(PDF) Morphophonemic Changes in Arabic

Morphophonemic Changes in Standard Arabic: The Case of Irregular Plurals Key Words: Standard Arabic, Morphophonemic Changes, Plural, irregular Plural Lecturer; Mohammed Nasser Abdulsada College of Basic Education, Wasit University ‫ جمع التكسير‬:‫التغيراث الصرفيت الصوتيت في اللغت العربيت‬ ‫ جمغ انخكسيش‬،‫ انخغيشاث انصشفيت انصىحيت‬،‫ انهغت انؼشبيت‬:‫كهماث مفخاحيت‬ ‫ محمذ ناصر عبذ السادة‬:‫المذرس‬ ‫ جامعت واسط‬،‫كليت التربيت األساسيت‬ Lecturer: Mohammed Nasser Abdulsada College of Basic Education, Wasit University,

Abstract: Morphophonemic changes are the morphological and phonological changes that take place in a single word due to plural, case, tense, or gender. The current paper elaborates on this interconnection from an Arabic perspective, by considering the issue of morphophonemic changes in Standard Arab as a process that involves significant changes in the various irregular patterns of plural. It draws on the structure of Arabic mainly phonology and morphology, and therefore it focuses on irregular plural which has many forms. First, the paper introduces plural in Arabic, by elaborating on its various forms. Then, the paper classifies irregular plural. Finally, the paper suggests a few conclusions and recommendations. Key words: Standard Arabic, Morphology, Phonology, Plural, Irregular plural, Broken plural, Morphophonemic changes, Morphophonology. ‫ ان هزا انبحذ هى محاونت نخسهيط انضىء ػهى حغيشاث صشفيت وصىحيت ححذد في انهغت انؼشبيت ػىذ حغييش حانت انكهمت‬:‫ملخص‬ ،‫كانخغييش مه انمفشد انى انجمغ ومه صمه انى آخش مه خالل حىضيح انحاالث انصىحيت وانصشفيت انخي حصاحب مزم هزا انخغييش‬ ‫ويشكض انبحذ في هزا انسياق ػهى جمغ انخكسيش في انهغت انؼشبيت نكىوه أوضح مزال ػهى حذود ػذة مخغيشاث صىحيت وصشفيت في‬ ‫ وسغم كزشة انبحىد انخي كخبج ػهى جمغ انخكسيش سىاء في انهغت انؼشبيت أو انهغت‬،‫انكهمت ػىذ ححىيهها مه انمفشد انى انجمغ‬ ‫األوكهيضيت اال ان أهميت هزا انبحذ حبشص في حىاونه هزا انجمغ مه مىظ ىس صىحي وصشفي وما يخشحب ػهى رنك مه حغييشاث صىحيت‬ ‫ يخىاول انبحذ في انبذايت حؼشيفا‬.‫وصشفيت ودالنيت مخىىػت اضافت انى سشد جميغ أوىاع انجمغ انغيش ان سانم انمخذاول في انهغت انؼشبيت‬ ‫نهجمغ ونهخغيشاث انصشفيت وانصىحيت في ضىء دساساث سابقت رم يحهم كم وىع مه هزا انجمغ بانخفصيم ويخخخم انبحذ بؼذة وخائج‬ .‫وحىصياث واسخىخاجاث‬ 1. Introduction and Definition Morphophonemic changes are the morphological and phonological changes, alterations, and variations that take place in a single word due to such processes as plural (pl.), case, tense, and gender. These changes feature an interconnection between phonology and morphology. Gussmann (5891) emphasized the interconnections between phonology and morphology by focusing on the significance of morphological alterations on the phonological irregularities. Matthews (5891:511) defined morphophonemic processes as transitional between morphology and phonology, considering transitional fields as often the hardest to delimit, adding that there is no simple way to determine what belongs to morphophonemics and what belongs to morphology or phonology proper. Morphophonemic changes are thus transitional between morphology and phonology. Morphophonemics is an intermediary level of analysis between phonology and morphology in which the phonological regularities in the framework of morphology, especially the systematic phonological variants of morphemes and the conditions of their occurrenc e, are described (e.g. the two phonetic variations of the past tense morpheme -ed in stayed [ste:d] vs heaped [hi:pt]). The concept of an abstract phonological level underlying the concrete expressive form was first developed by Trubetzkoy (5898) and (5895) and further developed by Chomsky and Halle (5819), where the transfer of an abstract morphophonological (deep) structure (deep structure) (=a systematic phonemic level) into the concrete phonetic realization of the surface structure is guaranteed. Jensen (5889:9) maintained that “Morphophonemics refers to the changes in the shape of morphemes in different environments. Some such changes occur in purely phonological environments, as in the regular pl. suffix in English. 2. Elaboration and Similar Studies Chomsky (5815) tackled morphophonemic changes and alterations in Hebrew by considering pl. and noun formation. He (ibid.) viewed these changes as regular processes that are representative of original forms. Chomsky‟s account of Hebrew morphophonemics is one of the prominent classical accounts in the field of morphophonemics. Martin (5819) analyzed derivation and number in Japanese by investigating the morphophonemic changes in that language. He elaborated on the importance of phoneme and syllable as the sources of alteration. Martin (5819) held that morphemes in general are much more complicated than it is thought when it comes to asymmetry and complementation in consonant movement. McCarthy (5898:991) emphasized the importance of consonant slots in irregular plural being representative of the all the processes occurring in the word especially metathesis. He added that the roots of the singulars are changeable according to the lexical ambient of the word, and therefore sometimes even consonants are elided if they are quinquiliteral in roots, that is, having five consonants. Bybee and Brewer‟s (5899) study accounted for morphonemic changes in some Romance dialects and languages that are spoken in Spain and France through an analysis of number and tense. They argued that there is a persistent change in Romance languages because of autonomy rules especially in some Spanish dialects. McCarthy (5899:999-995) raised the issue of consonant insertion in the Arabic broken pl. whereby w- is inserted in such pls. as qanuun→qewaneen „laws‟. According to him, there is a context of transformation in certain pls. in trilateral nouns that require the insertion of w-. He added that such context is triggered by the fact that trilateral nouns undergo root change and thus rendered as quadriliteral in pl. Köpcke (5899) presented a different account of morphophonemic changes as he shed light on the role of native speakers in constructing the pl. of certain words, arguing that native speakers tend to formulate pls. that are analogus with certain words. Köpcke based his study on pre-defined rules or schemas that account for lexical as well as phonological basis. Oztaner‟s (5881) study is a detailed account of the grammar of Turkish in terms of morphophonemic rules. Oztaner formulated a morphophonological framework of analysis whereby words are analyzable. 3. Irregular Plural in SA The plural in SA has been a prominent area of investigation and analysis by grammarians, linguists, as well as those who are interested in Semitic phonology and morphology. Forbes (5919:19) listed twenty four patterns of irregular pl. that realize possible broken pls. in SA. He proposed a relationship between the root of the root and the type of irregular pl., concluding that modelling occupies a key position in the formation of such pls. Palmer (5991:599-591) designated nine main patterns or forms of irregular pl.: fu88al, fu8lan, fu8uul, fu8ela?, fewa8il, fu8at, fe8lan, fewa8eel, and fi 8al. He (ibid.) insisted that not all pls.s are possible, and some are derived from some other ones. Cowan (5819:999ff) has listed thirty patterns of irregular pl. in SA. He based his classification on the trilateral roots of the verb in SA. Haywood and Nahmad (5811:15-19) suggested eleven categories of irregular pl. as follows; ef8al, fu8uul, fi8al, fu8ul, ef8al, fu8ela?, ef8ila?, fu8lan, fe8alil, fe8aleel, and fe8alile. They (ibid) maintained that irregular plurals are too variant that they must be learned rather than inferred. Murtonen (5811:19-19) and Levy (5895:99f) proposed a criterion-based model for the classification of irregular plural forms in SA in which the vowel quality is the main core. Their model classifies irregular plural forms according to percentages or numbers assigned to these plurals. Moscati (5899:99-89) listed six main categories of irregular pl., adding that the internal change is the common alternation in all of these categories. He claimed that these six categories are the most common form of irregular, whilst the others are minor or rare. Holes (9991:519) believed that semantic extension and metathesis play a significant role in the formation of irregular pl. in SA. He also added that sometimes irregular pls. are extended in order to avoid ambiguity especially in relation to dual or to fem. However, there are two main classifications of irregular pl. in SA that are considered as the main source of broken pls. to date; they are those proposed by Wright (5891) and McCarthy and Prince (5889). 5. Wright (5891:999-995) Wright (5891) classified irregular pl. into thirty one categories. These categories are Fu8ul; rusul “messengers”,Fi8el; khiyem “tents”, Fi8al; rijal “men”, Fu8uul; muluuk “kings”, Fu88el; 8uzzel “unarmed ones”, Fu88al: tujjar “traders”, Fe8ele; qetele “killers”, Fu8at; junat “criminals”, Fi8ele; dibebe “bears”, Ef8el: ewjuh “faces/aspects”, Ef8al: eqdam “legs”, Ef8ile: e 8mide “pillars”, Fewa8il: khewatim “rings”, Fe8a?il: jeza?ir “islands”, Fee8lan: ħeeŧan “whales”, Fi8lan: śibyan “boys” / Fu8ela?: jubena? “coward ones”, Ef8ila?: eğniya? “rich people”, Fu8lan: fursan “knights”, Fe8la: merđa “sick people”, Fe8al: śeħar “deserts” Fe8ala: šekawa “complaints”, Fe8aya: hedaya “presents”, Fe8eel: 8ebeed “slaves” , Fu8uule: numuure “tigers”, Fe8ale: śeħabe “companions”, Fe8el: khedem “servants”, Fi8el: rikeb “riders”, Fe8alil: kewakib “planets”, Fe8aleel: sekakeen “knives”, and Fe8alile: esatiðe “masters/professors.” 9. McCarthy and Prince (5889:959) McCarthy and Prince (5889) limited irregular pl. forms to thirty one categories. They based their classification on Wright‟s (5891) categories and thus they put these categories into four main classes of irregular pl. according to syllabification or stresss. Further, they classed only the possible or common categories, after labeling the other ones as rare. Iambic class includes the pls. that consist of single unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables.This class includes the categories 5 to 8. Trochaic class includes the pls. that consist of long syllables followed by short syllables. This class includes the categories 59 to 51. Monosyllabic class includes the pls. that consist of one syllable, or C9 roots with single vowel (V). This class includes the categories 51 to 98, and Others including pls. are those that are based on gemination, especially the C9 roots with single vowels. These include the categories 99 to 95. 4. Remarks on Notation and Transcription All the exemplary data used in this paper are written in a transliterated form, with meaning enclosed in brackets. The sound notation used is partly IPA, as in /ð/ and /ħ/ and partly some English sounds, as in /j/, /y/, /b/, in addition to a few designed symbols, in order to represent all sounds, especially short vowels (Vs) which are not represented or spelt in the written form, and to show the ultimate pronunciation as accurately as possible. Abbreviated symbols containing Cs and Vs denote the pattern of the noun or that of the pl., as in CvCC for qelb (heart). Root symbols with overt sounds represent extra sounds, those which are not part of the noun in pl. pattern, as well as the precise form of the noun, as in CaCee for qaďee (judge). Patterns with voiced Cs, as in (?) in CuCeCa? or (m) in meCCeC, represent the addition of external or non-root Cs to the original root pattern. As for SA templates, they are represented by various forms such as Fa8il, Fewa8il, etc. Based on three main root Cs (f-8-l), taken from the word ‫( فعل‬to do) in SA, templates are given these terms in order to represent the structural roots of the word from which these sing. nouns are derived. 5. Discussion and Categorization Generally, there are two types of pl. in SA; sound or regular pl., and irregular or broken pl. Sound pl. is marked by two suffixes, each according to the gender of the word. Thus, -at is used with fem. nouns, whereas –uun/-een is used with masc. nouns. Further, there are a few words in SA that can be pluralized with both regular and irregular pl. As for irregular pl., there is no single specific form or affix that marks such pl. Rather, there are many irregular pl. forms that feature various processes or changes in the words related. Moreover, some of these forms are applicable to both fem. and masc. Irregular pls. are discussed in terms of three main aspects; pattern, template, and alternation. Pattern is the phonological, or roughly the consonantal as well as the vocal, structure of the word, represented by C for Consonant. As for Vs, they are either written. e.g. i/e/u, or they represented by v only. Template stands for the word structure in SA based on the roots ‫ل‬- /‫ػـ‬/‫فـ‬. Alternation is concerned with all the phonological and morphological changes that take place in a word when it is pluralized. 1. Ef9al cvcvc→vccvc Ef8al is one of the common irregular forms of pl. in SA, as there are many bilateral and trilateral nouns pluralized in this form. The formation of this pl. involves the addition of (e) at the beginning of the noun as well as the insertion of the long V (a) before the final C. Hence, the pl. is roughly eCCaC. The nouns related are based in sing. on CeCeC, CeCC, CiCC, and CuCC. As for bilateral nouns, they often take CvC, where (v) may be (uu), (ee) or (ou). Pattern: CeCeC → eCCaC Template: Fe9el Alternation: 5. Prefixation of a V 9. Elision of the first internal V (e) 9. Lenghthening of the second internal V (e)→(a), as in qelem (pen)→eqlam (pens)/ ħedeth (event)→eħdath (events)/ kheber (an item of news)→ekhbar (news)/ ŧebeq (dish)→eŧbaq (dishes)/ qedem (foot)→eqdam (feet). Pattern: CeCC→eCCaC Template: Fe9l Alternation: 5. Prefixation of a V (e) 9. Elision of the internal V (e) 9. Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (a), as in nehr (river)→enhar (rivers)/ ferd (individual)→efrad (individuals). Pattern: CiCC → eCCaC Template: Fi9l Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9. Elision of the internal V (i) 9.Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (a). Examples are šikl (shape)→eškal (shapes)/ ši8r (verse)→eš8ar (verses)/ śifr (zero)→eśfar (zeroes)/ thiql (weight)→ethqal (weights)/ milħ (salt)→emlaħ (salts). Pattern: CuCC→ eCCaC Template: Fu9l Alternation: 5. Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the internal V (u) 9.Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (a), examples include nouns such as śubĝ (paint)→eśbaĝ (paints)/ 8umq (deep)→e8maq (deeps)/ 8ušb (grass)→e8šab (grasses)/ bu8d (dimension)→eb8ad (dimensions)/ qurś (disc)→eqraś (discs)/ juz? (part)→ejza? (parts)/ 8umr (age)→e8mar (ages)/ quŧb (pole)→eqŧab (poles). In this form of pl., there is a significant change that occurs when the noun is changed from sing. to pl. It is the change of the type of root as to the number of Cs contained in this root. C9 roots become bilateral; this is especially in nouns beginning with (w). In this respect, (w) is changed to a V (ou), which eventually changes the type of the root from trilateral to bilateral, as a C has been removed. Thus, the template CvCvC becomes vCvC in pl.; weŧen (home)→ouŧan (homes)/ weled (boy)→oulad (boys)/ weter (string)→outar (strings)/ werem (tumor)→ouram (tumors). On the other hand, bilateral roots are changed in template, too. In bilateral nouns, based on CvC, the medial V is changed to (y), if this V is (ee) or (ei) in the sing. root. The pl., therefore, is eCCaC, while it is CvC in sing, as in: kees (bag)→ekyas (bags)/ deen (religion)→edyan (religions). If the medial V is (ou), (uu) or (a), it is changed to (w) in pl.; kuukh (cottage)→ekwakh (cottages)/ ruuħ (soul)→erwaħ (souls)/ suuq (market)→eswaq (markets)/ suur (wall)→eswar (walls)/ qous (bow)→eqwas (bows)/ dour (role)→edwar (roles)/ koun (universe)→ekwan (universes). The addition of the pre-initial (e) may as well be affected phonetically by the sort of the first C in the sing. root, and hence, (e) becomes (ei), because that C is (y). Such behaviour can only be accounted for by the fact that (y) is a vowel-like sound; youm (day)→eiyam (days). However, in bilateral nouns where the medial V is neither of the above Vs, it is (a) as in these two examples, (w), rather than (y), is inserted between the first C and the medial V; ħal (condition)→eħwal (conditions)= CaC→eCWaC/ mal (money/property)→emwal (monies/ properties) = CaC→ eCWaC. 2. ef9ile This pl. form is used to derive sing. mas. nouns. The sing. nouns included in this pl. are based on a C9 root (three Cs with two internal Vs). The first V is a short voiced non-spelled V (‫ضمت‬،‫ فخحت‬،‫)كسشة‬, whereas the other V is a long orthographic V. In pl., the short orthographic V (fetħe) is inserted at the beginning and at the end of the noun. Additionally, the first internal short V is elided, while the second long spelled V becomes a short voiced V only. Hence, the change from sing. to pl. involves the prothesis of (e) in a pre-initial C root, the syncope of the first V, the alternation of the second long V to a short one (i), and the addition of (e). The final pl. form of the word will be based on the root v+CCvC+v, where plus-marked Vs denote Vs inserted pre- and post-lexically; e+CCiC+e. The following fig. shows the pluralization of the word mithal (example) into emthile (examples): Nouns pluralized in this form are based on CiCaC, CeCaC, and less frequently CuCaC and CeCeeC. Pattern: CiCaC→eCCiCe Template: Fi9al Alternation: 5. Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the short V (i) 9. Shortening of the internal V (a)→(i) 1. Suffixation of a V (e). Examples include qina8 (mask)→eqni8e (masks)/ siyaj (fence)→esyije (fences). Pattern: CeCaC→eCCiCe Template: Fe9al Alternation: 5.Prefixaion of a V (e) 9.Elision of the short V (e) 9. Shortening of the internal V (a)→(i) 1.Suffixation of a V (e), examples include šerab (beverage)→ešribe (beverages)/ demaĝ (brain)→edmiĝe (brains)/ mekan (place)→emkine (places)/ nešaŧ (activity)→enšiŧe (activities). Pattern: CeCeeC→eCCiCe Template: Fe9eel Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the short V (e) 9.Shortening of the internal V (ee)→(i) 1.Suffixation of a V (e), as in reśeed (credit)→erśide (credits)/ reśeef (sidewalk)→erśife (sidewalks)/ šereeŧ (stripe)→ešriŧe (stripes)/ ďereeħ (shrine)→eďriħe (shrines). Pattern: CuCaC→eCCiCe Template: Fu9al Alternation: 5.Prefixationof initial V (e) 9.Elision of the short V (u) 9.Shortening of the internal V (a)→(i) 1.Suffixation of a V (e), as in fu?ad (heart)→ef?ide (hearts)/ su?al (question)→es?ile (questions)/ turab (sand)→etribe (sands). If third C in the root is (?), it is replaced by a the semi-vowel (y), to separate the two Vs and to avoid V sequence; du8a? (prayer/ plea)→ed8iye (prayers/pleas)/ ĝiða? (food)→ eĝðiye (foods). Words which are bilateral (have two Cs standing as a root) undergo shift in the final V. Thus, /y/ is inserted after the two Cs to separate the short Vs; nadee (club) [9 Cs; n/d] → endiye (clubs) [9 Cs' n/d/y]. Therefore, this bilateral noun becomes trilateral in pl. Another change occurs in this form represented by the shift in root quality. Here, the C (w) is changed to a V (ou), and the trilateral noun becomes bilateral in root accordingly; wereed (vein)→ouride (veins)/ wisam (insignia)→ousime (insignias). Notwithstanding this remarkable change in the sing. root, a noun may not change in root, even if this change involves the elision of a C. The noun wadee (valley) is bilateral in root, consisting of (w) and (d) as a root, but in pl., (y) is inserted finally to separate the two final short Vs (i) and (e), and thus this new C replaces the elided (w) in pl. oudiye (valleys), (d) and (y). 3. fu9uul This form includes principally C9 roots, in addition to a few bilateral ones. The C9 root of sing. nouns is commonly CvCC. The internal V is a short voiced sound only (‫ فخحت‬or ‫)كسشة‬. In pl., this root becomes CvCvC. The first internal V, whatever be that V, alternates to a short voiced V (‫)ضمت‬. More importantly, such irregular form results in breaking the final C cluster in the sing. by inserting a long V in between. Therefore, the root can best be represented as CvCuuC, to emphasize the insertion of a long V. The fig. below illustrates the change of a sing. noun to pl. in this form through as exemplified in the word qelb (heart): Fig. (9) Change of qelb (heart) to pl. quluub (hearts) where the underlined Vs denote sound alternation. Most nouns pluralized in this form are mas, but they are turned into fem in pl. Pattern: CeCC→CuCuuC Template: Fe9l Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (e)→(u) 9.Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (uu). Nouns pluralized through this form denote animals, birds; nesr (eagle)→nusuur (eagles)/ fehd (leopard)→fuhuud (leopards). Tools; ke?s (cup)→ku?uus (cups)/ fe?s (axe)→fu?uus (axes). Bilateral words are doubled in the second C; def (drum)→dufuuf (drums), bodily parts; re?s (head)→ru?uus (heads)/ enf (nose)→unuuf (noses). If the word is bilateral or CvC, the second C is doubled; kef (palm)→kufuuf (palms). Groups; še8b (people)→šu8uub (peoples)/ wefd (delegation)→wufuud (delegations). Landscape and weather; sehl (plain)→suhuul (plains)/ thelj (snow)→thuluuj (snows)/ merj (prairie)→muruuj (prairies)/ kehf (cave)→kuhuuf (caves). Places, institutions; benk (bank)→bunuuk (banks). Periods; šehr (months)→šuhuur (months)/ 8eśr (era)→8uśuur (eras). Miscellaneous: bend (chapter/clause)→bunuud (chapters/clauses)/ še?n (affair)→šu?uun (affairs). The second C in bilateral roots is doubled in pl.; ref (shelf)→rufuuf (shelves)/ śef (class)→śufuuf (classes)/ fel (remain)→fuluul (remains) / ħeb (grain)→ħubuub (grains). Pattern: CiCC→CuCuuC Template: Fi9l Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (i)→(u) 9. Breaking the final CC by infixing a V (uu), as in 8iŧr (odor)→8uŧuur (odors)/ qird (ape)→quruud (apes)/ śinf (class)→śunuuf (classes)/ sijn (prison)→sujuun (prisons). Pattern: CeCeC or CeCiC→CuCuuC Template:Fe9el Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (e)→(u) 9.Internal V Lenghthening (i)→(uu). Examples are esed (lion)→usuud (lions)/ śeŧer (line)→śuŧuur (lines)/ melik (king)→muluuk (kings)/ nemir (tiger)→numuur (tigers) Pattern: CeiC→ CuyuuC Template:Fei9 Alternation: 5.Internal V shortening (ei)→(u) 9. Infixation of the C (y) 9. Infixation of the V (uu). In bilateral roots, the internal V is a diphthong, in which case it is deleted and /y/ is inserted instead to separate the two Vs and to avoid V sequence; jeiš (army)→juyuuš (armies)/ 8ein (eye)→8uyuun (eyes)/ ŧeir (bird)→ŧuyuur (birds)/ beit (house)→buyout (houses)/ jeib (pocket)→juyuub (pockets). 4. Fe9alee/ fewa9il Fe8alee is the irregular pl. form that is used to pluralize mas as well fem nouns. It is used with C9 root words. However, the pl. root is quadriliteral (a four C root) in the form of CvCVCvC. If the first internal V is a long one, it will be replaced by (e+w). Hence, this (w) will be the four C added to the root of the sing. noun. The fig. below demonstrates the morphophonemic change in 8amil (factor) to 8ewamil (factors); Pattern:CaCiC→CewaCiC Template:Fa9il→Fewa9il Alternation:5.Infixationof a V (e) 9.Infixation of a C (w), e.g. hatif (telephone)→hewatif (telephones)/ ŧabi8 (stamp)→ŧewabi8 (stamps). In this category, there are a few words that denote places; jami8 (mosque)→jewami8 (mosques)/ šari8 (street)→šewari8 (streets)/ šahid (monument)→šewahid (monuments)/ tabiq (floor)→tewabiq (floors). Also, there are words that are water-related; sa?il (liquid)→sewa?il (liquids)/ rafid (river branch)→rewafid (river branches)/ saħil (coast)→sewaħil (coasts)/ qarib (boat)→qewarib (boats). The above replacement helps to change the root of the noun from trilateral in sing. to quadriliteral in pl., having added (w) to the root of the noun. In all these words, the only change occurring is the replacement of the first internal V (a) with (e+w). In fem. nouns, those ending with the suffix (-e), the same rule applies, except that the said suffix is elided. These nouns involve various senses, such as tools; ŧabi8e (printer)→ŧewabi8 (printers)/ barije (warship)→bewarij (warships)/ qafile (caravan)→qewafil (caravans), and places; nafiðe (window)→newafið/ qa8ide (base)→qewa8id (bases)/ 8aiśme (capital city)→8ewaśim (capital cities). Miscellaneous; ša?ibe (impurity)→šewa?ib (impurities)/ fakihe (fruit)→fewakih (fruits)/ jariye (maid)→jewaree (maids)/ qafiye (rhyme)→qewafee (rhymes)/ 8a?ile (family)→8ewa?il (families). If the first V is short and the second one is long, and the word ends with (-e), the second V is replaced by (a) and the glottal C (?) is inserted to prevent the sequence of (a) and (i). As for the fem. suffix (-e), it is deleted. This is common in fem. nouns, as in; fereeđe (religious duty)→fera?iđ (religious duties). Pattern:CeCeeCe→CeCa?iC Template: Fe9eele→Fe9a?il Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (ee) →(a) 9.Infixation of a C (?) 9.Infixation of a V (i) 1. Elision of the final V (e), nouns pluralized as such include qeśeede (poem)→qeśa?id (poems)/ reheene (hostage)→reha?in (hostages)/ keteebe (battalion)→keta?ib (battalions)/ qebeele (tribe)→qeba?il (tribes). Here, the exception is the word risale (message), which has already (a) as a second V, and thus (?+i) is inserted in pl.; resa?il (messages). Nouns which are quadriliteral in root (consisting of four Cs), undergo internal V mutation, in addition to the anaptyxis of (a) relating to the pl. form, as in; funduq (hotel) →fenadiq (hotels)/ zilzal (quake)→zelazil (quakes)/ 8esker (troop)→8esakir (troops). The fem. suffix (-e) is elided to correspond to the pl. form; belbele (confusion)→belabil (confusions)/ mehzele (farce)→mehazil (farces). The behavior of Vs varies in words, due to the different Vs contained in these words. Words ending with long V (ee) may have an insertion of (a) between the second and the final C root, as in kursee (chair)→kerasee (chairs). On the other hand, an orthographically similar word, like nadee (club), undergoes only insertion of (e+w) after the first C, and thus it is pluralized as newadee (clubs). Interestingly, such behavior can be noticed even in C9 root nouns. Here, a different set of sounds is introduced, represented by (e+y+a) instead of (e+w). This is confined to the nouns the first internal V of which is the diphthong (ei); heikel (skeleton)→heyakil (skeletons)/ beideq (pawn)→beyadiq (pawns). There are many words in SA which begin with the suffix me-, taking this type of pl. This prefix is non-root C, .i.e., it is not original in the root, and it is added to these words to give the meaning of '' a place where something is done'', as such prefix is not in the C9 root of these words. It is the C9 root that implies the meaning of the stem, rather than the non-root C (me-). Hence, for example, in mekteb (office), the C9 root k-t-b implies the meaning of 'writing', from which that word takes its final meaning ' a place for writing.' Additionaly, a few pls. share the same template and form including names of animal, bird, or insect-related; 8ašib (herbivorous)→8ewašib (herbivouroses)/ zaħif (reptile)→zewaħif (reptiles)/ qariđ (rodent)→qewariđ (rodents)/ beheeme (beast)→beha?im (beasts)/ sinjab (squirrel)→senajib (squirrels)/ sulħefat (turtle)→selaħif (turtles)/ 8eqreb (scorpion)→8eqarib (scorpions)/ newres (seagull)→newaris (seagulls)/ jariħ (bird of prey)→jewariħ (birds of prey)/ ħewafir (hoofs)/ qewadim (forelegs)/ laħim (carnivorous)→lewaħim (carnivorouses). Pattern: meCCeC→meCaCiC Template: mef9el→mefa9il Alternation: 5.Breaking the medial CC by infixing a long V (a) 9.Internal V mutation (e)→(i). Most words here imply „a place where something is done‟; me8hed (institute)→me8ahid (institutes)/ merfe? (harbor)→merafi? (harbors)/ merkez (center)→merakiz (centers)/ mesreħ (theatre)→mesariħ (theatres) /mel8eb (stadium)→mela8ib (stadiums)/ menjem (mine)→menajim (mines)/ mesken (residence)→mesakin (residences)/ menfeð (outlet)→menafið (outlets)/ mesbeħ (swimming pool)→mesabiħ (swimming pools)/ mekhzen (store)→mekhazin (stores)/ meśref (bank)→meśarif (banks)/ meŧbekh (kitchen)→meŧabikh (kitchens)/ meśne8 (factory)→meśani8 (factories)/ meŧ8em (restaurant)→meŧa 8im (restaurants). There is aother sense implied here that suggests a place through which something passes; me8ber (crossing)→me8abir (crossings)/ medkhel (entrance)→medakhil (entrances)/ mekhrej (exit)→mekharij (exits)/ menfeð (outlet)→menafið (outlets). Miscellaneous; me8lem (monument)→me8alim (monuments)/ merkeb (boat)→merakib (boats)/ meqleb (trick)→meqalib (tricks). In fem. nouns, the suffix (-e) is deleted; menŧeqe (area)→menaŧiq (areas)/ mezre8e (farm)→mezari8 (farms)/ medrese (school)→medaris (schools)/ meqbere (cemetery)→meqabir (cemeteries)/ me8reke (battle)→me8arik (battles)/ melħeme (epic)→melaħim (epics)/merħele (stage)→meraħil (stages)/ meħkeme (court)→meħakim (courts)/ meŧħene (mill)→meŧaħin (mills). In C9 roots, the final V is changed to (ee). Again, the sense here has to do with place; mešfa (hospital)→mešafee (hospitals)/ meśfa (refinery)→meśafee (refineries)/ meqha (café)→meqahee (cafes)/ mersa (marina)→merasee (marinas)/ melha (cabaret)→melahee (cabarets). Exceptions in sense and in gender; leila (night)→leyalee (nights). There are a few words have the pre-final V as /i/ rather than /e/, with a locative sense, including; mejlis (session)→mejalis (sessions)/ mesjid (mosques)→mesajid (mosques)/ menzil (house)→menazil (houses)/ mouqif (situation)→mewaqif (situations)/ mouqid (fireplace)→mewaqid (fireplaces). Exceptions; mourid (resource)→mewarid (resources)/ mousim (season)→mewasim (seasons). Some words denote tools, instruments, equipment, .etc; melbes (cloth)→melabis (clothes)/ medfe8 (cannon)→medafi8 (cannons)/ merjel (boiler)→merajil (boilers)/ mikbes (button)→mekabis (buttons)/ mekbeħ (brake)→mekabiħ (brakes)/ mi8oul (pickax)→me8awil (pickaxes). However, if the third C is (y) or (?), it is elided along with the preceding and the following V and it will be replaced by the V (ee); umniye (wish)→emanee (wishes)/ uħjiye (riddle)→eħajee (riddles)/ uĝniye (song)→eĝanee (songs)/ uđħiye (offering)→eđaħee (offerings)/ ina? (pot)→ewanee (pots)/ yed (hand)→eiyadee (hands). Animals; seħliye (lizard)→seħalee (lizards)/ ef8a (snake)→efa8ee (snakes). Landscapes; śeħra? (desert)→śeħaree (deserts)/ ber (wild)→beraree (wilds). It is worth mentioning that in all of these above words, if the first internal V is not a short one, it is also elided and (e+w) is inserted instead; zoube8e (storm)→zewabi8 (storms)/ śoume8e (silo)→sewami8 (silo)/ qouqe8e (shell)→qewaqi8 (shells)/ koukeb (planet)→kewakib (planets)/ noures (seagull)→newaris (seagulls )/ jouhere (gem)→ jewahir (gems). 5. fu9ela? This form is used to derive irregular pl. for trilateral nouns that are mas. as a whole. The C9 root consists of three Cs and two Vs. The first V is a short or long V, but the second V is a long one. However, the pl. here is quadriliteral in root, as another C, that is (?), is added at the end of the sing. noun when pluralized. The final pl. form is: CvCvCvC or more precisely as CuCeCa?. The example below shows how šeheed (martyr) is pluralized as šuheda? (martyrs); In pl., the quality of the first V is not changed (short to short); Pattern: CeCeeC→CuCela? Template: Fe9eel→Fu9ela? Alternation: 5.Mutation of the first internal V (e)→(u) 9.Shortening of the second internal V (ee)→(e) 9.Suffixation of (-a?). Most nouns here denote positions, occupations, and the like; re?ees (president)→ru?esa? (presidents)/ emeen (secretary)→umena? (secretaries)/ 8eđeem (great)→8uđema? (greats)/ sefeer (ambassador)→sufera? (ambassadors)/ emeer (prince)→umera? (princes)/ edeeb (man of letters)→udeba? (men of letters)/ fereeq (rival)→fureqa? (rivals)/ 8emeed (dean)→8umeda? (deans)/ kheŧeeb (orator)→khuŧeba? (orators)/ ħeleef (ally)→ħulefa? (allies)/ kheleefe (caliph/successor)→khulefa? (caliphs/successors). Additionally, there are certain nouns that imply specific temporary or permanent adjectives; ĝereeb (stranger)→ĝureba? (strangers)/ qedeem (ancient)→qudema? (ancients)/ bekheel (miser)→bukhela? (misers)/ neđeer (counterpart)→nuđera? (counterparts)/ kereem (generous)→kurema? (generous ones). Pattern: CaCiC→CuCela? Template: Fa9il→Fu9ela? Alternation: 5. Shortening of the first internal V (a)→(u) 9. Mutation of the second internal V (i) →(e) 9.Suffixation of (-a?), as in ša8ir (poet)→šu8era? (poets)/ 8alim (scholar)→8ulema? (scholars)/ ba?is (miserable)→bu?esa? (miserable ones)/ jahil (ignorant)→juhela? (ignorant ones)/ jeban (coward)/ (coward)→jubena? (cowards). 6. fe9aya Fe8aya is an irregular pl. form used to pluralize fem. sing. nouns that are C9 or C9 in root, of which the root is CvCvCv. The pl. root is also CvCvCv. The morphophonemic representation of this pl. is CeCaya; In kheliye (cell), the second and the final unwritten short Vs become orthographically written long Vs. Hence; khelaya (cells). The majority of nouns related are pluralized through this change; Pattern: CeCiye → CeCaya Template: Fe9iye→Fe9aya Alternation: 5.Lenghthening of the second internal V (i)→(a) 9.Lenghthening of the second internal V (e) → (a), e.g. weśiye (will)→weśaya (wills)/ re8iye (subject)→re8aya (subjects)/ hediye (gift)→hedaya (gifts)/ šeđiye (fragment)→šeđaya (fragments)/ śebiye (lass)→śebaya (lasses)/ qeďiye (issue)→qeďaya (issues)/ sejiye(character)→sejaya (characters)/ beliye (distress)→belaya (distresses)/ beqiye (remain)→beqaya (remains)/ 8eŧiye (donation)→8eŧaya (donations). If the final C is (?), it is changed to (y) in pl.; kheŧee?e (sin) →kheŧaya (sins)/ khebee?e (hidden thing)→khebaya (hidden things)/ rezee?e (calamity)→rezaya (calamities)/ mir?a (mirror)→meraya (mirrors)/ 8eđa?e (lizard)→8eđaya (lizards). Words which are bilateral in root or which end with (y) or V, have this (y) or V deleted and (-aya) is affixed instead; beĝee (prostitutes)→beĝaya (prostitutes)/ sebee (captive)→sebaya (captives)/ neeye (intention)→newaya (intentions)/ meeze (merit)→mezaya (merits). Some nouns are already in pl. e.g. seħaya (meningitis). 7. fi9el Fi8el is a pl. form used to pluralize sing. fem. nouns, that are C9 or C9 in root. Nouns pluralized in this form can be classified into three main subtypes. The first subtype includes the bilateral nouns that consist of a C followed by a geminate, morphemically represented as CvCgv, where Cg stands for consonantal gemination. Gemination is the doubling of a single or certain C in the word. The Fig. below explains how such sing. nouns are pluralized; What happens here is a degemination of the doubled C, and therefore the word qimme (summit), for example, becomes qimem (summits) in pl., by inserting a short unwritten V in between. Most nouns pluralized in this form take the form of CiCeC. As for the final V in the sing. noun, it is elided in pl.; Pattern: CiC2e Template: Fi99e→Fi9e9 Alternation: 5.Degemination of the second root C by infixing a V (e) 9. Elision of the final V, nouns related are qiŧŧe (cat)→qiŧeŧ (cats)/ 8ille (cause)→8ilel (causes)/ ðimme (protection)→ðimem (protections)/ ville (villa)→vilel(villas)/ himme (determination)→himem (determinations). The most significant morphophonemic change here is that bilateral root words become trilateral. Words can be unilateral (mono-consonantal); umme (nation) →umem (nations). Some nouns are always used in pl.; ħimem (lavas). But, if the word is already C9 in root, then only a short V is infixed to separate the final Cs. Abstract or ideational aspects; ħikme (wisdom)→ħikem (wisdoms)/ 8ibre (moral)→8iber (morales). Jobs and occupations; mihne (job)→mihen (jobs)/ ħirfe (profession)→ħiref (professions). Collective groups or entities; furqe (band)→fureq (bands)/ kutle (bloc)→kutel (blocs)/ usre (family)→user (families). Miscellaneous; nisbe (portion)→niseb (portions)/ ibre (needle)→iber (needles)/ jumle (sentence)→jumel (sentences)/ kulfe (cost)→kulef (costs). (y) or (w) is inserted in the bilateral nouns containing long Vs or diphthongs in the middle, to separate the surrounding short Vs and to avoid V sequence. Also, the final (-e) fem. suffix is deleted. Hence, such words are changed in root from bilateral in sing. to trilateral in pl.; kheime (tent)→khiyem/ śeeĝe (format)→śiyeĝ (formats)/ seere (biography)→siyer (biographies). 8. fe9aleel This is a pl. form used to derive the pl. of many mas. as well fem. sing. nouns that are C9 or C1 in root. The root of the pl. is quadriliteral; CvCvCvC, or more precisely as CeCaCeeC, for quadriliteral sing. nouns, and CeWaCeeC for trilateral sing. nouns. This pl. root is shown in the Fig. below. Sing. noun in C9 root; qamuus ( dictionary) to pl. qewamees (dictionaries) Sing. noun in quadriliteral root; timthal ( statue) to pl. tematheel ( statues) Pattern: MiCCaC→MeCaCeeC Template: Mif9al→Mefa9eel Alternation: 5. mutation of the first internal V (i) → (e) 9. Infixation of a long V (a) 9. Mutation of the second internal V (a)→ (ee). Nouns pluralized here mostly denote tools, equipment, devices, and the like; miśbaħ (lamp)→meśabeeħ (lamps)/ finjan (cup)→fenajeen (cups)/ mizmar (pipe)→mezameer (pipes)/ miħrar (thermometer)→meħareer/ mismar (nail)→mesameer (nails)/ minšar (saw) menašeer (saws)/ miqdar (measure)→meqadeer (measures). Included in this are a few fem. nouns; qaruure (glass)→qewareer (glasses)/ masuure (pipe)→mewaseer (pipes)/ ŧaħuune (mill)→ŧewaħeen (mills). Others denote animals; sinjab (squirrel)→senajeeb (squirrels)/ timsaħ (crocodile)→temaseeħ (crocodiles). Some other nouns may refer to written things; teśreeħ (permission)→teśareeħ (permissions)/ tefseer (interpretation)→tefaseer (interpretations)/ teqreer (report)→teqareer (reports)/ tewqee 8 (signature)→tewaqee8 (signatures)/ tareekh (date)→tewareekh (dates). Natural or emotional aspects; i8śar (storm)→e8aśeer (storm)/ iħsas (feeling)→eħasees (feelings). Pattern: CaCuuC→CewaCeeC Template:Fa9uul→Fewa9eel Root: C3→ C4 Alternation: 5.Infixation of the syllable (ew) 9.Mutation of the second internal V (uu)→(ee). Again, some nouns here are concerned with tools, devices, or equipment; tabuut (coffin)→tewabeet (coffins)/ śaruukh (missile)→śewareekh (missiles)/ ħasuub (computer)→ħewaseeb (computers)/ fanuus (lantern)→fewanees (lanterns)/ ibreeq (kettle)→ebareeq (kettles)/ sikkeen (knife)→sekakeen (knives). Abstract laws, regulations, or non-animate aspects; kabuus (nightmare)→kewabees (nightmares)/ namuus (laws of nature)→newamees (laws of nature)/ qanuun (law)→qewaneen (laws). Animate attributes; ŧaĝuut (tyrant)→ŧewaĝeet (tyrants)/ śindeed (valiant)→śenadeed (valiant ones)/ jasuus (spy)→jewasees (spies)/ tilmeeð (pupil)→telameeð (pupils). Birds or animals; ŧawuus (peacock)→ŧewawees (peacocks)/ beŧreeq (penguin)→beŧareeq (penguins). Imaginary entities or creatures; tinneen (dragon)→tenaneen (dragons)/ 8ifreet (demon)→8efareet (demons). Activities or actions; timreen (exercise)→temareen (exercises)/ ikleel (wreath)→ekaleel (wreaths). Locative references; ŧabuur (queue)→ŧewabeer (queues)/ iqleem (region)→eqaleem (regions). In SA, there are certain nouns are always used in pl.; metarees (barricades)/ teraweeħ (nightly prayers at Ramadan)/ te8aleem (teachings)/ tefaśeel (details)/ te8abeer (expressions)/ tebašeer (good or early news)/ ħeðafeer (sides)/ esareer (facial lineaments)/ eqaweel (telltales). In trilateral nouns with the first internal V is a long one (ei) or (ee), this long V is shortened to (e) and (ya) is infixed. As for the second internal V, it is mutated to (ee); meidan (square)→meyadeen (squares). Most words here have to do with measurement or the related senses; meezan (scale)→mewazeen (scales)/ mee8ad (appointment)→mewa8eed (appointments)/ meeqat (appointed time)→mewaqeet (appointed times)/ deenar (dinar)→denaneer (dinars). Some nouns are borrowings; sirdab (vault)→seradeeb (vaults)/ fustan (dress)→fesateen (dresses)/ dihleez (vestibule)→dehaleez (vestibules)/ binŧal (trousers)→benaŧeel (trousers)/ sirwal (pants)→seraweel (pants)/ derweesh (dervish)→deraweesh (dervishes)/ bermeel (barrel)→berameel (barrels)/ dulfeen (dolphin)→delafeen (dolphins). Pattern: CuC2aC Template: Fu99al→Fe9a9eel Root: C4 Alternation:5.Mutation of the first internal V (u)→(e) 9.Degemination of the internal C geminate by infixing a V (a) 9.Mutation of the second internal V (a)→(ee) Animals, birds, or insects; thu8ban (snake)→the8abeen (snakes)/ 8uśfuur (sparrow)→8eśafeer (sparrows)/ dubbuur (hornet)→debabeer (hornets). Animate or human attributes; rubban (captain)→rebabeen (captains)/ śulŧan (sultan)→śelaŧeen (sultans)/ menduub (envoy)→menadeeb (envoys). Locative references; šubbak (window)→šebabeek (windows)/ bustan (garden)→besateen (gardens). Natural aspects or phenomena; ukhduud (groove)→ekhadeed (grooves)/ uħfuur (fossil)→eħafeer (fossils)/ burkan (volcano)→berakeen (volcanoes). Tools or equipment; unbuub (pipe)→enabeeb (pipes)/ śunduuq (box)→śenadeeq (boxes)/ dubbuus (pin)→(debabees)/ śunbuur (faucet)→śenabeer (faucets). Written works; 8unwan (address)→8enaween (addresses)/ dustuur (constitution)→desateer/ uŧruuħe (thesis)→eŧareeħ (theses). Spiritual, religious, or mythical associations; qurban (offering)→qerabeen (offerings)/ uśŧuure (legend)→eśaŧeer (legends)/ te8weeðe (charm)→te8aweeð (charms)/ terneeme (hymn)→teraneem (hymns). 9. ef9ila? Ef8ila? is an irregular form for mas. nouns. Nouns pluralized in this form are C9 or C9 in root, formed as CvCv or CvCvC. In pl., two suprafixes, which are not lexically found in the sing. root, are added. The first is an initial V (prothesis) and the second one is the V (a) + the C (?). As for the internal changes, they are mostly restricted to the change of the long V to a short unwritten one, and the elision of the first short V. The word śedeeq (friend) becomes esdiqa? (friends) through this morphophonemic change: Hence, words which are trilateral in sing. become quadriliteral in pl., as another C is added to the root. The following are examples of such words, that undergo the same change in pl.; Pattern: CeCeeC→eCCiCa? Template: Fe9eel→ef9ila? Root: C3→C4 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the first internal V (e) 9.Shortening of the final V (ee)→(i) 1.Suffixation of (ya?). Examples are beree? (innocent)→ebriya? (innocents)/ qereeb (relative)→eqriba? (relatives). In nouns where the last two root Cs are identical, they are merged into a single C geminate. Most words of this category are either nouns; reqeeq (slave)→eriqqa? (slaves)/ deleel (guide)→edilla? (guides)/ ŧebeeb (doctor)→eŧibba? (doctors), or attributes; šedeed (tough)→šhidda? (tough ones)/ 8ezeez (dear)→e8izza? (dear ones)/ ħebeeb (beloved) →iħibba? (beloved ones). Further to the above, there are several nouns that are bilateral in root (containing two Cs in sing. case), which also become trilateral in pl. The said words are often CvCv, or CeCee. In pl., the first short V is elided, while the second V at the end, which is usually a diphthong, is not only elided, but is also replaced by a short V and then followed by (y) to avoid sequence with the following V; Pattern: CeCee→eCCiya? Template: Fe9ee→ef9iya? Root: C2→C4 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the internal V (e) 9.Final V shortening (ee)→(i) 1. Suffixation of the syllable (ya?). Except for the noun nebee (prophet)→enbiya? (prophets), most nouns here denote animate attributes; theree (rich)→ethriya? (rich ones)/ ðekee (smart)→eðkiya? (smart ones)/ ĝebee (stupid)→eĝbiya? (stupid ones)/ ĝenee (rich)→eĝniya? (rich ones)/ šeqee (wretched)→ešqiya? (wretched ones)/ qewee (strong)→eqwiya? (strong ones). Moreover, if the first C in the root is (w), it is substituted by the long V (ou);weśee (custodian)→ouśiya? (custodians)/ welee (patron)→ouliya? (patrons)/ wefee (loyal)→oufiya? (loyal ones). 11. fu99al This an irregular pl. form to change sing. mas nouns into pl. Such nouns are C9 in root, mostly as Fa8il, or CvCvC (CaCiC). In addition, the second C in the root is doubled to form an internal gemination. A given pl. can be represented as follows; In this Fig., katib (writer) is changed to kuttab (writers). In brief, the change from sing. to pl. involves an internal mutation of Vs; the first long V becomes a short unwritten V, and the second short unwritten V becomes a long written V, plus the doubling of the medial C. Pattern: CaCiC →CuC 2aC Template: Fa9il → Fu99al Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Internal V shortening (a)→(u) 9.Gemination of the internal C 9.Internal V lenghthening (i) → (a). In general, the majority of nouns here suggest the sense of „one who does or performs‟, hence; ħaris (guard)→ħurras (guards)/ ħakim (ruler)→ħukkam (rulers)/ qari? (reader)→qurra? (readers)/ naqid (critic)→nuqqad (critics)/ đabiŧ(officer)→đubbaŧ (officers)/ malik (owner)→mullak (owners)/ śani8 (maker)→śunna8 (makers)/ rakib (passenger)→rukkab (passengers). Permanent or temporary attributes; 8azib (bachelor)→8uzzab (bachelors)/ 8ašiq (lover)→8uššaq (lovers)/ fajir (wanton)→fujjar (wantons)/ 8aðil (blamer)→8uððal (blamers)/ kafir (disbeliever)→kuffar (disbelievers). Positions or occupations; kahin (priest)→kuhhan (priests)/ tajir (tradesman)→tujjar (tradesman)/ wa8iđ (preacher)→wu88ađ (preachers)/ ŧalib (student)→ŧullab (students)/ 8amil (worker)→8ummal (workers). There is also a sense of over-performing of things, duties, or jobs, as in; zahid (ascetic)→zuhhad (ascetics)/ 8abid (worshipper)→8ubbad (worshippers). If the second C is (?), it is changed to (w) in pl.; za?ir (visitor)→zuwwar (visitors)/ ra?id (pioneer)→ruwwad (pioneers)/ sa?iħ (tourist)→suwwaħ (tourists)/ na?ib (deputy)→nuwwab (deputies). The few words which are C9 in root become C9 in pl. The form of these words in sing., which is (CaC), becomes CuCCan. The internal long V (a) becomes a short unwritten one (u), the second C is doubled, and thus forming a gemination, and (a+n) is added at the end; šab (youngman)→šubban (youngmen). Notwithstanding this change which is limited to a very few words in SA, there is a similar word that shows a slightly minor change to the above; ħaj (pilgrim)→ħujjaj (pilgrims). 11. Fe9alile This is quite uncommon form of irregular pl. being restricted to quadriliteral or quinqeliteral words or words borrowed from other languages. Pattern: CeCCeCee→CeCaCiCe Template: Fe9lelee→Fe9alilie Root:C4 Alternation: 5.Breaking the medial CC by infixing a V (a) 9.Internal V mutation (e) →(i) 9.Shortening of the final V (ee) → (e). Words here are either positions or attributes; śeidelee (pharmacist)→śeyadile (pharmacists)/ 8ebqeree (genius)→8ebaqire (geniuses). Pattern: CuCCan →CeCaCiCe Template: Fu9lan → Fe9alilie Root: C4 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (u)→(e) 9.Breaking the medial CC by infixing a V (a) 9. Shortening of the internal V (a) →(i) 1.Suffixation of a V (e). Positions or occupations; qurśan (pirate)→qeraśine (pirates)/ rubban (captains)→rebabine (captains)/ duhqan (chief)→dehaqine (chiefs). Included in this are the nouns which are Arabicized or loanwords; feilesuuf (philosopher)→felasife (philosophers)/ duktor (doctor)→dekatire (doctors)/ ustað (master/professor)→esatiðe (masters/professors)/ qubŧan (captain)→qebaŧine (captains)/ jillouz (policeman)→jelawize (policemen)/ zibnee (keeper of order)→zebaniye (keepers of order)/ simsar (broker/agent)→semasire (brokers/ agents). Some nouns are always in pl.; sewasiye (equals) from sewa? (equal). Compound nouns, or nouns which are C1 (consisting of five Cs as a root), which is very rare in SA; 8ebdullah (Abdullah)→8ebadile (persons called Abdullah). Ethnic associtions; śihyonee (Zionist)→śehayine (Zionists). Nouns borrowed from Greek or Latin that refer to the titles of kings, monarchs, rulers, etc.; imberaŧor (emperor)→ebaŧire (emperors)/ kisra (Chosroe)→ekasire (Chosroes)/ qeiśer (Caesar)→qeyaśire (Caesars)/ fir8oun (Pharaoh)→fera8ine (Pharaohs). Of which are the words that refer to religious ranks, positions, etc, whether they are SA as in; qes (vicar)→qesawise (vicars)/ usquf (bishop)→esaqife (bishops)/ khuuree (vicar)→khewarine (vicars)/ shemmas (deacon)→shemamise (deacons), or borrowed from other languages, such as; kardeenal (cardinal)→keradile (cardinals)/ meŧran (archbishop)→meŧarine (archbishops)/ beŧreerik (patriarch)→beŧarike (patriarch). The words kardeenal and beŧreerik are pluralized as keradile and beŧarlike respectively, by eliding the final or the pre-final C in the sing. root. This is due to the fact that the above words are C1 in root, and having a five C root is not a possible sequence in SA. However, in imberaŧor, which is C1 in root too, the pl. is ebaŧire, as two Cs have been elided to model the required form of pl. sequence Fe8alile. There are the nouns that refer to ethnic or historical groups, peoples, nationalities, including religious or political groups or entities and the like. Such nouns are often quadriliteral and are used almost in pl.; menaðire (Muntherids)/ beramike (Barmakids)/ ye8aqibe (Jacobeans)/ ħenabile (Puritans)/ ye8arube (Yarubids)/ śeqalibe (Slavs)/ beŧalime (Ptolemaics)/ qebariśe (Cypriots)/ efariqe (Africans)/ meĝaribe (From the Maghreb countries)/ belašife (Bolsheviks)/ menašife (Mensheviks)/ selajiqe (Seljuks) /ĝesasine (Ghassanids)/ qeramiŧe (Carmatians)/ mewarine (Maronites)/ ezariqe (Ezariqids)/ Eĝalibe (Aghlabids). In addition, there are some words which denote extraordinary qualities or characters, such as; jehbeð (great sscholar)→jehabiðe (great scholars)/ 8imlaq (giant)→8emaliqe (giants)/ jebbar (titan)→jebbabire (titan)/ berberee (Barbarian)→berabire (Barbarians)/ melak (angel)→mela?ike (angels). Miscellaneous; śoulejan (scepter)→śewalije (scepters)/ niśŧoori (Nestorian)→neśaŧire (Nestorians). 12. Fe99ale Fe88ale is a pl. form used to pluralize a few mas. nouns that are C9 in root. In changing from sing. to pl., the only change that occurs in these nouns is the addition of the short V (e) at the end, as the sing. form is already Fe88al (CvCgvC), the first V is a short unwritten one, whilst the second V is a long orthographic one. Hence; Pattern: CeC2aC→CeC2aCe Template: Fe99al→Fe99ale Root: C3 Alternation: 5. Elision of the final V (e). Nouns pluralized here are mostly positions or occupations; keššaf (scout)→keššafe (scouts)/ kheyyal (horseman)→kheyyale (horseman)/ hejjan (camel rider)→hejjane (camel riders)/ reħħal (globetrotter)→reħħale (globetrotters)/ beħħar (sailor)→beħħare (sailors)/ qennaś (sniper)→qennaśe (snipers). 13. Fa9e This is a very minor type of irregular pl., since the words pluralized through it are handful. These words are C9 in root; based on Ca?iC. In pl., the medial C (?) is elided along with the following short V, and only the first and the final Cs are kept, and the short orthographic V (e) is suffixed at the end. Pattern: Ca?iC → CaCe Template: Fa?i9→Fa9e Root: C3→C2 Alternation: 5.Elision of the internal C (?) 9.Elision of the internal V (i) 9.Suffixation of a V(e). Nouns pluralized through this pattern are mostly positions or occupations or the sense of one who does something; ba?i8 (salesman)→ba8e (salesmen)/ qa?id (leader)→qade (leaders)/śa?iĝ (goldsmith)→śaĝe (goldsmiths)/ sa?is (header)→sase (headers). Where the medial C is a long V or (y) followed by V, this sequence, including (y), is elided with the final C is retained; seiyid (mister)→sade (misters). 14. Fu9a Fu8a is a rarely used form to derive irregular pl. Only a few words, fem. trilateral nouns, are pluralized through this form. Pattern: CeCye→CuCa Template: Fe9ye→Fu9a Root:C3→C2 Alternation: 5.Mutation of the first internal V (e)→(u) 9.Elision of the prefinal C (y) 9. Lenghthening of the final V (e)→(a), as in qerye (village)→qura (villages)/ ru?ye (vision)→ru?a (visions)/ dumye (doll)→duma (dolls)/ kunya (cognomen)→kuna (cognomens)/ ruqye (spell)→ruqa (spells)/ bunye (structure)→buna (structures). Pattern: CuCwe→ CuCa Template: Fu9we →Fu9a Root: C3 →C2 Alternation: 5. Elision of the final C (w) 9. Lenghthening of the final V (e) → (a), as in 8urwe (bond)→8ura (bonds)/ quwwe (force/power)→quwa (forces/powers). Pattern: CiCye→CiCa Template: Fi9ye→Fi9a Root: C3→C29a Alternation: 5. Elision of the final C (y) 9. Lenghthening of the final V (e)→ (a), as in the nouns fidye (ransom)→fida (ransoms)/ jizye (tax)→jiza (taxes)/ 8iduu (enemy)→8ida (enemies)/ nuwat (nucleus)→newa (nuclei). 15. F(i/u)9lan A form of irregular pl. to pluralize trilateral mas. nouns. Pattern: CiCC→CiCCan Template: Fi9l→Fi9lan Root: C2/ C3→C4 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (e) → (i) 9.Suffixation of (an). Categories here involve animals or birds; jirð (rat)→jirðan (rats)/ fe?r (mouse)→fi?ran (mice)/ ĝurab (crow)→ĝirban (crows)/ ĝezal (deer)→ĝizlan (deer). Miscellaneous; jidar (wall)→jidran (walls)/ śebee (boy)→śibyan (boys). Pattern: CaCiC→CuCCan Template: Fa9il→Fu9lan Root: C3→C4 Alternation: 5. Shortening of the first internal V (a)→(u) 9.Elision of the second internal V (i) 9. Sufixation of (an), as in šaŧi? (beach)→šuŧ?an (beaches)/ faris (knight)→fursan (knights) Pattern: C(u/i/e)CaC→CiCCan Template: Fu9al→Fu9lan Root: C3→C4 Alternation: 5. Internal V mutation (u)→(i) 9. Elision of the second internal V (a) 9. Suffixation of (an) to the end of the noun, as in šuja8 (brave)→šij8an (braves)/ ĝulam (boy)→ĝilman (boys). Pattern: CeCeeC→CuCCan Template: Fe9eel → Fu9lan Root: C3→C4 Alternation:5.Internal V mutation (e) → (u) 9.Elision of the second internal V (ee) 9.Suffixation of (an), as in ketheeb (sandhill)→kuthban (sandhills)/ qemeeś (shirt)→qumśan (shirts)/ qeďeeb (rod)→quďban (rods)/ kheleej (gulf)→khuljan (gulfs). Pattern: CeCeC→ CuCCan Template: Fe9el → Fu9lan Root; C3→C4 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (e) →(u) 9.Elision of the second internal V (e) 9.Suffixation of (an), as in weled (boy)→wuldan (boys)/ beled (country)→buldan (counties). Some include nationalities: siryan (Syriacs)/ ŧilyan (Italians)/ elman (Germans). This also includes bilateral nouns: wadee (valley)→widyan (valleys). 16. Fe9el Fe8el is an irregular pl. form used to derive the pl. of a few mas. nouns, most of which are C9 in root. Pattern: CaCiC→CeCeC Template: Fa9il→fe9el Root: C3 Alternation: 5. Shortening of the first internal V (a)→(e) 9.Internal mutation of the second V (i)→(e). Examples are nouns denoting poitions or occupations; khadim (servant)→khedem (servants, mas. & fem.)/ ħaris (guard)→ħeres (guards)/ khefeer (sentinel)→khefer (sentinels). Pattern: CeCeCee→ CeCeC Template: Fe9elee→Fe9el Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Elision of the final V (ee), as in 8erebee (Arab)→8ereb (Arabs)/ ĝejeree (Gypsy)→ĝejer (Gypsies)/ bešeree (human being)→bešer (human beings)/ teteree (Tartar)→teter (Tartars)/ hemejee (barbaric)→hemej (barbaric ones). Collective nouns (nouns referring to pl. non-animate entities regardless of gender or number); šejer (tree), semek (fish), śekher (rock), ħejer (stone), beqer (bovines), ĝenem (sheep), beje8 (swans), and wereq (paper) can also be included in this category. 17. Fe9eel This form is used to pluralize a few mas. trilateral or bilateral nouns. Pattern: CaC→CeCeeCX Template: Fa9→Fe9ee9 Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Shortening of the internal V: (a)→(e) 9.Infixation of a V (ee) 9.Reduplication of the second root C, e.g. ħaj (pilgrim)→ħejeej (pilgrims) Pattern: CeCC→CeCeeC Template: Fe9l→Fe9eel Root: C3 Alternation: 5. Breaking the final CC by inserting the epenthetical V (ee), as in 8ebd (slave)→8ebeed (slaves) Pattern: Change: CiCaC →CeCeeC Template: Fi9al→Fe9eel Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation; (i)→(e)/ (a)→(ee), as in; ħimar (donkey)→ħemeer (donkeys). 18. Fe9ele Fe8ele is a pl. form to pluralize trilateral mas. nouns. Pattern: CaCiC→CeCeCe Template: Fa9il→Fe9ele Root: C3 Alternation: 5. Shortening of the first internal V (a)→(e) 9.Mutation of the second internal V (i)→ (e) 9. Suffixation of a V (e). Nouns pluralized as such are positions; ŧalib (students)→ŧelebe (students, mas. & fem.)/ sadin (keeper)→sedene (keepers)/ saħir (magician)→seħere (magicians)/ 8ajiz (disabled)→8ejeze (disabled people)/ kasib (wage-earner)→kesebe (wage-earners). Permanent or temporary attributes; qatil (murderer)→qetele (murderers)/ kha?in (traitor)→khewene (traitors)/ mahir (skilled)→mehere (skilled ones)/ warith (inheritor)→werethe (inhereitors)/ safil (mean)→sefele (mean ones)/ jahil (ignorant)→jehele (ignorant ones). 19. Ef9ul Ef8ul is a form of irregular pl. to pluralize mas. and fem. trilateral nouns. Pattern: CeCC→eCCuC Template: Fe9l→ef9ul Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the internal V (e) 9.Breaking the final CC by infixing a short V (u) between the final Cs. Examples on this alternation include nefs (self)→enfus (selves)/ nehr (river)→enhur (rivers)/ ħerf (letter)→eħruf (letters)/ fer8 (branch)→efru8 (branches). Pattern: CiCaC→eCCuC Template: Fi9al→ef9ul Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the internal V (i) 9.Shortening of the seond internal V (a)→(u). Nouns related involve bodily parts; lisan (tongue)→elsun (tongues)/ ðira8 (arm)→eðru8 (arms)/ 8ein (eye)→e8yun (eyes)/ rijl (leg)→erjul (legs), in addition to body-related actions; yemeen (oath)→eimun (oaths). Miscellaneous; śeŧer ( line)→eśŧur (lines). 21. Fee9al Fee8al is a very rare type of irregular pl. in SA. It is used to pluralize mas as well as fem. bilateral nouns. In bilateral nouns based on CvC template, the medial V is altered to (ee), and (-an) is added to the end of the noun. The following table explains this alteration. Pattern: CaC→CeeCan Template: Fa9→Fee9an Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5. Internal V mutation (a)→(ee) 9. Suffixation of (an) Sing. root template alternation ultimate pl. template CvC C[v~ee]C+an CeeCan saq ( leg) s-a~ee-q seeqan ( legs) nar ( fire) n-a~ee-r neeran ( fires) jar ( neighbor) j-a~ee-r jeeran ( neighbors) qa8 (seabed ) q-a~ee-8 qee8an (seabed) bab ( door) b-a~ee-b beeban ( doors) taj ( crown) t-a~ee-j teejan ( crowns) 8uud ( stick) 8-uu~ee-d 8eedan (sticks) duud ( worm) d-uu~ee-d deedan ( worms) ĝuul ( ghoul ) ĝ-a~ee-l ĝeelan (ghoul) ħuut ( whale) ħ-uu~ee-t ħeetan ( whales) thour ( bull) th-ou~ee-r theeran ( bulls) śuuś ( chick) ś-uu~ee- ś śeeśan ( chicks) If the noun is C9 in root, the same alterations occur, except that the medial C, along with the following V, is elided: ħa?iŧ (wall)→ħeeŧan (walls). Accordingly, both (?) and (i) are elided in this example. 21. Fi9ele A rarely used form of irregular pl. Fi8ele is used to pluralize mas. bilateral, as well as trilateral, nouns. Pattern: CiCeCe Template: Fi9ele Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation: (u)→(i) 9.Infixation of a short V (e) 9.Reduplication of the second root C 1. Suffixation of a V (e). Words related are mostly concerned with animals and birds; dub (bear)→dibebe (bears)/ hir (cat)→hirere (cats)/ qird (ape)→qirede (apes)/ feel (elephant)→fiyele (elephants)/ deek (cock)→diyeke (cocks). 22. Fi9ee A rarely used form of irregular pl. Fi8ee is used to pluralize fem. bilateral as well as trilateral nouns. Pattern: CiCee Template: Fi9ee Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation: (e)→(i) 9.Final V mutation: (a) →(ee), as in 8eśa (stick/cane)→8iśee (sticks/canes)/ ħulye (jewel)→ħilee (jewels). 23. Efi99e Efi88e is a form of irregular pl. This pl. is used with trilateral mas. nouns. In changing from sing. to pl., the root loses the second long V in favor of a medial gemination between the second and the final C. Further, two Vs are affixed to the noun; initially and finally. The few sing. nouns pluralized in this form are based either on CvCeeC or CvCaC. Pattern: CeCeeC→eCiC2e Template: Fe9eel→efi99e Root: C3→C2 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Mutation of the first internal V (e)→(i) 9.Elision of the second internal V (ee) and thus an internal C geminate is formed 1.Suffixation of a V (e), as in jeneen (fetus)→ejinne (fetuses)/ ħebeeb (sweet)→eħibbe (sweets)/ sereer(bed)→esirre (beds)/ deleel (evidence)→edille (evidences). Pattern: CiCaC→eCiC2e Template: Fi9al Root: C3→C2 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of the V (e) 9.Elision of the second internal V (a) and thus an internal C gemination is formed 9.Suffixation of the V (e), for instance hilal (crescent)→ehille (crescents)/ imam (Imam)→e?imme (Imams)/ šu8a8 (ray)→ eši 88e (rays). In e?imme (Imams), the epenthetical (?) is inserted between the intrusive (e) and the following C so as to prevent V sequence, whereas the two Cs are reduced into a C geminate. This is because the noun is bililteral and thus another C is needed to model the pl. pattern. 24. Fu9uul Fu8uul is a form of pl. that is used to pluralize bilateral mas. nouns. Pattern: CeC→CuCuuCX Where (CX) is a reduplicated C; Template: Fe9→Fu9uu9 Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (e)→(u) 9.Infixation of a long V (uu) 9.Reduplication of the second root C. The nouns pluralized here may indicate bodily parts and physical portions; kef (palm)→kufuuf (palms)/ fek (jaw)→fukuuk (jaws)/ šeq (crack)→šuquuq (cracks)/ khed (cheek)→khuduud (cheeks)/ feś (stone)→fuśsuuś (stones)/ fel (remain)→fuluul (remains). Miscellaneouss; ħel (solution)→ħuluul (solutions)/ fen (art)→funuun (arts)/ šer (evil)→šuruur (evils)/ neś (text)→nuśuuś (texts)/ red (reply)→ruduud (replies). Pattern: CiC→CuCuuCX Template: Fi9→Fu9uu9 Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (i)→(u) 9.Infixation of a long V (uu) 9.Reduplication of the second root C. e.g. sim (poison)→sumuum (poisons)/ liś (thief)→luśuuś (thieves). 25. Ef9al Ef8al is a form of irregular pl. All words pluralized in this form are bilateral, and are based on CvC template. The medial V is short, and hence in pl. it is deleted. A new sound is added at the beginning, the first C is put with the second C, which is doubled. Therefore, the template of pl. becomes vCCaC9 , where C9 symbolizes the repetition of the second C in the sing. root. Pattern: CeC→eCCaCX Template: Fe9→ef9a9 Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the internal V (e) 9.infixation of a V (a) 1.Reduplication of the second root C, as in reb (god)→erbab (gods)/ ned (rival)→endad (rivals)/ ŧen (ton)→eŧnan (tons). Pattern: CiC→eCCaCX Template: Fi9→ef9a9 Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Elision of the internal V (i) 9.Infixation of a V (a) 1.Reduplication of the second root C, as in sin (tooth)→esnan (tooth)/ sir (secret)→esrar (secrets). 26. Fu99el This is a pl. form used in words as; 8uzzel (unarmed ones). Pattern: CuCXel Template: Fu99el Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Mutation of the first internal V→(u) 9.Reduplication of the medial root C. The words here suggest incompleteness, lack, or disadvantage; e8zel (unarmed)→8uzzel (unarmed ones)/ khedeej (premature baby)→khuddej (premature babies)/ saðej (naive)→suððej (naïve ones). Additionally, there are several words only in SA that exemplify a sense of overdoing,.i.e., to do something excessively and more than it should be done; sajid (prostrator)→sujjed (prostrators) and raki8 (kneeler)→rukke8 (kneelers). 27. Fi9al A pattern of irregular pl. as in; rijal Pattern: CeCC→CiCaC Template: Fe9l→Fi9al Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (e)→(i) 9.Breaking the final CC by infixing a long V (a). Nouns pluralized here may involve animals, masc. and fem.; kelb (dog)→kilab (dogs)/ seb8 (predatory animal)→siba8 (predatory animals)/ jewad (horse)→jiyad (horses)/ kheruuf (ram)→khiraf (rams)/ ne8je (ewe)→ni8aj (ewes)/ jerou (cub)→jira? (cubs)/ ferkh (young bird)→firakh (young birds). Weapons, tools; sehm (arrow)→siham (aarrows)/ rumħ (spear)→rimaħ (spears)/ ħebl (rope)→ħibal (ropes). Miscellaneous; rejul (man)→rijal (men)/ 8eđm (bone)→8iđam (bones). Pattern: CeCeC→CiCaC Template: Fe9el→Fi9al Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Mutation of the first internal V (e) →(i) 9.Lenghthening of the second internal V (e)→(a), as in jebel (mountain)→jibal (mountains)/ jemel (camel)→jimal (camels). Some are fem.; qil8e (castle)→qila8 (castles). There are a few pls. that share a common, regardless of gender, sing. form, or attribution, mainly when they are considered in their pl. form only; śigar (little/young ones)/ kibar (adult ones)/ 8iyal (family members)/ riyah (winds)/ jiya8 (hungry ones)/ dima? (bloods). The word imre?e has two, irregular and completely different, pls.; nisa? and niswe (women). 28. Fu9ul Pattern: CeCeeCe→CuCuC Template: Fe9eele→Fu9ul Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Internal V mutation (e)→(u) 9.Shortening of the second internal V (ee)→(u) 9.Elision of the final V (e) (fem. marker). Examples are sefeene (ship)→sufun (ships)/ jezeere (island)→juzur (islands)/ śeħeefe (newspaper)→śuħuf (newspapers)/ medeene (city)→mudun (cities). There are also a few mas. nouns pluarized in this pattern, exercising the same alternations: resuul (messenger)→rusul (messengers). Pattern: CiCaC→CuCuC Template: Fe9eele→Fu9ul Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Mutation of the first internal V (i)→(u) 9.Shortening of the second internal V (a)→(u), as in šihab (shooting star)→šuhub (shooting stars)/ kitab (book)→kutub (books)/ niđam (system/regime)→nuđum (systems/regimes). 29. Efa9il Pattern: eCaCiC Template:efa9il Root:C3 Alternation: 5.infixation of a V (a) 9.Lenghthening of the first internal V (e)→ (a) 9.Muation of the second internal V: (e)→(i). Examples on this pl. are ejnebee (foreigner)→ejanib (foreigners)/ qereeb (relative)→eqarib (relatives)/ erneb (rabbit)→eranib (rabbits). 31. Fu9ala A form of irregular plural in SA that is limited to a few words. Pattern: CeCCa→CuCaCa Template: fe9la →fu9ala Root: C3 Alternation: 5.Breaking the medial CC by infixing a long V (a). Nouns related involve attributes; thekla (mother bereaved of her child)→thekala (mothers bereaved of their children)/ sikkeer (drunken)→sukara (drunken ones)/ ĝeyuur (zealous)→ĝeyara (zealous ones)/ yeteem (orphan)→yetama (orphans). Ideas or attitudes; fetwa (formal opinion)→fetawa (formal opinions)/ šekwa (complaint)→šekawa (complaints). Miscellaneous; neśranee (Christian)→neśara (Christians). 31. Afa9 Afa8 is a pl. form for pluralizing mas. bilateral sing. nouns. The two short voiced Vs are replaced by long ones; vCvC →aCaC. Pattern: eCeC→aCaC Template: efe9→afa9 Root: C2 Alternation: 5.Mutation: Lenghthening of the internal Vs (e/u)→(a). Nouns here may imply expectations or prospects; ejel (term)→ajal (terms)/ emel (hope)→amal (hopes)/ ufuq (horizon)→afaq (horizons). Measurement or quantity; eħed (one)→aħad (units)/ elf (thousand)→alaf (thousands). Miscellaneous; ether (trace)→athar (traces)/ elem (pain)→alam (pains)/ ithm (sin)→atham (sins). The same applies if the noun has a single short V. In addition to the replacement of this single V with a long one, another long V will be inserted between the two Cs; vCC→aCaC. For words which are trilateral, or which are CvCC in root, the medial C is elided, and the root will be vCvC; bi?r (well)→abar (wells). 32. Fu9at Fe8at is a pl. form used to pluralize bilateralor trilateral mas nouns. The (-at) suffix added in pl. here is not that of sound fem. pl., as in qarre (continent)→qarrat (continents), because in these words the form of the word is not changed, while in this pl. form, the form of the word undergoes changing. All the nouns here denote a profession or position. Pattern: CaCee→CuCat Template: Fa9ee→Fu9at Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Shortening of internal V (a)→(u) 9.Elision of final V (ee) 9.Suffixation of (-at). This pl. is found in nouns denote positions; qaďee (judge)→quďat (judges)/ walee (governor)→wulat (governors)/ ramee (shooter)→rumat (shooters)/ sa 8ee (courier)→su8at (couriers) /ĝazee (raider)→ĝuzat (raiders)/ banee (builder)→bunat (builders). In unmarked mas nouns, the final fem. suffix (-e) is elided in pl., along with the third root C (y); ŧaĝiye (tyrant)→ŧuĝat (tyrants)/ da8iye (caller)→du8at (callers)/ dahiye (artful)→duhat (artful ones)/ rawiye (relator/narrator)→ruwat (relators/narrators). 33. Fe9la Fe8la is a pl. form used to pluralize bilateralor trilateral mas. nouns. Nouns pluralized through this pattern often have some features in common. Firstly, they are all based on CeCeeC in sing., except for eseer (captive) and eħmeq (fool), and they become CeCCa in pl. Secondly, they usually denote physical or bodily qualities or disadvantages, especially those related to bodily injury or accidents; Pattern: CeCeeC→CeCCa Template: Fe9eel→Fe9la Root: R3 Alternation: 5.Elision of the second V (ee) 9.Suffixation of (-a), as in the nouns qeteel (murdered)→qetla (murdered ones)/ jereeħ (wounded)→jerħa (wounded ones)/ mereď (sick)→merďa (sick ones)/ śeree 8 (fallen)→śer8a (fallen ones)/ ĝereeq (drowned)→ĝerqa (drowned ones)/ eseer (captive)→esra (captives). The only exception to the above pattern is the word meiyit (dead). Though C9 in root, CvCvC, seemingly like the words discussed above, but it is phonotactically different being CeiCit. Yet, this word becomes bilateral in pl.; mouta (dead people), as the medial C (y) is elided and a V (ou) is inserted instead. 34. Fe9al Fe8al is a pl. form used to pluralize bilateral or trilateral mas and fem. nouns. The nouns related are mostly bilateral. Insertion of an internal V plus a C (w), and the deletion of the final V, if any; šað (odd)→šewað (odds). In nouns where the second C is a geminate, it is degeminated (it becomes a single C); Pattern: CaC2e→CewaC Template: Fa99e→Fewa9 Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Infixation of a syllable (ew) 9.Degemination of the final geminate 9.Elision of the final V (e). Examples are ħasse (sense)→ħewas (senses)/ madde (material)→mewad (materials)/ dabbe (pack animal)→dewab (pack animals)/ 8ammee (layman)→8ewam (laymen). If the noun is C9, which is quite rare, the final C as well as the following Vs are elided, in order to correspond to the pl. pattern; CaC2iCe → CewaC as in khaśśiye (characteristic)→khewaś (characteristics). 35. Ef9a? This is a pl. form used in pluralizing a few sing. nouns, most of which are bilateral. The very name of this pl. form indicates its morphological form (eCCa?) for unilateral nouns (consisting of a single C plus one or two Vs) and eCCa? for bilateral nouns. The change includes the addition of the syllable (a?) to the end of the sing. root, and the V (e) at the beginning of that noun. If the internal V is (ei), it is altered to C (y) in pl.; šei? (thing)→ ešya? (things). Pattern: Cei→eCya? Template: Fei→efya? Root: C1→C3 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Mutation of the V to C (ei)→(ya) 9.Suffixation of (a?). Examples are zei (fashion)→ezya?(fashions)/ ħei(living)→eħya? (the living). If the internal V is (ou), it is deleted and replaced with the C (w). Here, C5 roots (single C words) become bilateral, as in; vC→aCa? eb (father)→aba? (fathers), or trilateral by changing the V (ou) to a C (w),as in; jou (atmosphere/ mood)→ejwa?(atmospheres/mood) where it is Cv → vCCvC. C9 roots become C9, too; đou? (light)→eđwa? (lights), hence CvC→ vCCvC. CvC→ vCCvC nou? (rain)→enwa? (rains). Pattern: CeCee→eCCa? Template: Fe9ee→ef9a? Alternation: 5. Prefixation of a V (e) 9. Mutation of the final V (ee) →(?) 9.Suffixation of (?), as in me8ee (intestine)→em8a? (intestines)/ re?ee (opinion)→ara? (opinions). Pattern:CeCuu→eCCa? Template: Fe9ee→ef9a? Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5.Prefixation of a V (e) 9.Mutation of the final V (ee)→(?) 9.Suffixation of a C (?), as in neħuu (direction)→enħa? (directions)/ šiluu (dismembered part)→ešla? (dismembered parts). Pattern: CeCa→eCCa? Template: Fe9a→ef9a? Root: C2→C3 Alternation: 5. Prefixation of a V (e) 9. Elision of the internal V (e) 9.Suffixation of a C (?), as in hewa (affection/inclination)→ehwa? (affections/inclinations)/ śeda (echo)→eśda? (echoes)/ reja (area)→erja? (areas)/ ibn (son)→ebna? (sons). 36. Mufte9ile The formation of pl. involves the addition of the V (e) to the end of the sing. noun; Pattern: MuCteCiC→MuCteCiC Template: Mufte9il→Mufte9ile Root:C5 Alternation: 5.Suffixation of a V (e), as in mu8tezil (Mu'tazilid)→mu8tezile (Mu’tazilids)/ murteziq (mercenary)→murteziqe (mercenaries). 37. Fi9ye This is a pattern of irregular plural with the alteration of the final V to a C (y) plus a short V (e); CeCee→CiCye, as in śebee (boy)→śibye (boys). CeCa→CiCye, as in feta (youngman)→fitye (youngmen). 38. Fe9ale A very rare form for irregular pl. It involves V mutation: CeCaCee→CeCaCe, as in; śeħabee (companion)→śeħabe (companions) and ħejer (stone)→ħijare (stones). 39. Fa99e A very rare form of irregular pl. that involves a reduplication of the final C and the addition of a short V (e); mar (passer-by)→marre (passers-by). 41. Fu9we A rare form of irregular pl. There are two words in SA that demonstrate such pl.; ekh (brother)→ukhwe (brothers) and imre?e (woman)→niswe (women). 41. Fu9wan A rarely used form of irregular pl. in SA that is characterized by the suffix –an. The word ekh (brother)→ukhwan (brothers) is the only example of such form. 42. Fe9aleeye A rare irregular pl. form in which the final long V is changed into two short Vs; CvCvCv→CeCaCiye, as in ħeramee (robber)→ħerameeye (robbers)/ la adree (agnostic)→la adreeye (agnostics). 43. Fu9l A rare form of irregular pl. in SA, that is based on CvCC. The related words suggest physical disadvantageness, as in; eśem (deaf)→śum (deaf ones) and ebkem (dumb)→bukm (dumb ones), or colours in general; khuđr (green ones)/ ħumr (red ones)/ śufr (yellow ones) and zurq (blue ones). 6. Results and Conclusions 5. The paper finds that irregular pl. forms in SA are such multiple that each form has its own structure. While some pls. are predictable, others are not. Unlike the previous studies, this research finds that there are 19 forms of irregular pl. in SA, which is higher than the pl. forms given in the previous studies. According to Murtonen (5811), and Wright (5895:585-999), there are 95 types of irregular pl. However, in later investigations, such as that of Levy (5895) and McCarthy and Prince (5889), irregular pl. forms are categorized into fewer classes. Predicting the sort of irregular pl. for a single word is quite difficult. The research finds that some irregular pls. are predictable, while some others are not. Nevertheless, there are a few aspects and factors that can help predict which pl. form applies to a single word such the template (the so-called ‫حفؼيهت‬, as in ‫انخ‬...،‫فُؼم‬،‫)فاػم‬, the pattern (C-V sequence), and the root (C9, C9, C1, .etc). Also, the spacio-temporal scope of the word may be helpful sometimes in determining the proper irregular pl. form. Hence, for example, quadriliteral words denoting place, setting, or position, especially those prefixed with m-, are pluralized through infixation, as in mesjid→mesajid, mekteb→mekatib, mejlis→mejalis,..etc. 9. It has been found that Vs and V quality are significant factors in the formation of irregular pl. as seen in certain pl. forms with internal change only. Thus, a V change from short to long or vice versa may determine the type of such pls. 9. The paper has found that the root of the word (Cs) is sometimes used in pl. Such root represents the origin of all the related derivations and words. e.g. wezeer “minister”, the root w-z-r, rather than the sing. form, is used in pl., hence wizra? “ministers”. Similarly, in words such as qeteel, jeree, eseer, the roots, rather than the sing. words, are pluralized; qetla=murdered ones (qetl=murdering), jerħa wounded ones (jerħ=wounding), and esra=captives (esr=captivity). 1. The paper has found that there is a relationship between the type of the word and the animate vs. non-animate, human vs. non-human status, which also determines the sort of the irregular pl. For example, trilateral masc words of the template fe8eel denoting positions, ranks, or posts related to animate or human features are pluralized with -a? as in sefeer→sufera? “ambassadors”, khebeer→khubera? “experts”, wekeel→wikela? “agents”, wherase trilateral masc. words of the same template denoting non-animate, non-human entities, are pluralized with –an as in qemees→qumsan “shirts”, qeđeeb→quđban “shafts”, and kheleej→khuljan “gulfs”. Also, the gender of the word governs sometimes the irregular pl. of that word. For example, trilateral masc. nouns that are pluralized with the fem suffix –e, have the medial C elided in order not to be assimilated or confused with the sing. fem form of these words; qa?id “leader”→qade “leaders” rather than qa?ide “female leader” and ba?i8 “salesman”→ba8e “salesmen” rather than ba?i8e “saleswoman.” Likewise, saq (leg), and the similarly formed nouns, is pluralized as seeqan (legs) by the a→ee shift plus the suffix –an, rather than saqan. This might be to avoid assimilating such plural with the dual form of the word saq (leg)→saqan (two legs). 1. Short Vs are found to be the weak area of alteration and change in irregular pls., considering the significant changes that involve this type of Vs. Moreover, in the majority, if not all, irregular pl., Vs could be elided, inserted, or replaced, while Cs are altered or re-inserted, with an exception to a few or handful of words whereby the final C is elided in pl. e.g. seferjel and 8enkebuut. 1.The -an/en suffix used in certain irregular pls. (such as buldan, ukhwan, fityan, seeqan, and a few others) may indicate that the original regular masc. pl. in SA, which is denoted by –een/-uun, is related to this suffix, or it could have been derived from it in a way or another. Additionally, in pls. where the change is a suffix, most suffixes are vC, as in –a?, -an, and -at. 7. Further Areas of Research 5. A contrastive study can be conducted on morphophonemic changes in both English language and Arabic language. 9. There are several morphophonemic changes in Standard Arabic that need a further analysis and investigation including diminutives, tense marking, derivation, and the like. Additionally, Morphophonemic changes in English can be investigated with a reference to the EFL learners‟ use or recognition. 8. References -Bybee, J.L. and Brewer, M.A. (5899). “Explanation in morphophonemics: Changes in Provençal and Spanish preterite forms” Lingua, 19(995-919). -Chomsky, N. (5815). Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew. Master Thesis, University of Pennsylvania. -Chomsky, N. and Halle, M. (5819). The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. -Cowan, D. (5819). An Introduction to Modern Literary Arabic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Forbes, D. (5919). A Grammar of the Arabic Language. London: W.H.Allen & Co. -Gussmann, E. (5891). 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(5898). “Zur allgemeinen theorie der phonologischen vokalsysteme” Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague, 5 (98-19). ---------------------------(5895). “Gedanken über morphophonologie” Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague, 1(519-519). -Wright, W. (5891). A Grammar of the Arabic Language. 9rd edition. 9 Vols. Beirut: Librairie du Liban.