(PDF) Effects of textual input enhancement and written recall on Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners’ noticing and intake of present perfect tense
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Abstract
Background of the Study
Objectives of the Study
Specific Objectives
Research Null Hypotheses
Significance of the Study
Limitations of the Study
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Psychology
Effects of textual input enhancement and written recall on Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners’ noticing and intake of present perfect tense
Naemeh Nahavandi
2015
April 04, 2025
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Abstract
All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons, photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia.
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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
EFFECTS OF TEXTUAL INPUT ENHANCEMENT AND WRITTEN RECALL
ON IRANIAN PRE-INTERMEDIATE EFL LEARNERS’ NOTICING AND
INTAKE OF PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
NAEMEH NAHAVANDI
FPP 2015 25
PM
EFFECTS OF TEXTUAL INPUT ENHANCEMENT AND WRITTEN RECALL
ON IRANIAN PRE-INTERMEDIATE EFL LEARNERS’ NOTICING AND
INTAKE OF PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
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By
NAEMEH NAHAVANDI
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Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in
Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
May 2015
All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons,
photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia
unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis
PM
for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material
may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra
Malaysia.
Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia
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DEDICATION
Dedicated to my beloved parents, to my mother who sacrificed her life wholeheartedly
for her children, for her endless kindness & support, both emotionally and financially
in every single step of my life, to my father who encouraged me to continue my
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studies, who sparkled the love of learning in me since my childhood, endless thanks to
my parents for all the encouraging words and for instilling in me the belief that I could
accomplish anything I wanted in life if I went after it with love & perseverance, to my
supervisor who taught me to learn...
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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of
the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
EFFECTS OF TEXTUAL INPUT ENHANCEMENT AND WRITTEN RECALL
ON IRANIAN PRE-INTERMEDIATE EFL LEARNERS’ NOTICING AND
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INTAKE OF PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
By
NAEMEH NAHAVANDI
May 2015
Chairman : Prof. Jayakaran Mukundan, PhD
Faculty : Educational Studies
The present study investigated the effects of textual input enhancement and written
recall on the development of the present perfect tense by Iranian pre-intermediate EFL
learners. It examined the effects of textual input enhancement (TIE) in isolation and in
combination with written recall (WR) on noticing and subsequently on intake of
present perfect tense. Intake was further divided into receptive and productive
knowledge of present perfect tense. Furthermore, there was an attempt to understand
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the effect of TE in isolation and in combination with written recall on comprehension
of texts. Besides, the relationship between noticing and reconstruction was
investigated. To achieve this end, 96 EFL students in pre-intermediate level of
proficiency were randomly assigned to a control and two experimental groups. The
control group included 31 participants, while the first experimental group (TE)
included 34 participants and the second experimental group (TE+WR) included 31
participants. All participants were given six reading texts and comprehension questions
to complete. For participants in groups 2 and 3, the input was textually enhanced
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through bolding, enlargement and underlining. Participants in group 3 were in addition
asked to complete a reconstruction task. Noticing in the study was measured through
performance on a note taking task, and intake was measured through performance on a
grammaticality judgment task and fill-in-the-blank tasks. The results of the Two-Way
repeated measure (ANOVA) showed that TE both in isolation and in combination with
written recall affected noticing and intake of the present perfect tense significantly.
There was a significant difference among pre-test, immediate post-test and the delayed
post-test. While the TE group outperformed the TE+WR group in noticing of the
present perfect tense, the TE+WR group outperformed the TE group in intake of
present perfect tense in both post tests. However, dividing the intake into receptive and
productive knowledge, the TE+WR group only outperformed the TE group in
productive knowledge of the present perfect tense significantly. Considering reading
comprehension, there was no significant effect of TE either in isolation or in
combination with written recall on comprehension of texts. Besides, there was a
positive significant relationship between noticing and reconstruction. Furthermore, the
results of attitude survey questionnaire and semi-structured interview with 11 students
(TE=6) & (TE+WR=5) showed that students held positive attitudes toward the
employed treatment. The study concluded with a number of theoretical and
pedagogical implications.
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah
KESAN PENEGUHAN INPUT TEKSTUAL DAN KEMAHIRAN MENGINGAT
SEMULA SECARA BERTULIS KE ATAS KEMAHIRAN
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PENGECAMAN/PEMERHATIAN DAN PENERIMAAN SISTEM KALA
PRESENT PERFECT PELAJAR EFL PRAPERTENGAHAN IRAN
Oleh
NAEMEH NAHAVANDI
Mei 2015
Pengerusi : Prof. Jayakaran Mukundan, PhD
Fakulti : Pengajian Pendidikan
Kajian ini menyelidiki kesan peneguhan input tekstual dan kemahiran mengingat
semula secarabertulis ke atas perkembangan sistem kala present perfect oleh pelajar
EFL prapertengahan Iran. Kajian ini meneliti kesan peneguhan input tekstual (TIE)
secara berasingan dan secara gabungan dengan kemahiran mengingat semula (WR) ke
atas pengecaman/pemerhatian dan seterusnya ke atas penerimaan sistem kala present
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perfect. Seterusnya, penerimaan pula dibahagi kepada pengetahuan reseptif dan
produktif tentang sistem kala tersebut.Di samping itu, terdapat usaha untuk memahami
kesan TE secara berasingan dan secara gabungan dengan kemahiran mengingat
semula terhadap teks pemahaman. Tambahan pula, hubungan antara
pengecaman/pemerhatian dan rekonstruksi juga dikaji.Bagi mencapai objektif ini,
sebanyak 96 pelajar EFL dalam tahap kemahiran prapertengahan dipilih secara rawak
bagi kumpulan kawalan dan dua kumpulan eksperimental. Kumpulan kawalan ialah
sebanyak 31 responden, manakala kumpulan eksperimental pertama (TE ) ialah 34
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responden dan kumpulan eksperimental kedua (TE + WR) ialah 31 responden. Semua
responden telah diberikan enam teks bacaan dan soalan pemahaman. Bagi responden
dalam kumpulan 2 dan 3, input ialah teks peneguhan yang telah dihitamkan,
diperbesarkan dan digarisbawahkan. Bagi kumpulan 3, tugasan tambahan ialah
menyempurnakan rekonstruksi.Pengecaman/pemerhatian dalam kajian ini diukur
melalui prestasi terhadap tugasan pengambilan nota dan penerimaan diukur melalui
prestasi terhadap tugasan penilaian ketatabahasaan dan tugasan mengisi tempat
kosong. Keputusan ujian 2 ANOVA menunjukkan bahawa TE dalam kedua-dua , iaitu
secara berasingan dan secara gabungan dengan kemahiran mengingat semula secara
bertulis mempengaruhi secara signifikan pengecaman/pemerhatian dan penerimaan
sistem kala tersebut. Terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara praujian, ujian
pascapertengahan dan ujian pascaterlewat.Kumpulan TE didapati mengatasi kumpulan
TE + WR dari segi pengecaman/pemerhatian sistem kala, tersebut, manakala kumpulan
TE +WR mengatasi kumpulan TE dari segi penerimaan sistem kala dalam kedua-dua
pascaujian. Walau bagaimanapun, bagi tujuan membahagikan penerimaan kepada
pengetahuan reseptif dan produktif, kumpulan TE + WR hanya mengatasi secara
signifikan kumpulan TE dari segi pengetahuan produktif. Bagi kemahiran membaca
teks pemahaman , tidak terdapat kesan TE yang signifikan sama ada secara berasingan
atau secara gabungan dengan kemahiran mengingat semula teks pemahaman. Di
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samping itu, terdapat hubungan positif yang signifikan antara pengecaman/pemerhatian
dan rekonstruksi. Malah, hasil dapatan soal selidik dalam kalangan 11 orang pelajar
(TE=6) & (TE+WR=5) tentang sikap dan temu duga separa berstruktur menunjukkan
bahawa pelajar mempunyai sikap yang positif terhadap kajian yang dijalankan. Kajian
ini disimpulkan dengan beberapa implikasi teoretikal dan pedagogi.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people without whom I could not complete this thesis. I am highly
thankful to God for giving me the ability to learn that through Him, all is possible.
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Special thanks go to Professor Dr. Jayakaran Mukundan, the chairman of the
supervisory committee, whose overwhelming friendliness did make it a pleasure to
work with him. I truly appreciate the time and effort he devoted for me to complete my
thesis. His guidance, constant insight, and encouraging words were proven
immeasurable to continue this process. Thanks surly go to the members of my
supervisory committee, Associate Professor Dr. Arshad Abd. Samad and Associate
Professor Dr. Sahandri, who provided me with crucial advice. I’d like to express my
gratitude to Dr. Kamaria for her wonderful research methodology classes, Dr Bahaman
for his great SPS workshops, Dr. Roslan for his encouraging words and advice, and Dr
Siti for translating my abstract to Malay Language.
I am so much grateful to my mom, Rogayeh Sorayaie and my father, Mohammad Ali
Nahavandi, my beloved sister Mahdiyeh Nahavandi & my supportive brother Mahdi
Nahavandi for their endless love, prayers, support and encouraging words all through
my life, and particularly the last five years of my distant learning. Without their help, I
would not be able to conquer the obstacles of my life in Malaysia, and to complete my
studies and make my dream come true.
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Especial thanks to Dr. Amalia Madihie, & Dr. Toktam Namayandeh, my best friends in
Malaysia, who supported me emotionally when I needed it the most. I am also grateful
to the lecturers and students who patiently helped me in the data collection procedure.
Thanks surly go to the deputy dean of Jahad-e-Daneshgahi, for permitting me to collect
my data and for all their help, support and patience during data collection procedure.
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Last but not least, I’d like to thank the principal and staff of Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Library staff of UPM, GSO and especially Faculty of Educational Studies who
contributed to my academic development. Thank you all for your commitment and
generosity.
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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been
accepted in partial as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:
Jayakaran Mukundan, PhD
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Professor
Faculty of Educational Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Arshad Abd Samad, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Educational Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
Mohd Sahandri Gani bin Hamzah, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Educational Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia H
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(Member)
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BUJANG KIM HUAT, PhD
Professor and Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date:
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Declaration by graduate student
I hereby confirm that:
This thesis is my original work;
Quotation, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;
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This thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree
at any other instructions;
Intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by
Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Research) Rules 2012;
Written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy
Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is published (in the form
of written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journal, modules,
proceeding, pouplar writing, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture
notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in Uneversiti Putra
Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;
There is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly
integrity is upheld as according to Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)
Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)
Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software.
DECLARATION
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Signature: ------------------------------------ Date: -------------------------------------
Name and Matric No: Naemeh Nahavandi (GS24628)
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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee
This is to confirm that:
the research conducted and the writing of the thesis was under supervision;
supervision responsibilities as stated in Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate
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Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.
Signature: Signature:
Name of Name of
Chairman of Member of
Supervisory Supervisory
Committee: Jayakaran Mukundan, PhD Committee: Arshad Abd Samad, PhD
Signature: H
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Name of
Members of
Supervisory
Committee: Mohd Sahandri Gani bin Hamzah, PhD
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK ii
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
APPROVAL v
DECLARATION vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvi
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Background of the Study 1
1.3 Statement of the Problem 2
1.4 Objectives of the Study 6
1.5
1.6
1.4.1 Specific Objectives
Research Questions
Research Null Hypotheses H 6
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1.7 Significance of the Study 8
1.8 Limitations of the Study 9
1.9 Definition of Key Terms 10
1.9.1 Textual Input Enhancement 10
1.9.2 Noticing 10
1.9.3 Intake 10
1.9.4 Written Recall 10
1.9.5 Present Perfect Tense 11
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1.9.6 EFL & ESL 11
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 The Education System in Iran 12
2.2.1 English Education System in Iran 12
2.2.2 Current Status of English in Iran 13
2.3 Three Decades of Paradigm Shift in Grammar Teaching &
15
Learning
2.4 Research in SLA & the Role of Input in SLA 17
2.5 Task-based Language Teaching & Learning (TBLT/TBLL)
19
&FonF
2.6 Focused/Unfocused Tasks within TBLT &TBLL 20
2.7 Complete View on Early Studies of Grammar Instruction 20
2.8 Current Approaches in Grammar Instruction 22
2.9 Focus on Form within SLA research 23
2.9.1 Description of the Figure 24
2.10 The Need for Form Focused Instruction 24
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2.11 Focus on Form (FonF) vs. Focus on Forms (FonFs) 25
2.12 Input Enhancement (IE) 26
2.13 Textual Input Enhancement 27
2.13.1 Written vs. Spoken IE 28
2.13.2 Positive& Negative IE 28
2.13.3 Internally Generated IE & Externally Generated IE 28
2.14 Explicit & Implicit Knowledge & Noticing 29
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2.15 Attention, Awareness & Noticing 30
2.16 Methodologies for Studying Noticing 32
2.16.1 Online Measures 32
2.16.2 Offline Measures 32
2.17 Empirical Findings on the Effect of TIE on Form
32
Learning
2.17.1 Input Enhancement Studies within Iranian Context 34
2.18 Critique of the Existing Literature on the Area of TE 35
2.19 Present Perfect Tense 40
2.20 The Impact of Recall on Acquisition 40
2.21 Reconstruction Tasks 41
2.22 Grammatical Judgment Tasks (GJTs) 41
2.23 Conceptual Framework of the Study 41
2.24
METHODOLOGY
Summary of Literature Review Part 42
43
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3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Research Design 43
3.3 Location of the Study 44
3.4 Population 45
3.5 Samples 45
3.5.1 Sample Size 45
3.5.2 Sampling Procedure & Random Assignment 46
3.6 Instrumentation 47
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3.6.1 Proficiency Test 47
3.6.2 Background Questionnaire 47
3.6.3 Receptive& Productive Tests of Intake 48
3.6.4 Fill-In-The-Blank Test & Its Measurement 48
3.6.5 Grammaticality Judgment Test (GJT) & Its
48
Measurement
3.6.6 Reading Comprehension & Its Measurement 49
3.6.7 Note- taking as a Measure of Noticing &
Its Measurement 50
3.6.8 Reconstruction Task 50
3.6.9 Attitude Survey Questionnaire 51
3.6.10 Semi- Structured Interviews 51
3.7 Piloting Procedures, Validity & Reliability 52
3.7.1 Pilot Study 52
3.7.2 Pilot Study for Instruments 52
3.7.3 Pilot study for Treatments 53
3.8 Validity of the Study 54
3.8.1 Internal Validity & Its Threats 54
3.8.2 External Validity & Its Threats 54
3.9 Validity & Reliability of the Instruments 57
3.9.1 Content & Face Validity 57
3.10 Reliability of the Instrument 57
3.11 Data Collection Procedure 58
3.12 Description of the Procedure of the Study 58
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3.12.1 Explanation of K-Chart of the Treatment
61
& Duration of the Study
3.13 Data Analysis 62
3.13.1 Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) for PET Exam, Pre,
62
Immediate & Delayed Post- tests
3.14 Statistical Analysis 63
3.15 Threats to Data Processing 65
3.16 Summary 65
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 66
4.1 Overview 66
4.2 Descriptive Analyses 66
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Findings
Hypothesis Testing
Responses to the Open-ended Question on Employed Treatment
Themes of the open-ended question
68
70
101
103
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4.7 Findings of Interview with Experimental groups 104
4.7.1 Themes of the Interview 104
4.8 Summary 107
5 SAMMURY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
108
FUTURE RESEARCH
5.1 Overview 108
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5.2 Organization of the Thesis 108
5.3 Summary of Major Findings 109
5.4 Discussion 110
5.5 Conclusion 111
5.6 Contribution of the study 112
5.7 Implications of the Study 112
5.7.1 Theoretical Implications 112
5.7.2 Practical Implications 112
5.8 Suggestions for Further Research 113
REFERENCES 115
APPENDICES 132
BIODATA OF STUDENT 179
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 180
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1 Previous Studies of Visual Input Enhancement 37
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3-1 Threats to Internal Validity& Controlling Measures 55
3-2 Threats to External Validity& Controlling Measures 56
3-3 K-Chart of the Treatment & Duration of the Study 61
3-4 Summary of Objectives, Research Questions, Data Collection
Method and Statistical Tools for This Study 64
4-1 Descriptive Statistics for the Age of Participants 66
4-2 Frequency of Gender Distribution 67
4-3
4-4
Descriptive Statistics for Education Level
Pre-Test Scores of Present Perfect Tense among All Three Groups
67
68
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4-5 One Way ANOVA to Compare Mean Scores of Present Perfect
Knowledge in General and Both Receptive & Productive Knowledge
of Present Perfect Tense in Particular among Groups In Pre-test 69
4-6 PET Exam Scores Among All Three Groups 69
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4-7 One Way ANOVA to Compare Mean Scores of PET Exam among
Groups 70
4-8 Noticing Scores for All Three Groups during 6 Treatment Sessions 71
4-9 Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for Noticing 72
4-10 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects for Noticing 72
4-11 Pairwise Comparisons for Noticing among All Groups 73
4-12 Mean and Standard Deviation of Reading Comprehension during
Six Treatment Sessions 77
4-13 Mauchly's Test of Sphericityb 78
4-14 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects for RQ 78
4-15 Pairwise Comparisons for Reading Comprehension among All
groups 78
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4-16 Post-test1 Scores of Present Perfect Tense among All Three Groups 81
4-17 One Way ANOVA to Compare Mean Scores of Intake in General &
both Receptive & Productive Knowledge of Present Perfect
Tense among Groups in Post- test1 82
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4-18 LSD Results forIntake in Post-test1 82
4-19 Post-test 2 Scores of Present Perfect Tense among All Three Groups 84
4-20 One Way ANOVA to Compare Mean Scores of Intake in General &
both Receptive & Productive Knowledge of Present Perfect
Tense among Groups in Post-test2 85
4-21 LSD Results for Intake in Post-test 2 86
4-22 Mean & SD of All Groups in Pre, Immediate & Delayed Post- tests 88
4-23 Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for Intake 88
4-24
4-25
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects for Intake
Pairwise Comparisons of General Intake Marks across Time, from
88
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Pre to Delayed Post- tests 89
4-26 Mean & SD of All Groups in Pre, Immediate & Delayed Post- tests 91
4-27 Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for Receptive Knowledge 92
4-28 Tests of Within-Subjects Effects for Receptive Knowledge 92
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4-29 Pairwise Comparisons of Receptive Marks across Time, from
Pre to Delayed Post- tests 93
4-30 Mean & SD of All groups in Pre, Immediate and Delayed
Post- tests 95
4-31 Mauchly's Test of Sphericity for Productive Knowledge 95
4-32 Multivariate Tests for Productive Knowledge 96
4-33 Pairwise Comparisons of Productive Marks across Time, from
Pre to Delayed Post- tests 96
4-34 Means of Noticing and Reconstruction in Second Experimental
Group 98
4-35 Relationship between Noticing and Reconstruction in the
TE+WR 99
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4-36 Mean & SD of Attitude Survey Questionnaire between Two
Experimental Groups 100
4-37 Responses of the Open-ended Question 102
4-38 Responses from the Interviewees about TE 107
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5-1 Summary of Findings 109
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xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
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2-1 Literature Map 14
2-2 From “Teaching and Research; Options in Grammar Teaching” 23
2-3 Conceptual Framework 42
3-1 Procedure of the Study 58
3-2 Research Framework 59
4-1 Mean Scores of Noticing among Three Groups 75
4-2 Mean Scores of Reading Comprehension among Three
4-3
Groups during 6 Treatment Sessions
Grammar Intake Means among all Three Groups from
Pre to Delayed Post-test
80
90
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4-4 Intake Marks in Receptive Knowledge of the Present Perfect Tense
across Time, from Pre to Delayed Post-tests among All Three Groups 94
4-5 Intake Marks in Productive Knowledge of the Present Perfect Tense
across Time, from Pre to Delayed Post-test in All Three Groups 97
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
TE Textual Enhancement
TIE Textual Input Enhancement
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FonF Focus on Form
FonFS Focus on Forms
FonM Focus on Meaning
TB Task based
TBLT Task based Language Teaching
TBLL Task based Language learning
SLA
SL
Second language acquisition
Second Language
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TL Target Language
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
GTM Grammar Translation Method
EFL English as a Foreign Language
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ESL English as a Second Language
GJTs Grammar Judgment Tasks
PET Preliminary English Test
Ex1 Experimental 1
Ex2 Experimental 2
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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1.1 Overview
This chapter reviews the background of the study, statement of the problem, general
and specific objectives, research questions and hypothesis. Then, the introduction part
is followed by the significance of the study, scope and limitations of the study, and
ends with operational definition of the key terms.
1.2 Background of the Study
One of the main concerns in any classroom research is whether grammar instruction
per itself makes a positive effect in SLA and whether grammar should be taught at all
or not(Long 1991; Macaro & Masterman, 2006). For some researchers l2 processing
and development of learners’ interlanguage is fully rule governed, while for others it is
probabilistic in nature. Therefore, the question of how grammar should be taught and
especially whether there is a single type of grammar that is more effective than others
has been a difficult question to answer. As Richards & Renandya (2002)claim "How
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do we go about teaching grammar items in the most effective way? is the concern of
almost all grammar teachers” (p. 145). Another question relating to the effectiveness of
instruction is what to teach. With a wide array of more or less clear individual
differences across learners, all grammatical elements cannot be taught with equal
facility across all learners (Lee, 2008). The reason for these concerns can be attributed
in part to debates in the field of cognitive psychology on the role of implicit versus
explicit language learning and whether such type of learning happens through
conscious manipulation of information or mainly through unconscious processes while
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people are exposed to mere input (Bialystok, 1994; N. Ellis, 1994).
Beliefs on the necessity of grammar instruction have undergone lots of changes as
well. In the early years of language teaching, grammar was considered as an
inseparable element of L2 instruction. Later on, grammar was a barrier to overcome to
achieve communicative competence, and thus, instruction focusing on grammatical
features was regarded as useless, counterproductive, and even detrimental (Fazilatfar &
Bidel, 2008; Hasannejad, Araghi, & Mirzaei, 2014; Lee, 2008; Nassaji & Fotos, 2004;
Rodgers, 2014; Wong, 2005). Chomsky’s idea of the child acquiring its mother tongue
being equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD) and Krashen’s Input
Hypothesis which claimed that language should not be learned through formal
instruction but should be acquired through natural exposure, played a significant role in
decline of grammar instruction. However, documented learners’ difficulty with the
accurate usage of the second language (L2) even after having a substantial period of
study in a meaning-first program, lead l2 researchers to reconsider the role of grammar
in the L2 classrooms. Nevertheless, the question on how to integrate grammar
efficiently without hindering the aims of meaning-oriented instruction hadn’t been
answered yet. One solution being introduced in the 1990s to address this problem was
focus on form (FonF), an approach to teach grammar where the learners' attention is
drawn briefly to a linguistic form in a meaningful context. Since then, a large amount
of research (Ayoun, 2001; R. Ellis, 2001; R. Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2001;
Klapper & Rees, 2003; Leeser, 2004; Leow, 2001; Nguyen, Pham, & Pham, 2012;
Saito, 2012; Salaberry & Lopez Ortega, 1998; Shintani, 2013; Wong, 2003) has been
categorized under the term focus on form.More precisely, focus on form has attracted
lots of attention in Second Language (SL) literature in the light of classroom research
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which supports the need for pedagogical interventions to push learners towards higher
levels of proficiency in l2(R. Ellis, 2006; Mitchell, 2000; Norris & Ortega, 2000;
Williams, 2005).
Long (1991) defines FonF as overtly drawing learners’ attention to linguistic elements
as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or
communication into tasks such as processing instruction, textual enhancement and
linguistic or grammar problem-solving activities.Input Enhancement (IE) as one
method of FonF is based on the idea that mere exposure to certain l2 structures is
insufficient for language acquisition or a mastery of SL to occur(Winke, 2013).
Sharwood Smith (1993) defines IE as a deliberate attempt for drawing learners’
attention to formal properties of an l2 or increasing learners’ awareness of structures
and functions of the target language. However, unlike traditional grammar instruction
where the manipulation of learner output is done to affect changes in their developing
system, the aim of TE is to change the way input is perceived and processed by
language learners. TE includes highlighting special features of input which might go
unnoticed under normal circumstances through typographically manipulating them.
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Different techniques have been used to enhance input or increase the saliency of given
features of an l2. These techniques rang from explicit discussion of target forms,
metalinguistic descriptions, negative evidence through overt error correction, input
floods, clarification requests, processing instruction, garden-path techniques to textual
input enhancement by typographical changes through boldfacing, italicizing,
underlining, or capitalizing.
During the last 2 decades or so, visual input enhancement studies have been conducted
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to achieve the goal of teaching grammatical elements implicitly through reading
activities. Based on the focus on form literature the input which is typographically
enhanced through a range of enhancement cues attracts more attention from learners.
These types of added attention might lead to notice more of the targets and to process
them for more subsequent acquisition (Bañados, 2013; Birjandi, Alavi, & Najafi
Karimi, 2014; Goudarzi & Moini, 2012; Lyddon, 2011; Nahavandi & Mukundan,
2012a, 2014c; Simard, 2009). Nevertheless, findings from study to study are varied
and largely inclusive. Therefore, more rigorous methodologically sound studies need to
be added to the input enhancement literature.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of textual input enhancement in
isolation and in combination with written recall on noticing and intake of present
perfect tense among Iranian EFL learners’ at the pre- intermediate level of language
proficiency. The main purpose of the study is to investigate whether textual input
enhancement (TIE) in isolation and in combination with written recall have any effect
on noticing and intake of present perfect tense or not. Research investigating the
effects of (TIE) has revealed mixed results. The existed problems both in educational
setting of Iran and literature review have been brought up below which are numbered
from1-9.
1. The question of whether to teach grammar or not, and how to teach it: As
mentioned earlier, one of the main concerns in any classroom research is whether to
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teach grammar or not, and if there is a single type of grammar instruction that is more
useful than others. It is a fact that grammar is an essential part of the language
especially when we are dealing with EFL students. Foreign learners in their attempt to
learn the foreign language highly benefit from grammar (Celce Murcia, 1991;
Rutherford, 1987).Conducted researches within the last decade have shown that
students have many problems in learning grammar within the methodological
framework focusing overwhelmingly on the communication of meaning (Celce
Murcia, 1991; Dörnyei & Thurrell, 1992; R. Ellis, 1998; Hazrativand, 2012;
Kumaravadivelu, 1993; Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011; Larsen-Freeman, 1990;
Larsen, 2002).
2. Iranian EFL learners’ problems in grammar learning: Grammar learning has
always been the centre of attention in Iran’s schools. The books are designed in a way
to drill the students’ minds with plenty of grammar rules and exceptions followed by a
lot of drilled exercises. In fact, despite learning grammar at schools for seven years,
accuracy concerns still remain a major problem in educational setting of Iranian EFL
context (Esmaieelzade, 2014; Moradkhan & Sohrabian, 2009; Nahavandi &
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Mukundan, 2012a). EFL learners in Iran lack the ability to write grammatically correct
sentences and even speak English correctly and fluently (Birjandi & Seyfouriz, 2008).
It can be an alarming problem that calls for continuous effort in finding its solutions.
To ensure that the students are equipped with good accuracy skills is particularly
important to ascertain their survival in facing academic challenges. One major problem
in language classes in Iran especially from elementary to upper intermediate levels is
students’ inability in learning present perfect tense (Golshan & Karbalaei, 2009).
Iranian EFL learners tend to have lots of problems distinguishing between present
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perfect and simple past tense. For Schwartz (1993) inflectional endings are among the
most difficult features of non-native languages for adult learners’ “highest amount of
variability and lowest degree of success” (p.160). For Larsen (2002) the aspects of
inflectional morphology are notable areas for learners of all proficiency levels. Is it
possible to help the students in learning new target forms via TE method without
drilling their minds with rules and exceptions of the target forms? Can we assist them
in changing most of the input they receive to intake via TE? In order to answer these
questions, and based on the expected difficulty of present perfect tense for Iranian
learners and lack of previous studies on this form, the researcher was inspired to
investigate whether TE technique can benefit learners in acquiring this form or not.
3. Learners’ inability in using all of the received input: Despite the critical role of
input in language development, researchers argue that learners do not use all input for
further processing and claim that attending to input is essential in order for l2 learning
to take place or at least for complete mastery of it (Robinson, Mackey, Gass, &
Richard, 2012). Some researchers argued that language learners acquire new target
forms when the input they are exposed to is transferred into intake (Gass, 1997).
Therefore, in order for input to change to intake, input needs to be enhanced so that the
language learners can notice this input and convert it into intake (VanPatten, 1996).
This is the reason why “noticing” has become an essential part in SLA (Meier, 2015).
The conducted researchers on the effectiveness of grammar teaching led instructed
second language acquisition (SLA) researchers to investigate how to integrate
grammar instruction efficiently without hindering the aims of meaning-oriented
instruction. One solution that was introduced in the 1990s to address this problem was
focus on form (Ebrahimi, Rezvani, & Kheirzadeh, 2015), an approach for teaching
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grammar in which the learners' attention is drawn briefly to a linguistic form in a
meaningful context. For Skehan (1998) after the critical period, language learning is
constrained by similar structures and processes to other learning, and older language
learners put the priority on meaning and language form has secondary importance for
them. Therefore, attention should be drawn to language form for further interlanguage
development. As such, what instructions can cause such a shift of attention toward
language form?
In 1990, Schmidt introduced the “Noticing Hypothesis” which claimed that noticing is
the essential and sufficient condition for the conversion of input into intake for learning
(Zhang, 2012). Schmidt (1995) claimed that noticing, representing the lower level of
awareness is needed and attention to the new target form is necessary for any second or
foreign language acquisition. Since then, lots of studies have been conducted to test the
efficiency of noticing (R. Ellis, 1984; Sandra Fotos & Ellis, 1991; Fotos, 1994; Harley,
1993; Larsen-Freeman, Long, & Jiang, 1991; Robinson, 1996). A lot of researchers
claimed that, noticing played a major role in second or foreign language teaching and
learning. However, the review of the empirical studies in the area of TE and noticing
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shows lots of inconsistency. Some studies like (Catherine Doughty, 1991; Jourdenais,
Ota, Stauffer, Boyson, & Doughty, 1995; Lee, 2007) have reported positive effects of
TE on both acquisition and noticing, while others like (Alanen, 1995b; Leow, 2001;
White, 1998; Wong, 2003) have reported no effect on either noticing or acquisition.
Therefore, the effects of noticing have remained unclear.
4. Very short duration of the study in most TE researches: From 12 dominant
studies in TE, 10 had a very short duration of treatment (from one session of 25
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minutes to one hour and forty minutes). Considering Jabbarpoor & Tajeddin’s (2013)
claim that multiple exposures to the target form can function as an experience helping
students become accustomed to the reading conditions of typographical enhancement,
and Ellis(2001) and Lee’s (2007) claim that frequent exposures to the target forms
make the learners attend to the forms more efficiently, it was assumed that longer
exposure to target forms through six sessions might have better results in both noticing
and acquisition. Furthermore, there has been no study on the long term effect of TE on
Intake. Some studies like (Alanen, 1995b; Jourdenais et al., 1995; Overstreet, 1998)
did not use not pre/post-test design. Furthermore, in most of the reported studies there
was no delayed post-test.
5. Little attention on the output role in language learning: Among different means
or approaches in getting learners to focus on form, output role has received
comparatively less attention from researchers (Song, 2007). After Swain’s Output
Hypothesis (Swain, 1985, 2000, 2005), output has been considered not only as an end
product of learning, but also as a main element in promoting L2 learning. It means that
producing the target language gives learners unique opportunities for a level of
processing that might be essential for the development of target-like proficiency or the
enhancement of accuracy (Izumi & Bigelow, 2000). It is believed that output tasks can
lead to “the noticing of linguistic shortcomings, “pushing” learners to modify output
(Swain & Lapkin ,1995, p. 376). Overall, more noticing occurs for learners, who have
the opportunity or condition to produce output compared to those who do not have this
opportunity (Song & Sue , 2008).
Of the four functions of output specified by Swain (1998), output in the form of
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productive recall is emphasized in the present study. Productive recall includes the
retrieving the input from short-term memory, such as the one that happens in a
reconstruction task (Cho, 2010). Written recall includes retrieving detected input from
short term memory and producing it in writing. As highlighted by Cho (2010) the
effects of written recall on SLA is relatively unexplored, although there is lots of
support for its effect on retention, from studies in psychology (N. Ellis, 1996; Newell
& Rosenbloom, 1981).The few studies on written recall have reported similarly
positive findings but these studies have merely looked at the acquisition of vocabulary
and morphosyntax (N. Ellis & Schmidt, 1997). The present study can be important as it
can contribute to the understanding of the SL learning process and can also have
implications for SL teaching.
6. Using L2 learners of some commonly taught European languages like English,
Spanish, French, and German in most of TE studies: Most of the conducted studies
have looked at the usefulness of some modes of input enhancement (IE) by l2 learners
of some commonly taught European languages like English, Spanish, French, and
German. Nevertheless, as Cho (2010) claims, based on the IE studies which are
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grounded on the cognitive mechanism, which is common to all human beings, the data
from different languages should be incorporated to observe the similarities or
differences of the different studies for strengthening the theory. Thus, the present study
might be beneficial in contributing to the body of knowledge regarding the theory of
noticing through choosing Iranian learners as the subjects of the present study. Besides,
to the researcher’s best knowledge, no study was found on the effect of TE on present
perfect tense whether in ESL or Iranian context. The two studies by (Leow, Egi,
Nuevo, & Tsai, 2003; Shook, 1994) were on Spanish present perfect.
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7. No consideration on the effect of TE on comprehension: For some researchers
(Han, Park, & Combs, 2008; Cho, 2010; Wong 2003) the role of TE is incomplete
without information concerning how comprehension is affected when learners’
attention is directed at form. The available data whether TE affects comprehension or
not is inconclusive. Few studies have measured the effect of TE on comprehension.
And those few studies have reported different results. Leow, (2001), and Wong (2003)
have reported no debilitating effects on comprehension. However, Overstreet (1998)
and Cho (2010) claimed that TE might hinder students’ comprehension. Mixed results
on whether inducing learners’ attention to a linguistic form via TE affects
comprehension or not, calls for further investigation in this area.
8. No division of intake into receptive and productive knowledge: Most of the
conducted researchers have reported intake as a general concept without any
consideration whether TE is as much effective as enhancing both receptive and
productive knowledge of target forms. In most of these studies both measures of
receptive and productive tests like fill in the blanks and sentence combination,
true/false and multiple choice questions have been used. However, all questions have
been gathered together to comprise a single mark named as learning, acquisition or
intake. Therefore, the picture is still unclear whether TE affects receptive knowledge in
the same way it affects productive knowledge or not. In one study by Cho (2010),
study results showed that TE was only effective in enhancing receptive knowledge of
target forms not productive ones.
9. No consideration on learners’ attitudes towards the conducted treatment: In
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almost all studies, there was no consideration on learners’ attitudes towards the
conducted treatment. In one study by Latifie (2007), attitude survey questionnaire was
given to the participants at the last session of treatment and the results indicated that
learners held positive attitudes about the employed treatment. Till now, to researcher’s
best knowledge, no study has included qualitative design in TE literature. As Ellis
(2001) claims, there is a healthy sign that form-focused instruction studies have shifted
from an overreliance on the confirmatory research paradigm. Alternative research
procedures such as descriptive and introspective ones provide the emic that can
holistically enrich the knowledge related to the field. Therefore, it is hoped that the
qualitative part of this research might offer valuable information regarding the
application of TE in foreign language classes.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
Based on the general objective of the study, which is understanding the effects of TE in
isolation and in combination with written recall on noticing and intake of present
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perfect tense among Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners at the pre-intermediate
level, the following specific objectives were proposed in the present study.
1.4.1 Specific Objectives
1. To examine whether textual input enhancement in isolation and in combination
with written recall would have any effect on noticing of present perfect tense of
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Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners.
2. To examine whether textual input enhancement in isolation and in combination
with written recall would have any effect on comprehension of texts among
Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners.
3. To examine whether textual input enhancement in isolation and in combination
with written recall would have any effect on intake of present perfect tense in
general and intake of receptive and productive knowledge of present perfect tense
in particular in the immediate and delayed post-tests among Iranian pre-
intermediate EFL learners.
4. To examine whether there is a significant difference among all three groups in
general intake of present perfect tense, and receptive and productive knowledge
of present perfect tense across time in pre, immediate and delayed post-tests.
5. To examine whether there is a relationship between noticing and reconstruction.
6. To identify learners’ attitudes towards the applied treatment.
1.5 Research Questions
Based on the objectives of the study the following research questions are raised:
1. Does textual input enhancement in isolation and in combination with written
recall affect Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners’ noticing of present perfect
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tense?
2. Does textual input enhancement in isolation and in combination with written
recall affect Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners’ comprehension of texts?
3. Does textual input enhancement in isolation and in combination with written
recall affect Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners’ intake of present perfect
tense in general and intake of receptive and productive knowledge in particular
in the immediate post-test?
4. Does textual input enhancement in isolation and in combination with written
recall affect Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners’ intake of present perfect tense
in general and intake of receptive and productive knowledge in particular in the
delayed post-test?
5. Is there a significant difference among all three groups in general intake of
present perfect tense across time in pre, immediate and delayed post-tests?
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6. Is there a significant difference among all three groups in receptive knowledge of
present perfect tense across time in pre, immediate and delayed post-tests?
7. Is there is a significant difference among all three groups in productive
knowledge of present perfect tense across time in pre, immediate and delayed
post-tests.
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8. Is there any relationship between noticing and reconstruction?
9. What are the learners’ attitudes about the employed treatment?
1.6 Research Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses are presented to answer the research questions properly:
Ho1: Textual input enhancement either in isolation or in combination with written
recall doesn’t have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ noticing of
present perfect tense.
Ho2: Textual input enhancement either in isolation or in combination with written
recall doesn’t have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’
comprehension of texts.
Ho3: Textual input enhancement either in isolation or in combination with WR
doesn’t have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ intake of the
present perfect tense in general and intake of receptive and productive
knowledge of present perfect tense in particular, in the immediate post-test.
Ho4: Textual input enhancement either in isolation or in combination with WR
doesn’t have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ intake of the
present perfect tense in general and intake of receptive and productive
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knowledge of present perfect tense in particular in the delayed post-test.
Ho5: There is no significant difference among all three groups in general intake of
present perfect tense across time in pre, immediate and delayed post-tests.
Ho6: There is no significant difference among all three groups in receptive
knowledge of present perfect tense across time in pre, immediate and delayed
post-tests.
Ho7: There is no significant difference among all three groups in productive
knowledge of present perfect tense across time in pre, immediate and delayed
post-tests.
Ho8: There is no significant relationship between noticing and reconstruction.
1.7 Significance of the Study H
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As mentioned earlier, learning and teaching present perfect tense has been a
demanding task for both EFL learners and teachers in Iranian context. Despite learning
tenses for 7 years, Iranian EFL learners tend to have lots of problems in accuracy, one
of which is distinguishing present perfect tense and simple past tense. The question
remains as how to integrate grammar successfully in communicative settings without
hindering the principles of form focused instruction. The present study used TE as a
method of FonF in helping the learners to notice and if possible to acquire the
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employed target structure in a meaningful way. To the researcher’s best knowledge no
comparative study was found addressing this issue in Iranian context. Furthermore, the
literature on the effect of TE on learning tenses is so mixed and inconclusive that more
methodologically sound frameworks need to be added to TE research. In addition, as
Ellis (2001) claims, form-focused instruction studies should shift from an overreliance
on the confirmatory research paradigm and add alternative research procedures such as
descriptive and introspective ones to enrich the knowledge related to the field.
Therefore, the present study examined the methodological potential of this technique
more deeply by including a qualitative phase to gain more knowledge about the
effectiveness of the employed treatment. Besides, most of the conducted researches in
TE area have used intact groups with short treatment sessions which make the
generalizations of the study more difficult. Therefore, it is hoped that through having
true randomized groups and longer duration of the study together with a qualitative
phase, more knowledge is obtained about the usefulness of this method.
Besides, considering schools and classes as communities of students who have
gathered together to explore the world and learn how to navigate it productively, it is
hoped that their members become highly literate, read perfectly and write with skill
and delicacy and become proficient in using a foreign language soon. The results of
this study might be useful for all those who are concerned with teaching grammar in
Iran, making them aware of the vital role of the right method to obtain the above-
mentioned goals, and to improve the language accuracy of the Iranian learners. Second,
it might help the language practitioners in our country to find a method in grammar
teaching that results in students’ increased abilities in learning more easily and
effectively in the future, because of the skill and knowledge they have acquired.
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Finally, the results of the present study might motivate Iranian language teachers to
focus more on learning than teaching, bearing in mind that the models of teaching are
usually models of learning. As we assist students in acquiring new information, idea,
skills, values, ways of thinking and means of expressing themselves, we also teach
them how to learn. In addition, it is hoped that the result of the present study may
benefit theorists, mainly those working in the fields of linguistics and cognitive
psychology; empirical researchers investigating L2 learning in laboratory, classroom,
or natural settings; and educationalists, mainly those working in the field of foreign
and second language pedagogy.
Last but not least, the result of this study might help curriculum planners in Iran in
designing appropriate grammar courses. Identifying learners difficulties will help
curriculum planners to develop a pedagogically sound grammar programs. In addition,
this study might benefit EFL practitioners such as teachers, lecturers, and textbook
writers.
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1.8 Limitations of the Study
This study is an attempt to understand the effects of TE in isolation and in combination
with written recall on noticing and subsequently on intake of present perfect tense in
Iranian context. While the target population are pre-intermediate English learners in
Iran, the accessible population are students studying in one of private institutions in the
North West of the country. In this study, the north west of Iran refers to Tabriz.
Therefore, the collected data and the related findings are only adequate in this limited
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context. So, generalizations of the findings of this study to other contexts would not be
suitable. However, institutions and universities with the same characteristics may
benefit from the results of the present study.
Other limitations of this study are in terms of the number of participants, and
instructional limitation as in the duration of the instruction. The relatively small pool of
participants (n=96) certainly limits the statistical potential. A larger pool of participants
will increase the chances of obtaining results that are statistically significant. An
instructional limitation is the short instructional duration due to some practical
limitations. In this study instructional time was 6 sessions each lasting approximately
one to one and half an hour. An exposure to a longer period of instruction may produce
better results. Another limitation can be choosing present perfect tense. Other target
forms can be explored by other interested researchers.
1.9 Definition of Key Terms
Important and recurrent terms that are used in this study are defined in this part. They
are fist defined constitutively, followed by operational definitions specific to the study.
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1.9.1 Textual Input Enhancement
Visual input enhancement which is also called textual input enhancement, written
enhancement or typographical input enhancement is a kind of FonF technique focusing
on the written mode of the language on the implicit end of the explicit-implicit
continuum. Variety of enhancement methods can be employed to highlight specific
properties of the input, such as colour coding, bold facing, capitalizing, underlining,
italicizing, and using different font types and sizes (Schmidt, 2001). In the present
study the target forms (present perfect tense) are bold faced and enlarged. Besides, the
accompanied adverbs such as since, for, so far, till now are enlarged, bold faced, and
underlined.
1.9.2 Noticing
Schmidt’s (1993, 1995)noticing hypothesis proposes that noticing is a necessary and
sufficient condition in which second language learners should be able to convert input
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to intake. For Batstone (1996) noticing is “the intake of grammar as a result of learners
paying attention to the input” (p.273). In the present study, noticing is investigated
through performance on a note taking task.
1.9.3 Intake
For Sharwood Smith (1993) while input is the "potentially processable language data
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which are made available to the language learner”, intake is "that part of input that
actually has been processed and turned to knowledge of some kind"(p.167). As White
(1998)states, in order for input to become intake a particular attention of the learners to
actual forms of language is needed.In this study intake is measured through both
receptive and productive measures of performance on a grammaticality judgement task
and fill-in-the-blank tasks.
1.9.4 Written Recall
Written recall includes retrieving detected input from short term memory and
producing it in writing(Cho, 2010). In the present study, students in the second
experimental group are asked to take notes while involved in reading activities, then
they do some reconstruction tasks on the basis of the notes they have taken.
10
1.9.5 Present Perfect Tense
While the past tense forms indicate the completeness or remoteness of some actions in
the past (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999), the present perfect tense is the
results of past actions which are still operative at the present time (Binnick, 1991). In
the present study, the tense and aspect of present perfect is investigated through Leech
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& Svartvik (2013) guidelines.
1.9.6 EFL & ESL
The major differences between EFL and ESL are the students and the place in which
English is being taught to speakers of other languages. EFL stands for English as a
Foreign Language and ESL stands for English as a Second Language. In this study,
EFL learners refer to students of pre-intermediate level in Iran, where English is
treated as a foreign language. It is different from Malaysia where English is spoken as
a second language.
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11
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Naemeh Nahavandi
UPM - Universiti Putra Malaysia, Adjunct
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The Impact of Textual Input Enhancement and Explicit Rule Presentation on Iranian Elementary EFL Learners’ Intake of Simple Past Tense
Naemeh Nahavandi
The present study investigated the impact of textual input enhancement and explicit rule presentation on 93 Iranian EFL learners' intake of simple past tense. Three intact general English classes in Tabriz Azad University were randomly assigned to: 1) a control group; 2) a TIE group; and 3) a TIE plus explicit rule presentation group. All participants were given 3 reading texts and comprehension questions to complete. For participants in groups 2 and 3 the input was textually enhanced through bolding. Participants in group 3 in addition had explicit rule presentation of simple past tense. Intake of simple past tense was measured through performance on a Multiple-Choice Recognition Tests. The results showed that there was a significant difference among pretest, first posttest and delayed posttest. Posttest 1 was significantly higher than posttest 2. Furthermore, TE+ rule presentation group significantly outperformed the control group in both posttest1 and posttest 2. The study concluded with some pedagogical implications.
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Examining Iranian EFL Students' Correct Use of Tense: Connecting the Past to the Present
H. Abdulhay
Pedagogy: Journal of English Language Teaching, 2024
This study aimed to examine the ability of Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students to accurately recognize and use past, present perfect, and present perfect progressive tenses. A mixed-method approach was employed to gather both qualitative and quantitative data. The study involved 65 EFL students majoring in English language at a university in Iran, all of whom had previously taken grammar courses. The findings revealed that most students struggled to distinguish between the past tense and the present perfect or present perfect progressive tenses. In both the production and recognition tests, there were frequent instances of the past tense being incorrectly used instead of the present perfect. The analysis also highlighted errors stemming from mismatches in tense usage, particularly in reflecting the relationship between event time and speech time. Students often failed to accurately translate events that began in the past but continued to affect the present. These difficulties can be attributed to differences between the tense systems of English and Persian. Persian lacks the ability to express the continuum of time, especially the relationship between speech time and reference points that are inherent in English non-past perfect verb forms. Furthermore, students' reliance on their native language in the early stages of language acquisition led to erroneous tense transfers from Persian to English. The findings contribute to EFL programs by emphasizing the importance of addressing tense-related challenges and incorporating a deeper understanding of the differences between English and Persian tense structures.
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Effect of Explicit Instruction on Comprehension of English Present Perfect by Persian EFL Learners
Vahid Mahmoudi-Gahrouei
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2013
The English present perfect is one of the most difficult grammatical items for the Persian EFL learners to comprehend. The current study examined whether an explicit grammar explanation would work for this grammatical item among sixty university level learners. Experimental group practiced the target structure with explicit grammar explanation and control group practiced the target structure in the same manner without explicit explanation. The statistical analysis revealed that a significant difference between the pre-test and immediate post-test was found in those who had explicit explanation prior to practice. However, the results of delayed post-test suggested that their comprehension is temporary.
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Output Tasks, Noticing, and Learning: Teaching English Past Tense to Iranian EFL Students
Mehrasa Alizadeh
English Language Teaching, 2012
EFL Learners often have problems using the past tense accurately. In an attempt to solve their problem, this study was carried out to examine the effects of using two different types of output tasks on noticing and learning the English past tense. Sixty female school-age EFL learners were divided into groups of 18, 19, and 23 participants. A pretest was administered at the outset of the study, the scores of which proved that all the participants equally lacked the required accuracy in using the target structure. Therefore, five treatment sessions followed, during which the first two groups were given picture-cued writing tasks and reconstruction tasks respectively. The comparison group, however, did comprehension check-up tasks. Finally, a posttest was given. The results of the statistical analyses revealed that only the reconstruction group improved in their noticing of the target feature. However, both experimental groups equally promoted their learning of the form.
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A Cross-sectional Study of the Present Perfect Tense in Arabic and Indonesian EFL Settings
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Language Teaching and Educational Research
This document-based paper investigates EFL learners’ uses of the present perfect tense when using English as their second or foreign language. A sample of 216 sentences written by 38 Indonesian and Arab undergraduate students was analyzed to detect erroneous uses of the present perfect tense (PPT) in their English writing. Twelve erroneous structures in the Arab corpus and 17 in the Indonesian dataset were underlined. The incorrect sentences were singled out and discussed. Pairing these grammar-related errors to SLA research and existing literature, the findings demonstrate that the majority of errors were grounded in either Arabic or Bahasa Indonesian language interference with English. The Arab learners seem to have more difficulties in using the PPT than the past simple tense. In contrast, the Indonesian EFL learners seem to have difficulties in both past and present perfect tenses altogether due to the absence of the past tense in the Indonesian tongue. It is concluded that lear...
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THE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK ON LEARNING OF ENGLISH PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE BY EFL LEARNERS
narges seidi
Corrective feedback is a response which is given to a learner's erroneous production by the teacher or other peers. It could be conveyed to a learner implicitly or explicitly. In an implicit feedback the erroneous performance of a learner would not overtly expressed while in an explicit feedback it precisely and clearly mentioned; leaving nothing to implication. In the present study, the effect of two types of corrective feedback: clarification request as an implicit feedback and metalinguistic feedback as an explicit on learning of English present continuous tense by Iranians students was examined. In this study 46 female lower-intermediate students were participated. They studied English in Kish language institute. The participants were divided into 3 groups randomly, two groups received feedbacks, one group received clarification request and the other metalinguistic one, on picture description tasks, while the third group received no feedback as a control group. After treatment sessions, they took part in the post-test .The learning of present continuous tense was measured by means of an untimed grammatical judgment test(UGJT). The results of the one-way ANOVA showed that experimental groups who received feedback outperformed the control group who did not receive any feedback. Further investigation of the results showed that metalinguistic feedback was more effective than clarification request in the post-test .The findings of the study can be useful in syllabus and tasks designing and error correction techniques in EFL classes .
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The Impact of Immediate and Delayed Written Pushed Output Produced by Pre-intermediate EFL Learners in Iran on Their Acquisition of English Verb Tenses
Parviz Birjandi
Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2014
The present study aimed at investigating the impact of immediate and delayed written Pushed Output on the acquisition of English verb tenses. To this end, 32 freshmen majoring in English translation were selected as the participants of the study. After they were randomly assigned to three groups, i.e. two experimental groups Immediate Written Pushed Output (IWPO) group and Delayed Written Pushed Output (DWPO) group and a control group (CG), a pre-test was administered. Then for eight sessions all three groups received explicit instructions on English verb tenses. Subsequently, the experimental group was assigned to perform some output tasks whereas the control group was given conventional multiple choice tests instead. The EG1 (DWPO) had a 10-minute planning time before performing the tasks, while EG2 (IWPO) had to perform the tasks as soon as they received them. Every week the participants in all three groups received feedback on their performances. Following the treatment sessions, a post-test was run. Finally, the comparison of the three groups' performances on the posttest as well as the comparison of each group's performance on the pretest and posttest supported the facilitative effects of both delayed and immediate written pushed output on the acquisition of English verb tenses.
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An Analysis Of Students’ Errors In Using English Tenses (A Case Study At The Second Grade Students Of Smp Yapera An-Nurmaniyah, Ciledug)
Ratna Lia
2014
The Examination Committee of the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers' Training certifies the "Skripsi" (Scientific Paper) entitle "AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' ERRORS IN USING ENGLISH TENSES" (A Case Study at the Second Grade Students of SMP YAPERA An-Nurmaniyah Ciledug), written by Lia Ratna Komala, student's registration number 207014000289 was examined in the examination session of the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers' Training, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta on May, 14 th 2014. The "skripsi" has been accepted and declared to have fulfilled one of the requirements for the degree of "S.Pd" (Bachelor of Arts) in English Language Education at the English Education Department.
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Common Error in Using English Tenses by Efl Students
nurma dhona
IdeBahasa, 2020
Most of English foreign language learners (EFL) in the beginning level faced some problems in learning English. They commited different kinds of errors and mistakes in learning English as a foreign language which were due to poor knowledge with grammar. Most of students considered that grammar was difficult, thus their motivation to learn English was also poor. Moreover, problems in foreign language learning especially in English were unavoidable. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify common error in using English tenses by EFL students in the first semester at Putera Batam University. The analysis of the data contained the categorizations of grammatical errors based on the theory of Krashen (1982) where the grammatical errors were categorized as verb form, preposition, article, plurality, tense, pronoun, question and word order. The instrument that used was a test on basic English tenses and the data were taken from 50 students. The data sources were taken from the result of students' test itself. It showed that students' errors were (1) Subject-auxiliary agreement, (2) Pronoun mistake or subject was wrong, meanwhile auxiliary verb or verb was right, (3) Auxiliary verb was correct meanwhile verb still added-es/s, (4) Auxiliary verb was wrong in sentence, (5) Double subject in sentence, (6) The sentence did not have subject or verb. Based on the result, it can be concluded that some mistakes made by students were caused by their inability to fully understand the pattern of English tenses. Therefore, students should be given more attention and motivation to learn kinds of tenses correctly.
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A comparison of students’errors in simple tenses
Wan Nazihah Wan Mohamed
This study aims to analyze and compare errors made by students when using simple tenses in essay writing. The comparison was made after 6 months. The respondents of the study consisted of secondary school students from the Alpha and Beta classes and UiTM Kelantan groups which consisted of first and third diploma students from three different programmes. All respondents were asked to write an essay twice, with 6-month gap based on the same writing stimulus. In total, there were 107 essays written by respondents in each writing session, giving a grand total of 214 essays being analyzed. The results indicated an increase in errors amounting to 4.47% among students in the Alpha group but there is a reduction of 13.76% among the Beta group which was the weaker group. As for UiTM students, Diploma in Banking students showed an increase in the amount of errors by 8.2%. On contrary, Diploma in Business and Diploma in Information Management students showed a decrease in the amount by 23.79% and 3.4 %, respectively. The results of the study also indicated that there were some similarities in the types of errors made by the students.
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