(PDF) Does the world need a global project on artificial photosynthesis?

Downloaded from http://rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on April 24, 2015 Does the world need a global project on artificial photosynthesis? rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org Thomas Faunce1,2 1 ANU College of Law, and 2ANU College of Medicine, Biology and the Environment, Australian National University, Fellows Road, Acton, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia This paper introduces a theme issue of Interface Focus derived from papers pre- Introduction sented at the Royal Society supported meeting ‘Do we need a global project on artificial photosynthesis?’ held at Chicheley Hall in July 2014. At that meeting, Cite this article: Faunce T. 2015 Does the leaders of national solar fuels and chemicals projects and research presented world need a global project on artificial ‘state of the art’ on artificial photosynthesis (AP) in the context of the policy photosynthesis? Interface Focus 5: 20150029. challenges for globalizing a practical technology to address climate change http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2015.0029 and energy and food security concerns. The discussions included contributions from many experts with legal and policy skills and uniquely focused on pro- ducing principles for prioritizing and specializing work while enhancing the One contribution of 11 to a theme issue funding and attendant public policy profile. To this end, representatives of ‘Do we need a global project on artificial major public, philanthropic and private potential stakeholders in such a project photosynthesis (solar fuels and chemicals)?’. (such as the Wellcome Trust, the Moore Foundation, Shell, the Leighty Foun- dation, the EPSRC and Deutsche Alternative Asset Management) were invited to provide feedback at various points in the meeting. For this Interface Focus Subject Areas: issue, speakers at the Chicheley Hall meeting were required to present a nanotechnology, environmental science, snapshot of their cutting edge research related to AP and then draw upon chemical engineering the Chicheley Hall discussions to innovatively analyse how their research could best be advanced by a global AP project. Such multidisciplinary policy analysis was not a skill many of these researchers were experienced Keywords: or trained in. Nonetheless their efforts here represent one of the first published artificial photosynthesis, carbon dioxide collections to attempt such a significant task. This introduction contains a brief fixation, nitrogen fixation, food and fuel summary of those papers, focusing particularly on their policy aspects. It then security, environmental sustainability, summarizes the core discussions that took place at the Chicheley Hall meeting Sustainocene and sets out some of the central ethical principles that were considered during those discussions. Author for correspondence: Thomas Faunce e-mail:

1. Introduction This unique collection of interdisciplinary papers in artificial photosynthesis (AP) science and policy are derived from presentations at the Royal Society Chi- cheley Hall meeting in July 2014 on the theme ‘Do we need a global project in artificial photosynthesis’. They explore the vision that there is a growing ethical responsibility on humanity in general to ensure that every road, pavement, building and vehicle on the Earth’s surface performs photosynthesis. A common theme is that a global AP project is not just an issue of enhancing AP technological capacity but of thereby facilitating an expansion of moral sym- pathy; the promoted good intention being not just to make renewable human fuel and food, but help sustain the biosphere by sustainable principles. A billion years ago, cyanobacteria began a revolution to oxygenate the Earth’s atmosphere by using sunlight to split water, but also to use the reduc- tive acetyl-CoA pathway to make food and energy through the formate dehydrogenase-catalysed reduction of CO2 to formate and CO dehydrogenase- catalysed reduction of CO2 to CO [1]. Since then, biology has slowly evolved other approaches to CO2 fixation including the pentose phosphate (Calvin– Benson–Bassham) cycle using the key enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/ oxygenase (RuBisCO) to catalyse carboxylation of the five-carbon sugar 1,5-ribulose bisphosphate to form the six-carbon sugar fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. Those dominant and ecologically damaging sources of human energy, coal, petroleum and natural gas, are ancient remnants of such components of the & 2015 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved. Downloaded from http://rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on April 24, 2015 natural photosynthetic process that, over a billion years, has fund single-principal investigator (PI) grants, multi-PI grants 2 evolved to use large (i.e. trees) and small (i.e. grass, bacteria) and centres of excellence. The single-PI grants would be distrib- rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org structures over the Earth’s land and sea mass [2]. Life on this uted to fund focused research on the individual components world remains critically dependent on the 385 109 tons of using specific approaches to capitalize on the recognized exper- carbon dioxide fixed annually through biological photosyn- tise of individual PIs and their laboratories. The multi-PI grants thesis [3]. Part of the vision shared at the Chicheley Hall would fund efforts at the interface between these areas, for meeting is that humanity, through a global project on AP, example testing compatibility between the modules of AP must urgently develop a fully functional global artificial photo- research and testing performance. Feedback modifications synthetic system that achieves not only a more efficient system towards practical device development would be coordinated of solar-driven water splitting but of atmospheric CO2 and in centres of excellence that organized sources of specialized nitrogen fixation [4,5]. equipment, technical expertise, benchmarking, testing product The idea of a global project on AP had first been raised at an development strategies and scale-up of the most successful sys- Interface Focus 5: 20150029 international conference held at Lord Howe Island in August tems for AP that arise from the multi-PI efforts. The centres of 2011. The purpose of the Chicheley Hall meeting was to encou- excellence would hold an annual conference for current PIs rage key scientists in the AP field to turn their minds in greater and other interested researchers and policy-makers. detail to how their cutting edge research in AP could best be Such a global AP project, Bren argues, would require funds advanced by the creation of basic governance structures drawn internationally from government sources initially and behind a global project on AP. It was expected that such discus- distributed internationally. One such example, Bren maintains, sion would focus at some point on the composition of a global is the European Research Council. These could be sup- AP project’s board of directors, its advisory councils, its property plemented by funds from large philanthropic organizations and funding arrangements. To this end, representatives of major provided a mutually agreeable mechanism for distribution of potential public, philanthropic and private stakeholders in such the funds could be developed. A model that sees the fund dis- a project (such as the Wellcome Trust, the Moore Foundation, tributed according to equity criteria among the different Shell, the Leighty Foundation, the EPSRC and Deutsche Alterna- participating nations would support the principle that photo- tive Asset Management) were invited at various points in the synthesis in its natural form should be considered common meeting to comment. heritage of humanity. Bren [7] proposes that such distribution The idea of making all the profusion of human structures would be coordinated by an international governing board on the Earth’s surface do photosynthesis (in most cases with- advised by peer reviewers. Funding criteria would include out biology) is likely to become a more significant focus of principles such as diversity, quality of science and geography research and policy. The scientific challenge is equally intri- (socio-political context) so that the taxpayers who were the guing as, for example, revealing the Higgs boson or the ultimate source of such funds could expect a direct benefit to nature of dark matter, but potentially much more significant their region as well as to humanity and the environment in morally given the present destructive impact of what may be general. Criteria would also encourage collaboration and termed the corporate–military complex on the biosphere. Dis- rapid development of functional systems rather than decades cussion at Chicheley Hall included the vision of globalized AP long study of a single, isolated component. Hence the single- technology supporting humanity acting as ecosystem steward PI grants would be for limited time periods (i.e. 3 years) in a Sustainocene epoch and fostering traditional and emer- with one renewal after which only multi-PI grants could be ging individual and social virtues such as justice, equity and accessed. This would encourage individual PIs to coalesce environmental sustainability better than any other vision of their AP research projects in order to maintain funding. technological change (i.e. nuclear or fusion power [6]). On Supporting Bren’s vision for the structure of a global AP one approach, the global AP-supported Sustainocene would project, Michalsky et al. [8] make the case for a single- or be a world where enforceable rights of nature are recognized multi-PI grant that would pursue basic research designed by legal systems, where people work to flourish and create to foster the development of production technologies for the material conditions whereby themselves, their families renewable ammonia (NH3) fertilizer, a hydrogen storage and communities can construct lives that lead to happiness and carrier system and combustion source for transportation, and peace of mind [6]. Delegates were asked to consider domestic and industrial fuel. These authors support a model whether an equitable globalization of AP may in fact represent for corporate as well as government and philanthropic contri- an instance of technology driving an expansion of human bution to a global AP fund and for such a project to raise the sympathy towards recognition of the intrinsic dignity of all public profile of the field. They view solar-derived NH3 as life on the Earth, akin to the moral revolutions that led to economically more attractive in certain geographically, econ- the abolition of slavery, the enfranchisement of women, or omically and politically isolated regions than NH3 from the eradication of smallpox or may in time result in the elim- Haber –Bosch plants. They view solar-driven NH2 reduction ination of nuclear weapons, poverty, torture or war, in general. as one of the three central reactions of ‘synthetic photosyn- thesis’ and of a global AP project (coordinated by a politically and economically neutral agency) alongside 2. Global artificial photosynthesis focus from the solar-driven CO2 reduction and H2O splitting for the efficient production of solar fuel as well as acquisition of knowledge. papers in this theme issue They agree that the three core reactions ethically should be Kara Bren [7] in her paper summarizes three different regarded as common heritage of humanity and not fully approaches for engineering systems for solar-driven evolution owned by profit-focused industries so that global synthetic of hydrogen fuel from water: molecular, nanomaterials and bio- photosynthesis is held on trust for humanity and its ecosys- molecular. Bren [7] argues that a global AP project would raise tems. They support the statement from the Chicheley Hall the public profile of this field of research. It would, she argues, meeting that ‘Our goal is to work cooperatively and with Downloaded from http://rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on April 24, 2015 respect for basic ethical principles to produce the scientific proceed front and back with the evolved gases being controlled 3 breakthroughs that allow development and deployment of by the reduction co-catalyst. They demonstrate that these gold rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org an affordable, equitably accessed, economically and environ- nanoparticles exhibit good long-term stability and their plas- mentally sustainable, non-polluting global energy and food mon band can be tuned to cover a large part of the solar system that also contributes positively to our biosphere’. spectrum by simply changing their shape and size. This Schlau-Cohen [9] argues that the fact that photosynthesis work is a priority of the Japanese Ministry for Education, Cul- generates enough energy from sunlight to power most life on ture, Sports, Science and Technology under the KAKENHI the Earth provides a natural source of inspiration for improving project involving 43 research groups which provides insights the design of artificial solar energy devices. Her paper high- about developing a global AP initiative—the aim being to lights three major principles of the natural photosynthetic achieve hydrogen evolution of 5–10% conversion efficiency. process that should be taken up by a global AP initiative—the Cedeno et al. [14] in their review illustrate how developing fact that they are robust to disorder, exhibit multi-functionality improved methods to immobilize catalysts on semiconductor Interface Focus 5: 20150029 through dynamic conformational changes in response to surfaces will be a major area of work in a global AP project. fluctuating changes in the local environment and have environ- They look to such a project for the governance structure, gui- mentally controlled functionality. She acknowledges that this dance and organizational retooling required, though with the requires expertise in biology, materials science and engineering, caution that the project not undermine the important contri- as well as interdisciplinary communication and cooperation. butions of small groups and independent researchers working She proposes a global AP initiative that involves exchanges on unconventional yet potentially transformative science. between natural and AP researchers sustained through funding Purchase & de Groot [15] drawing on their experience with projects requiring multidisciplinary teams. the Dutch Biosolar Cells consortium review the scientific chal- Massin et al. [10] argue that a combined effort at the inter- lenges that need to be overcome to develop AP devices and face between materials science and molecular chemistry, materials. They argue that AP is largely unknown in energy ideally funded with a global AP project is needed to improve and climate change policy documents and such a project may the overall performances of photoelectrodes and progress to not only bring AP scientists together but raise the policy economically viable photoelectrochemical devices. Their ‘visibility’ of the field. They claim that the most compelling study demonstrating that NiO films are suitable materials reason for a global AP project derives from the sheer size of the for the construction of dye-sensitized photocathodes with required energy system. They estimate a capital investment of current densities of up to 300 mA cm22 resulted from the 1 trillion dollars will be required for 1% of the world’s energy combined efforts of four distinct groups from France and mix and this can only be achieved through a global effort. Germany and illustrates how collaboration can be achieved Bruce & Faunce [16] in their paper, argue that a global AP at the interface of materials science, molecular chemistry, initiative needs to focus on fully functioning AP technology theoretical chemistry and physical chemistry. providing food, fertilizer and ecosystem sustainability as Cox et al. [11] use their work demonstrating how nature’s well as renewable hydrogen fuel for human uses from water-splitting catalyst a Mn4O5Ca cofactor can be developed solar-driven water splitting. They maintain that establishing from biomimetic and bioinspired approaches. This cofactor a global AP project could become a focus for a new way of incorporates inherent structural flexibility to convert to an ‘acti- thinking about how as a species we plan to survive on the vated’ form immediately prior to O–O bond formation, to Earth. It could take the lead, for example, in developing com- illustrate new design criteria for water-splitting catalysts using plex policy options about long-term energy and resource first transition metals. They see a global AP project as bringing production and allocation, food security and ecosystems together researchers across a range of disciplines to work on preservation. Without such an initiative, they argue, mas- such approaches in the construction of a globally deployable sively increased urbanization with attendant pollution, AP technology that is affordable and accessible throughout environmental degradation and mass exploitation of animals the world with maximum benefit for all. They agree that photo- for food is likely to replicate the destruction of civilizations synthesis in its natural form should be accorded common that has so often happened previously when humans failed heritage status under international law. to respect environmental sustainability [17]. Sovacool & Gross [12] draw upon research into market and Yet, Bruce & Faunce [16] argue that because the sunk and community barriers to and acceptance of solar photovoltaic switching costs to alternatives such as AP technology are and wind energy systems to propose nine factors likely to be enormous, states have become practically unable to escape critical to global uptake of AP technology. These factors are their commitment to fossil fuel systems [18]. Fossil fuel tech- (i) strong institutional capacity, (ii) political commitment, (iii) nologies, exploited in the personal transport and energy favourable legal and regulatory frameworks, (iv) competitive generation sectors, have enjoyed the benefits of a long history installation financing, (v) mechanisms for information and of state investment and regulatory preferences [18,19]. This feedback, (vi) access to financing, (vii) prolific community makes them likely to potentially resist the globalization of and/or individual ownership and use, (viii) participatory pro- AP technology [20,21]. This position can be alleviated, ject siting, and (ix) recognition of externalities or positive however, they maintain, through strategies in competition public image. They propose that once AP systems are ready law. Some relevant legal and policy strategies they evaluate to be piloted, quantitative case studies could be done to in this context include greater citizen–consumer involvement determine market segments and social barriers unique to AP. in shaping market values, legal requirements to factor ser- Ueno et al. [13] present one of the first studies of plasmon- vices from the natural environment (i.e. provision of clean induced water splitting as a source of hydrogen evolution air, water, soil pollution degradation) into corporate costs, linked with synthesis of ammonia after nitrogen fixation (as reform of corporate taxation and requirements to balance a more energy dense fuel source than hydrogen) using gold maximization of shareholder profit with contribution to a nanostructured SrTiO3 photoelectrodes, where redox reactions nominated public good, a global financial transactions tax, Downloaded from http://rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org/ on April 24, 2015 prohibiting horizontal cartels, vertical agreements and project could have different goals—with mature AP technol- 4 unilateral misuse of market power. ogy deployed at community level or ‘fully distributed’ and rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org servicing individual homes. Correspondingly, the energy sto- rage issue could be a major point of policy leverage for a 3. Ethical foundations of a global project global AP project in the developed world. on artificial photosynthesis The Chicheley Hall meeting discussed the ethical importance of a global AP project having a defined challenge at the levels of both 4. Conclusion fundamental science and benchmarking as well as a realistic time One motive for a global project on AP is that, at this perilous line for its achievement. It was proposed that benchmarking in point in human history, the moral culmination of nanotech- this context should include not just technological efficiency and nology is global AP [22]. It is coherent with the spirit of Interface Focus 5: 20150029 competitive advantage, but precautionary life cycle risk analysis such a realization that the natural process of photosynthesis and cost-effectiveness assessment. The importance of making the should be declared ‘common heritage’ not just of humanity activities of such a global AP project express a narrative relevant but of life on the Earth so as to ensure that unravelling its to the concerns of the general populace in both developed and details primarily should be a gift to all life on this planet developing nations was also stressed. In terms of building such rather than a source of profit to a minority [23]. a global AP project, it was suggested that initial involvement of The process of imaging a world free of war, poverty, smaller organizations with greater flexibility in terms of finan- cruelty, oppression of each other and other life forms has cially supporting visionary ideas could leverage subsequent been continuing for many centuries. Only now, with involvement of larger stakeholders. The importance of a global approaches such as nanotechnology and with the capacity funding mechanism supporting diverse projects, including of global AP technology to make human structures support those of younger investigators was also emphasized. While a their own population and contribute positively to ecosystem long-term goal of AP research could be to develop a wholly sustainability, are such dreams within practical reach. Rather non-biological system, bioinspired, biomimicking and bio- than heading down a destructive path involved with the enhanced approaches to AP all would probably have their making of weapons of war, the selling of carbon-based place in at least the initial phases of a global AP project. fuels, the degradation of the environment or creation of It was accepted that a global AP project would need to greater social inequality, governments and large corporate engage ethicists, policy-makers and analysts. It should incor- interests by backing a global AP project can transform porate programmes of education for young scientists, the themselves into morally valued agents for the Sustainocene. public and policy-makers. It would need to connect with and Perhaps the most idealistic component of developing a be supported by high-profile philanthropic and international global AP project to assist the material preconditions for peace- organizations as well as governments. Some considered that ful coexistence and environmental sustainability spread across the role of private corporations in a global AP project would the Earth, is that by embracing such a vision humanity will be problematic initially if there was a rigid insistence on intel- have begun a great moral revolution in its collective conscious- lectual property rights (which may slow collaboration and ness. One analogy would be to compare this to the Copernican innovation) as a condition for investment. There was wide- revolution—humanity across the globe no longer viewing spread support for the view that photosynthesis in its natural itself and its interests at the core of ethical thinking, but form should be considered to fall within the concept of wishing to consistently apply principles that respect the ‘common heritage of humanity’ under international law to capacity for all life on the Earth to flourish. In such a vision the extent that knowledge of its fundamental processes could is coherent on a global scale with the altruistic consciousness not be owned entirely by profit-making interests, militarized sustained for individuals by contemplative traditions. To high- or manipulated to promote social inequality or environmental light to the public and policy-makers how a global project on degradation. Governance of a global AP project would need AP could drive such a synthesis between human imagination, to comprise a highly qualified scientific committee capable of intellect and conscience, it may even be appropriate to refer to evaluating single and multi-investigator grants as well as a a global synthetic photosynthesis project. policy-oriented board capable of lobbying for, securing and coordinating recurrent funding and other resources. Acknowledgements. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance provided by the Hooke Committee of the Royal Society in coordinat- The case was made that the developing world which com- ing the Chicheley Hall meeting, paratively lacks electricity and energy production and storage Funding statement. The author wishes to acknowledge funding capacity may be more likely to understand the advantages of assistance from the Royal Society and under an Australian Research a global AP initiative. 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