(PDF) Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide

Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Contents The Communication and Complex Emergencies Project 2 1. Introduction 4 2. Communication phases 9 3. Situational assessment 13 Rapid-onset disasters case study | Typhoon Bopha (Philippines): NetHope 17 Rapid-onset disasters case study | Uttarakhand Floods (India): DHNetwork 18 Rapid-onset disasters case study | Mahasen cyclonic storm (Bangladesh): BBC Media Action 20 Open conlict case study | Centre Lokolé (Democratic Republic of Congo): Search for Common Ground 23 Open conlict case study | Radio Erena (Eritrea): Reporters Without Borders 24 Open conlict case study | Radio for Peacebuilding Africa: Search for Common Ground 26 Civil unrest case study | Radio Abyei (South Sudan): Internews and USAID 29 Civil unrest case study | Socially Responsible Media Platforms for the Arab World: BBC Media Action and Misr International Films 30 Civil unrest case study | Salam Shabab (Iraq): US Institute of Peace 32 Civil unrest case study | Speak-to-Tweet (Egypt): Google, Twitter and SayNow 34 Recovery case study | Sada Voice Players (Afghanistan): Voice for Humanity 37 Recovery case study | Radio Okapi (Democratic Republic of Congo): MONUSCO and the Hirondelle Foundation 38 Recovery case study | Open Jirga (Afghanistan): BBC Media Action 40 Recovery case study | PakVotes (Pakistan): Byte for All 41 4. Core communication principles 43 5. Conclusion 57 Communication and Complex Emergencies: 1 A Resource Guide The Communication and Complex Emergencies Project The Communication and Complex Emergencies The Australian Project is a collaboration between the Civil-Military Centre University of Adelaide’s Applied Communication Collaborative Research Unit (ACCRU) and the The Australian Civil-Military Centre (formerly the Australian Civil–Military Centre (ACMC). The main Asia Paciic Civil-Military Centre of Excellence) was objectives of the project are to highlight the role established in November 2008 in recognition of the of communication — including new and social growing importance of civil-military interaction. It media — in complex emergencies and in support is evidence of Australia’s commitment to peace and of humanitarian assistance. prosperity in the Asia-Paciic region and beyond. The work focuses on ‘what we know’, mapping out The ACMC’s mission is to support the development a broad array of knowledge while examining the of national civil-military capabilities to prevent, functions, strengths and limitations of various forms prepare for and respond more efectively to of media, from social networking and social media conlicts and disasters overseas. At its core is to radio, television, print and video. The project has a multi-agency approach, and it has staf from resulted in several outputs that are designed to a number of Australian government departments support each other: and agencies, the New Zealand Government and the Ƹ a social networking and social media non-government sector. Applying this collaborative annotated bibliography approach to working with various organisations, including the United Nations and other relevant Ƹ a social networking and social media stakeholders, the ACMC aims to improve civil-military issues paper education and training and develop civil–military doctrine and guiding principles. Ƹ a communication and complex emergencies resource guide Through its research program, the ACMC seeks to identify best-practice responses to lessons learned These publications are available at the ACMC and (important for developing doctrine and facilitating ACCRU websites. training programs) and so contribute directly to the Australian Government’s ability to develop 2 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide a more efective civil–military capacity for conlict additional material on social networking and prevention and disaster management overseas. media, as well as advice on the scope of new media initiatives in humanitarian assistance. For more information contact: Email:

The focus and indings of this guide were reined Web: http://www.acmc.gov.au as a result of a workshop held in Canberra on 2 July 2013. Here, a number of people made valuable contributions — Tony Aldred (Australian The Applied Communication Defence Force), Olivia Cribb (ACMC), Stephen Collins Collaborative Research Unit (Acidlabs), Sanchi Davis (Department of Foreign Afairs and Trade), Peter Donaldson (ADF), The Applied Communication Collaborative Research Elaine Elemani (ACMC), Mary French (DFAT), Unit is dedicated to understanding and promoting Daniel Gleeson (Attorney-General’s Department), the role of information, communication and Erica Hanisch (Australian Federal Police), Amra Lee new communication technologies in processes (World Vision), Shannon Mathias (ACMC), Phil Pyke of development and change. It draws together (ADF) and Jef Squire (ADF). At the University a group of internationally regarded specialists and of Adelaide, Simon Ladd was instrumental in emerging researchers in a consortium dedicated to developing the initial collaboration between the supporting the program, evaluation and research Applied Communication Collaborative Research needs of a variety of organisations that have a role in Unit and the Australian Civil-Military Centre. promoting communication initiatives across a wide range of development themes and country contexts. For more information contact: Disclaimer Email:

The views expressed in this guide are those of the Web: http://www.adelaide.edu.au/accru authors and do not necessarily relect the oicial position of the Australian Civil–Military Centre or the Australian Government. The Authors The paper is published under a Creative Commons Andrew Skuse, Tait Brimacombe and Dianne Rodger license — see http://creativecommons.org.au/learn- of the Applied Communication Collaborative more/licences/version3. All parts of the publication Research Unit at the University of Adelaide may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems, developed and drafted this guide. and transmitted by any means without the written permission of the publisher. ISBN 978-1-921933-06-6 Acknowledgements Published June 2014 The authors acknowledge Kelisiana Thynne of the Australian Civil-Military Centre; she provided research support, critical feedback and additional resources. Bonita Maywald (ACMC) initiated the project, while Karene Melloul (ACMC) provided Communication and Complex Emergencies: 3 A Resource Guide 1. Introduction This guide examines the broad topic of Ƹ discussion of emergency communication and its role in a range of diferent communication phases humanitarian and complex emergency situations. Ƹ examination of four communication Such situations demand communication initiatives frameworks that are designed to facilitate that support and promote humanitarian relief identiication of communication activities eforts, conlict reduction processes, and relevant to context post-conlict transition and recovery. Without question, communication is playing an increasingly Ƹ discussion of a range of communication important role within complex emergencies. New principles and practical steps that can information and communication technologies and be taken to increase the efectiveness burgeoning social media use are combining with of communication the extensive reach and use of traditional media to provide crucial lifeline information resources Ƹ collation of relevant case study material and for vulnerable people. This guide covers a range of identiication of useful external resources important communication of relevance to a wide Ƹ provision of supporting audio-visual range of emergency situations. Wherever possible, resource and web links for case it points readers to more detailed, high-quality, study material. practical guidance and additional resource material. A companion annotated bibliography and an issues paper, both of which focus on social networking, Aims and approach social media and complex emergencies, support this paper. They discuss the emergent role of new The main aim of this guide is to assess the broad role information and communication technologies (ICTs) and use of communication in complex emergencies. and focus on social media as a channel for political This is done in a number of ways: expression and social action, as well as on the evolving use of ICTs to crowdsource data and in crisis 4 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide mapping. These new communication tools support Ƹ national and international media and guide fairer democratic processes and more organisations partnering with the efective responses to emergencies such as natural humanitarian sector. disasters.1 Thematic scope Audience This guide details a range of humanitarian and In the irst instance, this guide should be useful to conlict situations in which communication can Australian government agencies with a stake in the play a role in providing lifeline information. Such delivery of humanitarian assistance. Among these information can help at-risk populations mitigate the agencies are the Department of Foreign Afairs efects of conlict, violence, civil unrest, health crises, and Trade (including the Australian Civilian Corps natural disasters, and human-induced emergencies and the Aid Program), the Department of such as terrorist events. At-risk populations can Defence, the Australian Federal Police and the be information poor or routinely exposed to biased Attorney-General’s Department (including information designed to inlame conlict — hate Emergency Management Australia). In addition, media, for example. For such populations, reliable, it is of relevance to multilateral, non-government relevant and unbiased information can play an and civil society organisations delivering important role in increasing their self-reliance at humanitarian assistance at the national, regional times when the delivery of services (such as health and international levels. services and education) might be severely disrupted. In setting out a range of best practice examples and For the purpose of this guide, ‘complex emergencies’ core communication principles, this guide can assist covers both complex situations (often driven by the following individuals and organisations: conlict or civil unrest, or both) and natural and Ƹ desk oicers of national and multilateral human-induced disasters (ACMC/ACFID, 2012).2 organisations charged with assessing the Emergencies can be short-term and acute, such relevance and appropriateness of crisis as during a natural disaster, or long-term, such as communication initiatives during periods of civil unrest or post-disaster reconstruction. Further, there is often a connection Ƹ communication practitioners working between the two; that is, conlict can promote to support humanitarian and conlict natural disasters (for example, famine as an transformation and recovery processes instrument of war) and natural disasters can Ƹ policy-makers and legislators concerned promote conlict (for example, a breakdown in the with humanitarian support and development rule of law). Acute situations can also develop into 1 The guide also draws on work previously written by the lead author, notably Working with the Media in Conlict and Other Emergencies (2000), funded and published by the UK Department for International Development, and Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A systematic review (2013), funded by AusAID and published by the Joanna Briggs Institute. 2 See ACMC/ACFID 2012, Same Space – Diferent Mandates: A Civil-Military Guide to Australian Stakeholders in International Disaster and Conlict Response, Australian Civil-Military Centre (ACMC) and Australian Council for International Development (ACFID), Canberra. Communication and Complex Emergencies: 5 A Resource Guide long-term problems and vice versa. Emergencies are relative ability of agencies providing humanitarian inherently complex, and the aim of this guide is to assistance to operate freely and efectively. It is provide clear and simple advice to help inform the crucial that, whenever possible, communication decision-making of communication practitioners and initiatives are determined by evidence that deines agencies providing humanitarian assistance. a clear need, the target audience and the objective. Finally, this guide focuses on communication with people and communities that are at risk Two basic categories of and vulnerable, and it cuts across all forms of communication communication — from interpersonal to mass media to new communication technologies. It does This guide proposes two basic categories of not deal with the internal communications of the communication — acute and long term. During various organisations concerned; nor does it deal acute emergencies there might be a need for rapid with communication that falls into the category of communication of lifeline information, such as that public relations — that is, activity that promotes focused on disaster preparedness and response. organisations and their successes. These areas Long-term communication might focus on situations are important, but they are excluded to enhance of civil unrest, on peacebuilding in a post-conlict the focus within this guide on communication for period or on post-disaster reconstruction. Because vulnerability and risk reduction, as well as on the of this, the focus of communication activities building of resilience and reconciliation. Finally, during emergencies can be markedly diferent in keeping with the mandate of the Australian and can seek to achieve diferent outcomes. To Civil-Military Centre, the focus of this guide and facilitate identiication of potential communication the case studies provided concerns conlict, responses during emergencies, this guide subdivides post-conlict and recovering situations. acute responses into rapid-onset disasters and open conlict. Long-term responses are divided into civil unrest and recovery. Each of these is presented as a communication framework that is How to use this guide supported by a number of case studies designed to This guide provides a range of examples of situations highlight the scope of communication activities and in which communication supports humanitarian potential outcomes. relief, conlict reduction and recovery. It also Although the four communication frameworks allow highlights a number of guiding principles that are for a degree of rapid identiication, this guide is not designed to ensure communication efectiveness designed to be a prescriptive ‘how to’ guide to crisis in crisis situations and ofers links to high-quality communication. This is because the potential range external resources developed by bilateral and of communication initiatives in conlict or disaster multilateral agencies that provide additional depth situations is determined by numerous contextual and breadth. Many of these resources encompass factors, including the availability and popularity a ‘how to’ element and cover matters such as of particular media and media formats, the extent crisis messaging in considerable depth. A central of communications infrastructure and levels of goal of the guide is to direct desk oicers and destruction, the presence and availability of local communicators to high quality ‘how to’ resources media and communications capacity, the strength that can be used to further inform decision-making of community and civil society organisations, and the and practice. 6 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Figure 1: The primary focus areas Core Communication principles phases Situational assessment The ‘Communication phases’ section examines two that is drawn between acute and long-term phases or cycles that are commonly associated with communication initiatives, four communication acute and longer term communication responses. frameworks — rapid-onset disasters, civil unrest, In the case of acute responses, resolution of the open conlict and recovery — are discussed in crisis tends to lead to the rapid culmination of detail. Each of these frameworks is supported by communication activity. Where problems are longer case studies that relect diferent geographical term and more deep seated in nature, a diferent contexts and reveal the varied use of communication communication cycle is evident. This short section approaches, from interpersonal to participatory to on phases helps to highlight the difering nature of mass communication. Each case study details the communication during complex emergencies. background to the initiative, the scope of activities, the associated outcomes, and the limitations The ‘Situational assessment’ section is designed to of the initiative, as well as providing links to help desk oicers and communication practitioners further information. quickly identify a range of context-related factors, threats or situations that vulnerable people face. The ‘Core communication principles’ section looks It also highlights some of the communication and at a number of fundamental practice principles of information needs of communities and the range of relevance to ensuring efective communication in communication initiatives or activities that can help crisis situations. These principles point to areas of in responding to those needs. Within the distinction practice that are known to help communication Communication and Complex Emergencies: 7 A Resource Guide initiatives target audiences through the most viable (and popular) media and mediums. They help us identify what an ideal communication planning, design, implementation and evaluation process might look like. Implementing communication initiatives in crisis situations challenges this process, however, and many of the case studies reveal how creativity has helped communicators overcome constraints. Where possible, potential constraints to efective communication practice are identiied and options for ofsetting them are suggested. The section also looks at the scope of crisis communication messaging and examines the diferences between messaging in acute crisis or conlict situations and in longer term situations. Additionally, it looks at how to ensure the development of content that targets behavioural or social change. 8 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide 2. Communication phases Emergencies and their aftermaths are complex Acute communication but, typically, communication responses tend to implementation phases be short-term or long-term in nature. During acute emergencies such as natural disasters the type of Communication during periods of acute crisis is often communication difers from that characterising portrayed in terms of a number of distinct phases. long-term periods of civil unrest or periods of Understanding such phases helps with the allocation recovery, when peacebuilding comes to the fore. of resources and with the planning and design An acute communication response can last a matter of initiatives. of weeks or months; a long-term response can last years. Acute communication responses are concerned with saturating the communications environment to raise mass awareness of risk and suitable forms of risk reduction. Long-term communication initiatives are often concerned with fostering dialogue; building responsible media and journalism standards through capacity development; regulating mass media; and promoting peace, reconciliation and the rule of law. All acute situations have the potential to become long-term crises (and vice versa), and communication responses need to be adaptable to the situation. Each form of communication, be it in response to an acute emergency or a long-term problem, has a number of typical communication phases. Communication and Complex Emergencies: 9 A Resource Guide Figure 2: Emergency, or acute, communication phases 1. Preparatory phase 5. Resilient CRISIS systems 4. 2. Resolution Initial phase 3. Maintenance phase A clearly deined preparatory phase typically with information and messages explaining both occurs in contexts that routinely experience natural the nature of the crisis and the risk. This phase is or human-induced disasters. During this period also concerned with rapidly gathering and verifying essential groundwork is carried out in order to information, which allows accurate updates to be understand the communications environment, communicated to the public. Messages concerning to develop important messages, to decide what actions that need to be taken by target audiences channels of communication are best used, and to so as to reduce risk and vulnerability are rapidly determine whether communication organisations communicated. Efective coordination with other are willing and ready to respond, whether they have agencies providing humanitarian assistance and key enough capacity to handle signiicant increases in communication partners is crucial: it ensures that communication demand and which groups need information is shared and communication eforts targeting. Such preparatory work often forms the are not duplicated. basis of national emergency management or disaster In the maintenance phase the aim is to ensure response plans. In the developing world, such plans, that the information needs of all stakeholders are where they exist, are often outdated or are not being adequately and efectively met and that implemented efectively. communication responses are able to adapt to In the initial phase the aim is to immediately mobilise potentially changing needs. Continued monitoring communication plans and saturate the environment of the situation occurs, and assessment of whether 10 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide communication activities need to be scaled up or Long-term communication down is done. Assessment of the resources available implementation phases to sustain emergency communication is also vital — especially when a crisis extends into an ongoing Long-term communication initiatives to respond commitment. Finally, continued collaboration and to aspects of civil unrest or recovery tend to have dialogue across the communication, government a less complex communication cycle. In such and non-government sectors can help ensure that circumstances there is greater potential to conduct communication responses remain relevant, are well formative research and work with community supported and are appropriately resourced. groups and service providers. The factors dealt with during long-term communication initiatives In time, a crisis can move to resolution, when the are complex and can focus not only on behaviour worst of the crisis is over. The thirst for information change and social action but also on building can wane as the situation reverts to normality. human resource capacity and efective policy During this phase it is important that lessons are and legislative environments. Reducing ethnic or learned about how the crisis was handled from a political bias, or both, in mass media reporting in communication perspective and how communication post-conlict situations is an example of the type of contributed to reducing risk and vulnerability. It is complex communication initiative typical of such also important to remind stakeholders about how a circumstance. Initiatives of this kind can span to act should a similar crisis be faced in the future. years or decades. Following resolution, resilient systems capable of Where there is lower risk, a more typical responding to future crises need to be established. communication cycle can be adhered to, one that is This can necessitate infrastructure changes — led by the 12 guiding principles outlined in Section 4. to make sure that communication systems and During the initial phase a strong focus on formative methods are appropriate and will not fail. Having research identifying target groups and suitable robust and sustainable systems also means ensuring communication channels, developing messages, that the policy and legislative environments are and working with local partners to develop suitable supportive of widespread communications access content is typical. In the maintenance phase a at reasonable cost and that the media are free and longer cycle of producing content, conveying it, fair. Similarly, amending emergency plans to take evaluating it and adapting it takes precedence. account of new procedures and practices might also An emphasis on monitoring helps to ensure that be necessary. initiatives are responsive to changing information needs and a changing situation. In long-term Resources initiatives establishing resilient systems — that is, Disaster Preparedness for Efective Response, a responsible and unbiased media sector, as well United Nations, 2008 as greater communication access — is a crucial http://www.unisdr.org/iles/2909_ precursor to resolution. Here, ‘resolution’ implies the Disasterpreparednessforefectiveresponse.pdf efective functioning of communication systems in an environment formerly characterised by conlict or fragility. Due to the short-term funding cycles Communication and Complex Emergencies: 11 A Resource Guide of many communication-focused development environments susceptible to abuse of media or initiatives, resilient systems and resolution are certain populations excluded from efective media often not adequately attained, leaving fragile and communications access. Figure 3: Long-term communication phases 1. Initial phase 2. 4. Maintenance Resolution phase 3. Resilient systems Although communication in complex emergency Resources situations has clearly identiiable phases, a central Emergency Communications System Life Cycle challenge organisations and individuals face in Planning Guide, US Department of Homeland developing communication initiatives concerns Security, 2011 focus. Section 3 looks at how to assess the http://www.safecomprogram.gov/oec/oec_system_ situation and outlines a wide range of potential life_cycle_planning_guide_inal.pdf communication initiatives that support humanitarian and development objectives. Communication Toolbox: practical guidance for program managers to improve communication with participants and community members, Catholic Relief Services, 2013 http://www.crsprogramquality.org/storage/pubs/ general/communication-toolbox.pdf 12 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide 3. Situational assessment During an emergency, communication practitioners Ƹ What initiatives can be taken in response and the staf of agencies seeking to provide to these information needs? humanitarian assistance need to rapidly determine Ƹ How do we gather the information what kind of crisis they face and make decisions necessary to plan the initiative? about the communications response. If they have already been prepared for emergencies such as Ƹ What other initiatives — policy, natural disasters, this is the point at which national regulation, capacity development, and local disaster management plans and their and so on — will positively afect the communication components are implemented. Some information environment? emergencies are well prepared for, but many are not, so agencies providing humanitarian assistance Ƹ Who can we partner with? need to ask some important questions that will help them quickly identify potential responses, especially in connection with situational assessment. Among these initial questions are the following: Ƹ What is the nature of the emergency? Ƹ What is the expected duration — that is, is it a short-term or a long-term problem? Ƹ What contextual factors can be quickly identiied that are known to be causing the emergency? Ƹ What are the likely or obvious information needs of at-risk populations? Communication and Complex Emergencies: 13 A Resource Guide Figure 4: A framework for assessing communication options Situation Acute Long term Rapid- Open Civil onset Recovery conflict unrest disasters Figure 4 shows a simple low chart that identiies two conlict avoidance, service provision and risk broad categories of emergency situation — acute mitigation is essential. and long-term. Out of this, four distinct situational Ƹ Civil unrest is characterised by social sub-categories emerge: polarisation that can lead to tension, an Ƹ Rapid-onset disasters are acute events increase in animosity between groups, such as natural disasters or human- periods of civil dissent and localised induced disasters. A rapid communication outbreaks of conlict. The media’s response is required, and the public needs response during such periods is of vital information immediately. Constant provision importance, as is the need to build capacity of accurate and veriied updates needs to to reduce media bias and defamation occur until the emergency has passed. and promote reconciliation. Civil unrest can lead to periods of open conlict, Ƹ Open conlict is characterised by widespread which would necessitate a change in the inter- or intra-national conlict and kinetic communication response. military operations, posing a high risk to civilians. During periods of open conlict high Ƹ Recovery is characterised by the cessation levels of social dislocation and displacement of open conlict, processes of stabilisation, can occur. Lifeline communication about peacebuilding, a return to the rule of law, and dialogue about reconciliation. Eforts 14 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide might be made to strengthen media and anti-corruption initiatives. Ensuring systems, especially in relation to their that sustainable systems, policies and responsibility and accountability. In addition, regulations are established in connection large-scale civic education campaigns can with communication is a central goal of highlight the roles and responsibilities of long-term communication work in the government oicers, the police and the recovery context. judiciary, and aspects of electoral practice Figure 5: Situation identification SITUATION RAPID-ONSET DISASTERS CIVIL UNREST Natural disasters Breakdown in rule of law Disease outbreaks Demonstrations Terrorism Rioting Industrial accidents Ethnic and/or religious tension Displacement Small-scale conflict Stabilisation OPEN CONFLICT RECOVERY Inter- and intra-country conflict Rule of law Civil war Electoral reform Insurgency Civic education Risk of ordnance Peacebuilding Rule of law in war Media reforms Figure 5 shows some common emergency, conlict of relevant case studies, which are presented after and recovery situations that come within the four each communication framework. headings of rapid-onset disasters, civil unrest, open Rapid assessment of the situation is an essential conlict, and recovery. In the sections that follow precursor to designing the communication initiatives each of these is developed further into the tabular that will be implemented. Rapid assessment can communication frameworks. The frameworks are point us in a likely direction, but it cannot replace designed to help the staf of humanitarian and a robust communication design process that development organisations in quickly identifying adheres to the principles known to contribute the range of contextual factors, the potential to efectiveness. Section 4 outlines a number of communication and information needs of vulnerable basic communication principles that are known to people, and the scope of potential initiatives. The increase efectiveness. inal column in each framework highlights a number Communication and Complex Emergencies: 15 A Resource Guide Resources Accountability to Afected Populations, Inter-Agency Standing Committee, 2013 Communication for Development Rapid http://www.fao.org/ileadmin/user_upload/ Assessment Tool, UNICEF, 2011 emergencies/docs/IASC%20AAP%20 http://www.uniceinemergencies.com/downloads/ Operational%20Framework%20March%202013.pdf eresource/docs/Communication%20for%20 Development/C4D-RapidAssessmentTool.docx Table 1: Rapid-onset disasters communication framework CONTEXTUAL Ƹ Known susceptibility to natural disasters FACTORS Ƹ Widespread social dislocation Ƹ Disruption of government services Ƹ Rapid deterioration of public health environment caused by spike in communicable and waterborne diseases Ƹ Failure or destruction of communication infrastructure Ƹ Increased crime and violence Ƹ Internal displacement Ƹ Increasing food insecurity COMMUNICATION Ƹ Early warning communication — for example, SMS alerts for tsunami — and AND information on immediate course of action and how to mitigate or protect against  efects INFORMATION NEEDS Ƹ Impartial and accurate instructions on where to seek help and from whom Ƹ Accurate and veriied information on infrastructure damage, disruption of services, scope of the emergency — for example, how long until typhoon will pass — and instructions on mitigating ongoing impacts Ƹ Targeted information on health, food availability, shelter, mitigation, humanitarian aid activities, civic roles and responsibilities, rule of law, safe haven locations Ƹ Mapping scope of disaster — that is, crisis mapping SCOPE OF Ƹ Rapid assessment of media and communications damage and availability INTERVENTIONS Ƹ Promotion of disaster preparedness Ƹ Provision of emergency  communication response — for example, rapid-deployment radio broadcasting, emergency repairs to telecommunications infrastructure Ƹ Provision of media — for example, radios — to dislocated populations Ƹ Crisis mapping by volunteer communities Ƹ SMS feeds, registration with embassies via SMS CASE STUDIES Ƹ Typhoon Bopha (Philippines): Nethope Ƹ Uttarakhand loods (India): DHNetwork Ƹ Mahasen cyclonic storm (Bangladesh): BBC Media Action 16 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide The worst afected were people living in rural Rapid-onset farming and ishing areas along the eastern coast of the island, and there was major devastation of disasters case agricultural livelihoods. study | Typhoon Bopha (Philippines): Activities NetHope NetHope’s response to Typhoon Bopha began with the coordination of meetings with member organisations on the ground and an evaluation of damage to ICT infrastructure in the two worst afected provinces, with a view to restoring ICT services.4 NetHope obtained support from private Background sector partners to facilitate the provision of laptops, BGANs (satellite-based internet terminals) and NetHope acts as a catalyst for collaboration satellite phones. These private sector relationships by bringing together leading international and allowed for resources to be committed to members humanitarian organisations. It operates on a operating on the ground, as well as the deployment model that fosters public–private relationships of a two-person emergency response team to to deliver ICT solutions to the developing world, conduct a ield assessment of ICT needs and provide currently working with 37 member organisations training and equipment to members. Satellite phones in over 180 countries.3 NetHope’s emergency with air-time credit and BGAN terminals with prepaid response program aims to facilitate faster and bandwidth were placed in three of the worst afected better coordinated responses to disaster and has towns, where they acted as non-government contributed to disaster responses after the Haiti organisation hotspots and were subsequently shared and Japan earthquakes and the Pakistan loods. through wireless network equipment. NetHope Through its emergency response program NetHope also facilitated the donation and transportation of enables humanitarian organisations to improve 110 laptops and software to local partners and staf the coordination of relief eforts through the use of to ensure efective communication and coordination smarter technologies and collaboration between of the relief efort. Furthermore, 50 donated responders and private sector partners. high-deinition video cameras were shipped to Typhoon Bopha hit Mindanao, the largest island members for use in video advocacy work. As the in the south of the Philippines, in December 2012. recovery efort progressed and communications A thousand people died and approximately 200,000 infrastructure was restored, member organisations homes were destroyed or severely damaged. It is transitioned from satellite-based systems to estimated that 6.2 million people were afected by mobile networks. the disaster, and up to 850,000 people displaced. 3  http://nethope.org/disaster-response/typhoon-bopha 4 http://disasterphilanthropy.org/news/march-1-2013-typhoon-bopha Communication and Complex Emergencies: 17 A Resource Guide Outcomes and limitations Ƹ Damage to telecommunications Rapid-onset infrastructure was evaluated. disasters case Ƹ Satellite technologies were used in the study | Uttarakhand absence of mobile networks. Ƹ Public–private relationships were used to Floods (India): secure the donation, transportation and DHNetwork distribution of ICT to non-government organisations on the ground. Ƹ The damage to livelihoods and agricultural resources necessitated a continued, long-term recovery efort beyond the Background immediate disaster response. The Digital Humanitarian Network, or DHNetwork, makes use of digital networks in support of a humanitarian response with the aim of forming Links a consortium of volunteers and technical The Role of Information and Communication communities and providing a point of contact Technology in the Response to Typhoon between formal humanitarian organisations and Bopha 2012 informal volunteer organisations.5 DHNetwork http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJUKNmjCIiw facilitates service requests from organisations and arranges volunteer and technical community Nethope website response teams. Organisations can activate http://nethope.org DHNetwork online through its website or by email, at which point the review team will decide within 24 hours whether to accept or defer the request. Once a request is accepted it is forwarded throughout DHNetwork. DHNetwork ofers real-time media monitoring of both mainstream and social media, rapid geo-location of event and infrastructure data, creation of live crisis maps, data development and cleaning, satellite imagery tagging and tracing, and web-based research. 5 http://digitalhumanitarians.com/proiles/blogs/dhn-deployment-uttarakhand-lood 18 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide In June 2013 severe rainfall and glacier melts caused applications. A two-person MapAction team joined looding and landslides in the north Indian state of local responders on the ground to provide support Uttarakhand. It is estimated that 5,700 people died and training for ield mapping eforts. A Translators and 100,000 pilgrims and tourists were trapped in Without Borders team also responded to the valleys near popular pilgrimage sites in the state. activation request by assisting with translations for monitoring and reporting purposes. Activities Outcomes and limitations In July 2013 DHNetwork received a request for activation in response to the looding; this was Ƹ More than 4,000 villages were identiied and subsequently supplemented by a request from mapped by the HOT support team. SEEDS India to support its work and provide maps Ƹ A 3W report compiled by the Humanity Road and data for organisations responding in the ield. team identiied digital and relief responders, This request was rapidly assessed, distributed to their locations, and the nature of the all DHNetwork solutions members, and responded assistance and relief work provided. to by a number of teams. The Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team, or HOT, responded with a situation assessment and mapping of the major highways and remote villages. Through this remote Links mapping, HOT was able to provide the base layer for the OpenStreetMap. Local teams were then invited DHNetwork website to collect geo-located data to further characterise http://digitalhumanitarians.com the map with road and village names and structures 2013 North India loods wiki coordination page to improve the data’s usefulness to responders. http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/2013_North_ HOT was also responsible for a wiki coordination India_loods page that presented tools and services such as map renderings, spatial analysis, and ield data Humanity Road 3W report collection tools for participants. The Humanity http://www.humanityroad.org/India3W Road team contributed its digital 3W (who, what, where) report, which outlined who was responding, where they were rendering assistance, and what that assistance was. The MapAction team provided remote data management and mapping support through DHNetwork. MapAction used its ield experience to advise teams on the ground about methods for creating standardised lists of afected locations and categories of need for populations. It also ofered advice on the organisation of digital spatial data and templates for a variety of mapping Communication and Complex Emergencies: 19 A Resource Guide moving over eastern India. By the time the storm Rapid-onset reached Bangladesh it was weaker than initially anticipated, although it still resulted in moderate disasters case study to severe damage. It is estimated that as many as 95,000 huts (many of which were considered | Mahasen cyclonic poorly constructed) were damaged or destroyed. storm (Bangladesh): Seventeen people died and more than 1.3 million people were afected. BBC Media Action Activities BBC Media Action’s Bangladesh oice responded to news of the impending cyclone by developing, Background recording and distributing a range of disaster-response messages.6 It initially responded BBC Media Action uses various forms of media by coordinating emergency meetings with the and communication for poverty reduction. Among Disaster Management Department of the Bangladesh other things, its work involves engagement Government, non-government organisations, and with traditional mass media and interpersonal state and community broadcasters.7 Aware of the communication alongside online and social media likelihood of internet loss once the cyclone arrived, in order to increase communities’ resilience and BBC Media Action operated under a mandate of improve humanitarian responses, especially in producing and distributing content as quickly as disaster situations. In particular, BBC Media Action possible before communications technologies aims to increase food and water security, improve were compromised. Within 24 hours, it had economic security, reduce disaster risk, and developed radio scripts aiming to provide clear increase strength in the face of disaster through advice to those in the impact zone, consistent with the provision of information and the supporting information distributed by the Disaster Management of dialogue to facilitate change. In Bangladesh, Department. These scripts were recorded, and the a country with a high propensity for and vulnerability irst eight radio public service announcements were to natural disasters, BBC Media Action works with aired by both independent and state broadcasters, partners to help the public prepare adequately for as well as six community radio stations. These future disasters and ensure that disaster-afected initial announcements detailed the location of populations receive accurate and useful information. shelters, what to take during evacuations, and how to safeguard livestock. In subsequent days a further In May 2013 cyclonic storm Mahasen, a relatively ive announcements were recorded and distributed; weak tropical cyclone, struck Bangladesh before they provided information about water puriication, 6 http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/bbcmediaaction/posts/Responding-to-Cyclone-Mahasen- 7 http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where_we_work/asia/bangladesh/humanitarian_work.html 20 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide irst aid and other important aspects of disaster response. Messages designed to be broadcast on loudspeakers inside Rohingya refugee camps were also prepared. In addition to radio public service announcements, BBC Media Action developed a concept for a 90-second television piece telling the stories of three people in a rural area subjected to a cyclone. The purpose was to demonstrate the implications of ignoring disaster warnings, and the piece was aired by the state broadcaster as well as some cable and satellite channels. This TV public service announcement had been ilmed, edited and distributed to broadcasters within 48 hours. Outcomes and limitations Ƹ Thirty-eight radio public service announcements were produced in three languages. Ƹ The televised public service announcement was watched by millions across the country. Links BBC Media Action website http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction Communication and Complex Emergencies: 21 A Resource Guide Table 2: Open conflict communication framework CONTEXTUAL Ƹ Open conlict between clearly deined combatants driven by speciic causes FACTORS and goals Ƹ Widespread human rights abuses Ƹ Violations of international humanitarian law Ƹ Forced migration and internal displacement Ƹ Destruction of infrastructure, including media and communications Ƹ Increasing food insecurity Ƹ Rapid deterioration of the public health environment Ƹ A high degree of censorship and regulation of media and communications Ƹ Complete breakdown of the rule of law Ƹ Exclusion of foreign nationals — for example, journalists, development workers COMMUNICATION Ƹ Impartial and accurate media, especially news media AND Ƹ Targeted information on health, food availability, shelter, conlict avoidance and INFORMATION mitigation, land-mine awareness, human rights and international humanitarian NEEDS law, humanitarian aid activities, peacekeeping roles and responsibilities Ƹ Identiication of credible information providers SCOPE OF Ƹ Rapid assessment of media and communications availability, uses and INTERVENTIONS preferences to guide implementation strategy and options Ƹ Support to community, national and international media for dissemination of balanced news and humanitarian information Ƹ Support for the production of peacebuilding programming at all levels Ƹ Training for objective political and conlict reporting, humanitarian reporting and peacebuilding programming Ƹ Provision of emergency media and communication response — for example, rapid-deployment radio broadcasting Ƹ Support to citizen media Ƹ Re-establishment and maintenance of telecommunications infrastructure Ƹ Provision of broadcasting and communications infrastructure Ƹ Provision of media (that is, radios) to dislocated populations Ƹ Direct (face-to-face) liaison with key inluencers if required CASE STUDIES Ƹ Centre Lokolé (Democratic Republic of Congo): Search for Common Ground Ƹ Radio Erena (Eritrea): Reporters without Borders Ƹ Radio for Peacebuilding (Africa): Search for Common Ground 22 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide radio and theatre projects found that exposure Open conflict case to such programming had an extremely positive impact on people’s information seeking habits and study | Centre their knowledge.8 The data for the evaluation were gathered by surveying Search for Common Ground Lokolé (Democratic participants in the territories of Uvira, Fizi and Moba, Republic of Congo): through interviews with community leaders and partner organisations and through ethnographic Search for Common observations. The UNHCR report also highlighted, however, that Centre Lokolé’s theatre programming Ground was much more likely to have a negative efect on viewers’ tolerance levels, whereas radio programming was more likely to have a positive impact or no impact on listeners’ tolerance levels. This demonstrates that diferent media forms can have varying efects that need to be accounted Background for during project design. In view of the negative The Democratic Republic of Congo — particularly impacts of theatre, Centre Lokolé must carefully in the areas of South Kivu and Katanga — has been examine the content of its theatre programming and plagued by ethnic tensions and violence as well as continue to evaluate its efectiveness. In addition to large-scale displacement and repatriation. Since radio and theatre productions, Centre Lokolé also 2006 the UN High Commissioner for Refugees produces comic books that deal with important has been funding Search for Common Ground aspects of Congolese society in an accessible and programming in the nation. entertaining way. One such comic, written by former militant Joseph Muhaya, features a corrupt oicer character named Captain January. The popular and long-running Mopila series has tackled subjects such Activities as police brutality and sexual harassment as seen Search for Common Ground’s work in the Democratic through the experiences of a Congolese taxi driver. Republic of Congo uses radio programming and interactive theatre under the name Centre Lokolé to decrease conlict among repatriated refugees as well as provide to communities conlict resolution tools. A 2008 UNHCR evaluation of Centre Lokolé’s 8 Gordon, G 2008, A UNHCR Evaluation of Search for Common Ground Programming in the DRC, UNHCR & Search for Common Ground, pp. 1–51; Brown, V 2010, ‘Foundations for repatriation and peace in DRC’, Forced Migration Review, vol. 36, pp. 54–55, http://www.fmreview.org/en/DRCongo/54-55.pdf; http://www.sfcg.org/programmes/drcongo/drcongo_comics.html; http://www.thecommongroundblog.com/2013/04/15/former-militant-turned-peacebuilder-brings-comic-relief- to-congo Communication and Complex Emergencies: 23 A Resource Guide Outcomes and limitations Ƹ Exposure to Centre Lokolé programming correlates with positive behaviour change Open conflict case and increases in knowledge about non-violent reconciliation tools. study | Radio Erena Ƹ Listeners to and viewers of Centre Lokolé (Eritrea): Reporters programs are more likely to dismiss rumours Without Borders and obtain information from the radio, local non-government organisations and the government. Ƹ Half a million comic books have been distributed. Ƹ Increased communication between the Background UNHCR and Search for Common Ground A 2013 Reporters Without Borders submission to the would lead to greater project success and UN Human Rights Council highlighted the status of create more opportunities for collaboration. media freedom in Eritrea. In the past six years Eritrea Ƹ A lack of baseline information made it has ranked last out of 173 countries in Reporters diicult to assess fully the impact of Centre Without Borders’ press freedom index. The Lokolé’s radio and theatre programming. submission outlined the closing down of all privately owned media by the government in 2001, alongside the regular jamming of independent broadcast media based abroad. Furthermore, it noted that Links foreign correspondents have not been based in Centre Lokolé mid-term evaluation the country since 2010. Eritrea was named Africa’s http://www.comminit.com/governance-africa/ biggest prison for journalists, the current number content/mid-term-evaluation-search-common- of journalists detained being estimated at about ground-centre-lokol%C3%A9-supporting-congos- 30. The submission also noted that, of 11 journalists transition-towa arrested in 2001, only four remain in detention, the remaining seven having taken their own lives or died as a result of their living conditions. Thirty-four Eritrean journalists living in exile have contacted Reporters Without Borders requesting assistance; many of them continue to fear for their safety. 24 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Activities Outcomes and limitations In view of these continuing concerns, Reporters Ƹ An independent news and information Without Borders provided support for the service has been established. establishment in June 2009 of Radio Erena, a  Ƹ Transmission jamming and interruptions to Paris-based radio station run by Eritrean journalists broadcasts continue. in exile.9 Radio Erena ofers freely reported, independent news and information to counter the heavily censored state narrative. It also ofers cultural programs, music and entertainment, Links drawing on a combination of contributors from within the country and in exile. Radio Erena is broadcast Radio Erena website by satellite and short wave into Eritrea and on the http://www.erena.org internet to the diaspora community. After receiving Video: Radio Erena considerable attention from the international media, http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcitim_radio- it has been the subject of a number of attacks by erena-english-version_news the Eritrean Government. In August 2012 its satellite signal was jammed and its website hacked. It was Video: Radio Erena Gives a Voice to Its People able to resume broadcasting in September, only to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PWR-n4dUuFU suspend broadcasts again a few days later as a result of further jamming. In November 2012 Reporters Without Borders iled a complaint with the public prosecutor in Paris, accusing unknown persons of acts of piracy. Geo-location data show that the transmission jamming the signal originated in Eritrea. Damage to the website has been repaired, but it has not been possible to resume satellite transmission, which means broadcasts are not received in Eritrea. 9 http://en.rsf.org/erythree-reporters-without-borders-provides-25-06-2013,44850.html; http://en.rsf.org/eritrea- radio-erena-an-independent-news-16-03-2010,36687.html; http://en.rsf.org/eritrea-complaint-iled-in-paris- about-08-11-2012,43657.html Communication and Complex Emergencies: 25 A Resource Guide Activities Open conflict case In 2005 RFPA released a two-part manual, Manual study | Radio for on Producing Radio Soap Opera for Conlict Prevention, focusing on the use of radio soap opera Peacebuilding to tackle violent conlict positively, reduce tensions Africa: Search for and bring people together.10 The irst part of the manual provides an introduction to and discussion Common Ground of practicalities such as preparation, budgets, contracts and production. The second part serves as a training guide for writers of soap operas, including discussing social change, conlict transformation, audience research, plots and characters, and script outlines. In 2011 RFPA released Responsible Media Background Coverage of Elections: A training guide, produced to encourage good journalistic practice before, In January 2003 Search for Common Ground during and after elections in Africa. Additionally, in launched the Radio for Peacebuilding Africa, or RFPA, 2013 RFPA released its Audio Guide on Media and project with the aim of providing resources so that Conlict Coverage; this was developed for journalists African journalists can produce radio programs for working in conlict and post-conlict areas and was peacebuilding. A large-scale collaborative project designed to complement previous training modules. designed to help broadcasters use radio as a tool The guide is structured around three main topics — for peace, RFPA highlights a variety of peacebuilding conlict analysis, the role of media professionals, and techniques such as avoidance of language that journalists’ attitudes as agents of positive change. inlames tension, equal treatment of news from Descriptions of these three topics are accompanied both sides, and the humanising of parties to conlict by practical examples for journalists to integrate into through drama. The project has led to production their work. of more than seven guidebooks, 4,800 downloads, 90 workshops and a wide range of other resources for radio journalists in Africa. It is now in its third phase and operates in more than 100 countries Outcomes and limitations to improve access to information. Throughout Ƹ Materials, training guides and resources its work RFPA has fostered cooperation between have been produced for journalists working government, the media and civil society, increased in conlict zones. the capacity of radio stations to accurately cover conlict and war, raised governments’ commitment to strategic communication, and expanded citizens’ access to information. 10 http://www.comminit.com/media-development/content/audio-guide-media-and-conlict-coverage; http://www.eldis. org/go/display&id=7948&type=Organisation&more=yes#.UjavGOAWy_s 26 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Links How to Produce a Radio Soap Opera for Conlict Prevention/Resolution: Part 1 http://www.sfcg.org/programmes/rfpa/pdf/ manual_01_part1_en.pdf How to Produce a Radio Soap Opera for Conlict Prevention/Resolution: Part 2 http://www.sfcg.org/programmes/rfpa/pdf/ manual_01_part2_en.pdf Responsible Media Coverage of Elections: a training guide http://www.sfcg.org/programmes/rfpa/pdf/2011- Responsible_Media_Elections_Color_EN.pdf Audio Guide on Media and Conlict Coverage http://www.sfcg.org/programmes/rfpa/audio/ guides/AUDIO_MODULE_MEDIA_AND_ CONFLICT.mp3 Radio for Peacebuilding Africa website www.radiopeaceafrica.org Communication and Complex Emergencies: 27 A Resource Guide Table 3: Civil unrest communication framework CONTEXTUAL Ƹ Breakdown in social cohesion FACTORS Ƹ Political, economic and ethnic tensions Ƹ Local civil unrest Ƹ Weak state and local authority capacity Ƹ Increasing rights infringements Ƹ Increasing press and media censorship Ƹ Harassment of journalists and media professionals Ƹ Suppression of dissent and public expression Ƹ Challenges for the rule of law Ƹ Price spikes for commodities (food staples) Ƹ Groups with disproportionate access to economic, military and/or political power COMMUNICATION Ƹ Access to timely, accurate and impartial reporting and news media AND Ƹ Increased communication between rival groups and factions INFORMATION Ƹ Increased dialogue between government and the public NEEDS Ƹ Increased low of information about human rights Ƹ Awareness of conlict mediation and resolution mechanisms Ƹ Promotion of access to humanitarian support Ƹ Promotion of information on available basic services — for example, survivors of sexual and gender-based violence SCOPE OF Ƹ Research on and analysis of existing information and communication sources INTERVENTIONS Ƹ Research on the information needs of people afected by conlict and their key sources of communication Ƹ Support for more balanced news and media coverage through national and international channels Ƹ Support for community media to develop conlict-reducing and dialogue-creating communication that helps bring rivals together to defuse tensions Ƹ Support for communication interventions at all levels that promote inter-ethnic understanding and tolerance Ƹ Support for communication that promotes awareness of and adherence to human rights Ƹ Support for citizen media Ƹ Establishment of mechanisms for monitoring the content being produced by media to ensure it does not incite conlict Ƹ Increased media monitoring CASE STUDIES Ƹ Radio Abyei (South Sudan): Internews and USAID Ƹ Socially Responsible Media Platforms for the Arab World: BBC Media Action and Misr International Films Ƹ Salam Shabab (Iraq): US Institute of Peace Ƹ Speak-to-Tweet (Egypt): Google, Twitter and SayNow 28 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide of community radio stations, the building of Civil unrest case transmission towers, securing frequency allocations, and provision of technical equipment through a study | Radio Abyei mixture of ‘old’ and ‘new’ technologies. Electricity is unavailable in many areas, so generators and solar (South Sudan): and wind power are used to run a number of the Internews and radio stations. USAID Activities As part of the Radio for Peace, Democracy and Development in South Sudan project, Internews established ive community FM radio stations in Background South Sudan — Radio al Mujtama i Kurmuk (2008), Voice of Community Kauda (2006), Naath FM (2006), Rich in oil, the area of Abyei is controlled by the Nhomlaau FM (2006) and Mayardit FM (2009). The Sudanese government but is claimed by South locations of Kurmuk, Kauda, Leer, Malualkon and Sudan. At the end of the Second Sudanese Civil War Turalei respectively were chosen for their ability to (1983–2005) it was aforded ‘special administrative efectively cover the largest broadcast footprint. status’ through the Abyei Protocol, under the The Turalei station, Mayardit FM, broadcasts into the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. As part of the disputed region of Abyei. The broadcast ofers a mix protocol, the area of Abyei was declared part of of locally produced programs, partner-produced the states of South Kordofan and Northern Bahr el programs on democracy and education, broadcasts Ghazal until the time of the Abyei Area Referendum. by non-government and civil society organisations, The referendum was scheduled for early 2011 but did and music. Content is chosen to raise awareness of not occur. The region has been plagued by conlict, the Comprehensive Peace Agreement and associated and it is estimated that as many as 40,000 people protocols; to provide information about education, remain displaced. In 2006 Internews, with USAID health, culture, gender and agriculture; and to open funding, began the Radio for Peace, Democracy and up a forum for dialogue and debate, particularly Development in South Sudan project with a view to in relation to tribal conlict. In addition to this stimulating independent media.11 The objectives of programming, in August 2013 Internews launched the project were to improve the physical security of a new program, Abyei This Week, to be run weekly people living in Abyei and other contested territories on Mayardit FM. Abyei This Week is coordinated by of Yirol and Akobo through the provision of news local journalists and a team of young people from and information in local languages. This involved the Abyei and provides news, information features and construction, legalisation and staing of a number entertainment for people in the region. The program 11 http://www.internews.org/our-stories/project-updates/new-radio-program-abyei-informs-and-inspires; http://www.internews.org/sites/default/iles/resources/Sudan_LightintheDarkness2011-08Main.pdf; http://www.internews.org/our-stories/news/local-radio-rebuilds-society-south-sudan Communication and Complex Emergencies: 29 A Resource Guide irst aired shortly after a paramount chief (the leader of the Ngok Dinka tribe was killed and tensions once again became inlamed throughout the region. Civil unrest case The Abyei This Week team responded to this with study | Socially rapid distribution of news, essential reporting and exclusive interviews (including with the Responsible Media US Ambassador to South Sudan). The program is also aired on Eye Radio in Juba, meaning residents of the Platforms for the capital can listen alongside displaced Abyei people Arab World: BBC residing in the capital city. Media Action and Outcomes and limitations Misr International Films Ƹ Five community radio stations have been established in South Sudan. Ƹ A weekly Abyei-focused radio program is produced. Ƹ The project is hampered by technical Background limitations, an unreliable electricity supply In 2009 BBC Media Action began collaborating with and transmitter malfunctions. Egypt’s Misr International Films for the Socially Ƹ Broadcast reach is limited by the small Responsible Media Platforms for the Arab World footprint and comparatively large size of project. Rolled out in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, the country. Syria, Libya, Tunisia, Iraq and Yemen, the project focused on the development and production of Ƹ Economic barriers can make it diicult for three television drama series — Dawaran Shoubra people to gain access to radios. in 2011, Sa’at Hissab in 2012 and Zaat in 2013 — and a web-based drama, Shankaboot.12 The roll-out occurred against the backdrop of the 2011 Arab Links Spring and as a consequence the programs acted to give expression to the audience’s anger and Republic of South Sudan — community radio resentment, as well as facilitating dialogue and provides a voice for the voiceless helping people make informed decisions. The project http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=301CreZj77g also involved collaboration with partners throughout target countries to ensure socially responsible programming in local media environments. The programs received mainstream and critical acclaim. 12 http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where_we_work/middle_east/egypt/dawaran_shoubra.html; http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/bbcmediaaction/posts/A-Girl-Called-Zaat-a-TV-drama-for-a-turbulent-Egypt 30 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Activities husbands and wives, the wearing of a headscarf, and so on. By August 2013 the show had just completed The 30-episode Dawaran Shoubra (Shoubra its irst Ramadan run on the Dream TV channel and Roundabout) was aired during Ramadan of 2011. was scheduled for second and third runs on other Based on the lives of the residents of Shoubra Egyptian and Arabic channels. (an inner city neighbourhood in Cairo), the drama The inal element of the Socially Responsible explores the diverse make-up of a Muslim and Media Platforms for the Arab World project saw Coptic Christian neighbourhood, and the themes the development of the irst Arabic-language web include poverty, lack of opportunity, corruption, drama, Shankaboot. This Lebanese series deals with social injustice, radicalisation and youth alienation. subjects that cannot be covered by mainstream The drama was widely watched in Egypt and media — such as drug addiction, domestic subsequently broadcast on a number of pan-Arab workers, corruption, human traicking and class channels as well as being available via YouTube. inequalities — and is particularly popular among BBC Media Action research on the completion of young people throughout the Arab region. It tells the program showed that 55 per cent of people stories of street life in Beirut through the eyes of who had seen the series were prompted to talk a 15-year-old boy and is now in its ifth season. about the concerns it dealt with among family Audiences can engage in discussions through and friends. The second production as part of the Facebook and other web forums, and Shankaboot project, Sa’at Hissab, takes place in Libya, Jordan, has also begun video production workshops for Tunisia, Egypt and Iraq and gives audiences in young bloggers and activists based on particular these countries an opportunity to question their themes from the series. The format of the show — leaders about things that concern them. Like the ive-minute episodes — allows audiences to swiftly other productions in the series, Sa’at Hissab ofers download the content in the face of slow and individuals a chance to examine and question the unreliable internet connections. achievements and consequences of the Arab Spring. The irst season of the show aired in the months preceding the Cairo uprising; the second series seeks to build on this momentum, with audiences Outcomes and limitations raising questions on topics such as disarmament, Ƹ Three television dramas have been transitional justice, and free and fair elections. developed, produced and broadcast. Satellite links enable participants from multiple points in a country to ask questions simultaneously. Ƹ One web-based drama has been developed, produced and broadcast. The third TV drama series created as part of the project is the series A Girl Called Zaat, an adaptation Ƹ BBC Media Action provided training of a popular novel. Through the life of the main for broadcasters and journalists in the character the audience is able to explore Egypt’s target countries. historical political turmoil, social change and cultural Ƹ Critics have expressed concern about the transformation, from the Nasser revolution in 1952 use of an ‘edutainment’ platform to trivialise to the 2011 presidential elections. Using a female socio-political matters. protagonist allows the series to deal with some gender-related aspects of society — female genital mutilation, girls’ education, relationships between Communication and Complex Emergencies: 31 A Resource Guide Ƹ The events of the 2011 Arab Spring resulted in numerous disruptions to ilming and broadcasting of programs and the Civil unrest case imprisonment of key media personnel; they study | Salam also led to the redistribution of broadcast rights away from the state broadcaster and Shabab (Iraq): associated censorship. US Institute of Peace Links Video: Socially Responsible Media Platforms for the Arab World Background http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where_we_ work/middle_east/egypt The US Institute of Peace’s Center of Innovation focuses on the use of media for conlict reduction Video: Sa’at Hissab and peacebuilding, seeking to develop new http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where_we_ strategies for harnessing the power of the media work/middle_east/egypt/questiontime.html as a means of peacebuilding, as well as to counter Video: Shankaboot Overview the abuse of media during conlict. The centre http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where_we_ aims to bridge gaps in understanding of how work/middle_east/lebanon/shankaboot.html to integrate media into conlict management strategies by conducting research, developing media Shankaboot website programming, and promoting cooperation and http://www.shankaboot.com information sharing among stakeholders. In the case of Iraq, the centre engages with media by working with local partners, maintaining a particular focus on the role of young people as participants in the peacebuilding process because of the country’s large population of young people and widespread political disengagement. Activities In Iraq the US Institute of Peace has produced Salam Shabab (Peace Youth), a multimedia TV special. The reality-style program began in 2009, ilming 30 young people from around the country as they competed in a series of peacebuilding 32 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide challenges.13 The 30-minute pilot documentary was culture to nurture empowered, rather than broadcast on a number of Iraqi channels in 2010 disenfranchised, young people who are enthusiastic and was subsequently built on by a nine-episode about participating in the political sphere as a new TV series that aired on four channels (including the generation of Iraqi leaders. state broadcaster) in October to December 2011. For the series, over 50 young people from six regions, representing a mix of ethnicity, religion and gender, Outcomes and limitations came together for four weeks to exchange their views on conlict and peace. After forming teams, Ƹ A 30-minute documentary-style TV special the participants competed in sporting, mental and has been produced. team-building challenges in the hope of becoming Ƹ Three seasons of a TV series have ‘Ambassadors of Peace’. Two more seasons have been produced. since been developed. The US Institute of Peace consulted with local educators and media experts to Ƹ A complementary social networking site develop a peacebuilding curriculum that would serve has been developed, providing a forum as the foundation for the series. This curriculum for discussion. focuses on four areas: self-conidence, shared Ƹ Young Iraqis’ understanding of peacebuilding community, awareness of civil rights, and respect has been improved. for diversity. As a multimedia program, the documentary and subsequent series were supported by a social Links networking site to facilitate the involvement of young people and the sharing of personal experiences. Salam Shabab online About 400 to 600 young people engage with the http://salamshabab.com/about-salam-shabab website each week. An independent evaluation of the program in 2011 highlighted the enthusiasm Video: Salam Shabab season promotion with which participants engaged in the production http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9076IjlpVs8& process and the series’ ability to act as a forum feature=c4-overview-vl&list=PLAE110EB3163ED17E for young people to give them a voice in political discussions. Furthermore, audiences watching Salam Shabab demonstrated an increased understanding of the collective and cross-cultural nature of the peacebuilding process and respect for the country’s ethnic and religious diversity. It is envisaged that Salam Shabab will become a channel for the development of a participation 13 http://www.usip.org/publications/salam-shabab-peace-media-iraqi-youth; http://www.usip.org/publications/salam- shabab-demonstrating-the-value-diversity-among-iraqi-youth; http://www.usip.org/publications/salam-shabab- views-and-voices-of-iraqi-youth Communication and Complex Emergencies: 33 A Resource Guide and to impede their ability to organise. Such was the Civil unrest case hue and cry that internet access was restored after about a week. study | Speak- to-Tweet (Egypt): Activities Google, Twitter and In January 2011, a matter of days after the Egyptian SayNow Government’s internet crackdown, Google, in partnership with Twitter and a recently acquired company, SayNow, developed a speak-to-tweet service that enabled people to post a tweet through voice without an internet connection.14 Individuals could call one of three international phone numbers Background and leave a voicemail. The speak-to-tweet service would then tweet the message with the During the Egyptian uprising of 2011 internet and hashtag #egypt. Similarly, individuals could listen social networking sites such as Twitter and to messages by dialling the same phone numbers. Facebook played an instrumental role as tools of In February the speak-to-tweet service was communication and mobilisation for protesters. expanded to enable detection of the approximate In response to the escalating protests in Cairo, the geographic origin of a message so as to attach Egyptian government heavily censored and later shut a country-speciic hashtag to the tweet. The down internet pathways throughout the country. This messages sent through the service ranged from was done by withdrawing over 3,500 Border Gateway a few seconds to several minutes and featured Protocol routes from Egyptian internet service citizen witnesses’ descriptions of events occurring providers. Once the BGP routes had been withdrawn, in various parts of the country. Within 24 hours of customers could not gain access to internet sites, the service being launched messages were being send or receive emails, or use internet voice services received every few minutes. The speak-to-tweet such as Skype, and users from other countries service persisted despite the government’s threats could no longer exchange internet traic with that it would shut down mobile phone services. Egypt’s service providers. Before this crackdown the It served as a valuable communication tool for Egyptian Government had already cut of Facebook, protesters and allowed activists to persist in their Twitter and other social media platforms. This was mobilisation eforts. the irst internet shutdown of such a scale and was an attempt to suppress protesters’ communication 14 http://googleblog.blogspot.com.au/2011/01/some-weekend-work-that-will-hopefully.html; http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8295219/Egypt-crisis-Google-launches- speak-to-tweet-service.html; http://news.cnet.com/8301-30684_3-20030144-265.html; http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8288163/How-Egypt-shut-down-the- internet.html 34 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Outcomes and limitations Ƹ State internet censorship and suspension were circumvented. Ƹ Multi-platform technology adaptation enabled access to social media platforms through landline or mobile telephones. Ƹ Disruptions to telephone services presented problems for universal access to the speak-to-tweet platform. Links Speak-to-Tweet service on Twitter https://twitter.com/speak2tweet Communication and Complex Emergencies: 35 A Resource Guide Table 4: Recovery communication framework CONTEXTUAL Ƹ Transitional status often associated with a move towards democracy FACTORS Ƹ Relaxing of media censorship Ƹ Relaxing of media and telecommunications regulation Ƹ Renewal and expansion of media and communication infrastructure Ƹ Non-government and civil society organisations expanding Ƹ Gradual return to the rule of law Ƹ Return to separation of powers — civilian and military COMMUNICATION Ƹ Development of media and communications capacity AND Ƹ Maintenance of peacebuilding dialogue between formerly opposed groups INFORMATION through media NEEDS Ƹ Increased transparency between governments and the public, with an increased focus on information sharing to improve accountability Ƹ Maintained focus on human rights observance and responding to previous human rights abuses Ƹ Focus on civic education and the roles and responsibilities of governments and citizens — for example, during elections Ƹ Promotion of access to basic services SCOPE OF Ƹ Increased emphasis on capacity strengthening of media and communications INTERVENTIONS personnel, especially in news reporting and peacebuilding Ƹ Support for revision of media and communications policy and regulation to enhance plurality and reduce access costs Ƹ Development of local communication for development capacity and specialisation within national and local non-government and civil society organisations Ƹ Support for citizen media Ƹ Support for civic education and monitoring of transition to democracy    CASE STUDIES Ƹ Sada Voice Players (Afghanistan): Voice for Humanity Ƹ Radio Okapi (Democratic Republic of Congo): MONUSCO and the Hirondelle Foundation Ƹ Open Jirga (Afghanistan): BBC Media Action Ƹ PakVotes (Pakistan): Byte for All and US Institute of Peace 36 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Activities Recovery case In the lead-up to the Afghanistan parliamentary study | Sada elections in 2005, Voice for Humanity distributed 41,000 voice players, or sadas, in 21 provinces, each Voice Players containing a chip with 15 hours of civic education (Afghanistan): Voice material designed to promote peace, national unity, democracy and engagement in the coming for Humanity election.15 The content was produced by Afghans in Afghanistan and included songs, round table discussions and ‘frequently asked questions’ about the election. Content chips were available in both Dari and Pashto. Women were a particular focus of this initiative because of their lack of access to Background alternative communication technologies, and half of the distributed sadas were coloured pink in order to Voice for Humanity is a non-government organisation appeal to women and to deter men from taking the based in Kentucky in the United States; its aim voice players away from women. The sada became is to improve the lives of vulnerable groups — in a vehicle for collective listening and engagement particular non- and semi-literate people — by between neighbours and communities. This was disseminating audio devices called ‘voice players’. seen as a valuable avenue for promoting community These players are programed with audio content dialogue and discussion. dealing with speciic local concerns such as maternal and child health, HIV/AIDS education and civic education. The content can be listened to individually or in groups using a player’s inbuilt Outcomes and limitations speakers. The voice players, which are intended to be Ƹ Forty-one thousand voice players were portable, easy to use and hard to break, have been distributed in 21 provinces. distributed in numerous countries — for example, Afghanistan, Cambodia, India, and countries in Ƹ The device helped foster opportunities East Africa. They can be powered in a variety of ways, for learning about and discussing human such as AC power, hand crank, and rechargeable and civic rights — in particular, increased solar-powered batteries, and are designed to awareness of women’s rights such as the overcome tough environmental conditions such as right to vote and to education and work. desert winds and lack of electricity. Wherever they Ƹ Listeners’ understanding of the electoral are used the players are referred to using the local process and their role in it was improved. term for ‘voice’; for example, in India the player is called the araz. 15 Sengupta, A, Long, E, Singhal, A and Shefner-Rogers, C 2007, ‘The sada says “We Women Have Our Rights”: A gender analysis of an ICT initiative in Afghanistan’, International Communication Gazette, vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 335–53. Communication and Complex Emergencies: 37 A Resource Guide Ƹ Record numbers of women voted in the 2005 elections, and female candidates contested the elections for the irst time. Recovery case It should be noted, however, that it is diicult study | Radio to isolate the role the sada initiative had in this. Okapi (Democratic Republic of Congo): Links MONUSCO and Voice for Humanity website the Hirondelle http://www.voiceforhumanity.org/projects/iraq Foundation Background Since the mid 1990s civil war and ethnic strife in the Democratic Republic of Congo have claimed the lives of millions of people and displaced many more. The media sector has played a role in the continuing conlict; in particular, radio has often been used to incite ethnic hatred and disseminate political propaganda. The division of the country into diferent zones run by competing political and military factions has contributed to the problem since local media are increasingly controlled and access to nationwide news is restricted. Radio Okapi was established to provide national media coverage and contribute to the peacebuilding process. Launched in 2002, it is a radio network, not a single radio station, with 28 partner stations broadcasting to the most inaccessible parts of the country. Radio Okapi is a joint project of the UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly MONUC, now MONUSCO) and the Hirondelle Foundation, a Swiss non-government 38 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide organisation. The Hirondelle Foundation aims to Outcomes and limitations create and support independent media in conlict, post-conlict and crisis zones, and Radio Okapi Ƹ Radio Okapi produces national news relects this mission through its emphasis on press coverage while maintaining high standards freedom, journalistic responsibility, civic education, of professionalism and impartiality. good governance and development. Radio Okapi Ƹ The network is a trusted and credible broadcasts in ive languages — French, Lingala, news source. Swahili, Tshiluba and Kikongo — and is also heard internationally, particularly among the Congolese Ƹ Radio Okapi has played a central role in diaspora, via online streaming. supporting the Democratic Republic of Congo’s transition period, including the electoral process. Activities Ƹ The lack of resources available in English The Radio Okapi network played an important makes it diicult to assess the impact of part in the 2006 electoral process by providing an the network. avenue for all parties to express themselves while also taking care to broadcast veriied facts.16 Dutch non-government organisation La Benevolencija Links used Radio Okapi as part of a broader campaign to promote reconciliation and prevent future violence. Documentary Radio Okapi, radio de la vie, 2006, In the lead-up to the second round of the 2006 P Guyot, France elections a series of four weekly programs were http://vimeo.com/groups/82472/videos/20197657 broadcast on the network in an efort to counter hate (French) speech.17 The programs featured questions gathered Hirondelle Foundation website through interviews with listeners around the country http://www.hirondelle.org that were answered by La Benevolencija experts. The questions dealt with things such as how to deine, distinguish and counteract hate speech. 16 Betz, M 2004, ‘Radio as a peacebuilder: a case study of Radio Okapi in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, The Great Lakes Research Journal, vol. 1, December, http://www.hirondelle.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/ RadioOkapiasapeacebuilder.pdf; Vollhardt, J, Coutin, M, Staub, E, Weiss, G and Delander, J 2006, ‘Deconstructing hate speech in the DRC: a psychological media sensitization campaign’, Journal of Hate Studies, vol. 5, issue 1, pp. 15–35. 17 http://www.deza.admin.ch/en/Home/Projects/Selected_projects/Radio_Okapi; http://www.hirondelle.org/radio- okapi-3/radio-okapi/?lang=en. Communication and Complex Emergencies: 39 A Resource Guide Activities Recovery case With funding from the UK Department for study | Open Jirga International Development, BBC Media Action works in Afghanistan to deliver a multimedia platform (Afghanistan): BBC for political debate and discussion.18 The program Media Action Open Jirga ( jirga meaning ‘assembly’ in Pashto) is broadcast on television, radio and online in partnership with the state broadcaster Radio Television Afghanistan to ensure a national reach and access by the diaspora via satellite; the aim is to increase accountability between citizens and the Background government during the country’s transition. Hosted by a well-known Afghan BBC journalist, the program After more than 30 years of war Afghanistan is broadcast in both Pashto and Dari. The irst continues to experience conlict and political and Open Jirga episode was broadcast in December 2012 social diiculties. Research conducted by BBC Media and focused on the state of security post-2014. The Action in 2012, in seven provinces throughout the panel, featuring the Minister of the Interior, the Chief country and with varied ethnic groups and minority of Operations at the Ministry of Defence, and the communities, investigated individual attitudes to former head of the National Directorate of Security, governance, the media and accountability. Most received questions from a 70-strong audience made of the people surveyed nominated corruption and up of individuals from eight provinces. Audience lack of accountability as major concerns and said members asked about topics such as the impending that as a result they preferred to refer problems military withdrawal in 2014 and women’s role in and conlicts to traditional elders rather than to public life. A subsequent episode, in March 2013, more formal government channels. The research saw the Afghan President, Hamid Karzai, receive found that many Afghans have experienced negative questions from the audience on his government’s interaction with government, and this has resulted performance to date, the country’s relationship with in a devalued sense of democracy. For BBC Media the international community, infrastructure, and Action the results of this research meant there was peace processes with the Taliban. The program is a need to improve public deliberation and interaction also supported by particular governance-related between citizens and their political leaders. scenes in the existing radio drama New Home, New Life, as well as speciic educational radio features. 18 http://www.comminit.com/fragile-contexts/content/open-jirga-exploring-governance-afghanistan; http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/publicationsandpress/research_afghanistan_governance_page.html; http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where_we_work/asia/afghanistan/afghanistan_open_jirga.html 40 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Outcomes and limitations Ƹ Formative, qualitative research led to the Recovery case production of Open Jirga, a political debate study | PakVotes and discussion program. (Pakistan): Byte Ƹ The program facilitates greater citizen engagement with political leaders. for All Links Video: Open Jirga 1 on Security Background http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=61TOP--FY2k Video: Open Jirga 5 with Afghan President Elections in Pakistan have a history of violence, and on Governance perhaps the most memorable is the December 2007 http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_ election, when candidate Benazir Bhutto was embedded&v=vFIzHqtku-o assassinated. The May 2013 election was of particular signiicance because it marked the irst constitutional transfer of power from one civilian government to another in Pakistan’s history. It also constituted the irst time that digital and social media had been used to communicate, collaborate, monitor and report on elections in the country. Byte for All, or B4A, is a Pakistani technology and human rights group with a focus on information and communication technologies. It has a particular interest in capacity building for human rights defenders, especially in the areas of digital security, online safety and privacy, working on a number of projects and campaigning against internet censorship and surveillance in Pakistan, with an emphasis on the use of internet rights in the struggle for democracy. Communication and Complex Emergencies: 41 A Resource Guide Activities Outcomes and limitations With seed funding from the US Institute of Peace, Ƹ Citizens connected with social media Byte for All implemented a pilot project, PakVotes, through Twitter and Facebook. during the 2013 election, seeking to bring openness Ƹ Information was published through the and inclusion to the political process.19 PakVotes PakVotes website. engaged the public in election monitoring in order to identify election-related violence and procedural Ƹ Field monitors provided data for mapping. misconduct. Overall, the project documented intimidation attempts, voter fraud, assassination Ƹ The project was a source of information for attempts and kidnappings. Information and mainstream and international media. documentation from ield monitors were sent to Ƹ The internet is still an emerging platform the PakVotes team for veriication and then posted in Pakistan, and marginalised and rural through diferent social media and on the PakVotes populations have little to no access. website. The project was based around a network of 40 social media reporters in 10 districts that had been chosen because of their propensity for Links violence, citizens’ limited access to information, and limited air time in the mainstream media. The PakVotes map website 40 monitors were equipped with high-end smart http://www.pakvotesmap.pk phones embedded with social media tools that enabled them to video or photograph election PakVotes — people stand up to the elections that violations and share them in real time. A code of were anything but free and fair ethics was developed to govern how data were http://www.carbonated.tv/news/pak-votes-people- collected, veriied and shared on social media. stand-up-to-the-elections-that-were-anything-but- The PakVotes Twitter handle gained 700 followers free-and-fair-video in 36 hours, the hashtag #PakVotes trended for the duration of the election, and the Facebook site generated 11,000 likes during its irst month. In addition to posting information through social media and its own website, the project hosted a blog featuring over 20 writers, columnists and citizen journalists and mapped data on allegations of violence and misconduct. Information published online by PakVotes was heavily drawn on by international media and government oicials. 19 http://www.usip.org/olivebranch/adding-the-election-fervor-in-pakistan-pakvotes-wields-facebook-web-and-twitter; http://internationalpoliticalforum.com/pak-votes-2013-pakistans-online-battle-against-political-violence/; http://www.huingtonpost.com/hammad-moses-khan/pakvotes-a-new-kind-of-el_b_3283564.html 42 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide 4. Core communication principles Communication during acute emergencies and in efectiveness are adopted. Figure 6 summarises longer term crises is more likely to have an impact these principles. if a number of principles that are known to improve Figure 6: Communication design, 12 principles 1. A process 2. 12. orientation Evaluation Formative research 11. Advocating 3. for policy and Diverse legislative stakeholders change 4. 10. 12 PRINCIPLES Multiple Building FOR EFFECTIVE communication dialogue COMMUNICATION channels 9. 5. Working with Targeted communities content 8. 6. Linking 7. Targeted to service Consistency action delivery and accuracy Communication and Complex Emergencies: 43 A Resource Guide 1. Be process orientated 2. Formative research Well-designed, well-implemented communication Initial situational assessment can highlight what initiatives, even those that aim to respond to acute communication activities could be developed situations, tend to be process oriented. They adhere in any particular context (see Section 3). It is to principles such as those outlined here and follow important that assumptions about what could be speciic processes or steps relating to formative developed are tested, wherever possible, by using research, the identiication of target groups, the a formative research process. Formative research design and testing of messages, the monitoring examines knowledge, attitudes, practices and of implementation, and impact evaluation. Being the information needs of at-risk and vulnerable process oriented helps communicators avoid populations. It is also important to understand common errors and maximises the chance of the local communications environment, the range efectiveness and impact. A number of detailed of communication channels available for use, and ‘how to’ guides, online resources and practical existing communication and media policy, legislation tools exist that allow practitioners to objectively and regulation. This increases understanding of the work through central elements of emergency vulnerabilities faced by target groups and which communication in a systematic way. The Australian communication channels to use; it also helps with Emergency Management website is one such establishing an ongoing research and evaluation link resource, as is the Catholic Relief Service’s Develop to afected communities. a Communication Plan in Nine Steps. Never make assumptions about what vulnerable groups need to know or how best to communicate Resources with them. It is important that decisions are Emergency Management Australia website based on evidence and that dialogue through http://www.em.gov.au/Pages/default.aspx communication is established whenever possible. Field research has its own risks, and where Develop a Communication Plan in Nine Steps, ield-based formative research is not possible (often Catholic Relief Service, 2013 in acute conlict or disaster situations) alternative http://www.crsprogramquality.org/storage/pubs/ sources of data can be sought — for example, general/communication-toolbox-template-develop- through crisis-mapping communities or social media a-communication-plan.pdf dialogue with afected communities. A rigorous risk Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication, assessment process should be adopted at all times US Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that the safety of ield staf is maximised. and Centers for Disease Control, 2012 The following resources highlight a number of http://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/pdf/ research and evaluation approaches and options for CERC_2012edition.pdf securing data in complex emergencies. 44 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Resources Ƹ mass media managers Monitoring and Evaluating Information Ƹ journalists and Communication for Development Programmes, UK Department for International Ƹ politicians — for advocacy Development, 2005 Ƹ the general public. http://www.oecd.org/dev/devcom/46388330.pdf Understanding that diferent stakeholders exist Emergency Journalism Toolkit for Better and and that they might need diferent kinds of Accurate Reporting: data sources, European engagement and information helps humanitarian Journalism Centre, 2013 and development organisations increase their http://emergencyjournalism.net/useful-links-oicial- efectiveness and accountability. The more the data-sources/ patchwork of stakeholders in any given situation is included and reached with efective communication that builds productive dialogue, the greater the 3. Diverse stakeholders level of accountability. The Australian Red Cross resource Communicating in Recovery provides When communicating during a crisis or in response a comprehensive overview of potential stakeholders to a long-term situation such as post-conlict in emergency situations. recovery, formative research will reveal that diverse stakeholders exist and that these groups might need Resources very diferent forms of information communicated through difering channels if they are to be reached Communicating in Recovery, Australian Red efectively. Although the focus of many emergency Cross, 2010 (Section 3) communication initiatives is the broad general http://www.redcross.org.au/iles/Communicating_ public who can be targeted with crucial messages, in_recovery_resource.pdf many initiatives are aimed at speciic groups — for Accountability to Afected Populations: the example, combatants or law enforcement oicers. operational framework, Inter-Agency Standing Diverse stakeholders have diferent needs based Committee, 2013 on factors such as gender, age, ethnicity and http://www.fao.org/ileadmin/user_upload/ occupational category. In the broad ield of conlict, emergencies/docs/IASC%20AAP%20 humanitarianism and emergency communication, Operational%20Framework%20March%202013.pdf target audiences for communication can include the following: Ƹ at-risk groups — for example, children, ethnic groups and occupational groups Ƹ staf of humanitarian agencies Ƹ police and military personnel Ƹ government employees — for example, service providers Communication and Complex Emergencies: 45 A Resource Guide 4. Multiple communication Ƹ television — community, national and international, across all genres from drama channels to news There is strong evidence that communication Ƹ ilm and video — focusing on impacts rise exponentially when high-quality detailed analysis messages, dialogue and mobilisation target speciic stakeholder groups via multiple communication Ƹ internet-based — crisis mapping, citizen channels. This helps ensure the widest possible media, blogs, social media and networking, exposure to relevant information. Communicating data collecting face to face and through peers, as well as by using Ƹ mobile phone based — SMS warnings, new media (social and mobile) and traditional SMS-based data gathering mechanisms. media (print, radio and television), can help deliver broad coverage and wide access. The range of The Australian Red Cross resource Communicating communication channels used should be determined in Recovery discusses in detail the range of as a result of formative research or previous communication channels that can be used during preparation in the context of disaster planning. emergencies. When infrastructure damage has The aim should always be to use the most efective occurred as a result of conlict or disaster a limited communication channel to reach the speciied number of national communication channels might group. Often such channels are the most popular be available, and international communication and when communicating emergency messages broadly media organisations have occasionally stepped in to the general public. When seeking to communicate to ill crucial information gaps; a notable example to narrower target groups, such as community is BBC Media Action, which draws extensively on leaders or politicians, face-to-face communication the international broadcasting channels of the BBC might be more efective. Potential communication World Service to provide both humanitarian- and channels can include the following: development-focused information to a wide range of stakeholders. Ƹ interpersonal — face-to-face, meetings, counselling, peer communication, and so on Resources Ƹ participatory — street theatre, participatory Communicating in Recovery, Australian Red video, dance, and so on Cross, 2010 (Section 2) Ƹ print material — newspapers, posters, http://www.redcross.org.au/iles/Communicating_ lealets, lyers, newsletters, and so on in_recovery_resource.pdf Ƹ radio — community, national and BBC Media Action website international, across all genres from drama http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/ to news 46 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide 5. Targeted content materials and messages is strongly dependent on context and the related safety factors and risk Diverse audiences need information that is aimed assessment. In emergency situations — such as speciically at them. Targeted content using popular those routinely experienced with natural disasters — media channels and formats is central to creating good preparedness work can help ofset such the right sort of impact and, where possible, concerns. In acute conlict situations both formative a dialogue with key stakeholders. Understanding research and the pre-testing of communication which channels and formats are popular and materials and messages might not be possible, appealing is a vital step towards creating an impact, although eforts can be made to connect with and assumptions should never be made about afected populations or diaspora populations communication preferences on an audience’s behalf. (through crisis-mapping organisations, community Targeted content contains tailored messages that groups and social media) in order to obtain a degree have been developed in conjunction with afected of feedback. Figure 7 shows the main pre-testing communities and are known to provide relevant steps; Table 5 shows the primary values or needed information. Such content contains pre-testing assesses. messages that can cover a wide range of topics, such as the following: Ƹ general awareness and other information designed to protect Ƹ the psychological impacts of disaster or conlict Ƹ speciic vulnerable groups Ƹ protection from violence, rights abuses and abuse of power Ƹ child protection Ƹ environmental hazards Ƹ evacuation, humanitarian aid and/or government service delivery. Initial situational assessment and formative research will help to identify the type of initiative and the kind of information stakeholders require. Nevertheless, understanding these variables does not necessarily equate with successful communication. A rigorous process of testing the proposed communication materials and messages should be adhered to if conditions allow. This testing takes place before the communication occurs and is often called ‘pre-testing’. The ability to pre-test communication Communication and Complex Emergencies: 47 A Resource Guide Figure 7: Pre-testing steps Prepare. Draft scripts, narratives, texts, artwork and storyboards, and key messages. Review all draft materials with a technical team (for example, conlict reduction or humanitarian specialists). Make sure the technical content of the messages is appropriate. Test ‘in house’. Do this to ind mistakes before the pre-test is taken out to the ield and to identify comprehension errors. The sample. This should have the same characteristics as the target group. It is always better to pre-test outputs using a well-selected sample, even if it is small (20 to 30 people), than not to pre-test at all. Evaluation instruments. Design pre-test focus group guidelines or individual interview instruments on the basis of initial feedback from the in-house pre-test. It is also advisable to assess the evaluation instruments at this time, to ensure that they will achieve the pre-test objectives. Select interviewers. Designers and producers of communication materials should have a role in the pre-test. A target group’s reaction to their materials can be persuasive and allows for improvement of the material’s relevance. Logistical arrangements. The team needs to organise logistics, such as transport, meeting places and authorisations, so that everything is in place before the start of ieldwork. Ensuring safety is crucial: testing should not occur if the assessed risk is too great. The interviews and focus groups. Use the evaluation instruments developed by the team for this. Only three or four focus groups of up to eight people are required to provide the feedback needed. Assessment of results and revision. If 70 per cent of the target audience understands the outputs and messages and inds the material relevant, attractive, acceptable and believable, the communication is successful. Make changes based on feedback. If the material is misunderstood or accepted by fewer than 70 per cent, consider making broader changes to the design of the material and messages. Follow up with another pre-test exercise to ensure that the revisions are efective. 48 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Table 5: Values assessed in pre-testing RELEVANCE It is essential that communication materials and messages are relevant to the groups targeted. If irrelevant messages are targeted at inappropriate groups there will be little impact. Understanding if an output is relevant and, if not, why not is important. If the necessary formative research is done the relevance of outputs can be assessed at the design stage. Asking about the relevance of communication outputs remains a priority and helps to ensure that initiatives have a better chance of creating an impact. COMPREHENSION Understanding materials and messages is essential to acceptance and then to behaviour change among target groups. Comprehension measures the clarity of the content and the messages being communicated. Complicated or technical vocabulary can result in failure to understand the message. Images can also be confusing and can be misinterpreted. ATTRACTIVENESS Mass media and print materials should be attractive. If outputs are not attractive, target groups might not pay much attention to them. Attractiveness can be achieved through the use of sounds (music, tone) in the case of radio, visuals (colour and illustrations) in the case of graphics, and movement, action, illumination and animation in the case of video. ACCEPTANCE The outputs and messages must be acceptable to the target population. If outputs contain something ofensive or messages that are not believable, or if they cause arguments, the group will reject the message. INVOLVEMENT The target group should be able to identify with the communication outputs. They should recognise that the message is directed to them. Target groups will not pay attention to messages they think do not involve them.  Representations, illustrations, symbols and language should ideally relect the characteristics of the target group. ENCOURAGEMENT Communication outputs should explain what the intervention wants the target audience to do. Most emergency communication promotes messages that ask a group to do something. Successful communication outputs transmit a message about something that can be done by the target group. Communication and Complex Emergencies: 49 A Resource Guide The resources that follow set out the potential Messages during acute emergencies tend to focus range of messages that can be communicated on the following: in an emergency situation, as well as how to Ƹ information giving develop and frame the messages provided. The Australian Government’s Emergency Warnings: Ƹ raising awareness choosing your words is a comprehensive guide to emergency messaging. Ƹ prevention Ƹ taking protective measures Resources Ƹ risk reduction Quick Guide to Communication on Protection in Emergencies and Sample Key Messages for Ƹ evacuation Protection, Paciic Humanitarian Protection Ƹ harm reduction Cluster, 2012 http://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/_assets/ Ƹ service availability iles/ield_protection_clusters/South_Paciic/ iles/PHPC_Quick_Guide_Communication_Key_ Ƹ conlict proximity Protection_Communication_Messages_EN.pdf Ƹ early warning of disasters Emergency Warnings: choosing your words, Ƹ post-disaster recovery Australian Government, 2008 http://www.em.gov.au/ Ƹ observing human rights Emergency-Warnings/Documents/ Ƹ taking steps to avoid violence EmergencyWarningsChoosingYourWordsEdition2.pdf Ƹ ensuring the safety of others Ƹ taking steps to prevent disease outbreaks 6. Targeted action Ƹ maintaining hygiene and good Diferent kinds of communication require diferent sanitation practices. kinds of messaging strategies. Acute situations demand that target groups take action ‘now’. Long-term communication initiatives tend to focus Long-term initiatives typically target positive their messages on the following: changes in social norms, attitudes, practices and Ƹ preparing behaviour. For example, reducing tension by creating dialogue between groups that are opposed to each Ƹ raising awareness other can be vital to limiting conlict and animosity. Ƹ creating inter-group dialogue Such dialogue also helps ‘humanise’ opposing groups by changing negative attitudes and perceptions. Ƹ improving the quality of information by Initial planning and communication design of the reducing bias initiative — and especially the formative research Ƹ strengthening civic responsibility work done in order to deine the information needs of the target groups — will ultimately dictate Ƹ promoting services what speciic message or information is provided. 50 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide Ƹ promoting the rule of law, reconciliation through multiple channels, using formats and genres and peacebuilding preferred by the target group. Diferent messaging approaches can be needed to reach diferent Ƹ changing behaviour and attitudes. target groups — for example, the general public as Messages that advocate action or some form of opposed to speciic risk groups such as children. social or behavioural change need to be carefully The aim of messaging might be to provide clear and crafted if communicators are to maximise the actionable information, but it can also be to create messages’ impact. It is important that the messages a dialogue. The style of messaging depends on the provided in any emergency or conlict situation context, although Figure 8 sets out some important are well researched, targeted, clear, credible and broad principles associated with how messages actionable. Ideally, they should be communicated are framed. Figure 8: Tips for developing messages Never assume what messages target groups need. Verify the relevance and appropriateness of messages through formative research. If the situation allows, Consider what understand how your 'voice' will be used to message was received and persuade target groups — whether it needs to be for example, a peer or adapted to give it an authority figure. Is the greater impact. voice credible? Make sure Ensure the your messages are message is clear and specific, consistent and available through multiple accurate. Ensuring that the channels. Target groups information contained in often need to confirm messages is verified is messages from important in emergency an alternative source situations. before they take action. The resources that follow highlight how messages communication designed to change behaviour. It that target action can be systematically developed focuses on a number of considerations that afect and communicated. The UNICEF publication children during emergencies, many of them to do Behaviour Change Communication in Emergencies: with health. a toolkit provides guidance on how to develop Communication and Complex Emergencies: 51 A Resource Guide Resources The resources that follow provide a comprehensive assessment of how to improve the consistency and Quick Guide to Communication on Protection accuracy of communication. The recent emergence in Emergencies and Sample Key Messages for of citizen journalism, crowdsourcing and crisis Protection, Paciic Humanitarian Protection mapping as new tools of humanitarian and crisis Cluster, 2012 communication is allowing for the rapid collection http://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/_assets/ and veriication of data that are crucial to the iles/ield_protection_clusters/South_Paciic/ delivery of humanitarian assistance, monitoring of iles/PHPC_Quick_Guide_Communication_Key_ electoral processes and observance of human rights. Protection_Communication_Messages_EN.pdf The role of new information and communication Behaviour Change Communication in technologies in promoting consistency and Emergencies: a toolkit, UNICEF, 2006 accuracy in humanitarian communication is dealt http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/BCC_full_pdf.pdf with in Emergency Journalism Toolkit for Better and Accurate Reporting: veriication tools, by the European Journalism Centre. 7. Consistency and accuracy Resources Communication during both crisis situations Emergency Warnings: choosing your words, and longer term complex emergencies calls for Australian Government, 2008 consistency and accuracy. Messages must not http://www.em.gov.au/ contradict each other and must contain accurate Emergency-Warnings/Documents/ and, where appropriate, actionable information. EmergencyWarningsChoosingYourWordsEdition2.pdf It is important that steps to verify information are taken before its communication to audiences and Emergency Journalism Toolkit for Better and stakeholders. Conveying inaccurate information Accurate Reporting: veriication tools, European can be very damaging and can destroy the trust the Journalism Centre, 2013 public has in organisations such as humanitarian http://emergencyjournalism.net/useful-links- agencies and media outlets. Both the general public veriication-tools/ and speciic target audiences are critical judges of information. Typically, they assess the following: Ƹ the factual content and accuracy of 8. Link to service delivery the communication Emergency communication tends to link to service Ƹ whether information can be independently delivery in a very immediate way, but longer term veriied — for example, using another initiatives can also target or promote a service — for communication source example, weapon collection or security services. If messages are advocating an action that links to Ƹ whether the information has come from a service (say, weapon collection) it is essential a credible and trusted source. Audiences that communities can gain access to that service perceive trusted sources as displaying and make efective use of it. Advocating an action empathy, competence, honesty, openness without the necessary service being there to and commitment. support it can damage the reputation of agencies 52 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide involved in humanitarian assistance, the media and 9. Working with communities communication sector, and service providers. This can lead to a loss of trust in any future information Good communication that is capable of creating that is provided. Communication initiatives can link real dialogue tends to involve working with to numerous forms of service delivery, depending on communities through community structures and the nature of the emergency (acute or longer term), local organisations. It is widely understood that and can include the following: community participation builds inclusion and ownership of communication initiatives and that this Ƹ emergency relief services following helps to deliver greater impacts for communicators natural disasters and communities alike. Lasting change is often Ƹ humanitarian relief for the displaced — delivered only through working at the community for example, as a result of conlict rather than the individual level because community-held norms can deter individuals from Ƹ education services changing their behaviours and practices. Working with community leaders and obtaining broad Ƹ health services community engagement can be diicult in acute Ƹ programs that promote reconciliation — conlict situations, but it is an essential component for example, truth and reconciliation of preparing for natural disasters. In situations characterised by civil unrest or recovery from Ƹ weapon collection services conlict, practical steps need to be taken to ensure Ƹ police and the judiciary — for example, that communication occurs at the community level. service standards Mobilising communities for peace, reconciliation, recovery and reconstruction is essential if a Ƹ public works resilient and sustainable peace or resolution is to be Ƹ ordinance and land-mine clearance. achieved. Community-based communication can include the following: When communication is linked with service delivery, at-risk populations and other stakeholders have the Ƹ holding community meetings best opportunity to take action. Ƹ working with community leaders — political, traditional, religious, ethnic, and so on Resources Ƹ mobilising communities through community Service Delivery in Fragile Situations: key events and performances concepts, indings and lessons, OECD, 2008 http://www.oecd.org/development/incaf/408867 Ƹ encouraging participation in communication 07.pdf design (through formative research) and participatory evaluation. Numerous resources deal with the role of community participation in communication. The UNESCO Policy Brief listed here provides a speciic focus on the promotion of community participation in education in conlict situations. Communication and Complex Emergencies: 53 A Resource Guide Resources Ƹ It occurs over the longer term and requires ongoing commitments from Promoting Participation: community funders, implementers, communities and contributions to education in conlict situations, interest groups. UNESCO Policy Brief, 2008 http://www.iiep.unesco.org/ileadmin/user_upload/ The United Nations Development Programme Research_Highlights_Emergencies/pdf/PB_ resource that follows outlines the important role of PromotingParticipation.pdf dialogue in conlict prevention and peacebuilding. The Rockefeller Foundation resource looks at how Accountability to Afected Populations, Inter- communities communicate and accept or reject Agency Standing Committee, 2013 social change. This general resource is of value to http://www.fao.org/ileadmin/user_upload/ those seeking a better understanding of some of emergencies/docs/IASC%20AAP%20 the opportunities and constraints associated with Operational%20Framework%20March%202013.pdf communication practice at the community level. Resources 10. Building dialogue Why Dialogue Matters for conlict Prevention Dialogue is essential to dealing with all forms of and Peacebuilding, United Nations Development crisis. Communication that can build dialogue at Programme, 2009 the community and national levels ofers the best http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/ chance of promoting conlict reduction, peace and crisis%20prevention/dialogue_conlict.pdf reconciliation. Numerous communication initiatives Communication for Social Change: an integrated during periods of civil unrest and recovery focus model for measuring the process and its on bringing opposing groups together through outcomes, Rockefeller Foundation, 2002 dialogue and debate, which must be well managed http://www.communicationforsocialchange.org/pdf/ and responsible if it is to be efective and does socialchange.pdf not inlame conlict or animosity. Promoting community dialogue about whether change can be implemented is important because beliefs and norms are held collectively. Efective dialogue has 11. Advocating for policy and four important characteristics: legislative change Ƹ It is inclusive and relects multiple voices Policy and legislation — as well as regulation in the within communities. case of the media and communications sector — can have a strong bearing on the information and Ƹ It is about learning and change. communication environment in any particular Ƹ It allows opponents to recognise circumstance. During acute emergencies changes each other’s right to exist and have in how the media and communications sector a diferent opinion. is organised and governed might be required to maximise the communication response — for example, through the waiving of licensing requirements for emergency humanitarian radio broadcasting. More typically, however, policy and legislation are the focus of longer term 54 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide communication initiatives that seek to inluence Resources stakeholders and help build a supportive Media Development Indicators: a framework for communications environment conducive to change, assessing media development, UNESCO, 2008 conlict reduction and reconciliation. In post-conlict http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ situations such work is termed ‘media development’, images/0016/001631/163102e.pdf and it constitutes a central plank of the work of organisations such as UNESCO, BBC Media Action Between Radicalisation and Democratisation and ABC International Development. Robust policy in an Unfolding Conlict: media in Pakistan, and legislative and regulatory environments can International Media Support, 2009 help the media and communications sector be more http://www.i-m-s.dk/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ responsive during periods of civil unrest or recovery, ims-media-pakistan-radicalisation-2009.pdf as well as opening communication channels to voices previously silenced or discredited. Policy and legislative changes can achieve several objectives: 12. Evaluation Ƹ help to regulate the media and It is vitally important that the progress and impacts communications sector, encouraging of all communication initiatives are evaluated. restraint and responsibility Evaluation is learning centred and feeds back Ƹ lead to improvements in the quality of into program delivery. It allows for impacts to journalism and reduce bias and defamation be understood and helps to highlight problems with program delivery — including aspects of Ƹ help to increase the diversity of voices in communication that are not working or that cause the media confusion. For example, a misunderstood message can cause panic, can be harmful if advocating Ƹ open channels of communication for the a certain type of action or can inlame an existing excluded and vulnerable conlict. As with formative research, both ongoing Ƹ increase the preparedness of and summative evaluation might be diicult to carry communicators and improve their response out in emergency situations where risks are imposed to disaster. on the evaluators. It is important to ensure that risks are assessed before ield-based evaluation The resources that follow provide detailed insights begins. If the constraints are severe, alternatives into how the media and communications sector to ield-sourced data can be sought or it might be can be assessed, developed and benchmarked possible to connect with organisations that have using the criteria of increased openness, freedom become expert in remotely obtaining data from and responsibility. afected areas. The high levels of new media access and ownership mean that new ways of linking to afected populations have been developed, among them crowdsourcing and crisis mapping. Recent years have seen the emergence of numerous crisis mapping networks that crowdsource information directly from a disaster or conlict zone. Such organisations are now at the forefront of the Communication and Complex Emergencies: 55 A Resource Guide information and communication response during Resources emergencies and ofer new means of monitoring and Monitoring and Evaluating Information evaluating implementation and progress. Ongoing and Communication for Development (ICD) and summative evaluations do the following: Programmes, UK Department for International Ƹ enable errors and miscommunication to Development, 2005. be identiied http://www.oecd.org/dev/devcom/46388330.pdf Ƹ allow for changes to be made to Emergency Journalism Toolkit for Better and communication design and messaging Accurate Reporting: crowdsourcing networks, European Journalism Centre, 2013 Ƹ enable impacts on knowledge, attitudes, http://emergencyjournalism.net/maps practices and behaviour to be understood Ƹ provide evidence for the continuation of activities or indicate a successful resolution Ƹ provide content for advocacy with funders, partner implementers and other stakeholders. The resources that follow deal with a range of research and evaluation tools employable in the context of communication initiatives, as well as material that discusses the rapidly growing practice of crowdsourcing data. 56 Communication and Complex Emergencies: A Resource Guide 5. Conclusion This resource guide assesses the broad role of information and communication in disaster situations and complex emergencies. It highlights a number of distinct communication phases or cycles associated with emergency or crisis communication, as well as deining the broad range and diversity of initiatives associated with communication in such situations. The guide deines a number of frameworks for use in rapidly assessing a situation, the resultant information needs and the contextual constraints. It also deines a number of important principles associated with efective crisis communication and provides links to ‘best-practice’ resources that ofer additional detail. The principles described are important and are process oriented. While signiicant risk can make it diicult to adhere to a rigorous communication design process in an emergency, the processes, frameworks and principles elaborated here highlight the importance of developing evidence-based communication initiatives. Evidence-based initiatives that truly link to communities afected by disaster and conlict and that seek to build meaningful dialogue ofer the best potential for delivering social impacts. Communication and Complex Emergencies: 57 A Resource Guide