(PDF) Innes: Security Bonds

182 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2016, 5, 182-190 Innes: Security Bonds G. Sandri1, A. Puccia1,*, M. Bardi1, E. Corbari1 and J. DeMarco2 1 Institute of Criminology of Mantua, 46100 Mantua 6, Sandro Pertini Street, Italy 2 Centre for Abuse and Trauma Studies, Middlesex University, London, UK Abstract: Risk in society is a pertinent concept of late modernity. Most elements of our social and interpersonal lives are in some way linked to concerns about safety, security and fear of harm. As a consequence, we spend a great deal of time engaged in emotional, physical and economic processes that facilitate our safety. Whether this be through purchasing anti-theft devices, or subscribing to self-defense training courses; participating in neighbourhood-watch schemes or altering our behavior to prevent susceptibility to victimization, all demonstrate an inherent pre-occupation with risk and perceived danger. The work presented in this paper offers an in-depth socio-criminological analysis focusing on the issue of citizens insecurity, and proposes an original interpretative paradigm emerging from findings on the INNES (Intimate Neighborhood Strengthening) European Project. A presentation of the idiographic and nomothetic motivations and conditions influencing and predicting social fears and insecurities over the last two decades is discussed, with the presentation of the new interpretative model, ‘Social Cobweb Theory’. This model focuses on solidarity and on the strengthening of intimate neighborhood bonds and argues that these aforementioned concepts function as an effective approach in lowering citizens' perceptions of individual insecurities and risk. Keywords: INNES, citizen security, solidarity, social bonds, risk. INTRODUCTION AND PRELIMINARY CONSIDERA- ‘perception of insecurity’ is in part a product of the TIONS virtual and cyber world; where artefacts of criminality may not feel real, and thus may lead to a collective Over the last two decades, being, living and feeling relinquishing of cognitive and behavioural defences, ‘secure’ have increasingly become a matter of which in turn can may us that much more vulnerable collective and individual concern (Visser, Scholte & (Wall, 2008). Therefore, it is of critical importance to re- Scheepers, 2013). A clear and coherent interpretation connect, or re-establish our understanding and of the terms ‘security’ and ‘risk’ are difficult to place recognition of risk, security and the factors that within the various criminological and psychological influence them. In doing so this may assist with frameworks, however have frequently been focused on increasing individual and collective perceptions and the personal and introspective meaning within a embodiments of safety and security. criminal context (Hope & Sparks, 2000). In reference to ‘security’ with respect to the risk of criminal The philosophy of the INNES1 project consists of an victimisation, one must consider how to reduce fear of attempt at activating those collective social actions and crime and crime-related insecurity, which this paper mechanisms of solidarity which seemingly have been intends to address. impaired by modern society and technology. This is of the utmost importance for a range of sectors in The manner in which agents within society interact modern-day society. What needs to be understood is and behave, individually and within group processes how to support and facilitate processes within human has drastically changed with the advances in interactions and cognitions that are influenced by both technology, cyberspace and social networking real and perceived notions of crime and disorder. For (Amichai-Hamburger, 2005). Perceived notions of example, dispelling the concept of ‘fear of crime’ which safety and security in the virtual world take on new within modern victimology labels the individual in a meanings in the real world, influencing our actions, similar manner to an actual victim of crime, thus decisions and behaviours (Prensky, 2001). As a alleviating some of the anxieties and fears that consequence, citizens of any contemporary society individual may have (Morgan, 1983). Safety and may be more vulnerable to crime and victimisation than security for people and places can be achieved by they believe (Rader, May & Goodrum, 2007). The utilising and equipping individuals and communities into becoming active players of these aforementioned *Address correspondence to this author at the Institute of Criminology of Mantua, 46100 Mantua 6, Sandro Pertini Street , Italy; Tel: +39.0376.415683; Fax. +39.0376.413135; E-mail:

(...) aut invisa Minervae laxos in foribus suspendit aranea casses. 1 Virgil, Georgics, Book Four, 246/247 INNES - Intimate Neighbourhood Strengthening. An Italian Crime Prevention (...) the spider, hated by Minerva, / hangs wide nets across doorways. Pilot Programme for Small Cities. Ref. no. HOME/2011/ISEC/AG/4000002580. Project sponsored by the European Community - DG Home Affairs. E-ISSN: 1929-4409/16 © 2016 Lifescience Global Innes: Security Bonds International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2016, Vol. 5 183 concepts, for themselves and for the wider community, then becomes contagious, acting on a level where by engaging them in support and solidarity projects some of the rules for understanding reality cease to directed at real ‘victims’ of crime. function, and thus may lead to irrational beliefs, thoughts and behaviours (Ogden, 1995). Project INNES therefore focuses on the lack of social relations within urban environments, and on the Fear of crime specifically, and the construction of a criminal victimization processes that these lack of range of insecurities is not a recent phenomenon (Hale, relations and bonds presumably influence. The 1996). Although the concept and embodiment of ‘Fear situation in Mantua and Pegognaga, which are those of crime’ through victimisation surveys is relatively new under investigation in the current study, on paper would and has integrated itself within the larger annals of be believed to have all the features of well-bonded victimology and policy (Skogan, 1987), our inner fear of communities however fear of crime, insecurity and crime has been around since the beginning of modern harm to oneself still exists. Therefore, within the larger societies. remit of this project, the identification of a shared understanding of bonds and interpersonal relations to Crime-related fear and insecurity attracts public ones fellow community members with a familiar and attention to an unjustifiable degree, through over- known narrative is important. The findings within the exposure in both real and fictional media’s (Goode & paper from Project INNES attempt to highlight some of Ben-Yehuda, 1994). To say that crimes are not these trends and concepts within a larger, innovative committed, or that they are committed less frequently, and theoretical framework and focus on the reductions does not reassure anyone. In Italy, the overall crime of fear. rate has been decreasing during the past fifty years. Nonetheless, we continue to remain fearful of attack or Fear assault. Certain types of crime follow an uneven trend: their rates decrease, increase, stabilize and then begin Fear is a human feeling, an emotion with varying fluctuating again. Instead of fuelling fears and moral degrees of manifestation across situations and panics about crime and anti-social behaviour, we between people (Bush, Sotres-Bayon & LeDoux, should attempt and raise knowledge (about facts and 2007). Each one of us measures fear based on our reality) and facilitate strong, positive social encounters. own experiences. Fear, however, is also the result of a This would provide the foundations of building barriers cultural and social process which may be reinforced by and support for citizens against fears and subjective the need to experience events directly (Ekman & weakness and propensity to victimisation (Brunton- Friesen, 1971). From a sociological perspective, fear Smith, Sutherland & Jackson, 2013). may be considered as ‘insecurity’ or ‘susceptibility to risk’ (Hope & Sparks, 2000). Insecurity can be a NOT WITHOUT FEAR, BUT WITH LESS FEAR condition in which an individual, regardless of the stimuli, demonstrates an adverse reaction through their According to researchers of the Institute of behaviour, which may be characterized by fear. In the Criminology of Mantua, to strengthen neighbourhood instance where individuals are living in under constant bonds means to focus on those social measures which insecurity, this now becomes pathological, and target both individual and collective needs, while ‘insecurity’ morphs into disorder, such as anxiety, fostering real solidarity. The key agents in this process depression or post-traumatic stress following an are citizens (both individually and or as parts of groups) assault or burglary (Hanslmaier, 2013; Kushner, Riggs, and representative social institutions such as health, Foa & Miller, 1993). education and justice. Insecurity entrenched within society however would Solidarity involves acknowledging the needs of not be considered pathological because any society others, which in turn instils or inspires a sense of that has fully developed insecurity as a way to adapt to support and or helpfulness in the minds of others, and increasing fears and reporting of crime, for example, or a sense of accomplishment to the self (Fetchenhauer & the perceived threat of terrorism, is this a society that Dunning, 2006). It may trigger active sympathetic has adopted an alternative rationality and a different behaviours and concrete actions in both the person form of social cohesion. In a sense, this is a self- experiencing it as well as receiving it (Turner, 1967). In serving society where fear is a tool for society to doing so, it can create, maintain and strengthen social perpetuate and preserve itself (Bourke, 2006). Fear bonds. 184 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2016, Vol. 5 Sandri et al. Social bonds, weak or strong, constitute the concept of ‘watching’, re-branding it within a framework essential framework of any societal harmony (Sampson of community partnership, reciprocal benefit and social & Laub, 1990). The lack of social bonds turns cohesion. In turn, this is important for preventing communities and relationships into fragile associations victimisation and decreasing fear of crime in our in which individuals and groups are disconnected and communities. Crime is an inevitable consequence of only kept together by competing interests and power modern society. Durkheim stated that crime is both dynamics (Rebellon, 2002); the polarisation and normal and necessary, and consequentially, the differentiation of individuals and groups within any probability of being victimised will never be entirely society finds its roots in control, not in the equal reduced (Cohen & Machalek, 1994). Affirming this and distribution of responsibility. It seems that fear has learning to live with this concept is important, as is the become the foundation of modern society. To fight fear, knowledge that one is able to count on support and we need to invest and strengthen these help from the community can reassure us that, if, aforementioned social bonds. If they have entirely unfortunately, we were to become victims ourselves, fractured, then these need to be re-built and offer a we have assistance. Knowing that a crime against new underlying structure. The idea is that a foundation property does not only involve the perpetrator and his of social bonds should be identified and utilised or victim, but other people as well, who were not developed and strengthened until it they are common personally affected but will do their part in supporting place. the victim in the aftermath, creates solidarity and bonds, together with relationships (McCold, 1996). A sympathetic society is an open society: it is a society in which, one acknowledges the plurality of Neighbourhood solidarity, as utilised by INNES, is human behaviour and the fundamental factors of not a revival of the old concept of a meddling resilience and vulnerability that bring people together. neighbourhood, watching strangers from behind closed Knowledge and identification of these common needs, curtains. On the contrary, it means knowing that, when whilst recognising individual differences, may serve as you empathize with others and are ready to do the foundation for planning reinforcing programmes something for them, you can count on reciprocity when and provisions for diverse and encompassing you need it. communities. INNES promoted meetings with citizens across its Project INNES proposed to analyse the role of duration, during which these ideas were discussed and solidarity in neighbourhood relations, in connection with people were encouraged to face their fears and fear of crime and insecurities linked to criminality. In anxieties; to identify the true nature of their insecurities this sense, ‘neighbourhood solidarity’ represents a by overcoming their subjectiveness; and to think of small-scale implementation of the more general what to do and how to do it, should the need arise. The principle of solidarity that inspired the work. Project aim was developing support initiatives to establish INNES applies a ‘Neighbourhood Watch’2 paradigm bonds between people, and in doing so, propose a new critically to the understanding and embodiment of and innovative theoretical model in understanding social cohesion, bonds and community insecurities. social bonds and alleviating risks in our day to day lives The element of ‘watching’, with roots in the panopticon (Puccia et al., 2015). and surveillance (Wilson, 1986) implies important and evocative meanings: some are positive, when related BEYOND THE NET: THE MYTH OF ARACHNE AND THE SOCIAL COBWEB MODEL to preventive measures for crime and anti-social behaviour however semantically, the term does To observe society's individual and group suggest a static idea of social bonds; the surveillance behaviours requires one to analyse the nature element ‘freezes’ certain situations, removing the interpersonal relationships: bonds between individuals dynamism of ‘watching’, which is present in social have loosened but this does not mean that they actions and relationships. According to INNES disappeared or are no longer of importance. They have researchers, it is important to strengthen this dynamic simply changed. Therefore to strengthen the relational foundation of these bonds, and by basing it on the real, actual meetings of people and groups in contemporary 2 Neighbourhood Watch is the final step in the new policies aimed at developing society, could help to develop better impressions and engagement. It started in the 1960s in America and it was conceived as a movement promoting the involvement of citizens in the prevention and control feelings of safety and security. of crime (Titus, 1984). It originated from an UK program (Bennet et al., 2008). Innes: Security Bonds International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2016, Vol. 5 185 The myth of Arachne tells the tale of a woman whom ultimately loses her freedom and individuality to a goddess. In the myth, a woman named Arachne defeats the goddess Athena in a weaving contest. However, as a punishment for disobeying authority and offending Athena with her arrogance, Arachne is turned into a spider destined to weave for all eternity. Human behaviour is a composite of good and evil; questionable morals; and Id, Ego and Super-ego, with drives, instincts and desires (Sagan, 1988). The space for social relations, as well as the boundaries of our psychological identity, is determined by these varying constructs, travelling along a spectrum that is heavily dependent on situational variables, learning and experience (Ajrouch, Hakim-Larson & Fakih, 2015). When speaking about security, we tend to choose and observe one extremity, for obvious social reasons. Attention to offenders and on the danger and risk they pose us has always been greater and aimed toward the Figure 1: suppression of their traits, conditions, impulses and pathologies that drive their behaviour. Although receive support or be diverted elsewhere; also, other focusing on the individual is part of the solution in threads and new opportunities branch off from each alleviating fears and anxieties of crime and knot. victimisation, it is only part of the narrative and solution. Potentially, a social process with knots is an Perpetrators of crime, victims of crime and society are obstacle course: the knot is a bottleneck and one’s interdependent, all playing key roles in a complex ability to navigate and ‘breakthrough’ is limited. Knots process. are a fundamental element of a net and of its structure, For more than twenty years, some social problems and are essential for its purpose and strength (which have been analysed with a ‘Net’ model: to create a net aims at developing support and protection processes, means to set up formal and informal institutional bonds, prevention, control and social cohesion). They can, which can provide weak subjects with support and however, lead to blockages that would frustrate means to regain individual and social autonomy. In this individuals and complicate the process. In this case sense, the public and/or private roles of each player resources, energies and time would be depleted and would be instrumental in achieving our goal: this would thus weaken the net. Figure 2 illustrates these risks: also mean, for instance, respect for victims of crime. In the individual that must navigate the path from ‘A’ to ‘B’ terms of insecurities linked to criminality, to create a net could be diverted, when passing through knots, and would involve three main components: support for the may never reach either destination. victims; crime prevention (inclusive of the intervention It is hence why we propose a new model, which will and rehabilitation of offenders); and the (re)structuring be discussed within the findings section of this paper. of social bonds and cohesion. In theory, the image of a net (Figure 1) is perfect for this process and helpful in RESEARCH METHODOLOGY pursuing its goal. According to INNES, it demonstrates a potential limitation that must be addressed and is The research used a range of social scientific discussed below. methods in order to capture as rich and complete data as possible. This involved a method of triangulation, The main feature of the net in Figure 1 is its whereby different methods were used for slightly threads, knotted to each other, which enable the different data capturing exercises, but at the benefit of aforementioned processes to take place. Yet, the knots each other. The limitations of one would be themselves can render the net ineffective. Each knot of complimented by the strengths of others. The first work the net is a thoroughfare: it can be formal and stream involved a criminological review of the literature. institutional or informal, a place where people can 186 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2016, Vol. 5 Sandri et al. Figure 2: The literature review focused on national and In order to include citizens at neighbourhood levels European urban society and security. This included (in the 4 districts), the following tools/instruments were utilizing search engines such as GOOGLE SCHOLAR, applied: PsycData and Hein Online as well as archival data. Search terms was also collected on information about (i) Citizen Victimization Survey (13 items, multiple urban crime; crime reporting; criminal injuries; offender- choice) delivered to a large sample of citizens in victim encounters; citizen-institutional encounters (i.e. Mantua and Pegognaga, in order to detect victim support, police, health care); ‘broken windows’ hotspots for urban and social decay; where start and neighbourhood decay; urban planning and crime; the programme; neighborhood watch; social cohesion; and social (ii) Meetings and (informal) interviews with bonds. A variety of permutations and combinations of community leaders, usually linked to a citizen these concepts were used at the discretion of the committees or non-profit organisations; research team and agreed through discussion amongst the consortium. An emphasis on critical evaluation (iii) Organization of citizens meetings “Districts within much of the work, and how it could contribute to Without Fear”: ‘town hall’ type meetings, with the some of the issues discussed in this paper was a research team as facilitators. Citizens were primary focus. The literature review was published on encouraged to attend, converse and discuss with the IJCIS in Italian and then into four other languages neighbours their fear, anxiety and problems. (Bardi, 2013). The data collection was promoted by the Together they were empowered to collectively Cabinet of the Prefect of Mantua that provided 6 achieve way to pro-socially respond (Sandri et months’ worth of crime data for the province of Mantua al., 2014); and of Mantua City, as well as of Pegognaga. Data was collected also through participating local police forces (iv) Citizen Liveability Survey (5 items, multiple that were able to provide current additional archival choice) delivered to citizens participating in the information. above described meetings in Mantua and Pegognaga, in order to assess their feelings and In addition to the literature and archival data, key perceptions about security and socio- interviews were undertaken within the communities environmental living context; with project stakeholders. These included critical individuals such as the Heads of local Police of (v) Community Empowerment Intervention, in order Mantua, Pegognaga, and other colleagues within the to put in practice negotiated solutions to fight public institutions with a focus on security and welfare insecurity and community degradation (Sandri, fields. Additionally, interviews at neighbourhood level Morselli & Puccia, 2015). were undertaken. The INNES program was implemented in 3 districts in Mantua and 1 in Some of those activities were implemented in Pegognaga, so prior to commencement, the parallel and repeated multiple times. The surveys were researchers interviewed 4-5 significant people in each sent out into the communities or administered in face to neighbourhood. The semi-structured interviews were face situations at the meetings/interventions discussed administered by phone or directly and are available on (n=2785 with 2349 being returned or completed). In the project website (www.innesproject.eu). terms of the citizens meetings and community Innes: Security Bonds International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2016, Vol. 5 187 empowerment interventions, over 2250 participants in urban conditions that create anxiety through inducing a the two communities were reached over the course of perception of insecurity. The perceived security/ the project, with the administration of approximately insecurity of the respondents emerged from the 100 workshops in schools, city hall’s, police stations questionnaires, when sorting the incidence of positive and NGOs. These included thematically linked and negative answers about the routes and places sessions and the provision of information linked to the favoured or avoided, or the fears experienced at home, overall finding of this project. Topics such as cohabi- or in poorly lit and sparsely frequented areas. Mapping tation in society; decision making and routine-activities; illustrated these critical issues graphically, highlighting fear of crime; restorative justice; risk in society; the situations requiring attention. Analysis of disused community service and public involvement were all buildings and areas induced us to draw a detailed addressed. inventory of disused property in the whole municipal area of Mantova, with the aim of highlighting critical The analysis of the citizen victimization survey, security problems, and providing sample experiences meetings and interventions are presented in two for future reference for local policies of land use for articles: ‘INNES: Neighbours without Fear’ edited by urban regeneration. FDE Institute Press and the current paper. A deeper discussion of findings is included in a new monograph The knowledge of the people and the appropriation (forthcoming). The FDE’s research team is writing the - even symbolically – of foreign places produces manuscript with the aim for it to be a useful resource important changes in individual and collective feelings. for policy makers, researchers and community social Being active with the community process transforms welfare and local authority employees. conditions and modalities of being and feeling safe for the individual. Everyone must be part of this process FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION and participate (Sandri et al., 2014). These concepts and themes are supported by a range of actions and Bringing the various strands of research together evidence that have since occurred in the researched demonstrates the difficulty of social integration among areas: actors who inhabit a complex system such as the city and its inner-segments (districts). Being and feeling Ø Organization of autonomous neighbourhood safe are thematically associated with the lowest risk of meetings in Mantua and Pegognaga (2014- victimisation. Security, according to the discussions 2015-ongoing); with our multiple participants, is directly linked to both real and perceived feelings/experience of victimization; Ø Urban regeneration by citizens of several the higher the number of crimes or one’s perception of degraded places within their districts (2015- delinquency, the less safe people feels. The ongoing); victimization survey findings as well as the archival data on crime supported this idea across both regions. Ø Organization by citizens of street and community The feeling of insecurity can complicate human parties (2014-2015-ongoing); relations, whilst making it difficult to feel bonded and attachment to a place, such as your neighbourhood or Ø Establishment of the Coordination of Lunetta’s city. Fear of others or fear of certain places may be District Associations www.retelunetta.org (2015- forcing people to seek isolation thus leading their lives ongoing); in more protective spaces as opposed to freely operating within their communities. If people suddenly Ø Strengthening of the cooperation with the feel distant or removed from their communities, it is Coordination of the Pegognaga’s Network of likely due to lack of association of feelings of affiliation. Associations https://www.facebook.com/consul- Locations within ones community will suddenly be tadipegognaga (2015-ongoing); labelled as anti-social, dangerous or risk-prone; not Ø Designing of 3 new proposals on INNES, in necessarily because they are but due to the manner in cooperation with more than 20 municipalities of which individuals have independently yet en masse, the province of Mantua and Cremona and linked ceased interacting and integrating. networks and ‘social cobwebs’ (2016). The surveys focus on perception of security, In terms of community empowerment, we estimate confirmed a need to address in detail behaviours that for the areas in which the research was conducted: assisting and hindering social connections, and the 188 International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2016, Vol. 5 Sandri et al. Ø Increase of citizen participation in terms of This is the primary problem: to develop a system in welfare, safety and security; which, at any given time, anyone could count on a net of social relations that could control for exclusion and Ø Increase of financial resources linked of welfare, isolation. The structure should not be based on knots safety and security (3 million euros between that could create ‘bottlenecks’ which may impede the 2015-2017); passage of social agents and prevent preventative, intervention and rehabilitative processes. In our Ø Increase of reports by citizens to Victim Support metaphor, the knots are the light cones of the street Centre of Mantua (+20%, 2015). This shows a lamps in Heisenberg's dark park: the role of people in higher sensitivity towards victims of crime and an social processes remains unknown to us, because we increasing solidarity of the community; only notice them when they are in the spotlight. We do Ø Increased reporting by police officers and social not know what happens to the shadows before or after workers to the Victim Support Centre of Mantua they pass in the light cones. (+10%, 2015). This demonstrates a higher The crucial point for INNES is to understand sensitivity towards those who are victims of whether a reference model can be developed that crime and an improvement of capacity building could put into practice the idea of a social structure after the INNES Trainings. beyond the net concept and, therefore, beyond the risk The project has not had the opportunity to follow-up of knots becoming hurdles, a framework that could citizens, associations and public institutions until now always connect people in social processes. The model, due to lack of resources. Regardless, the research upon which INNES's idea is based, is a spider's team is interested in developing this study to provide cobweb. Cobwebs are amazing structures and not only follow-up data within participating districts. As a for their ability to bear proportionally grater loads than consequence, additional work and research is being their nominal capacity. In terms of fears, risks and prepared. insecurity, the potential advantage of the cobweb model is clear: it evenly distributes the weight, making The INNES research team investigated possible fears and insecurities less aggressive, less violent and alternatives to the nets (see Figures 1 and 2), that less insuperable for an individual; who in turn could could maintain their potential while discarding their share the load of these fears and anxieties with the apparent negative, dangerous and ineffective features. community. Cobwebs are also interlaced structures in The idea came from debating facts and existing which threads are connected without the need of knots, realities with the mutli-disciplinary participants across creating perfect geometries. Therefore, creating bonds the duration of the project. and relations based on a cobweb model, in which the threads represent the individuals (but also the solidarity The first step was finding a connection with a that would distinguish them once again, and the distinct discipline, which provided an interesting starting knowledge of others, of things and of reality), assists point for the analysis of the problem. Werner with direct connections and relations. Heisenberg (1901-1976) developed his fundamental equations on quantum mechanics, whilst attempting to determine the spatial location of an electron to an atomic nucleus at any given point in time during. Returning home one evening through a dark park he noticed that, in the light cones of the few street lamps that shed light in that darkness, the shadow of a passer-by would appear (Rovelli, 2014). The same observation is important for INNES, and serves a clear metaphor in understanding where the weakness of our net lies. The shadows passing under the light represent the social actors; members of the community who are the victims, the offenders, and society; wee only notice them when they happen to be in a light cone, which is our space of institutional and collective attention. Where are the players when they step out of the light? Figure 3: Innes: Security Bonds International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2016, Vol. 5 189 At the heart of this system lies the spider: in the Cohen, L. E., & Machalek, R. (1994). The Normalcy of Crime From Durkheim to Evolutionary Ecology. Rationality and Society, social cobweb, these are people. In nature, spiders are 6(2), 286-308. sensible and can feel change in the cobweb's balance http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043463194006002007 if an insect gets caught, even if they are not in the Ekman, P. & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social centre of the web physically. 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The Pacific Sociological Review, 10(2), 60-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1388423 Received on 04-04-2016 Accepted on 19-04-2016 Published on 21-10-2016 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2016.05.17 © 2016 Sandri et al.; Licensee Lifescience Global. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited.