent past and perhaps remind the local community of the ancestry and importance of the church founders. Of the 15 known threshold stones from Denmark (Nielsen 2004, 89-93), only one, a rune stone from Virring placed at the entrance to the church porch and not the church itself, has a definite pagan inscription (‘Thor hallow this monument’). Four rune stones were raised in memory of a thegn, three mention smiths, one a ‘land steward’, one a ‘huskarl’ or retainer, and one the owner of a ship, all apparently individuals of some importance. Although there was a considerable chronological gap between the carving of the rune stones and the stone churches, some of the churches may have replaced an earlier wooden church at the site. By visually (and physically) supporting the new building, whilst at the same time creating a link to the past, these rune stones may have formed part of the foundation and legitimacy of the Church. King Gorm’s rune stone is said to have functioned as a bench in front of Jelling Church, before being erected next to King Harald’s rune stone around 1630. Due to its flat shape, it would also have been suitable as a threshold stone in the early stone church. Anyone approaching the church would have been impressed by the great royal mounds and rune stones. Fig. 9.15. Bjerring Church, East Jutland. The north portal is supported by a large rune stone, which was discovered and extracted during a major restoration of the church in 1996. The inscription reads ‘Þórgunnr daughter of Kar[l] ungr/ Kárungr erected this stone after Þórir, her husband, son of Þólfr from S(t)... But Tófi Smíðr, his kinsman, carved. The stone ... from this place, but ...’. Some of the runes are missing as the stone has been adapted to fit as a stone threshold. Photo: the National Museum. The past in the present Bronze-Age mounds are often situated on high-lying ground, at locations which added to the height of the monument and ensured it was visible from a distance, thus enhancing the status both of the deceased and the monument builders. Similar considerations may have determined the choices of much later generations. As a building dedicated to God, it was desirable that the church was visible and elevated above its surroundings (see O. Jensen 2002, 165). High-lying ground was therefore often preferred (Figs 9.5 and 9.8).26 The church could be seen from afar by the local congregation and by travellers using the building as an orientation point or navigation mark and, as in the case of the ancient mounds, memory and a mental image of landscape were created. The church constituted a visual testimony to the faith, influence and economic resources of those who were responsible for its construction, maintenance and decoration. A location next to a pagan burial could imply a religious or ideological break; that the church had now replaced the revered monuments of a former age (O. Jensen 2002, 165). It may, however, also have been part of a deliberate strategy to establish and maintain a connection with the past, in keeping with attitudes of the Church towards old customs elsewhere (Andrén 2013, 275-276). Unlike the rune stones, the prehistoric burial mounds are centuries, most often millennia, older than the churches that were built next to them. There was undoubtedly an awareness of the past in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when many of the early churches were built, and it was probably common knowledge that there could be pagan burials in the ancient mounds. Any perceived relationship between those buried in the mounds and the builders of the churches was most likely mythical rather than actually genealogical. The dead may, however, have been regarded as, albeit very distant, no less real, ancestors who were important to the local community. Rather than choosing a site of no previous religious significance or demolishing the visible, obviously pagan remains, the church builders erected the building close to or even on top of the ancient mound, thus continuing, in a new context, the practices of earlier periods in which burials and cemeteries were grouped around the monuments of the past. The royal complex at Jelling may have inspired others searching for an appropriate site for their church building. Yet it also reflects trends that were common across Scandinavia and in neighbouring countries. Despite regional variation and local differences from site to site, the close spatial relationship between the churches and the monumental mounds indicates that the pre-Christian past, and in the case of the rune stones the memorials to previous generations, played a significant role in the integration of the Church as a new institution and the development of the early medieval church landscape. New meanings were invested in the ancient monuments and new legends emerged. Churches and ancient monuments 175 Notes 1. Boreholes drilled by the National Museum in cooperation with the Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management at Copenhagen University and the School of Culture and Society at Aarhus University (Breuning-Madsen & Holst 2023). 2. National Sites and Monuments record (= NSMR) Skjoldborg Parish no. 40. Finds from the churchyard include sherds of pottery from the pre-Roman and early Roman Iron Age. The mound was recorded in 1875 as a possible burial mound, and the pottery sherds as remains of urns. 3. Mourits Mouritsen Høyer, Encomium Jellingense (1721), manuscript in the National Museum archives, published in Bæksted 1944; also Krogh 1993, 15. 4. Water also accumulated in the holes that were bored into the South Mound, a phenomenon that was previously noted in the excavations of 1861. 5. Appendix 2, no. 2. 6. Appendix 2, nos 17 and 18. 7. Appendix 2, no. 24. 8. Appendix 2, no. 25. Samples from 19 of the 26 examined mounds were dated. 9. NSMR Sahl Parish no. 45. A pair of stirrups, a spur, a bridle and fittings were recovered from the centre of the mound, around 1.3m above the base in 1902. In the following year, a horse skeleton was found in the north-eastern corner and a dog in the south-eastern corner of the mound, which were both probably related to the horse furnishings. 10. In a trial excavation in 2009 of features recorded in aerial photographs of the field to the east of the church, three possible Viking-Age burials were recorded. Sunkenfeatured buildings have also been identified to the west of the church. NSMR Sahl Parish no. 215. 11. Amongst the churches examined, for example, Vennebjerg in Vendsyssel, Nørre Tranders south of the Limfjord and Elmelunde on Møn. See Appendix 2, nos 2, 4 and 25. 12. NSMR Randbøl Parish no. 37. Worsaae 1841a, 149152, with references to the legends; further L.E. Christensen concerning place-names in the Jelling region (2023). 176 Jelling – The Romanesque Stone Church 13. Pont. Atlas IV, 476. The mythical King Snio is known for, among other things, regaining overlordship of Scania and a conflict with the Swedish king over his queen (Saxo, Book 8, Ch. 11-13). 14. NSMR Hårlev Parish no. 8. Appendix 2. Worm 1643, Lib. I, 5 and 38; Pont. Atlas VI, 394. 15. NSMR Humlum Parish no. 36. The artefacts are kept in the collections of the National Museum. 16. NSMR Gislinge Parish no. 21. 17. NSMR Holtug Parish no. 56. DK, Præstø Amt 19331935, 385. 18. NSMR Tved Parish no. 67. 19. For an overall distribution of medieval churches, see Hellesen & Tuxen 1988. The number of recorded abandoned churches has increased considerably since 1988, although without significantly altering the general pattern (Engberg 2018; also in this volume Chapter 13). 20. References given: Den eldre Gulatingslova (1994), Ch. 39; Norges gamle Love indtil 1387 (1846-1895) vol. 4, 167. 21. NSMR Haldum Parish Nos 11, 12; for the church DK, Århus Amt 1968-2008, 1799-1803. 22. Pers. comm. curator Michael Alrø Jensen, Sydvestjyske Museer; also, Jensen 2016. 23. NSMR Bryndum Parish no. 181; for the church DK, Ribe Amt 1979-2003, 1912-1932; also Madsen 2007, 37, 47, 87. 24. NSMR Kirke-Hyllinge Parish no. 34, for the church DK, Københavns Amt 1944-1951, 905-910. 25. The rune stone is broken, but a drawing from 1691 includes part of the inscription. 26. In some cases, also for early medieval fortifications. A trial investigation in 1955 revealed that the medieval Kegborg Voldsted (fortified castle/manor) in the south-east of Als was built on the site of a Bronze-Age mound (Trap Danmark, X,3, 1241), and prior to the construction of Gl. Brattingsborg Voldsted on Samsø, a Bronze-Age mound was levelled. 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