(PDF) Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients

1 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients L Avik Basu1, Saikat Kumar Basu2, Ratnabali Sengupta3, Muhammad Asif 4, IA Xianping Li5, Yanshan Li5, Arvind Hirani6, Peiman Zandi7, Muhammad Sajad 8, Francisco Solorio‐Sánchez9, Ambrose Obongo Mbuya10, William Cetzal‐Ix11, ER Sonam Tashi12, Tshitila Jongthap13, Danapati Dhungyel14 and Mukhtar Ahmad15 AT 1 Calcutta Medical College, Kolkata, WB, India 2 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada 3 Department of Zoology, WB State University, Barasat, WB, India 4 Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada M 5 Industrial Crop Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China 6 Department of Plant Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada 7 Young Researchers and Elite Club, Takestan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Takestan, Iran D 8 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan TE 9 Campus de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Carretera Mérida‐Xmatkuil Km.15.5. C.P. 97100, Mérida, Yucatán, México 10 Department of Theology, Great Lakes University of Kisumu (GLUK)‐Kenya, Kisumu, Kenya 11 Instituto Tecnológico de Chiná, Calle 11 entre 22 y 28, Colonia Centro Chiná 24050, Campeche, México GH 12 College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan, Lobesa, Punakha, Bhutan 13 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Renewable Natural Resources Research and Development Centre (RNR RDC) Yusipang, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Government of Bhutan, Thimphu, Bhutan 14 Renewable Natural Resources Research and Development Centre (RNR RDC), Wengkhar, Mongar, Bhutan RI 15 Department of Agronomy, PMAS‐Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan PY List of Abbreviations CO ALL Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia CAD Coronary Artery Disease CML Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid FDA Food and Drug Administration HDL High Density Lipoprotein IDDM Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus IHD Ischemic Heart Disease LDL Low Density Lipoprotein MDA Malondialdehyde NIDDM Non‐Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus UV Ultraviolet Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops, First Edition. Edited by Noureddine Benkeblia. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2 Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops VLDL Very High Density Lipoprotein SOD Superoxide dismutase 1.1 Introduction Present‐day consumers are more nutrition savvy. Each year, health magazines and arti- cles in the newspapers are increasingly dedicated to the relationship between health and diet, especially to plant‐based nutraceuticals, functional foods and value‐added food products. Additionally, health‐related research journals, magazines, books and televi- sion programmes tackle topics of treatment and prevention of diseases more than ever. The advent of the internet has acted as an active super highway for free information and has contributed significantly as one of the momentous events influencing communal knowledge and awareness across the planet (Wildman & Kelley 2007). In addition, pow- erful tools such as publicly available technical and non‐technical search engines and social media have further strengthened the global community in the realm of knowl- edge empowerment. Several international food companies are also taking full benefit of the increasing health awareness and have contributed millions of dollar into the study of nutraceutical compounds, marketing and development of new products and have rec- ognised a quickly developing new market with remarkable pledge. These products fall in the category of immense deemed functional foods. These manufactured food prod- ucts or natural foods (vegetables and fruits) that can definitely influence human physiol- ogy action have bioactive compounds (Wildman 2001). The term ‘nutraceuticals’ was first coined by Stephen DeFelice, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine, in the United States in 1988. The defini- tion given by the organisation was ‘products isolated and purified from foods that are generally sold in medicinal forms and are usually associated with food.’ However, another definition was given by Health Canada in 1998. The same organisation coined a defini- tion for the term ‘functional foods,’ which defined it as ‘similar in appearance to, or may be, conventional foods that are consumed as part of a usual diet, and have demonstrated physiological benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic diseases beyond the basic nutri- tional functions.’ Hence, there exists a fine line of demarcation between the two terms (Acharya et al. 2008). The global market of nutraceuticals and functional foods is on the rise with the United States and Japan being the top two countries having the biggest share of it. However, in other countries, the expansion of the market is being restricted due to stringent laws governing food labelling, formulation, processing, packaging and marketing. Such issues need to be dealt with properly to facilitate the growth of functional food markets in every other country (Basu et al. 2007). Two more countries that are likely to emerge as promising markets for nutraceuticals in the near future are India and China. Both these countries have a rich source of herbs and trees, which have formed an essential part of traditional Indian and Chinese medicines. Even today, such traditional medi- cines play an important role in keeping the lives of a major part of the enormous popu- lation in both these countries. Moreover, the lion share of India’s people live in the rural areas where there is almost no access to standard conventional health care centres providing modern day drugs. Hence, they depend on the local herbal products for cure of diseases (Basu et  al. 2007). In both the countries, there are no strict government 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 3 regulations pertaining to the sale and consumption of these traditional medicines. They are available to the people as over‐the‐counter drugs without the need for any prescrip- tion. These facts point to their potential to grow as leaders in market for nutraceuticals and functional foods and thus contribute significantly to the export industry (Basu et al. 2007). This review aims at providing a detailed coverage of health as well as industrial aspects of plant‐based nutraceuticals, functional foods and value‐added food products to the readers as to understand: what they are and their applications in human health from a global perspective. 1.2 Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods in Human Health Plants have always been a significant source of trace elements in our diet (Aberoumand 2012). They not only help us by meeting our optimum nutrient requirements but also provide an effective barrier to the occurrence of several morbid conditions (Aberoumand 2012). Many of these medicinal plants produce a number of different phytonutrients that play an important role in maintaining our very own physiological system. But most of those underlying biochemical processes still remain obscure (Thomas 2012). However, rapid development in the field of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequencing and other biotechnological know‐hows are slowly paving the way to unlocking these secrets and will one day make plants a more indispensable part of human life than they were once thought to be (Thomas 2012). With the growth of different pharmaceutical companies, the use of traditional medic- inal plants has indeed received a severe blow. But in the last few decades, there has been a turn in the tide. Scientists and health experts have started to recognise the value of the plants in human health and this has thus led to the positive growth of nutraceuticals and functional food markets all over the globe. The National Centre for Traditional Medicine has been set up in Cambodia to provide medical care to people in traditional medicine yet with scientific means. Several medicinal plants (Tables 1.1–1.5) with nutraceutical values have been identified and the proper dosage forms have been prepared after care- fully designed and repeated clinical trials. The use of traditional medicines in the coun- try is under strict regulation of the Ministry of Health to ensure quality and safety of the products (Kraisintu 2003). Community health study and investigation in metabolic syndrome of poor nutrition, dyslipidemia, hepatic derangement and associated cardiovascular risk factors are of immense importance in the present time. In concurrence with technological advance- ments, occupational and dietary lifestyles in all ages of both the sexes of men and women, irrespective of racial and ethnic differences are rapidly changing. Habitual changes of lifestyle of people in both urban and rural settings are also of no great differ- ence like before. Adults (18 years and above) of both sexes are affected by this massive pathos of psychosomatic disorders. Clinical manifestation of early age of onset of ath- erosclerosis, ischemic heart disease along with hepatic derangements and dyslipidemia are the most common health disorders prevalent in every society. Data on health‐related issues and nutrition from developed countries are easily available, but, unfortunately, the data from under developed and developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America are remarkably lacking. In addition, survey records and information are also less available from rural sectors and least from the tribal/aboriginal/first nation Table 1.1 Medicinally important plants from Africa that are commonly used by local tribes as nutraceutical sources and as potential functional food components in their daily diets. Tribes English Scientific Nutraceutical / Part Medicinal using the No Local name name Plant Family name Phytochemical Habit used properties plant References 1 Talamong Blackthorn Fabaceae Acacia 30‐hydroxylup‐20 Shrub Stem Treatment of Pokot Kokwaro mellifera (29)‐en‐3‐one, bark pneumonia, (Kenya) (1993), (Vahl) 30‐hydroxylup‐20 malaria, primary Mutai et al. Benth (29)‐en‐3ß‐ol, infection of (2007), atranorin, syphilis, sterility methyl‐2hyndroxy‐4‐ and stomach Mutai et al. hydroxy‐3, 6 dimethy ache, skin (2009) benzoate, ß‐stosterol‐3 diseases, coughs ß‐O‐glucoside, linoleic and acid, pentacyclic gastrointestinal triterpenoids: (20R) ailments 3‐oxolupane‐30al and (20S) 3‐oxolupane‐30al, (20R)‐28‐ hydroxylupen‐30‐al‐3‐ one, (20S)‐3β‐ hydroxylupan‐30‐al 2 Iwongewonge Indian Solanaceae Datura Alkaloids, tripenoid, Herb Leaves, Tuberculosis, Sukuma Bharathi et al. liquorice, metel L. steroids, flavonoid, seeds asthma, (Tanzania) (2010), White thorn triterpenes, phenolic cough, Kokwaro apple compounds, tannins convulsions, (1993), antibacterial, Siva Sakthi insanity, catarrh, et al. (2011) diarrhoea, hysteria, rheumatic pains 3 Acak‐acak Asthma herb, Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Flavonoids (Quercitrin, Herb Leaves, Asthma, colic Acholi Chen (1991), pill bearing hirta L. Myricitrin), Sterols latex troubles, (Uganda) Chitra et al. spurge (Cycloarternol, (whole dysentery, cough, (2011), 24‐methylene‐ plant) worms and Kokwaro cycloarternol, β‐ vomiting, (1993), sitosterol, euphorbol antibacterial, hexacozonate, 1‐ molluscicidal Lee (2011), hexacosanol, tinyaloxin, activity, anti‐ Shih et al. campesterol, diarrhoeal, (2010), stigmasterol), tannins anti‐ Shih and (1,2,3,4, 6‐penta‐O‐ inflammatory Cherng (2012) galloyl‐β‐D‐glucose, 3,4‐di‐O‐galloylquinic acid, gallic acid, 2,4, 6‐tri‐O‐galloyl‐D‐ glucose, euphorbin A,B,E), triterpenoids (α‐amyrin, β‐amyrin, taraxerone, taxerol, β‐amyrin, acetate, taraxerone, 11α, 12α –oxidotaraxero) 4 Magwagwa Tick berry Verbenaceae Lantana Tannin, catachin, Shrub Leaves, Coughs, Luo Kokwaro camara L. saponin, steroids, roots, antibacterial, (Kenya) (1993), alkaloids, phenol, flowers antihypertensive, Mary Kensa anthroquinone, treatment of (2011), protein and reducing malaria, Patel et al. sugar rheumatism, and (2011) skin rashes, anti‐ repellent, antiseptic, anti‐ inflammatory (Continued) Table 1.1 (Continued) Tribes English Scientific Nutraceutical / Part Medicinal using the No Local name name Plant Family name Phytochemical Habit used properties plant References 5 Muvunza African Malvaceae Hibiscus Steroids, flavonoids, Shrub Roots, Bronchitis, Pokomo Kokwaro hukuma mistletoe, micranthus carbohydrates, phenols, stems antimicrobial, (Kenya) (1993), Dwarf red L. f. tannins and few antiviral, Kumar et al. hibiscus, compounds like antitumour, (2010a, 2010b), Poppy phenolic acids, antipyretic, Kumar et al. hibiscus flavonoids, β‐sitosterol, anti‐ (2011) alkanes, fatty alcohols, inflammatory, acids haematological effects 6 Lihululu Yellow Acanthaceae Justicia Sterols, salicylic acid, Herb Leaves, Diarrhoea, fever, Luhya Kokwaro justicia, Sand flava lignans helioxanthin[(+)‐ root treatment of (Kenya) (1993), Paper plant (Forssk.) isolariciresinol, convulsions and Johnson (2004), Vahl justicinol, decosanoic feverish pains, Olaniyi (1982), acid, β‐sitosterol‐ β‐D‐ yaws glucoside], 1‐aryl‐2,3‐ Olaniyi and naphthalide lignans Powell (1980), [Orosunol, 8‐demethylorosunol] 7 Msalanga Eastern cape Anacardiaceae Ozoroa Anarcardic acid (LOX Tree Roots Dysentery, LOX Digo Hostettmann‐ resin tree mucronata inhibition), maronic inhibition, PG (Kenya) Kaldas and (Bernh.) R. acid (olean‐18‐ene keto synthase Nakanishi Fern. & A. acid) inhibition, (1979), Fern. antimicrobial Kokwaro (1993), Kubo et al. (1987) 8 Mukonda Mozambique Solanaceae Solanum Steroidal alkaloids, Shrub Root Typhoid fever, Kamba Bussmann kundi bitter apples renschii steroidal sapogenins throat, wounds (Kenya) (2006), Vatke healing Carle (1981), Heine et al. (1988), Kokwaro (1993) 9 Ng’owo Bush fig, Moraceae Ficus Flavanol, coumarins, Tree Roots, Constipation, Luo Adebayo‐Tayo Broom capensis steroids and triterpenes, leaves, tonic, anti‐ (Kenya) and Odeniyi cluster fig, Thunb. alkaloids, balsams, stem rheumatic, fever, (2012), Cape fig tannins, resin, bark treatment of Dafalla (2005), carbohydrates, phenolic tuberculosis, Kokwaro antibacterial (1993), Oyeleke et al. (2008) 10 Msahala Alexandrian Fabaceae Cassia Alkaloids, saponins, Shrub Leaflets, Indigestion, foot Swahili Kokwaro senna, East senna L. tannins, phytosterols, fruits infections, (Kenya) (1993), Indian senna naphthalene glycosides, (pods) subcutaneous Lemli et al. 6‐hydroxymusizin parasitic infection (1981), glycoside, tinnevellin Mengs et al. glycoside, anthranoids ( (2004), dianthrones, anthrones, Viswanathan anthraquinone) and Nallamuthu (2012) 11 Segatet Cape myrtle Primulaceae Myrsine Saponins, tannins, Shrub Fruits, Roundworm, Marakwet Kokwaro (1993), africana L. flavonoids, amino acids, stem tapeworm, (Kenya) Midiwo et al. steroids and reducing bark, remedy for chest (2010), sugar. embelin, rapanone leaves, pains and stiff Vasudha et al. (2,5 dihydroxy root bark joints (2011) benzoquinone) (Continued) Table 1.1 (Continued) Tribes English Scientific Nutraceutical / Part Medicinal using the No Local name name Plant Family name Phytochemical Habit used properties plant References 12 Kemagugu Flame lily, Colchicaceae Gloriosa Alkaloids (colchine and Herb Seeds, Abortion, Marakwet Kokwaro Creeping lily, superba L. colchicoside), tubers antidote for (Kenya) (1993), Climbing lily, glycosides, steroids, snake bites, Rehana banu Fire lily, terpenoids, tannins, antibacterial, and Nagarajan Tiger claw, phenols, saponin, treatment of (2012), Glory lily flavonoids bruises, sprains Senthilkumar and colic, (2013a, 2013b) wounds, fever 13 Ol‐erbat Babul, Indian Fabaceae Acacia Tannins, saponin, Tree Whole Gonorrhoea, Maasai Ali et al. (2012), gum Arabic nilotica (L.) saponin glycosides, plant cough, (Kenya) Hemamalini tree Willd. ex volatile oils, phenols, antibacterial, et al. (2013), Delile triterpenes, flavonoids antimalarial, Kokwaro and alkaloid, resin, antifungal, (1993), steroids, oleosins, anti‐diarrhoea, D‐glucoronic acid, anticancer, Solomon‐ 1‐acetyl beta carboline, antimutagenic, Wisdom and hydroxy citronellal, spasmogenic, Shittu (2010) trans decalone, vasoconstrictor, lavandulyl acetate, anti propionic acid‐2‐chloro, ‐pyretic, ethyl ester, anti‐asthamatic, 3‐picoline‐2‐nitro cytotoxic, anti‐diabetic, anti‐platelet agregatory, antiplasmodial, molluscicidal 14 Iravu White caper Capparidaceae Capparis Oxindole (3‐Hydroxy‐3‐ Shrub Roots, Syphilis, skin Chagga Dekker et al. brush, tomentosa methyl‐4‐ fruits, irritant, (Tanzania) (1987), Woolly caper Lam. methoxyoxindole), leaves antibacterial, Kokwaro brush glucocapparin, (aerial spices, cough, (1993), gluconorcappasalin, parts) infertility, Tlili et al. benzylglucosinolates, impotence, (2011) rutin, fatty acids, anti‐convulsant hydrocarbons, sitosterol, β‐carotene 15 Huhunga Zambezi Euphorbiaceae Acalypha Isopulegly acetate, Shrub Leaves, Leprosy, Sukuma Ahmed and false‐nettle ornata valenchi, vividiflorene, roots antiemetic, relief (Tanzania) Onocha (2013), Hochst. ex α‐muurolene, 2‐hexyne, of postpartum Kokwaro A. Rich. 6‐methyl‐α‐ionone, pain, (1993); γ‐elemene, (E)‐2‐ haemorrhoids, Onocha et al. methyl‐4‐undecene, leprosy, scabies, (2011a, 2011b) ledol, cis‐3‐hexynyl antimicrobial benzoate, 2‐methyl‐1‐ octadecene, apiole, oplopanone, γ‐ endesmol, flavonoids, phenols, resins, sterols, tannins Table 1.2 Medicinal plants from Central and West Asia with potential for use as nutraceutical and functional food. Medicinal No Local name English name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical Habit Part used Properties References 1 Bumadaran‐e‐ Achillea Asteraceae Achillea Camphor, borneol, Herb Flowers Carminative, Pirbalouti Sabzekoh kellalensis α‐thujone, cineol, bornyl indigestion, et al. (2010a), Bioss. & acetate and camphene edema, burns, skin Rustaiyan Hausskn. infection gastric et al. (1999), ulcer, antibacterial, Zargari anti‐inflammatory, (1996) haemorrhage, dysmenorrhoea, enema, diarrhoea 2 Golnare‐e‐farsi Pomegranate Lythraceae Punica Pomegranatate, ellagic Tree Flowers Wound healing, Pirbalouti granatum L. acid,3,3′,4′‐tri‐O‐ antiviral, et al. (2010a, methylellagic acid, ethyl antibacterial, 2010b), brevifolincarboxylate, antifungal, remedy Wang et al. urolic and maslinic acids, for cut wound, (2006) daucosterol bronchitis, diarrhoea, digestive problems, man sex power reconstituent, dermal infected wounds, diabetes 3 Panirak Common Malvaceae Malva Phenolics, flavonoids, Herb Flowers, Treatment of Zargari Mallow sylvestris L. carotenoids, ascorbic leaves, various ailments, (1996) acid mature fruits including cold, and leafy cough and burn, flowered and cut stems wound‐healing 4 Zarrin giah – Lamiaceae Dracocephalum Limonene, α‐pinene, Herb Leaves, Foot pain, sedative, Mojab et al. multicaule methyl fgeraniate flowers analgesia, (2002), Montbr. & (aerial parts) inflammatory, Pirbalouti Auch. ex antibacterial, et al. (2010a) Bentham antiseptic 5 Khosharizeh – Apiaceae Echinophora Trans‐β‐ocimene, Shrub Aerial parts Antifungal, spice Entezari et al. platyloba 2‐furanone, myrcene, and culinary (2009), DC. linalool and Pirbalouti cis‐β‐ocimene et al. (2010a) 6 Golpar – Apiaceae Heracleum Flavonoids, tannins, Herb Fruit Antiseptic, spice, Pirbalouti lasiopetalum saponins and condiment (2009), Boiss. Pirbalouti et al. (2010a); Rohi Boroujeni et al. (2012) 7 Bakhtyari Wild clery Apiaceae Kelussia E‐ligustilide Phthalide, Herb Leaves Edible as vegetable, Pirbalouti karafs odoratissima 3‐ e ‐ butyldiene flavouring, et al. (2010a, Mozaff. phthalide and indigestion, 2010c); z‐ligustilide rheumatism, also Rohi used to cure some Boroujeni rheumatism et al. (2012), disorders, common Sedighi et al. cold, cough, blood (2012), pressure, blood Sultana et al. lipid and (2005) stomachache (Continued) Table 1.2 (Continued) Medicinal No Local name English name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical Habit Part used Properties References 8 Pooneh Spearmint Lamiaceae Mentha Carvone, cis‐ piperitone Herb Leaves, Edible as vegetable, Džamić et al. longifolia (L.) epoxide, piperitenone flowers flavouring, (2010), Hudson. oxide, menthone, indigestion, cough, Ghoulami flavonoids: anti‐inflammatory, et al. (2001), 5,7,4′‐trihydroxy‐6,2′,3′‐ carminative, Pirbalouti trimethoxyflavone antiemetic, et al. (2010a), diaphoretic, anti Sharopov spasmodic, et al. (2012a) analgesic, stimulant, emmenagogue, and anticatharral activities 9 Marzeh Bakhtiari Lamiaceae Satureja Thymol, γ‐terpinene, Herb Leaves, Edible as vegetable, Pirbalouti Koohi savory bachtiarica p‐cymene, β‐ flowers flavouring, (2009) Bunge caryophyllene and indigestion, cough, Pirbalouti borneol antibacterial et al. (2010a, 2010c), Sefidkon and Jamzad (2000) 10 Lolopashmak Betony Lamiaceae Stachys α‐thujone, α‐pinene, Herb Leaves, Green tea, Pirbalouti and (Chay‐e‐kohi) lavandulifolia myrcene, β‐phellandrene, flowers antibacterial, skin Mohammadi Vahl. germacrene D, Δ‐ diseases, (2013), cadinene, and 1, menorrhagia, Pirbalouti 4‐methano‐1 H‐indene sedative, et al. (2010a), antispasmodic, Rohi diuretic, ulcers, Boroujeni fevers and et al. (2012), diarrhoea Zargari (1996) 11 Avishan Deanaie Lamiaceae Thymus Geraniol, geranyl acetate, Herb Leaves, Green tea, spice, Nickavar thyme daenensis β‐caryophyllene, thymol, flowers culinary, cough, et al. (2005), Celak. p‐cymene, methyl antibacterial, Pirbalouti carvacrol, carminative, et al. (2010a, anti‐inflammatory, 2010c), expectorant, Pirbalouti treatment of colds, et al. (2011), antifungal, Sabahi et al. antiviral, (2013), anti‐parasites Zargari (1996) 12 Kakouti – Lamiaceae Ziziphora Pulegone, limonene, Herb Leaves, Green tea, spice, Ebrahimi tenuior L. piperitenone flowers culinary, et al. (2012), antibacterial, Meral et al. carminative, (2002), antiasthmatic Pirbalouti et al. (2010a), Sezik et al. (1991) 13 Khakeshir Flixweed Brassicaceae Descurainia Cis‐β‐ocimene, menthol, Herb Seeds Laxative, Li et al. sophia (L.) neoisomenthyl acetate gasteralgia, fever, (2010), Webb ex Prantl treatment of some Pirbalouti cancers, cough (2009) 14 Gavzaban‐e‐ Bugloss Boraginaceae Anchusa italica Saponins, pyrrolizidine Herb Flowers, Green tea, Mojab et al. koohi Retz. alkaloids, leaves antidepressant, (2003), γ,α‐linoleic acid, nerve system Pirbalouti stearidonic acid relaxant, (2009), antianxiety, cold, Safa et al. chest pain, sore (2012), throat, Zaurov et al. antibacterial, (2013) asthma, neurasthenia (Continued) Table 1.2 (Continued) Medicinal No Local name English name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical Habit Part used Properties References 15 Sorya Ratanjot Boraginaceae Arnebia Naphthoquinone red Herb Roots, Burn wound, Damianakos euchroma pigments: ethyl 9‐(2′,5′‐ rhizome anti‐eczema, et al. (2012), (Royle) I.M. dihydroxyphenyl) antimicrobial, Kumar et al. Johnston. nonanoate, octyl ferulate, anti‐ inflammatory, (2011), arnebiabinone and anti‐viral, Liu et al. isohexenylnaphthazarins anti‐tumour, (2010), (e.g. acetylshikonin) cardiotonic and contraceptive Pirbalouti properties et al. (2010c) 16 Golraye – Hypericaceae Hypericum α‐pinen, thymol, Herb Flowers, Green tea, Baser et al. dayhimi scabrum L. carvacrol, spathulenol, aerial parts sedative, headache, (2002), p‐Cymene analgesic, trauma, Pirbalouti rheumatism, et al. (2010c) neuralgia, anti‐inflammatory, antiseptic, gastroenteritis, ulcers, hysteria, bedwetting 17 Mort Myrtle Myrtaceae Myrtus Acylphloroglucinols, Tree Leaves Skin discords, Messaoud communis L. phenolic compounds: digestive discords, et al. (2012), phenolic acids, flavonol astringent, good Pirbalouti glycosides, volatile hair condition, (2009), components: 1,8‐cineole, bronchodilatotor, Pirbalouti α‐terpineol, methyl anti‐ inflammatory et al. (2010c) eugenol, linalool 18 Pesteh Koohi Persian Anacardiaceae Pistacia Sterols (betasitosterol), Tree Fruit, resin Indigestion, tonic, Pirbalouti (baneh) turpentine atlantica Desf. triacylglycerol toothache, (2009), tree tocopherols (α‐ astringent Pirbalouti tocopherol), phenols et al. (2010c), (caffeic acid) Pirbalouti et al. (2012), Saber‐Tehrani et al. (2013) 19 Gol‐e Arooneh, – Lamiaceae Salvia β‐caryophyllene, Herb Flowers, Cough, emollient, Barazandeh (aruone) hydrangea DC. caryophyllene oxide, leaves sore throat, (2004), ex Bentham spathulenol, 1,8‐cineole, antibacterial, Pirbalouti α‐pinene antispasmodic, et al. (2010c), carminative and Rustaiyan sedative et al. (1997), Sonboli et al. (2009) 20 Zalzalak Hawthorn Rosaceae Crataegus Sobutylamine, ursolic Tree Fruits, Heart discords, Kashyap et al. curvisepala acid, oleanolic acid, flowers, edible as wild fruit, (2012), Lindm. (= crategolic acid, leaves hypolipidaemic, Pirbalouti Crataegus adenosine, adenine, anti‐ inflammatory, (2009), oxyacantha L.) guanine, caffeic acid, antianxiety, Verma et al. quercetin, hyperoside, antimicrobial (2007) rutin, vitexin‐4′‐ rhamnoside, tyramine, flavonoglycosyls, epicatechol, saponins, tannins, o‐ethoxy phenylethylamine (Continued) Table 1.2 (Continued) Medicinal No Local name English name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical Habit Part used Properties References 21 Nakhonak Southern Milk Fabaceae Astragalus Flavonoids: rhamnocitrin Shrub Whole plant Carminative, Bratkov et al. Vetch hamosus L. 4′‐β‐D‐ astringent, good (2016), galactopyranoside, for ulcers, Krasteva et al. flavonols hyperoside, leucoderma and (2007), isoquercitrin, astragalin, inflammation, Pirbalouti 3‐O‐ gentiobioside, rutin treatment of (2009) rhamnetin nervous affections 3‐O‐ glucoside 22 Mousir Persian shallot Alliaceae Allium Organosulphur, phenolic Herb Bulbs Edible as vegetable, Barile et al. stipitatum compounds, allicin, flavouring, (2005), Regel (= Allium diallyl disulphide diallyl antihypertensive, Ghahremani‐ hirtifolium trisulphide, 9‐ antibacterial, Majd et al. Boiss.) hexadecenoic acid, antioxidant (2012), 11,14‐eicosadienoic acid, Ismail et al. n‐hexadecanoic (2013), acid, furostanol and Pirbalouti spirostanol saponins, (2009) flavonol glycosides 23 Spand Syrian rue Nitrariaceae Peganum Alkaloids (β‐carboline), Shrub Fruit, seed Antimicrobial, Benbott et al. harmala L. reducing compounds, anti‐parasite, (2013), tannins, volatile oils, asthma, colic, Dastagir et al. saponins, flavonoids, anthelmintic, (2012), sterols (triterpenes), antiseptic, Pirbalouti harmine, gastrointestinal, (2009) harmaline, antispasmodic, anthraquinone antiperiodic, 24 Spharzeh Plantain Plantaginaceae Plantago Polyphenolic acid, Herb Seeds Cough, emollient, Naghdi et al. (psyllium) psyllium L. flavonoids, mucilages cough, sore throat (2004), (anionic polysaccharide Pirbalouti of L‐arabinose, D‐xylose (2009), and D‐galactoronic acid), Saeedi et al. iridoid glycosides (2010) 25 Rivas Syrian Polygonaceae Rheum ribes L. Chrysophanol, physcion, Herb Leaves, root edible as vegetable, Oktay et al. Rhubarb rhein, aloe‐emodin, flavouring, (2007), physcion‐8‐O‐glucoside, jaundice, Pirbalouti aloe‐emodin‐8‐O‐ indigestion, skin (2009), glucoside, Sennoside A, discords, treatment Sayyah et al. rhaponticin, flavonoids of diabetes, (2009) haemorrhoids, ulcer, diarrhoea Table 1.3 Medicinal plants from the Himalayas with potential for use as nutraceutical source and as functional food component. English Uses/Medicinal No Local name name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical/Phytochemical Habit Part used properties References 1 Bongkar Aconite Ranunculaceae Aconitum Diterpenoid alkaloids [Hetisine‐ Herb Aerial Antidote for Gajalakshmi orochryseum type (orochrine, 2−O− parts poisons of et al. (2011), Stapf acetylorochrine, scorpion and Krug and 2−O−acetyl−7α− snake; cures Milliken hydroxyorochrine), atisinium contagious (2008), chloride and virescenine], diseases and Samten flavonoids, flavonol glycosides, inflammation of (2009), diterpenoid, norditerpenoid intestines, Wangchuk common cough et al. (2007), and cold, bilious fever, dysentery, Wangchuk febrifuge for et al. (2010) fevers associated with malaria infection, kidney dysfunction and stomach ulceration, diarrhoea, dysentery, tonsillitis, headache, high altitude sickness, antimalarial 2 Bongnag, Indian Ranunculaceae Aconitum Diterpene alkaloids Herb Tubers, Anthelmintic, Gajalakshmi Bikh Aconite heterophylloides leaves, allays bone et al. (2011), (Brühl) Stapf roots, disease, mumps, Krug and (= Aconitum flowers gout, chronic Milliken laciniatum infection and (2008), (Bruhl) Stapf ) leprosy, Samten analgesic, anti‐ (2009), inflammation, Sarkar et al. used for poison (2012), for arrows Wangchuk et al. (2013) 3 Lug‐mig Weak violet Asteraceae Aster flaccidus Phenylpropanoids [(7′R, 8S)‐9′‐ Herb Whole Useful for Gan et al. Aster Bunge lariciresinol‐(alpha‐methyl)‐ plant treating affliction (2006), butanoate, including by evil spirits, Gangwar 5,9‐dimethoxyl‐7‐(alpha‐ flowers, antitumour, et al. (2010), methyl)‐butanoxyl‐phenyl‐2E‐ roots, bronchitis, Krug and propenol‐(alpha‐methyl)‐ aerial part cramps, common Milliken butanoate], 2‐oxo‐isocostic acid, cold and relieves (2008), mussaenoside,kaempferol‐3‐O‐β‐ pain Dglucopyranoside,1β,6α‐ Liu et al. dihydroxyeudesm‐4(15)‐ene,6β‐ (2010), propionyloxy‐1,10‐ Miao et al. dehydrofuranoeremophil‐9‐on, (2012), indaconitine, lupeol, Samten liquiritigenin, apigenin, tricine, (2009) coniferyl aldehyde, friedelin, apigenin, p‐hydroxybenzoicacid, 2‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside‐ vicodiol, 10‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside‐ oplopanone (Continued) Table 1.3 (Continued) English Uses/Medicinal No Local name name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical/Phytochemical Habit Part used properties References 4 Pangram Red Polygonaceae Bistorta (‐)‐epicatechin‐5‐O‐beta‐D‐ Herb Rhizome, Allays diarrhoea, Krug and knotweed or macrophylla glucopyranoside, (+)‐ leaves stomach pain, Milliken Large leaved (D. Don) Soják catechin‐7‐O‐beta‐D‐ dysentery, (2008), knotweed glucopyranoside, wound healing Phondani 1‐(3‐O‐beta‐D‐glucopyranosyl (2011), 4,5‐dihydroxy‐phenyl)‐ethanone Samten (‐)‐epicatechin, chlorogenic (2009), acid, gallic acid, anthraquinone Semwal et al. glucoside 1‐hydroxy‐8‐ (2010), methoxy‐3‐methyl‐6‐O‐β‐D‐ glucopyranosyl‐anthraquinone, Wang et al. 1, 6‐dihydroxy‐ 8‐methoxy‐3‐ (2004) methyl‐anthraquinone, quercitrin, kaempferol‐3‐O‐α‐ rhamnoside, arborinol , β‐sitosterol, β‐sitosterol‐D‐glucoside 5 Yakima Gold Saxifragaceae Chrysosplenium Triterpenoids, flavonol Herb Whole Anti‐ Krug and saxifrage nudicaule Bunge glycosides, volatile oil, plant inflammatory Milliken hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester, including and cholagogue; (2008), dibutyl phthate, (Z, Z, Z)‐9, 12, aerial parts for headaches, Samten 15‐octadecatrienoic acid, ethyl gall bladder (2009), ester, 2, 6‐butylated problem Yanli (2006), hydroxytoluene, and 5, 6, 7, Yunshang 7a‐tetrahydro 4, 4, et al. (2004) 7a‐trimethyl‐2(4H)‐ benzofuranone 6 Bashaka Primrose, Papaveraceae Corydalis Isoquinoline alkaloids Herb Whole Used as tonic, Krug and Climbing crispa Prain (protopine, 13‐oxoprotopine, plant promotes vigour, Milliken corydalis 13‐oxocryptopine, stylopine, including treatment of (2008), coreximine, rheagenine, roots infections in the Samten ochrobirine, sibiricine, blood, liver and (2009), bicuculline) bile, Wangchuk antiplasmodial, et al. (2012a) antimicrobial, anti‐inflammatory 7 Re‐skon Corydalis Papaveraceae Corydalis Dubiamine, and isoquinoline Herb Whole Impure blood Krug and dubia Prain alkaloids (cheilanthifoline plant detoxifier and Milliken scolerine, protopine, capnoidine, including neuralgia, (2008), bicuculline, hydrastine, roots treatment of Samten corydecumbine) fever arising (2009), from affections Wangchuk of heart, lung, et al. (2011), pancreas and Wangchuk kidney, et al. (2012b) antiplasmodial, antimicrobial, cytotoxicity and antiplasmodial activity 8 Dbang‐lag Early Marsh Orchidaceae Dactylorhiza Dactylorhins A‐B‐C‐D‐E, Herb Tubers, General tonic, Krug and Orchid hatagirea dactyloses A and B, lipids, roots promotes heat, Milliken (D. Don) Soó glucoside dysentery, (2008), Kizu diarrhoea, chronic et al. (1999), fever, cough, Pant and stomach ache, Rinchen wounds, cuts, (2012), burns, fractures, Samten general weakness, (2009) bone fracture, (Continued) Table 1.3 (Continued) English Uses/Medicinal No Local name name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical/Phytochemical Habit Part used properties References 9 Bya‐rgod‐ Delphinium Ranunculaceae Delphinium Alkaloids Herb Aerial For fever, loss of Churyukanov spos glaciale glaciale Hook.f. parts appetite, (1986), & Thomson headache, Krug and dysentery, body Milliken swelling of (2008), wounds Mashkovsky and Samten (2009) 10 Gongthogpa Tall Brassicaceae Erysimum Glucosinolates (5‐ Herb Aerial Useful for meat Daxenbichler Wormseed hieraciifolium methylthiopentyl, (R)‐5‐methyl‐ parts poisoning, lung et al. (1980), Mustard, L.f. sulphinylpentyl, including problems and in Kjær and Hawkweed‐ 3‐hydroxy‐5‐methylthiopentyl, fruits, reducing stress Schuster leaved 3‐hydroxy‐5‐ seeds and insomnia (1970), Krug Mustard, methylsulphinylpentyl,3‐ and Milliken Wallflower hydroxy‐5‐ (2008), methylsulphonylpentyl Samten isothiocyanate, 3‐hydroxypropyl (2009) isothiocyanate, erysinoside, helveticoside 11 Tseka Fritillaria Liliaceae Fritillaria Volatile oil, glycosides, sterol, Herb Bulbs Promotes vigour, Krug and delavayi Franch. triterpenes, polyoses, saponins, counteract Milliken reducing compounds, quinones, accumulation of (2008), flavonic glycosides, coumarins, fluids in joints, Maharjan isosteroidal alkaloids, delavine, treatment of et al. (2011), delavinone, chuanbeinone, impotence, Saklani et al. delafrinone, delafrine treatment of (2011), different lung Samten diseases (2009) (bronchitis, tuberculosis, coughs), treatment of nervous system, antitussive and expectorant activity, anti‐inflammatory 12 Gangachung Urn‐shaped Gentianaceae Gentiana urnula Iridoidal glycosides Herb Entire Treat fever, Krug and gentian. Sm. [gentiournosides A‐C (bis‐ plant dysentery and Milliken iridoidal glycosides), including poisoning, (2008), Liu gentiournosides D‐E (loganin) roots antipyretic, et al. (1994), treatment of Samten thrombus, (2009) dysentery and sore throat 13 Parpata Thinfruit Papaveraceae Hypecoum Alkaloids (leptocarpinine, Herb Whole Useful in treating Chen and Hypecoum leptocarpum leptopine, leptopinine, plant common cough Fang (1985), Hook. f. & leptopidine, leptopidinine), and cold, skin Krug and Thomson protopine, isohyperectine, diseases, blood Milliken oxohydrastinine (hypecoumine), pressure and (2008), Samten cryptopine poisonings (2009), Zhou et al. (1999) (Continued) Table 1.3 (Continued) English Uses/Medicinal No Local name name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical/Phytochemical Habit Part used properties References 14 Ud‐pel‐ Himalayan Papaveraceae Meconopsis Alkaloids (berberine, Herb Whole Treat liver and Krug and sngon‐po Blue Poppy simplicifolia mecambridines) aerial part lung Milliken (D. Don) Walp. inflammation and (2008), fever associated Samten with cough and (2009), cold and malaria. Tétényi heals the blood, (2005), liver and the lung Wangchuk infections, et al. (2011) 15 Pang poe Spikenard Caprifoliaceae Nardostachys Pranocoumarin [E‐2‐methyl, Herb Whole Used for its Chatterjee jatamansi 3‐(5,9‐dimethylbicyclo[4.3.0]‐ plant astringent, et al. (2000), (D. Don) DC. nonen‐9‐yl)‐2‐propenoic acid (rhizomes, diuretic, Chatterjee (= Nardostachys and 2′,2′‐dimethyl‐3′‐ roots) digestive, et al. (2005), grandiflora DC.) methoxy‐3′,4′‐ carminative and Krug and dihydropyranocoumarin], laxative Milliken susquiterpenes, lignans, properties, as (2008), neo‐lignans, coumarins, liver stimulant, Mulliken and terpenoid ester (nardostachysin) antipyretic and Crofton tonic , antiseptic, (2008), high blood Samten pressure, (2009) insomnia, antispasmodic, treatment of epilepsy, hysteria, convulsions, heart palpitations and round worm 16 Tsher‐sngon Prickly Blue Papaveraceae Meconopsis Alkaloids [8, 9‐ Herb Whole Strong analgesic, Haifeng et al. poppy horridula Hook. dihydroprooxocryptochin, aerial part strengthens (2009), f. & Thomson isoquinoline, protopine, bones and joints, Krug and (−)‐reframoline, (−)‐ treatment of Milliken amurensinine], tricin, luteolin, headaches and (2008), apigenin, hydnocarpin, fractures Liu et al. β‐sitosterol, luteolin‐7‐O‐β‐D‐ (2014), glucopyranoside, kaempferol‐3‐O‐β‐D‐ Ming‐Fang glucopyranosyl(1→2)]‐β‐D‐ et al. (2009), glucopyranoside, Samten quercetin‐3‐O‐β‐D‐ (2009) galactopyranosyl(1→6)]‐β‐D‐ glucopyranoside, tricin‐7‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside, kaempferol‐3‐O‐β‐D‐ glucopyranoside, cinnamamide, N‐p‐hydroxyl‐trans‐ coumaroyltyramine, quercetin, kaempferide, kaempferol, 3‐(kaempferol‐8‐yl)‐2,3‐ epoxyflavanone 17 Kutki, Figwort Plantaginaceae Neopicrorhiza Phenylpropanoid glycosides Herb Stolons, Cold, cough and Kim et al. putishing flower scrophulariiflora (scrophulosides A and B), rhizomes, headache, also for (2006), Picrorhiza (Pennell) D.Y. androsin, picroside I, non‐ roots problems related Krug and Hong glycosidic iridoids, piscrocins to bile, high Milliken (D, E, F, G), iridoid glycosides blood pressure, (2008), Rawal (piscrosides A and B)   sore throat, et al. (2009), intestinal pain Samten and (2009), conjunctivitis, fever Wang et al. (2006) (Continued) Table 1.3 (Continued) English Uses/Medicinal No Local name name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical/Phytochemical Habit Part used properties References 18 Drimug, Tibetan Boraginaceae Onosma hookeri Acetylshikonin, β,β‐ Herb Roots To cure lung Krug and muktsi Onosma C.B. Clarke dimethylacrylshikonin, diseases, purify Milliken β,β‐dimethylacrylalkannin or blood and stop (2008), Ning arnebin‐1, shikonin, vomiting of and Cao naphthaquinone pigments blood, also for (1996), tuberculosis, anti Papageorgiou microbial, et al. (1999), anticancer, Samten antithrombotic, (2009) anti‐ inflammatory, wound healing, skin rashes 19 Pangchidebo ‐ Caprifoliaceae Pterocephalus Loganin, triterpenoid saponins Herb Whole Antidote, chronic Krug and hookeri (C.B. (hookerosides A–D), oleanolic plant inflammation, Milliken Clarke) Diels and ursolic acids (roots) cold, cough (2008), Samten (2009), Tian et al. (1993), Tan et al. (2011), Yang et al. (2006) 20 Domnag ‐ Plantaginaceae Veronica ciliata Iridoid glycosides, benzoic acid Herb Entire Used as a Krug and domthri Fisch. plant substitute for Milliken including bile, used to stop (2008), Kun roots bleeding, wound et al. (2003), treatment Samten (2009) 21 A‐bhi‐sha, Dwarf lily Liliaceae Lilium nanum Not reported Herb Whole Antidote and Chen et al. Xiao bai he Klotzsch & plant allays head (2000), Garcke (bulbs as injuries, heels Krug and tonic) bone fracture Milliken (2008), Samten (2009) 22 Tsepara, Bigflower Crassulaceae Rhodiola Salidroside (rhodioloside), Herb Fleshy Alleviate Krug and lamichop Rhodiola crenulata rosavins, p‐tyrosol, 2‐Methyl‐3‐ stems depression , Milliken (Hook. f. & buten‐2‐ol, 3‐Methyl‐2‐buten‐1‐ (rhizomes), stimulation of (2008), Thomson) ol,n‐Octanol, geraniol, roots nervous system, Qu et al. H. Ohba citronellol, myrtenol, linalool, antioxidative (2012), 1‐Octen‐3‐ol, pyrogallol, gallic Samten acid, β‐ sitosterol, crenulatin, (2009), ellagic acid kaempferol, Wang and Wang (1992) Table 1.4 Medicinal plants from South Asia with potential for use as nutraceutical source and as functional food component. Scientific No Local name English name Plant Family name Nutraceutical /Phytochemical Habit Part used Medicinal properties References 1 Laasona Garlic Amaryllidaceae Allium Saponins, sterols, tannins, Herb Bulb and oil Anticancer, Douiri et al. sativum L. proteins, carbohydrates, cardiac antimicrobial, reduces (2013), glycosides, sulphur compounds blood pressure and Kadam et al. (trisulfide, di‐2‐propenyl; blood cholesterol, (2013), disulfide, di‐2‐propenyl; antiviral, antifungal, Mikail (2010) trisulfide, methyl 2‐propenyl, anti‐inflammatory, diallyl disulide) stimulant, carminative, antiseptic, anthelmintic, expectorant, diuretic, diaphoretic, diuretic, antisorbutic aphrodisiac, antiasthmatic, pulmonary diseases 2 Ghee Aloe Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera Barbaloin (10‐β‐D‐ Herb Leaves, stems Laxative, anti‐ Basu et al. Kunwar, (L.) Burm. f. glucopyranosyl‐1,8‐dihydroxy‐3‐ helminthic, skin (2007), Ghritkumari (hydroxymethyl)‐9(10H) disorders, , anti‐ Joseph and Raj ‐ anthracenone), tannins, inflammatory, (2010), flavonoids, lectins, terpenoids, cathartic, antiviral, Patel et al. carbohydrates, alkaloids, saponin, wound healing, burns, (2012), fatty acids, cholesterol, antimicrobial, Raphael anthraquinones, chromones, anticancer, (2012) mono and polysaccharides, antioxidant activity, sterols (lupeol, campesterol, and dysentery, diarrhoea β‐sitosterol), salicylic acid, organic acids, enzymes, saponins, vitamins, minerals, anthrone, aloe emodin, aloetinic acid, choline, choline salicylate, sapogenins 3 Balsana, St. John’s wort Hypericaceae Hypericum Dianthrone derivatives Herb Leaves, Analgesic, anti‐viral, Basu et al. Dendhu perforatum (hypericin, pseudohypericin, flowers anti‐censor, (2007), L. protohypericin), phloroglucinol antidepressant and Vattikuti and derivatives (hyperforin, antiviral activity, Ciddi (2005), furohyperforin, adhyperforin), treatment of traumas, flavonoids (hyperoside, burns, scabs and quercetin, quercetrin, rutin, ulcers biapigenin, kaempferol), flavonols (catechins), xanthones, n‐Alkanols, Monoterpenes (α‐pinene, β‐Pinene, limonene), sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene, humulene) 4 Shimla hot peppers, Solanaceae Capsicum Capsaicin, carotenoids Herb Fruit Anticancer, anti‐ Howard et al. mirch chili pepper annuum L. [capsanthin, zeaxanthin, inflammatory, (2000), provitamin A carotenoids : antiapoptotic, Laroche β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene, analgestic, (2007), β‐carotene], flavonoids carminative, Sunil et al. (quercetin and luteolin), total rubefacient, anti (2012) soluble reducing equivalents, oxidant, phenolic acids, ascorbic acid hypoglycemic, antifungal, antimicrobial, used as carminative, an appetiser and a stomachic. treatment of rheumatism, lumbago, neuralgia, and mental disorders (Continued) Table 1.4 (Continued) Scientific No Local name English name Plant Family name Nutraceutical /Phytochemical Habit Part used Medicinal properties References 5 Kali mirch Black pepper Piperaceae Piper nigrum Piperine, alkaloids, coumarins, Herb Fruit Helps in digestion, Ahmad et al. L. phenols, tannins, β‐Elemene, antimicrobial, (2012), tricyclo[6.2.1.0(4,11)]undec‐5‐ antiapoptotic, Krishnaswamy ene,1,5,9,9‐tetramethyl‐ antibacterial, (2008), (isocaryophyllene‐II), anti‐Colon toxin, Siddiqui et al. β‐caryophyllene, (+)‐β‐Selinene, antidepressant, (2005), eremophilene, nonacosane, antifungal, Trivedi et al. methyl hexadecanoate, ethyl anidiarrhoeal, (2011) hexadecanoate, methyl anti‐inflammatory, 14‐methyl heptadecanoate, antimutagenic, methyl trans‐8‐octadecanote, anti‐metastatic ethyl cis‐9‐octadecanaote, activity, antioxidative, hexadecanoic acid, antiriyretic, octadecanoic acid antispasmodic, antispermatogenic, antitumour, antithyroid, ciprofloxacin potentiator, cold extremities, gastric ailments, hepatoprotective, insecticidal activity, intermittent fever, larvisidal activity 6 Kala‐ Thorn apple, Solanaceae Datura Tropane alkaloids, flavonoids, Herb All parts In treatment of heart Akharaiyi dhatura Downy datura metel L. glycosides, phenols, tannins, ailments, (2011), sterols saponins antibacterial, Dahanukar antifungal, asthma, et al. (2000), cough, convulsion, Kiruthika and insanity, anaesthetic, Sornaraj antispasmodic, (2011) bronchodilator and as hallucinogenic 7 Vilayati peppermint Lamiaceae Mentha × Menthol (Monoterpene), Herb Leaves Topical pain reliever Galeotti et al. pudina piperita L. alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, & antipyretic, (2002), tannins, phenols antibacterial, Herro and common cold, Jacob (2010), musculoskeletal pain, Pramila et al. to calm pruritus and (2012), relieve irritation, Sujana et al. anti‐inflammation (2013) 8 ‐ Scots pine Pinaceae Pinus Borneol (Monoterpenes: Tree Needles Disinfectant, Basu et al. (Pine oil) sylvestris L. α‐pinene, car‐3‐ene, β‐pinene, (leaves) antibacterial, (2007), β‐phellandrene, camphene, antifungal, Maciąg et al. myrcene, limonene, terpinolene), antiviral, antiseptic (2007), glycerol, 3′‐O‐methylcatechin, (pulmonary, urinary, Pan and phenolic compounds hepatic), Lundgren antineuralgic, (1996) cholagogue, choleretic, diuretic, expectorant, hypertensive, cough, catarrh (Continued) Table 1.4 (Continued) Scientific No Local name English name Plant Family name Nutraceutical /Phytochemical Habit Part used Medicinal properties References 9 Serpana Wormwood Asteraceae Artemisia Santonin (sesquiterpene), Herb All parts Photosensitizer, Basu et al. absinthium tannins, mucilages, reducing cytotoxic, (2007), L. sugars, flavones, volatile oil antihepatotoxic, Bora and (1,8‐cineole, artemisia ketone, antibacterial, Sharma myrcene, (E)‐sabinyl acetate, antifungal, (2010), cis‐chrysanthenyl acetate, antioxidant, Ivãnescu germacrene D, linalool acetate, a antimalarial (2010), dihydrochamazulene isomer, Orav et al. α‐phellandrene, linalool, neryl (2006), 3‐methylbutanoate, neryl Sharopov 2‐methylbutanoate, neryl et al. (2012b) butyrate, curcumene, carvone, trans‐verbenol, trans‐ epoxyocimene, β‐thujone sabinene, chamazulene, α‐thujone), resinic acids, carotenoids, coumarins, terpenoids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds (syringic acid, fisetin, isorhamnetin, kaempferol), phytosterols (β‐sitosterol, stigmasterol) 10 Karpasa Cotton Malvaceae Gossypium Gossypol (sesquiterpene), Shrub Seeds, leaves, Contraceptive‐for Basu et al. herbaceum tannin, starch, saponin, calcium, roots males, wound healing, (2007), L. mucilage, carbohydrate, phenolic antimicrobial, Masram et al. compounds menstrual disorders (2012), Velmurugan et al. (2012) 11 Haaliyuna Asparagus Asparagaceae Asparagus Steroidal saponins, vitamins, Herb Tuberous antioxidants, Kaur and officinalis L. essential oils, asparagine, roots, young immunostimulants, Kapoor arginine, tyrosine, flavonoids shoots, anti‐inflammatory, (2002), (kaempferol, quercetin, rutin), antihepatotoxic, Negi et al. resin, and tannin antibacterial, (2010) Shoots constituents: thiophene, antioxytocic, dysuria, thiazole, aldehyde, ketone diabetes, and vanillin, asparagusic acid, methyl dysentery, appetiser, and ethyl esters antitumour, useful in biliousness, leprosy, Flowers and mature fruits epilepsy, and night include: quercetin, rutin, blindness, disease of hyperosid. kidney and liver, Leaves: diosgenin, tonic, astringent, quercetin‐3‐glucuronide vermifuge 12 Pyaja Red onion Amaryllidaceae Allium cepa Flavonoid quercetin, Herb Bulb Wound healing, Benkeblia and L. carbohydrates, glycosides, antimicrobial, Lanzotti cardiac glycosides, proteins, common cold, heart (2007), alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, disease, treatment of Patwardhan acid compounds, triterpenic topical scars, et al. (2005), acids, reducing sugars, oils, antioxidant, Sampath resin, seed constituents (tianshic cardiovascular Kumar et al. acid, N‐trans‐feruloyl tyramine, disease, anticancer, to (2010), β‐sitosterol‐3 β‐ lowering blood Tătărîngă glucopyranoside‐6′‐palmitate, pressure and et al. (2005), sitosterol, daucosterol, cholesterol levels, Yuan et al. tryptophane, adenine riboside), anthelmintic, (2008), Begum thiosulfinates (alkane(ene) anti‐inflammatory, and Yassen thial‐S‐oxide) antiseptic, (2015) antispasmodic, carminative (Continued) Table 1.4 (Continued) Scientific No Local name English name Plant Family name Nutraceutical /Phytochemical Habit Part used Medicinal properties References 13 Hathichak Glob Asteraceae Cynara Flavonoids and phenolic acids: Herb Inflorescences, Anti cancer, Pandino et al. artichoke cardunculus apigenin, luteolin and their leaves, stalks inhibition of (2011), var. scolymus conjugates (luteolin 7‐rutinoside, UV‐induced skin Pandino et al. (L.) Fiori luteolin 7‐malonylglucoside, carcinogenesis (2012), luteolin aglycone, luteolin (anticarcinogenic) Velez et al. 7‐glucoside), flavanones, aglycone and vasomodulating, (2012) apigenin, anthocyanins (cyanidin cardiovascular glycosides), chlorogenic disease, diuretic and acid,1,5‐O‐dicaffeoylquinic acid, liver protector, apigenin‐7‐O‐glucuronide, quinic antioxidant; acid, 5‐O‐caffeoylquinic acid, antitumour, 1,5‐O‐dicaffeoylquinic acid, 3‐, anti‐inflammatory, 4‐, and 5‐caffeoylquinic acids, antimutagenic, 1,3‐dicaffeoylquinic acid (cynarin), anti‐proliferative, 1,5‐dicaffeoylquinic acid, ferulic antiatherosclerotic acid, cumaric acid, inulin etc. 14 Anaara Pomegranate Lythraceae Punica Carbohydrates, reducing sugars, Small Root bark, Blood purifier, Ali and granatum L. sterols, glycosides, phenolics, tree dried fruit, treatment of Sharma tannins, flavonoids, proteins, (shrub) stem bark, dysentery, diarrhoea, (2006), saponins, triterpenoids, steroids, leaves, seeds, nasal haemorrhage, Bhandary alkaloids, vitamin C, punicanyl immature helminthiasis, acidosis, et al. (2012), benzoate, granatumol, fruits, fruit haemorrhage and Hegde Chaitra punicaflavone, granatumoside rind respiratory pathologies, et al. (2012) antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antioxidant, antimicrobial, sore throat, haematuria, haemoptysis, against tapeworms, to relieve conjunctivitis 15 Ghrita‐ Strawberry Rosaceae Fragaria × Phenolic compounds ( ellagic Herb Fruit antioxidant activity, Filippone et al. Kumari, ananassa acid, p‐coumaric acid), antibacterial, (1999), Kumari Duch. ex flavonoids (quercetin, antifungal Groyne et al. Rozier kaempferol, myricetin), (1999), anthocyanins (pelargonidin Panico et al. 3‐glucoside, cyanidin 3‐ (2009) glucoside, pelargonidin 3‐rutinoside), aglycons [2,5‐dimethyl‐4‐hydroxy‐3(2H) furanone (furaneol), 2,5‐ dimethyl‐4‐methoxy‐3(2H) furanone (mesifurane), 2,3‐Dihydrobenzofuran, 3‐Phenyl‐2‐propenoic acid, hexanoic acid etc.] 16 Haladi, Turmeric Zingiberaceae Curcuma Curcuminoids [curcumin Herb Rhizomes Antimicrobial, Aggarwal Haridra longa L. (diferuloylmethane), anticancer, anti‐ et al. (2007), demethoxycurcumin, bis‐ inflammatory, Akram et al. demethoxycurcumin], volatile antiviral and (2010), oils (ar‐turmerone turmerone, antifungal, reducer of Gantait et al. atlantone, zingiberene, post‐surgical (2011), sesquiphellandrene, terpinolene, inflammation, Mazumdar phellandrene, p‐cymene, cineol, anti‐ helicobacter et al. (1997), caryophyllene, nerolidol, pylori, liver curlone, dehydrozingerone, protection (afflictions Rajesh et al. zerumbone, germacrene, of the liver), (2013), sesquiterpenes etc.), sugars, premature ageing, Sawant and proteins, resins, tannins, wound healing, Godghate alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, muscular disorders, (2013) cardiac glycosides, flavonoids common cold, leprosy, intermittent fevers, indolent ulcer, pyogenic (forming pus) afflictions (Continued) Table 1.4 (Continued) Scientific No Local name English name Plant Family name Nutraceutical /Phytochemical Habit Part used Medicinal properties References 17 Draksha Grape Vitaceae Vitis vinifera Triterpenoids, phenolic Tendril Fruits, leaves, Anti‐inflammatory, Felicio et al. L. compounds, saponin, climber young branch, anticancer, anti‐ (2001), xanthoprotein, flavonoids, flowers convulsant activity, Park and Boo reducing sugar, aromatic acid, antioxidant, (2013), organic acid, vitamins, antibacterial, Sivakumar carbohydrates, lipids, enzymes, Inhibition of human and dimers (e‐viniferin, Tyrosinase activity, Venkataraman balanocarpol, β‐glucopyranosyl skin whitening agents, (2010), 8‐balanocarpol), resveratrol eye inflammation, Spanos and treatment of Wrolstad diarrhoea, haem (1990) orrhage and varicose vein, antifungical activity, prevention of human cardiovascular diseases 18 Muli Radish Brassicaceae Raphanus Glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, Herb Roots, leaves, Anticancer, treatment Beevi et al. sativus L. anthocyanin, alkaloid, tannins, seeds of bronchitis and (2010), saponins, flavonoids, diarrhoea, Gutiérrez and phytosterols, triterpenoids, antimicrobial, Perez (2004), phlobatannins, anthraquinones, antiviral, treatment Hanlon and carbohydrates, reducing sugars, of diuretic, urinary Barnes (2011), steroids, amino acids, troubles, piles and Janjua et al. terpenoids, cardiac glycosides gastrodynia, (2013), and chalcones appetiser, antitumorigenic, Meera et al. antimutagenic, (2010), anti‐diabetic San Juan et al. (2012) 19 Jal‐ Watercress Brassicaceae Nasturtium Phenols, glucosinolate nasturtiin Herb Aerial parts Anticancer, anti‐ Cartea et al. indushoor officinale (phenethyl isothiocyanate), (leaves) inflammation, (2011), W.T. Aiton flavonoids (quercetin, antioxidant, to cure Mazandarani kaempferol), terpenoids, abdominal pain, et al. (2012), saponins, glycosides treatment of diabetes, Özen (2009), bronchitis, diuresis, Palaniswamy scurvy, tuberculosis, et al. (2003), influenza, asthma Penecilla and Magno (2011), Sun et al. (2002) 20 Hari Phool Broccoli Brassicaceae Brassica Sulforaphane (1‐ Herb Inflorescences Anticancer, Cartea et al. Gobhi oleracea L. isothiocyanato‐4‐ including antioxidant, skin (2011), ethylsulfinylbutane), florets, leaves disease (treatment of Jackson and glucosinolates, flavonoids, warts) Singletary vitamins, mineral nutrients (2004), Li et al. (2012), Moreno et al. (2006), Oguntona (1998) 21 Methi Fenugreek Fabaceae Trigonella Coumarin, scopoletin, Herb Whole plant Hypoglycaemic effects, Acharya et al. foenum‐ fenugreekine, trigonelliine, and seeds hypercholesterolemic, (2006), graecum L. glucosides, acubine type of antioxidative, laxative Basch et al. glucosides, cyanogenic and fungicide effects, (2003), glucosides, phenol, flavanol, appetite stimulant, Basu et al. amino acids, alkaloids, tannin, tonic ,blood sugar (2007), steroids, volatile oil, proteins, lowering, anti‐ Bukhari et al. polysaccarides, saponin, diabetic, anti‐fertility, (2008), nicotinic acid, sapogenins, phytic anticancer, antimicrobial, Nandagopal acid, fibrs, galactomannans anti‐parasitic , et al. (2012), anti‐viral, Shaikh et al. anti‐inflammatory (2013) (Continued) Table 1.4 (Continued) Scientific No Local name English name Plant Family name Nutraceutical /Phytochemical Habit Part used Medicinal properties References 22 Lodhra, Lodh Tree Symplocaceae Symplocos Saponin, steroids, steroids, Small Bark Anti‐inflammatory, Ahmad et al. Tilva racemosa proteins, glycosides, tree anti oxidant, (2003), Roxb. carbohydrate, flavonoids, (shrub) diarrhoea, dysentery, Ahmad et al. terpenoid, tannins (e.g., allergic in dropsy, eye disease, (2005), acid), essential oil, alkaloid (e.g., liver complaints, Gopala loturine, loturidine, colloturine), fevers, ulcers, Krishna et al. symposide, anthrasinins (e.g., scorption‐string, (2013), 3‐mono gluco furanoside), anticancer, Kambhoja and betulin, butulinic acid, antiulcerogenic Keshava acetyloleanolic acid, oleonolic activity, uterin Murthy acid, benzoylsalireposide, stimulant (2004), salireposide, β‐amyrin, β‐sitosterol, β‐sitosterol Krishnaraju glycoside, symconoside A, et al. (2006), symconoside B Viral (2010) 23 Afeem, Opium poppy Papaveraceae Papaver Alkaloids (morphine, codeine, Herb Capsule, latex, Antidepressant, Akhtar et al. Khuskhus somniferum thebaine, papaverine, noscapine, seeds painkiller‐nowadays (2013), L. etc.) especially for cancer Basu et al. patients, anti‐cough, (2007), muscle relaxant Dittbrenner agent, analgesic, CNS, et al. (2008), stimulants Dittbrenner et al. (2009), Krishnaraju et al. (2006) 24 Gajar Carrot Apiaceae Daucus Sesquiterpene (daucucarotol), Herb Root and seed Treatment of Ahmed et al. carota L. chromones, flavonoids, ancylostomiasis, (2005), coumarins, anthocyanins, dropsy, chronic, Basu et al. phenolic, carotenoids (β‐ kidney disease, (2007), carotene, α‐carotene), bladder afflictions, Chatatikun phytosterol, triterpene, antibacterial, and polyacetylen (falcarinol, antifungal, Chiabchalard falcarindiol, falcarindiol‐3‐ anthelmintic, (2013), acetate), isocoumarin (6‐ anticancer Fu et al. methoxymellein), chlorogenic hepatoprotective and (2009), acid, caffeic acid, terpenol, cytotoxic activities, sitosterol glucoside, daucane anti‐diarrhoea, Kidmose et al. type sesquiterpenes (trans‐ anti‐infection, (2002), dauc‐8‐ene‐4b‐ol, trans‐ anti‐high blood Sun et al. dauca‐8,11‐diene, cholesterol, (2009) dau‐ca‐5,8‐diene, acora‐4,9‐ anti‐inflammation, diene, acora‐4,10‐diene, carotol, anti‐seizure, daucol, furocoumarins) antioxidant, anticacinogenic, treatment of swelling 25 Santara Orange Rutaceae Citrus Polymethoxylated flavones, Tree Fruits Lowers the Basu et al. sinensis (L.) o‐glycosylated flavones, cholesterol level, (2007), Osbeck c‐glycosylated flavones, antimicrobial, Chede (2012), o‐glycosylated flavonols, antioxidants, Dhuique‐ o‐glycosylated flavanones, anticancer Mayer et al. phenolic acids + their ester (2007), derivatives, flavonoid glycoside Kanaze et al. (hesperidin), β‐cryptoxanthin (2009), esters, reducing sugar, saponins, cardiac glycosides, Osarumwense carbohydrates, alkaloids, et al. (2011) tannins, fixed oils (d‐limonene), lipids, proteins, steroids, amino acids, β‐carotene (Continued) Table 1.4 (Continued) Scientific No Local name English name Plant Family name Nutraceutical /Phytochemical Habit Part used Medicinal properties References 26 Butter fruit Avocado Lauraceae Persea Peptone, b‐galactoside, Tree Fruits Protects eye from Arukwe et al. americana glycosylated abscisic acid, (pulps, peels, macular (2012), Mill. alkaloids, cellulose, polygalacto seeds), leaves degeneration and Basu et al. urease, polyuronoids, cataracts, treatment (2007), cytochrome P‐450, volatile oils, of various ailments Dabas et al. phenolics, saponins, flavonoids, (monorrhagia, (2013), catechins, procyanidins, hypertension, Rodríguez‐ hydroxybenzoic and stomach ache, Carpena et al. hydroxycinnamic acids, bronchitis, diarrhoea, (2011), zeaxanthin diabetes), Yasir et al. cardiovascular effects, (2010) insecticidal and fungicidal activities, antimicrobial, anti‐osteoarthritis, anti hepatotoxicity, anti‐inflammation, anticancer 27 Tamatar Tomato Solanaceae Lycopersicon Antioxidants like carotenoids Herb Fruits Reduces risk of Basu et al. esculentum (especially, lycopene, β‐ prostate cancer in (2007), Mill. carotene), phenolics, ascorbic males, antioxidant, Oyetayo and acid (vitamin C), vitamin E, antibacterial, Ibitoye (2012), phytate, glycoside, saponin, antifungal, antiviral Rai et al. tannin, minerals (calcium, and anti (2012) phosphorus) ‐carcinogenic, anti‐UV rays for skin protection Table 1.5 Medicinal plants from Latin American with potential for use as nutraceutical and as functional food component. Medicinal No Local name English name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical Habit Part used Properties References 1 Kabalyáaxnik Violet wild Acanthaceae Ruellia nudiflora Flavonoids, apigenin Herb Roots, Abdominal Argueta et al. petunia (Engelm. & 7‐glucuronide, leaves pain, diarrhoea, (1994), A. Gray) Urb. malvidin remedy to Bloom (1976), 3,5‐diglucoside prevent Sanabria (1986) vomiting 2 Ox, Ramón Maya nut Moraceae Brosimum 2 6‐dimethoxy‐p‐ Tree Leaves Antidote for Argueta et al. alicastrum Sw. benzoquinone, snake bites, (1994), ssp. alicastrum flavonoids, saponins, antitussive, García‐Corrales steroids, tannins, asthma, et al. (2006), triterpenes bronchitis, Hausen (1978), diabetes, Méndez‐González diaphoretic, et al. (2012), gynaecological, lactation, Mendieta and Del menstruation, Amo (1981) tuberculosis 3 Altanisa Mugwort Asteraceae Artemisia Monoterpenes, Herb Roots, Abdominal Govindaraj et al. vulgaris L. polyacetylenes, leaves, pain, anti‐ (2008), sesquiterpenes, flowers, parasites, Ikhsanova et al. quiterpenlactones, seeds diabetes, (1986), coumarins, flavonoids, diarrhoea, Lee et al. (1986), oestrogenic, alkaloids hysterics, remedy to Marco et al. (1991), prevent Méndez‐González vomiting, et al. (2012), rheumatism Näf‐Müller et al. (1981), Rodríguez (2009) (Continued) Table 1.5 (Continued) Medicinal No Local name English name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical Habit Part used Properties References 4 Bakalché – Boraginaceae Bourreria Benzochromenes Tree or Roots, Antipyretic, Argueta et al. pulchra (Millsp.) (6,6‐dimethyl‐2‐ Shrub stem fungal (1994), Milssp. methoxy‐6H‐benzo[c] bark, infections of the Erosa‐Rejón et al. chromen‐9‐yl) leaves skin, (2010), methanol, 2‐ haemorrhaging, Mendieta and Del methoxy‐6,6‐ herpes simplex, Amo (1981), dimethyl‐6H‐benzo[c] pellagra, Méndez‐González chromen‐9‐ tumours et al. (2012); carbaldehyde) Sanabria (1986) 5 Kópeché Black sage Boraginaceae Varronia Meroterpenoid Shrub Roots, Fever, Argueta et al. curasavica Jacq. naphthoquinones, stem haemorrhaging, (1994), cordiaquinones J and bark infections of the Hernandez et al. K, beta‐eudesmol, skin, (2007), cadina and diene inflammatory Ioset et al. (2000), bowel disease Méndez‐González et al. (2012) 6 Kabal muk – Celastraceae Crossopetalum Cardenolides, Shrub Roots, Abdominal Ankli (2000), gaumeri (Loes.) dichloromethanic leaves pain, antidote Méndez‐González Lundell (dipertenes, for snake bites, et al. (2012), triterpenes) remedy to Pulido Salas and prevent Serralta Peraza vomiting, (1993) toothache 7 K´ab ché – Ebenaceae Diospyros Naphthoquinone Shrub Roots, Antimicrobial, Ankli (2000); anisandra S. F. plumbagin stem haemorrhaging, Borges‐Argáez Blake bark, scabies et al. (2007), leaves Méndez‐González et al. (2012) 8 Chaya – Euphorbicaceae Cnidoscolus Cyanogenic glycosides, Shrub Leaves, Abdominal Argueta et al. chayamansa gallic acid, catechins, resin pain, (1994), McVaugh protocatechuic acid cholesterol, Escalante‐Erosa and rutin, triterpenoids diabetes, et al. (2004), (amyrenone, β‐amyrin haemorrhoids, Kuti and Konoru acetate, α‐amyrin renal calculus, (2006), acetate) β and α rheumatism amyrin, alkanes, Loarca‐Piña et al. (2010), Méndez‐González et al. (2012), Narváez (2001) 9 Xikin burro – Euphorbiaceae Croton Dipertenes, clerodane Shrub Roots, Fungal Ankli (2000), chichenensis diterpenes, leaves infections of the Cuevas (1993), Lundell crotofuranensis, skin, remedy to Méndez‐González 3‐acetylaleuritolic acid remove warts et al. (2012), and pimples, syphilitic Mex (2005) lesions, scabies 10 Pata de Vaca Bauhinia Fabaceae Bauhinia Dichloromethane‐ Herb Roots, Asthma, Ankli et al. (2002), Orchid Tree divaricata L. methanol (2:1) leaves anti‐ Argueta et al. inflammatory, (1994), anticatharral Méndez‐González activities, et al. (2012), antibacterial, Mendieta and Del bronchitis, Amo (1981), dysentery, halitosis, renal Rodríguez (2009) failure (Continued) Table 1.5 (Continued) Medicinal No Local name English name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical Habit Part used Properties References 11 Chaksink’in Cudjoe Theophrastaceae Bonellia Bonediol Shrub Roots, Anti‐parasites, Argueta et al. wood macrocarpa leaves, antitussive, (1994), (Cav.) B. Ståhl & flowers, asthma, catarrh, Caamal‐Fuentes Källersjö seeds cough, et al. (2011), dysentery, Méndez‐González toothache, et al. (2012), whooping Mendieta and Del cough Amo (1981), Pulido Salas and Serralta Peraza (1993) 12 Nance blanco – Malpighiaceae Byrsonima Methyl gallate, Shrub Stem Diarrhoea, Castillo‐Ávila bucidaefolia 3‐gallate bark dysentery et al. (2009), Standl. Méndez‐González et al. (2012) 13 Analk’ak Mexican Apocynaceae Asclepias 3,4‐seco‐triterpenoids, Herb Leaves, Anticatharral, Abe et al. (1991), Milkweed curassavica L. pregnanes and fruit asthma, bile, Abe et al. (1992), pregnane glycosides, catarrh, cysts, Ankli (2000), 12b,14b‐ dental caries, dihydroxy‐3b,19‐ gonorrhoea, Argueta et al. epoxy‐3a‐methoxy‐5a‐ grippe, (1994), card‐20(22)‐enolide, headache, Li et al. (2009), coroglaucigenin, 12b‐ rheumatism, Méndez‐González hydroxycoroglaucigenin, skin cancer, et al. (2012), calotropagenin, tumours Pulido Salas and uscharidin, asclepin, Serralta Peraza 16a‐acetoxyasclepin, (1993) 16a‐acetoxycalotropin, 16a‐hydroxyasclepin, 12b‐hydroxycalotropin 14 Nance Golden Malpighiaceae Byrsonima Epicatechin, lupeol, Tree or Stem Antidote for Amarquaye et al. spoon crassifolia (L.) glycolipids, catechin, shrub bark, snake bites, (1994), Kunth. isoquercitrin, oleanolic leaves antitussive, bile, Argueta et al. acid, quercetin constipation, (1994), glycoside diabetes, Geiss et al. (1995), proanthocyanidins, diarrhoea, dysentery, Mendieta and Del scabies Amo (1981), Pulido Salas and Serralta Peraza (1993), Rastrelli et al. (1997) 15 Malva de Sleepy Malvacaceae Waltheria indica Flavonoids, 5, 2′, Herb Leaves, Amebiasis, Méndez‐González monte Morning L. 5′‐trihydroxy‐3‐7‐4‐ stems diarrhoea, et al. (2012), trimethoxyflavanone, fungal infection Mendieta and Del 5‐2′‐hydroxy‐3,7,4′,5′‐ on lips, renal Amo (1981), tetramethoxyflavone, insufficiency Ragasa et al. (1997), (‐)‐epicatechin, quercetin, tiliroside Rao et al. (2005), 16 Guayaba Guava Myrtaceae Psidium guajava Amritosid, Shrub Stem Anti‐ Ankli (2000), L. caryophyllene, ellagic bark, inflammatory, Begum et al. (2002), acid, foeniculina, Leaves, anti‐parasites, Lutterodt (1989), guiajaverin, flowers, antitussive, guajavolide, guavenoic fruit, diarrhoea, Mendieta and Del acid, isoquercetin, seeds dysentery, Amo (1981), longicyclen, myricetin, haemorrhoids Narváez (2001), quercetin, tripertene Pulido Salas and oleanolic Serralta Peraza (1993), Sagrero‐Nieves et al. (1994), Seetharaman and Manjula (1996) (Continued) Table 1.5 (Continued) Medicinal No Local name English name Plant Family Scientific name Nutraceutical Habit Part used Properties References 17 Puukin Sierra Rhamnaceae Colubrina Chrysophanol Tree or Roots, Abdominal García‐Sosa et al. Nakedwood greggii S. Watson (1,8‐dihydroxy‐3‐ shrub leaves pain, asthma, (2006), var. Yucatanensis methylanthracenedione) dysentery, Méndez‐González M. C. Johhst. induce labour, et al. (2012), kidney diseases, Mendieta and Del remedy to Amo (1981), prevent vomiting, Polanco (2004), tuberculosis Pulido Salas and Serralta Peraza (1993) 18 Sabak Ché West Indian Rubiaceae Chiococca alba Oleanolic acid skeleton Shrub Root‐ Abdominal Argueta et al. snowberry (L.) Hitch. (3β‐hydroxyolean‐12,15‐ bark, pain, anti‐ (1994), dien‐28‐oic acid), leaves parasites, Bhattacharyya and droxyketones, 4‐ diarrhoea, Cunha (1992), hydroxyheptadecan‐7‐ dysentery, El‐Hafiz et al. one, infections of the (1991), 5‐hydroxyoctadecan‐11‐ skin, toothache one, 5,7,4′‐ Méndez‐González trimethoxy‐4‐ et al. (2012), phenylcoumarin, Mendieta and Del exostemin, d‐mannitol Amo (1981), matairesinol, Pulido Salas and Serralta Peraza (1993) 19 Sinanché Prickly Rutaceae Zanthoxylum Furoquinoline Tree Stem Epilepsy, Ankli (2000), yellow caribaeum Lam. alkaloids, skimmianine, bark, headache, Argueta et al. 5‐Methoxycanthin‐6‐ leaves leprosy, (1994), one and rheumatism, Della Casa and N‐methylisocorydine scabies Sojo (1967), Dreyer and Brener (1980), Méndez‐González et al. (2012), Mendieta and Del Amo (1981), Pulido Salas and Serralta Peraza (1993) 20 Chicozapote Sapodilla Sapotaceae Manilkara Fructose, galactose, Tree Stem Antivenom, Argueta et al. zapota (L.) P. glucose, glucuronic bark, cholesterol, (1994), Royen acid, myo‐inositol, leaves, diabetes, Chung et al. sucrose, flavonoids fruits, diarrhoea, (1997), ampelopsine, catechin, resin, dysentery, Ma et al. (2003), epicatechin, surbose, seeds haemorrhaging, gallocatechin, kidney and liver Mendieta and Del myricitrin, quercetrin, disease Amo (1981), chlorogenic acid Méndez‐González methyl ester et al. (2012), Narváez (2001), Pulido Salas and Serralta Peraza (1993) 48 Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops communities. For the poorer sections of the global community, the cost of modern syn- thetic drugs is high, and thus such drugs are often not readily accessible. Hence, the applications of plant‐based nutraceuticals and functional food and value‐added prod- ucts are extremely important for general health of such communities (Sudip Datta Banik, personal communication). With progress in the field of cellular‐level nutraceuticals, the several scientific fac- ulty communities arise working towards preparing templates into which they can inte- grate information from several clinical studies conducted on the topic of alternate medical therapies. This template can be further strengthened in near future to prepare standardised drug regimens and therefore, natural products could pose a tough com- petition to synthetic drug manufacturers globally (Gupta 2016). In India, the Coconut Development Board in Kochi, Kerala has equipped itself with the proper machineries and manoeuvres required for production of value‐added products from coconuts. These products are believed to have immense potential for setting up of niche markets both in India and abroad. The proposed products are virgin coconut oil, spray dried coconut milk powder, coconut vinegar and so on (Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation 2013). A new term introduced in the functional food and nutraceuticals industry is ethnop- harmacognosy. What does ethnopharmacognosy mean? The term actually refers to the plant‐derived medicines, which local people have used for treatment of diseases for hundreds of years. But these medical principles have been overshadowed by the rapidly growing pharmaceutical industries. However, recent revival of this nature‐ based drug industry has brought a new ray of hope to these local ethnic people who find it difficult to access and afford the expensive allopathic medications. This ethnop- harmacognosy utilises sophisticated gadgets to analyse the nutrient composition of different species of plants with quite remarkable perfection (Windward Community College 2013). Several clinical trials of functional foods have been carried out with satisfactory results in experimental animals and human volunteers. Cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoc- cos L.) have been found to contain good amounts of tannins that can prevent attach- ment and colonisation of urothelial cells by Escherichia coli, and hence, are beneficial as a prophylactic agent against urinary tract infections. Consumption of garlic (Allium sativum L.) in the daily diet can be helpful in controlling blood pressure and also the occurrence of cancer due to the presence of certain organosulfur compounds viz. alli- cin. Lycopene in tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) have shown a positive role in cancer chemoprevention (Hasler 2002). The bioactive products in these functional food can, however, be increased in concen- tration through bio‐engineering procedures. An example of such procedures includes preparation of ‘heart‐healthy’ oils through enrichment with saturated fatty acids and Ω‐3 unsaturated fatty acids along with low levels of α‐linolenic acid. Gene silencing techniques to produce oleate and stearate rich cottonseed oil and genetically engineered tomatoes are other examples (Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology 2007). However, it must be kept in mind that diet is just one part of a comprehensive approach towards a healthy life. Several other conditions must be fulfilled before one can assume functional foods to be at the helm of a new beginning. There are significant barriers to the progress in this field of technology (Gupta 2016; National Nutraceutical 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 49 Centre 2014). Federal regulations and lack of sufficient manpower are just the two of the many factors that may impose a speed breaker in its expansion (Gupta 2016; National Nutraceutical Centre 2014). Even cultures and beliefs in several parts of the world can act as a challenge to the widening of the functional food market (Gupta 2016; National Nutraceutical Centre 2014). Rigorous investigative studies for finding out the adverse effects to such tampered natural products should be done every now and then to ensure minimum physiological turmoil upon their consumption (Hasler 2002). A well‐known example is the St. John’s wort that can significantly alter drug metabolism in liver and thus fail therapeutic benefits arising out of its administration in the human body (Hasler 2002). However, the success of nutraceutical and functional food industry significantly depends upon the lifestyle of the people in that region. Those who are more conscious about health and keen on updating themselves on newer healthy food products will form the target consumer group for the market. But these products should not merely be sold en masse for the purpose of making profit for the industry with no concern about human health. There must be a proper integration of science and technology with marketing principles to ensure a healthy living (Kantatasiri 2012). 1.3 Plants with Potential for Use as Nutraceutical Source and Functional Food Component A wide variety of medicinal plants are found in the continents of Africa (Table 1.1), Asia (Tables 1.2–1.4;) and Latin America (Table 1.5;) that have potent medicinal values and therefore could become an important component of nutraceuticals and functional food in the near future (Basu et al. 2007). 1.4 Nutraceutical Values of Fenugreek Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum‐graecum L.) is an annual herbaceous legume plant belonging to the dicot family Fabaceae and is grown commonly in the Southern European Mediterranean region. Both the seeds and leaves of the plant are used primarily as a culinary spice (Acharya et al. 2008). The seeds are reported as excellent nutritional sup- plement and frequently used by herbalists for the health benefits (Acharya et al. 2008; Zandi et al. 2015). The seeds are commonly used in India and other oriental countries as a spice due to the characteristic aroma attributed to curry preparations (Acharya et al. 2008). The seeds are reported to stimulate digestive processes, have antiathero- sclerotic effects, and are also used in the treatment of diabetes, high cholesterol, wounds, inflammation and gastrointestinal ailments (Acharya et al. 2008; Ajabnoor and Tilmisany 1988; Basch et al. 2003; Khosla et al. 1995; Miraldi et al. 2001; Sharma and Raghuram 1990; Zandi et  al. 2015). The medicinal, nutraceutical and functional food values of fenugreek hold great promises and can be easily examined in normotensive and hyper- tensive subjects along with the subjects/patients suffering from acute and chronic dys- lipidemia and functional disorders of hepatic tissues (cirrhosis of liver) and hepatic enzymes (Sudip Datta Banik, personal communication). 50 Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops 1.4.1 Fenugreek Possesses the Following Medicinal Properties 1.4.1.1 Antioxidant Activity Free radicals are known to initiate oxidative stress while searching for chemical stability via electron pairing with biological macromolecules (like proteins, lipids and DNA) in healthy cells of human and result in damages to DNA and proteins along with lipid peroxidation (Braca et al. 2002; Maxwell 1995). These changes are reported to cause atherosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases, ageing and inflammatory diseases and cancers (Braca et al. 2002; Maxwell 1995). The free radical damages in the cells are protected by functionally specialised enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase; or compounds like ascorbic acid, tocopherol and glutathione (Choudhary et  al. 2011). Often these protective defence systems are disrupted by different pathological pro- cesses, hence, antioxidant supplements are important to deal with such oxidative dam- ages (Choudhary et al. 2011). Currently, different aspects of traditional ethnomedicines are being actively perused across the globe in search for better antioxidant properties with low cytotoxic levels (Krishnendu Acharya, personal communication). Fenugreek with its large array of important phytonutrients demonstrating antioxidant activities can easily play an important role as nutraceutical and functional food agent in the not‐ so‐distant future (Acharya et al. 2011). 1.4.1.2 Anti‐leukemic Effect Leukaemias are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms arising from malignant transfor- mation of haematopoietic cells, that is, blood forming cells (Van Der Velden et  al. 2003). It is a disease of blood forming tissues in which the bone marrow is always involved and is characterised by overabundance of one cell type, usually an immature leukocyte (Pui and Crist 1995). Leukaemia is the most common childhood malignancy, representing 30 % of all childhood cancers in children under the age of 15 years (Pui and Crist 1995). In India and as well as in the rest of the world, childhood acute lymph- oblastic leukaemia (ALL) is the most prevalent form of leukaemia (Pui and Crist 1995). Many of the currently available anticancer therapies are inadequate in terms of their therapeutic efficacy and are known to have undesirable side effects (Smith 2001). However, phytonutrients have been reported to demonstrate anti‐growth and chemo- preventive properties against different types of cancers without demonstrating adverse side effects unlike chemotherapic treatments (Smith 2001). Recent researches indicate that fenugreek plant due to its important active constituents may possess potential anticarcinogenic properties (Santanu Paul, personal communication). The potential anti‐leukemic properties of dietary fenugreek seed has been recently reported (Acharya et al. 2011). 1.4.1.3 Anti‐Hyperglycemic Effect Ingestion of unprocessed fenugreek seeds in diet by diabetic subjects has been found to significantly reduce blood glucose concentrations over an observation period of 21  days. However, complete reduction to normoglycemic values has not yet been documented. Streptozotocin‐induced diabetic rats when kept on fenugreek diet have shown reduction in blood sugar and cholesterol concentrations. The plant has been found to act as an insulin secretagogue in non‐insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) patients. But in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) subjects, not 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 51 quite convincing results are yet available. Some glycosidic extracts in fenugreek seeds and leaves have been found to produce early liver degeneration in experimental mice models. So some amount of cautions should better be practised while consuming high doses of the plant extracts (Acharya et al. 2007). Hence, it becomes quite clear that apparently a bit more research into the anti‐hyperglycemic activity of fenugreek can someday solve the problem of buying expensive drugs for controlling diabetes (Acharya et al. 2007). 1.4.1.4 Hypocholesterolemic Effect Rats have demonstrated lowering of blood LDL and VLDL levels when they were kept on a fatty diet supplemented with 15% to 20% fenugreek extracts. Even triglyceride lev- els have shown a significant decline. Human NIDDM subjects too have shown a positive response along with a slight increase in blood high‐density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. All these results point towards the potential antiatherosclerotic activity of fenugreek seeds and hence, a possible future therapy for ischemic heart disease (IHD) patients (Al‐ Habori and Raman 2002). 1.4.1.5 Neuroprotective Effect The antioxidant action of fenugreek possibly has a role to play in protecting neurons from free radical–induced toxicities. Therefore, these plants can become a possible source of prevention and treatment of certain neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s dis- ease, Huntington’s disease and Parkinson’s disease (Acharya et al. 2007). 1.4.1.6 Anticarcinogenic Effect The anticarcinogenic potential of fenugreek has been shown in experiments conducted on mouse skin papilloma models where the tumourigenesis has been induced by exposing the animals to certain mutagenic chemicals. The mice that underwent ther- apy with fenugreek seed extracts throughout the induction period showed maximum resistance to tumour development as was evident from the reduced frequency of micronuclei and chromosomal aberrations in their cells (Chatterjee et al. 2013). However, quite a few adverse effects have been reported from consumption of fenu- greek seed extracts (Acharya et al. 2007). People with hypersensitivity to fenugreek seed chemicals developed rhinorrhea, wheezing and angioedema upon its administration (Al‐Habori and Raman 2002). Few others were reported to be suffering from dyspepsia, diarrhoea and dizziness (Acharya et  al. 2007). Presence of anticoagulant property in fenugreek seeds poses a serious threat to patients undergoing warfarin therapy with the possibility of occurrence of intracranial haemorrhage and followed by a massive catas- trophe to follow (Konkle 2012). 1.5 Coloured Potatoes as Functional Food Cultivation of coloured potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) began with the purpose of harvesting potato cultivars with appealing colours (Figure 1.1) and excellent taste for use in different cuisines. Naturally obtained colouring agents are always acceptable than synthetic dyes to avoid significant health hazards. Moreover, potato finds use in a wide variety of dishes all around the world as an indispensable part of most food cultures. 52 Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Figure 1.1 Advanced clones of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) with coloured tubers with potential for use as nutraceutical and as functional food and value‐added food products grown near Kunming, Yunnan province, P. R. China. (a). Normal/Standard Coloured Flesh‐Yunshu 502 (Whole Tubers); (b). Purple Coloured Flesh‐Purple Yun‐1 (Whole Tubers); (c). Red Coloured Flesh (Whole and Sliced Tubers); (d). Pink Coloured Flesh (Whole and Sliced Tubers); (e). Yellow Coloured Flesh (Whole and Sliced Tubers) and (f ). Purple Coloured Flesh (Whole and Sliced Tubers). Photo courtesy: (a).‐(e). Xianping Li and Yanshan Li. (See color plate section for the color representation of this figure.) The chemical responsible for imparting colour to these potatoes is called anthocyanin which, if acylated, provides increased durability and stability of the pigment during the time of processing and storage of potatoes. The most studied variety among the col- oured potatoes is the red‐fleshed potato where the major anthocyanin pigment has been found to be pelargonidin‐3‐rutinoside‐5‐glucoside acylated with p‐coumaric acid (Rodriguez‐Saona et al. 1998). Phenolic compounds are one of the groups of secondary metabolites of plant. They are the source of various plant‐derived nutraceuticals (Wildman 2001). The popular nutra- ceutical families under this large umbrella are lignin, tannins, coumarins, flavonols, fla- vonones, isoflavones and anthocyanins. The same author pointed that the diversity of phenolic compounds is based on hydroxyl group or phenol structure on an aromatic ring (Wildman 2001). Interesting and larger molecules are formed from phenol structure such as lignin, tannins, coumarins, flavonols, flavonones, isoflavones and anthocyanins. For plants, these molecules perform many functions, including attracting pollinators, absorbing light, defending against pathogens and herbivores, promoting symbiotic asso- ciation with nitrogen‐fixing bacteria and reducing the development of competitive plant. The predominant biosynthetic pathways that form phenolic compounds are the malonic and shikimic acid pathways. The more significant is shikimic acid pathway in higher plants (Wildman 2001). In lower plants, such as bacteria and fungi, the predominant source of secondary metabolites is the malonic acid pathway. In plants, flavonoids are 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 53 one of the major classes of phenolic compounds. Glycosides are actually naturally occur- ring flavonoids. They promote the symbiotic association with nitrogen‐fixing bacteria and roots of plants. Hesperidin in citrus fruit is most ubiquitous flavonoids (Wildman and Kelley 2007). They also pinpointed quercetin as a common flavonoid (Wildman and Kelley 2007). Further, they found that plants produced anthocyanidins and anthocyanins and their functions mainly acted as colouring pigments. They were thus responsible for the violet, blue, pink and red colouring of many vegetables and fruits, including straw- berries, raspberries, radishes, plums, peaches, plums, peaches, oranges, grapes, cherries, red cabbage, coloured potatoes, apples and blueberries (Wildman and Kelley 2007). These colouring pigment molecules help to captivate animals for seed dispersal and pol- lination. Only 16 anthocyanidins in plants have been identified and include petunidin, malvidin, peonidin, delphinidin, cyaniding and pelargonidin (Wildman and Kelley 2007). Anthocyanidins and anthocyanins are responsible for the violet, blue, pink, and red col- ouring of many vegetables and fruits, including strawberries, raspberries, radishes, plums, peaches, plums, peaches, oranges, grapes, cherries, red cabbage, coloured pota- toes, apples and blueberries (Wildman and Kelley 2007). However, these anthocyanidin and anthocyanin pigments later proved to be a major source of antioxidants in the potatoes (Nayak et al. 2011). Antioxidant action is neces- sary in the human body to fight against malignant cells and also protect the retinal cells from being damaged by exposure to UV rays (Burmeister et  al. 2011). Therefore, enhancing anthocyanin pigment concentrations along with carotenoids and polyphe- nols in the potatoes can possibly boost the antioxidant activities in human body cells upon consumption of these coloured vegetables in everyday diet (Nayak et al. 2011). The concentration of these chemicals varies in the different cultivars viz. red, purple, yellow and white coloured potatoes (Burmeister et al. 2011). So selection of the variety with the maximum tolerable limit of anthocyanin is essential to ensure a healthy body (Burmeister et al. 2011). The red potato extracts have prevented D‐galactosamine–induced hepatotoxicity in experimental rats (Han et al. 2006, Nayak et al. 2011). The purple potatoes have resulted in enhanced gene expression for SOD and glutathione peroxidase in liver cells of the experimental animal models (Nayak et al. 2011). This protection against hepatocellular injury was evident from prevention of linoleic acid oxidation (Hashimoto et al. 2010). In addition to the afore‐mentioned anthocyanin pigment of red potatoes, purple‐coloured potatoes also possess chemicals like acylated glycosides of malvidin, petunidin, peoni- din and delphinidin (Lachman et al. 2009). The four main cultivars of coloured potato show significant variations in the concentration of the anthocyanin pigments (Burmeister et al. 2011). These variations are because of interaction between the culti- vating environment and its influence on the genetic framework of the plants (Basu et al. 2007). This phenomenon is termed Genotype X Environment interaction (Acharya et al. 2010). Studies conducted on the concentration of anthocyanin pigments in red, yellow, pur- ple and white potatoes revealed that purple variety retained its colour in dry potato flakes after undergoing steam‐blanching procedure (Nayak et al. 2011). Since dry potato flakes are an important source of chips and fried potato products, therefore coloured potatoes can become an important source of value‐added products as well (Nayak et al. 2011). 54 Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops 1.6 Red Wine as Functional Food Red wine had been an important component of Chinese and French cuisines since time immemorial. Studies have revealed that consumption of red wine in moderate amount confers to significant protection against coronary artery disease (CAD). The percentage of alcohol in the drink is only 10% to 15%; and hence, moderate amount of drinks raises the serum HDL level and lowers the serum low‐density lipoprotein (LDL) level to pre- vent atherosclerotic changes in vessels. The process of atherosclerosis is brought about by oxidation of LDL molecules. Therefore, red wine exerts an antioxidant action due to presence of polyphenols in it. These results have been obtained not only from animal experiments but also from studies conducted on human volunteers (Yoo et al. 2010). Of all the polyphenols present in red wine, the most important member found to exert maximum antioxidant effect is known as resveratrol. It mediates its action through generation of nitric oxide in the vessels. Other chemicals like catechin and quercetin also downregulate cell adhesion molecules expressed on surface of vascular endothe- lium, thereby reducing the rate of coronary artery thrombosis. Red wine confers neuro- protective action as is evident from animal studies. Reports of improved cognitive function have been obtained in patients of Alzheimer’s disease fed with red wine. The possible mechanism of action is red wine induced non‐amyloidogenic processing of amyloid precursor proteins in the neurons leading to less generation of β‐amyloid pro- tein plaques in the brain (Yoo et al. 2010). Red wine has been found to accelerate metabolism of certain cytotoxic chemicals such as malondialdehyde (MDA). When the serum MDA levels were measured in sub- jects fed with turkey cutlets followed by red wine consumption, the chemical was almost completely absent from the blood indicating effective metabolism of the cytotoxic agent. But the concentration of these chemicals in the berries varies from one place to the other because of the interaction between the genotype and environment under the influence of genotype × environment interaction. It has been seen that resveratrol con- centration in grapes is significantly increased in altitudes higher than 1,500 m due to high UV‐B levels. Hence, proper control of the environment can help in yielding plants with high levels of polyphenols. However, this is much easier said than done. So many alternative approaches have been devised to obtain better concentration of phenolic compounds like yeast selection, longer skin fermentation and maceration times, raising temperature during fermentation and so on. But more sophisticated techniques are exposure to UV‐C rays and providing short‐term anoxic treatments to the berries in post‐harvest condition. All these procedures point towards growth of the use of red wine as a functional food. But the most important concern in this field is the presence of alcohol in the drink and its proved potential to cause few of the most dreaded disor- ders in the human body. So further research in this area need to be undertaken to stand- ardise the maximum tolerable dose of alcohol in red wine and its safest limit of consumption by human beings (Acharya et al. 2007, Yoo et al. 2010). 1.7 Tea as Functional Food Tea [Camelia sinensis (L.) Kuntze] being the most popular beverage in the world is no longer just a refreshing drink for people. Rigorous studies into health benefits of tea 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 55 have unfolded an impressive list of chemicals with their concentrations varying in dif- ferent types of tea (green, white, black, red and oolong tea). These varieties are prepared by different fermentation techniques that affect the phytochemical levels in the plant. The highest concentration of polyphenols is detected in the white tea. Polyphenols are powerful antioxidants. It has been recorded that the levels of polyphenols decreases with increased duration of fermentation. This knowledge is important for tea manufac- turers so that significant amount of the phytonutrients is not lost during the course of fermentation to ensure bringing health benefits of tea to the consumers (Acharya et al. 2007). The major catechins present in tea are (‐)‐epigallocatechin‐3‐gallate (EGCG), (‐)‐epigallocatechin (EGC), (‐)‐epicatechin‐3‐gallate (ECG) and (‐)‐epicatechin (EC). Flavonoids present in tea may provide benefits in patients with CAD, hypertension, diabetes and hypercholesterolemia. Green tea has been found to exert anticancer action in several studies, thereby increasing popularity of the drink worldwide. This particular effect was obtained by study on U937, a human leukemic cell line and cells of untreated patients of chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) or ALL. The anti‐hyperglycemic role of tea was evident from attenuation of serum glucose levels and rise in liver glycogen con- tent in alloxan‐ and streptozotocin‐treated laboratory mice. An anti‐obesity role is also played by tea via reduction of appetite and delayed gastric emptying. 1.8 Cereals as Nutraceuticals Historically, plants have been used as an important source of phytomedicinal agents for treatment and prevention of animals and human diseases. Cereal grains (such as wheat, maize, rice, millets, etc.) are first most foremost important source of food in the world. Historically, grains have been produced and consumed and produced as staple foods. The word cereal implies a functional meaning relatively than taxonomic, with cereals being the key members of species of grass. Cereal grains are taxonomically classified in the family Poaceae and are monocotyledons. Breakfast cereals, porridge, bread and several other food forms made from cereals are readily available around the globe (Figures 1.2 and 1.3). Cereal grains are used as binders, thickening agents and fillers; it is also found in drinks (malted milk), processed meat products, baked goods, other processed foods and confectionery items (Wildman 2001). Cereals contain a wide range of components that are absolutely essential for the human health. The macronutrients, fats, proteins and carbohydrates serve as a massive energy source and contain various important nutrients such as fatty acids, vitamins and amino acids. In recent years, however, it has been found that some minor components also play important roles with respect to nutritional requirements. Certain phytonutri- ents and dietary fibres can be important to reduction in disease risk and health mainte- nance. Intake of phytonutrients and dietary fibres has been associated with reduced cancer risk, chronic ailments, neural degeneration, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and chronic inflammation. Therefore, as ingredients, these bioactive compounds are good potential candidates for functional food and nutraceuticals. An intact grain kernel contains three main parts: seed coat/bran, cotyledon/endosperm and embryo/germ. Most of the nutrients including polyphenols and dietary fibres are found in the bran and 56 Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 1.2 Potential rice (Oryza sativa L.) functional food and value‐added food products. (a). Rice Noodle/Vermicelli; (b). Broken Rice; (c). Puffed Rice; and (d). Flattened Rice. Photo courtesy: (a). Ratnabali Sengupta; and (b)., (c)., and (d). Saikat Kumar Basu. germ; therefore food products made from intact grains have the maximum health ben- efits (Moore and Hao 2012). Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the major staple food for nearly one‐third of the global population. Wheat is an excellent source of nutrients. Wheat grain or caryopsis consists of true seed and pericarp. About 72% of protein is stored in the seed endosperm which forms 8% to 15% of entire grain weight (Adams et al. 2002, Shewry 2009). Wheat grains are rich in sugars, riboflavin, minerals and pantothenic acid. Wheat flour is an important source of amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates and a wide diversity of B‐ group vitamins, dietary fibres, minerals, fatty acids and fats (Shewry 2007). The envi- ronmental factors can influence nutritional content of wheat grains. Wheat flour is used to make confectionary products, bread, noodles, biscuits and essential wheat seitan/gluten. It is also used as feed stock, wheat straw composites and ethanol production; and also in the preparation of for cosmetics and brewing of wheat brewing of wheat beer, preparation of wheat straw composites, protein in meat substi- tutes and for ethanol production (Shewry 2007, Shewry 2009). Wheat bran and germ can be a basis of dietary fibre for treatment and prevention of digestive disorders (Shewry 2007, Shewry 2009). The key characteristic is the unique property of dough which has given it a lead over other temperate crops. Wheat flour can be processed into a variety of products such as pasteries, baked products, noodles, pasta and a wide range of breads and other processed foods. These features rely on the interactions and struc- ture of grain storage proteins. Grain storage proteins collectively form protein fraction called ‘gluten’. Zeaxanthin and lutein are important for eyes and skin and also help in prohibiting both cancer and cardiovascular diseases (Alan et al. 2000). 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 57 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) Figure 1.3 Potential cereal‐based functional food and value‐added food products. I. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Products: (a). Wheat Flour; (b). Wheat dough; (c). Refined Wheat Flour; (d). Broken Wheat/ Dalia ; (e). Doughnuts; (f ). Cinnamon Buns; (g). Brownies; (h). Cookie; (i). Cheese Cake; (j). Brown Bread Slice; (k). White Bread Slice; (l). Croissant; (m). Flat Bread/Chapati; (n). Spaghetti; (o). Pasta; and (p). Noodles. II. Oats (Avena sativa L.) Product: (q). Oatmeal. III. Maize (Zea mays L.) Products: (r). Corn Flour; (s). Corn Dough; and (t). Corn Flakes. Photo courtesy: (a).‐ (t). Saikat Kumar Basu. (See color plate section for the color representation of this figure.) The whole grains seem to provide protection against diabetes, heart disease and also contain antioxidant with reduced risk for various types of cancer. The cracked wheat, wheat grouts and wheat bran offer a good fibre source (Kumar et al. 2011). Research indicates that wheat contains considerable levels of natural antioxidants which are con- centrated in wheat bran fraction of the grain (Moore & Hao 2012). These include phe- nolic acids, lignans, tocopherols and carotenoids. Wheat antioxidants form chelating complexes as catalysts with transition metals for free radical generation to reduce their availability. 58 Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops 1.9 Nutraceutical Properties of Wheat Bran and Germ Wheat has sedative, antipyretic, stomachic, antibilious, anticancer, antivinous and anti- hydrotic properties (Cartera et  al. 2006). The young stems of wheat are used in the intoxication and healing of biliousness. Moreover, it is used in the as a cure of for cough, thirst, constipation, malaise, abdominal coldness, sore throat, irritability and pain (Drankham et al. 2003). In wheat gluten and starch supply energy and heat; the outer layer of bran helps easy bowel movement; the inner coats provide minerals and phosphates; the wheat germ is rich in vitamins E and B; and the wheat protein helps repair and build muscu- lar tissue. Whole wheat provides shield against diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, obesity, constipation, appendicitis and so on (Hadjivassiliou et al. 2003). The gluten protein has been stated to be the source of an inhibitor of angiotensin 1‐converting enzyme (Motoi and Kodama 2003) and exorphins or opioid peptide (Yoshikawa et al. 2003). The main health concern regarding gluten of wheat is the significant association between gluten and celiac disease. Celiac disease, also called the gluten‐associated enteropathy, occurs among people hypersensitive to gladin in the gluten. Detection of anti‐endomysial antibodies from the biopsy specimen of celiac disease patients has revealed the pathogenesis of the disease. It is due to production of antibodies against tissue transglutaminase enzyme that causes deamination of the gliadin. This leads to villous atrophy in the small gut and malabsorption syndrome (Binder 2012). 1.9.1 Wheat Bran Wheat bran represents 14.5% of the kernel weight and is an important dietary source for of protein and it also contains trace minerals, vitamins, calcium, fibre, phosphorus, magnesium and calcium. The nutrients essential to human diet are stored in wheat kernel. About 83% of kernel weight is endosperm. It contains maximum protein share in the whole kernel along with iron, many B‐complex vitamins as well as essential car- bohydrates (Blechi et al. 2007, Drankham et al. 2003, Shewry and Jones 2005, Stevenson et  al. 2012, Uauy et  al. 2006). Wheat bran assists in controlling constipation‐related complication by increasing bowel frequency and stool output. The outer bran layer pro- vides fibre that regulates nutrients excretion and absorption from the body and gives bulk (Kumar et al. 2011). Bran is used as supplementary resource of dietary fibre for prohibit to alleviate gastric cancer, preventing colon diseases, reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes, breast cancer, hernia, gall bladder diseases, hypercholesterolemia, and haemorrhoids and treating irritable bowel syndrome (Garvin et al. 2006; Hadjivassiliou et al. 2003; Reddy et al. 2000). Wheat bran contains various constituents that have anticancer (anti colon) activity. Whole grains have considerable amount of orthophenolics (antioxidant class) that have the capability to scavenge chelate metals and free radicals. Increased phenolics con- sumption has been related with a reduced menace of various types of cancer (Andreasen et al. 2001, Duthie and Crozier 2000). Wheat bran and whole wheat have large quanti- ties of the phenolic diferulic acid and other phenolics, including chlorogenic, caffeic and ferulic acids and are reported to demonstrate antioxidant properties (Bors and Michel 2002, Stevenson et al. 2012). 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 59 1.9.2 Wheat Germ Wheat germ is the embryo of kernel of wheat kernel. It is relatively rich in B‐vitamins, fat and protein (Adams et  al. 2002). The aleurone and outer endosperm contain an elevated concentration of phytic acid, proteins and vitamins than the inner layers of the endosperm. The inner layer contains protein and starch. Wheat germ is dense in nutri- ents, cholesterol and sodium free, rich in zinc, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, vita- min E, niacin, thiamin, pantothenic acid, para‐aminobenzoic acid and ubiquinone coenzymes and also high in fibre. The latter helps to reduce constipation and lowers the risk for diabetes, cardiovascular and colon diseases (Shewry 2007, Shewry 2009). Germ oil is a rich source of fatty acids vitamins D, A and E. It also has elevated levels of lecithin and proteins. Wheat germ oil is used widely for external applications. It aids a big deal in getting in relieving relief from skin irritation. Germ oil constitutes 3% of wheat grain weight and contains about 25% of minerals, protein and vitamins and also has impor- tant antioxidant properties. When oil is applied on the skin, it helps to renovate and restore the skin cells damaged by the sizzling heat of sun and also improves the blood circulation (Kumar et al. 2011). 1.10 Barley and Oat as Nutraceuticals These two crops are a rich source of β‐glycans which help in lowering serum cholesterol levels and provide a better control of the post‐prandial blood sugar levels. Its role in preventing CAD has also been recognised by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The amount of β‐glycans present in wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum L.) is quite sig- nificant and its extraction can be enhanced by use of dry or wet processing or their combination. But not the mere presence of these chemicals can account for the health effects of oat and barley. Factors such as molecular size, ratio of β‐(1→4)/β‐(1 →3) link- ages, presence/absence and the quantity of long cellulose‐like fragments, and cellotrio- syl/cellotetraosyl ratio determine the function of the chemicals in these plants. Depolymerization events occurring during extraction process and temperature changes affect the molecular size of these chemicals. Genotype × environment interaction phe- nomenon is present for in these plants too. Therefore, further research is needed in the field of devising more sophisticated technologies to extract the β‐glycan fractions from the barley without disturbing its physical properties (Lazaridou et al. 2007). Application of β‐glycan rich barley flour has widened in the last few years. Oatmeals have emerged as an important dish for breakfast in almost every house. Muffins made of 100% barley flour possess higher mineral and protein content but low in calorie count. Pastas are prepared from mixtures of barley fractions and semolina. Recent studies con- ducted in experimental mice models have pointed towards role of barley fractions in preventing chemotherapy induced secondary tumourigenesis (Lazaridou et al. 2007). 1.11 Value-Added Products Value‐added product is a recent introduction in global food market in an attempt to improve the nature and quality of food consumed by people through enrichment, even if not a part of their daily diet. For example, French fries are a common dish in several 60 Phytonutritional Improvement of Crops houses during lunch and dinner and are relished quite favourite for by most children. But eating too much of such fried food products is extremely detrimental to health. It adds to the calories and increases risk of obesity and cardiovascular diseases. However, if these French fries are prepared from coloured potatoes containing significant amount of antioxidants then such delicacies can certainly prove beneficial to human health. This is how a normal food product can be transformed into a superman food. This is the basic principle of a value‐added product. Therefore, any food product can be labelled as value added if it is originally grown by the farmers, but the value of it gets enhanced by means of labour and creativity. This ensures that the farmers earn steadily throughout the year. And the crop growers too are satisfied upon knowing that they are a part of a healthy food production. But for this production to go on unhindered, the farmers must be flexible and inventive innovative all the time (Vince Ellert, personal communication). Some of the common examples of value‐added products include sweet corn, cut herbs, dried peppers and braided garlic. One of the most rapidly growing value‐added product markets in the United States for the last 30 years is freshly cut and dehydrated fruits and vegetables, sold ready made. However, there are strict guidelines imposed upon manufacturer, processing and sale of these products. The food items that are related to health face more stringent regulations than non‐food crops before they find their place in the market. So two possible measures have been proposed to enhance the consumer acceptance of these products and hence, widening of the market. They are agri‐tourism and agri‐entertainment. In this way, crop growers can provide consumers with face‐to‐face information regarding the process of manufacturing value‐added products and also justify the prices assigned to these (University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service 2011). Another brilliant success of value‐added product industry is the cultivation of crops and growth of fisheries in the south of Alberta’s Badlands, one of the world’s driest places where the average annual rainfall is less than that in Ethiopia. This miracle has been made possible by the efforts of Dr. Nicholas Savidov in his self‐created ecosystem. Dr. Savidov has cultured several hundreds of tilapia fish (Tilapia sp) in a large tank and the wastewater is drained into another small pond containing local aquaponic plants. These plants thrive on the fish excreta and then the filtered water is brought back to the tank containing fishes, clean and oxygenated. This is how Dr. Savidov has transformed an almost barren wasteland into a productive land (Libin 2009). Hemp hearts are another example of value‐added products. They are many times superior to energy bars in terms of calories. The digestibility of proteins is far better than egg or meat proteins. They even lack the anti‐nutritional factors present in soy- bean (Lee et al. 2008). This makes hemp heart a better choice for body builders and even babies and mothers. Studies conducted till date have not been able to detect any hypersensitivity reaction to these products and hence, these products may be acceptable to people who are not able to tolerate nuts or milk sugar. It is one of the best sources of balanced levels of Ω‐3 and Ω‐6 fatty acids (Acharya et  al. 2007). All these excellent nutritional qualities may allow hemp hearts to be an alternative therapeutic means for hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, CAD, diabetic gangrene of feet and also boost up the immune system of the body. So hemp hearts can be incorporated in the pastas, salads, energy bars, chocolate bars and different regular sandwiches to help people avail the health benefits of these products (Rocky Mountain Grain Products 2015). 1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 61 Nevertheless, some controversies still remain unsettled regarding these value‐added products. The question that haunts the manufacturers is ‘Are these healthy?’ Several studies have been conducted to find the definite answer to this decades‐old question. Some have reported these to be healthy, while some others reported them as hazardous. So it seems that deeper, more serious and independent studies into the health benefits of these food products need to be undertaken before hoping for a wider market for such superman foods (Benbrook et al. 2008). 1.12 Conclusion So from the above discussion it becomes quite clear that the natural products are slowly gaining popularity worldwide and have the potential to replace synthetic health prod- ucts, including medicines in the distant future. However, not every product has yet been properly standardised with respect to nutritional constituents in terms of both quality and quantity nor are all of them practically affordable or acceptable to people currently across the globe. High cost of production, unpalatability and some distressing adverse effects are limiting their use in the world market. In addition, wide fluctuations are also observed with respect to genotype × environment interactions and hence the same species show wide variations in the available active constituents and phytonutri- ents grown under different environmental conditions and habitats. This warrants a need for developing locally adapted cultivars of different species for optimal yield under specific micro‐climatic condition. Hence, further studies must be done to eliminate such hurdles and expand the potentials of such healthy foods and/or products in differ- ent regional, national and international markets. Only then can we hope for a break- through success in the industry of nutraceuticals and functional foods to build a better and promising tomorrow. However, it is worth mentioning that plant‐based nutraceuti- cals, functional foods and value‐added products do have huge potential in the not‐so‐ distant future. 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