(PDF) Musical Repatriation as Method

TH E OXF ORD H AN DBOOK OF MUSICAL RE P ATRIATION Edited by F RANK GUNDE RSON ROBE RT C. LANCE F IE LD BRE T WOODS OXF ORD U N IVE RSITY P RE SS OXF ORD VN IVE R.SITY P RE SS Oxfor d U n iver sit y P r ess is a depa r t m en t of t h e U n iver sit y of Oxfor d. It fu r t h er s t h e U n iver sit y's object ive of excellen ce in r esea r ch , sch ola r sh ip, a n d edu ca t ion CON TE N TS by pu blish in g wor ldwide. Oxfor d is a r egist er ed t r a de m a r k of Oxfor d U n iver sit y P r ess in t h e U K a n d cer t a in ot h er cou n t r ies. P u blish ed in die U n it ed St a t es of Am er ica by Oxfor d U n iver sit y P r ess 198 Ma dison Aven u e, N ew Yor k , N Y 10016, U n it ed St a t es of Am er ica . © Oxfor d U n iver sit y P r ess 2019 Ack n ow l e d g m e n t s b e All r igh t s r eser ved. N o pa r t of t h is pu blica t ion m a ybe r epr odu ced, st or ed in Ab ou t t h e E d i t or s xl a r et r ieva l syst em , or t r a n sm it t ed, in a n y for m or by a n y m ea n s, wit h ou t t h e C on t r i b u t or s xiii pr ior per m ission in wr it in g of Oxfor d U n iver sit y P r ess, or a s expr essly per m it t ed by la w, by licen se, or u n der t er m s a gr eed wit h t h e a ppr opr ia t e r epr odu ct ion P a t h wa ys a n d Tr a ject or ies: A Gu ide t o t h e Or ga n iza t ion r igh t s or ga n iza t ion . In qu ir ies con cer n in g r epr odu ct ion ou t side t h e scope of t h e a n d U s e of T h i s B ook xxvii a bove sh ou ld be sen t t o t h e Righ t s Depa r t m en t , Oxfor d U n iver sit y P r ess, a t t h e a ddr ess a bove. P a t h wa ys t owa r d Open Dia logu es a bou t Son ic H er it a ge: You m u st n ot cir cu la t e t h is wor k in a n y ot h er for m a n d you m u st im pose t h is sa m e con dit ion on a n y a cqu ir er . An In t r odu ct ion t o Th e Oxfor d H a n dbook of Mu sica l Repa t r ia t ion xliii F RAN K GU N DE RSON AN D BRE T WOODS Libr a r y of Con gr ess Ca t a iogin g-in -P u blica t ion Da t a N a m es: Gu n der son , F r a n k D. | La n cefield, Rober t C. | Woods, Br et D.,1978- Tit le: Th e Oxfor d h a n dbook of m u sica l r epa t r ia t ion / edit ed by F r a n k i. Mu sica l Tr a ces' Ret r a cea ble P a t h s: Th e Repa t r ia t ion of Gu n der son , Rober t C. La n cefield, a n d Br et Woods. R e cor d e d S ou n d i Descr ipt ion : N ew Yor k , N Y: Oxfor d U n iver sit y P r ess, [2019] | In clu des bibliogr a ph ica l r efer en ces a n d in dex. ROBE RT C. LAN CE F IE LD Iden t ifier s: LCCN 2018037868 | ISBN 978-0-19-065980-6 (h a r dcover ) Su bject s: LCSH : Mu sic—Repa t r ia t ion . Sou n d r ecor din gs in et h n om u sicology. Cla ssifica t ion : LCCML3799.2 .095 2019 | DDC 780.9—dc23 2. Reflect ion s on Recon n ect ion s: Wh en H u m a n a n d Ar ch iva l Modes LC r ecor d a va ila ble a t h t t ps://lccn .loc.gov/20i8o37868 of M e m or y Meet 23 135798642 DAN IE L B. RE E D P r in t ed by Sh er ida n Book s, In c., U n it ed St a t es of Am er ica 3. Mu sic Ar ch ives a n d Repa t r ia t ion : Digit a l Ret u r n of H u gh Tr a cey's "C h e m ir och a " R e cor d in gs in K e n ya 3 7 DlAN E TH RAM 4. Ret h in k in g Repa t r ia t ion a n d Cu r a t ion in N ewfou n dla n d: Ar ch ives, MUSIC An g s t , a n d O p p or t u n i t y 6 3 STACKS BE VE RLE Y DIAMOND AND J ANICE E STH E R TULK ML 3799.2 5. Repa t r ia t in g t h e Ala n Lom a x H a it ia n Recor din gs in .095 P os t -Q u a k e H a i t i 83 2019 GAGE AVE RILL 6. "Wh er e Dea d P eople Wa lk ": F ift y Yea r s of Ar ch ives t o Q'er os, P er u 107 H OLLY WlSSLE R 7. Au d iovis u a l Ar ch ives : Br id gin g P a s t a n d F u t u r e 133 J UDITH GRAY CH AP TE R 14 MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD MICH AE L IYAN AGA IN TRODU CTION F OR et h n om u sicologist s, t h e u t ilit a r ia n a spect s of m u sica l r epa t r ia t ion —t h a t is, t h e t r a n spor t in g, a ccessin g, a n d dissem in a t in g of sou n d r ecor din gs—m a k e it qu it e dif- fer en t fr om t h e loft ier t h eor et ica l t opics t h a t h a ve t ypica lly ga r n er ed disciplin a r y a t - t en t ion . Discu ssion s a bou t r epa t r ia t ion t en d t o r evolve a r ou n d t h e m or e im m edia t e a n d pr a ct ica l issu es of et h ics, lega lit y, own er sh ip, a n d dist r ibu t ion . Repa t r ia t ion , t h en , seem s t o en ga ge t h e k in ds of con cr et e con cer n s wit h wh ich a pplied" et h n om u sicology h a s gr a ppled over t h e pa st few deca des. Oft en left ou t of t h e con ver sa t ion , h owever , is t h a t wh en t r ea t ed a s a m et h odologica l t ool, r epa t r ia t ion ca n a lso con t r ibu t e in pr ofou n d wa ys t o m or e t h eor et ica l con cer n s in et h n om u sicology. In t h is ch a pt er / I a r gu e t h a t em ployin g m u sica l r epa t r ia t ion in ou r fieldwor k ca n h elp et h n om u sicologist s wr it e bet t er et h n ogr a ph ies (a n d, su bsequ en t ly, t h eor ize m or e effect ively a bou t m u sic a n d m u sica l people) by givin g u s a pr ivileged a ven u e t o u n der st a n d t h e m u sica l com m u n it ies wit h wh ich we wor k . To illu st r a t e m y poin t , I pr esen t a n a n a lysis of som e of m y exper ien ces wit h m u sica l r epa t r ia t ion in Ba h ia , Br a zil. Th e exa m ples I pr esen t a r e la r gely con n ect ed t o a r est u dy I con du ct ed t h er e in 2012, wh ich r evisit ed t h e wor k don e by et h n om u sicologist Ra lph Wa ddey on r es- iden t ia l pa t r on sa in t fest iva ls in t h e 19703 a n d 19805 (Wa ddey 1981; lya n a ga 20i3a ). Con sequ en t ly, I in t r odu ce som e ba sic in for m a t ion r ega r din g m y Wa ddey r est u dy befor e r eviewin g som e of t h e im por t a n t et h n om u sicologica l lit er a t u r e on m u sica l r e- pa t r ia t ion . I t h en sh ift t o wh a t con st it u t es t h e bu lk of t h is ch a pt er : a det a iled expla n a - t ion of a ser ies of r epa t r ia t ion exper ien ces a n d som e of t h e im por t a n t et h n ogr a ph ic lesson s lea r n ed. 264 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 265 TH E WADDE Y RE STU DY in st r u m en t s.3 Th u s r eza s n ea r ly a lwa ys in clu de t wo dist in ct m u sica l m om en t s: t h e n o- ven a a n d t h e sa m ba . In 2009, a bou t a yea r a ft er begin n in g t h e r esea r ch for m y doct or a l disser t a t ion on F r om 1975 t o t h e ea r ly 19805, Ra lph Wa ddey, t h en a P h D ca n dida t e in m u sicology Ba h ia n r eza s, I lea r n ed fr om a m u t u a l fr ien d t h a t Wa ddey h a d pr eser ved h is field wor k in g wit h Ger a r d Beh a gu e a t t h e U n iver sit y of Illin ois, U r ba n a -Ch a m pa ign , r ecor din gs a n d wou ld lik ely be qu it e willin g t o sh a r e t h em wit h m e. On e ea r ly m or n in g con du ct ed ext en sive fieldwor k in t h e n or t h ea st er n Br a zilia n st a t e of Ba h ia . Wit h t h e in Ma r ch 2010,1 wr ot e Wa ddey a n e-m a il t o in t r odu ce m yself a n d a sk wh et h er h e did object ive of com plet in g a doct or a l disser t a t ion on sa m ba , Wa ddey t ook h is n ot ebook in fa ct h a ve a n y r eza r ecor din gs a n d/or in for m a t ion . H is r espon se a r r ived wit h in a a n d a u dio r ecor der t o t h e st a t e's Recon ca vo r egion (F igu r e 14.1). Th ou gh t h e in t en ded m a t t er of h ou r s a n d over t h e cou r se of t h e da y we exch a n ged a dozen e-m a ils, m ost of disser t a t ion n ever ca m e t o fr u it ion , Wa ddey's h a r d wor k r esu lt ed in n ot on ly lifelon g wh ich wer e ext en ded discu ssion s a bou t Ba h ia , pa t r on sa in t s, a n d sa m ba . H is t h ou gh t fu l fr ien dsh ips a n d t wo la n dm a r k a r t icles on sa m ba (Wa ddey 1980, ipSi),2 bu t a lso a for m i- e-m a ils wer e m et icu lou s a n d en ga gin g, u sin g a st yle of wr it in g t h a t wa s a s er u dit e a n d da ble h om e a r ch ive of ph ot ogr a ph s, Su per 8 film s a n d VH S t a pes, m u sica l in st r u m en t s, flu id a s it wa s h u m or ou s a n d u n pr et en t iou s. H e a lso r evea led h im self t o be sin cer e a n d a n d sou n d r ecor din gs. opin ion a t ed, in som e ca ses a lm ost bor der in g on ir r ever en t . In clu ded in h is pr iva t e collect ion ofsa m ba r ecor din gs a r e a h a n dfu l of r ecor din gs of Wh en h e in for m ed m e t h a t h e h a d a h a lf-dozen r eza r eel t a pe r ecor din gs, we bega n dom est ic pa t r on sa in t pa r t ies, k n own a s r eza s. Reza s a r e a n n u a l n igh t t im e a ffa ir s du r in g discu ssin g t h e possibilit y of m y visit in g h im t o h ea r t h e r ecor din gs or , h e su ggest ed, we wh ich h ost s in vit e fr ien ds, fa m ily, a n d n eigh bor s in t o t h eir h om es in or der t o sin g, cou ld get t oget h er a t h is h om e a n d m a k e digit a l copies. In Apr il 2011,1 wa s fin a lly a ble da n ce, a n d ea t in h on or of a per son a l pa t r on sa in t . Aft er in t on in g t h e n oven a , wh ich t o t a k e a t r ip t o Wa ddey's N ew E n gla n d h om e. I h a d n ever m et Ra lph Wa ddey, n or h a d is a n h ou r -lon g cycle of Ca t h olic a ca pella pr a yer s su n g in u n ison , t h e gu est s t h en sin g I even seen a pict u r e of h im . St ill, it seem ed a s if I wer e on m y wa y t o visit a n old fr ien d. r ollick in g sa m ba for h ou r s wh ile da n cin g, cla ppin g t h eir h a n ds, a n d pla yin g m u sica l I r ecogn ized t h e gr a y-h a ir ed sa m ba sch ola r wit h in secon ds of seein g h im a t t h e t r a in st a t ion . Wa ddey gr eet ed m e wit h a sm ile a n d a h u g, exu din g t h e sa m e wa r m t h t h a t I h a d felt by wa y of ou r cor r espon den ces. As we a m bled down t h e st r eet , we bega n ch a t t in g. H e spok e wit h t h e sa m e h u m ble er u dit ion t h a t I h a d gr own a ccu st om ed t o in ou r e-m a il cor r espon den ces, bu t n ow I cou ld h ea r h is sligh t sou t h er n dr a wl. Over t h e cou r se of • «& t h r ee plea su r a ble da ys, Wa ddey a n d I sh a r ed st or ies a n d spir it s a s we digit ized a ll of h is r eza r ecor din gs. F or cir cu m st a n t ia l r ea son s, Wa ddey h a d n ever been a ble t o r et u r n h is r ecor din gs t o t h e people wh ose voices h a d been ca pt u r ed on t h em . I t h er efor e a sk ed h im if, on m y im m in en t r et u r n t o Ba h ia , I cou ld deliver copies of t h e r ecor din gs t o t h e or igin a l per for m er s. H e wa s deligh t ed by t h e pr ospect of givin g t h is lit t le bit ba ck t o t h e people wh om h e felt h a d given h im so m u ch . Mea n wh ile, I wa s excit ed a bou t t h e oppor t u n it y t o a ct a s a cou r ier , seein g t h is n ot solely a s a n et h ica l en dea vor , bu t a lso a s a ch a n ce t o in it ia t e a "Wa ddey r est u dy." Bu t r epa t r ia t ion is n ot su pposed t o be so self-ser vin g, is it ? SOME TRE N DS IN TH E RE P ATRIATION LITE RATU RE H ist or ica lly spea k in g, et h n om u sicologica l con cer n s a bou t r epa t r ia t ion bega n t o em er ge a r ou n d t h e la st qu a r t er of t h e t wen t iet h cen t u r y,4 in t a n dem wit h a r en ewed in t er est in a r ch ives, a r ch ivin g, a n d m odes ofdissem in a t ion . Th is sh ou ld h a r dly be a su r pr ise, given F IGU RE 14.1 Ma p sh owin g Ba h ia 's Recon ca vo r egion in t h e con t ext ofBr a zil. t h a t a r ch ives, wh et h er pr iva t e or pu blic, a r e t h e loca t ion s pa r excellen ce for t h e pr eser - Ma p by Ron a ld Con n er . va t ion ofr epa t r ia t a ble m u sica l t h in gs (in t h is ca se, sou n d r ecor din gs). 266 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 267 An t h on y Seeger , wh o ca n be cou n t ed a m on g t h e for em ost t h in k er s on sou n d a r ch ives, a m u t u a l exclu sivit y t h a t is in m a n y wa ys m or e im a gin ed t h a n r ea l (see, for exa m ple, h a s for deca des u r ged et h n om u sicologist s t o con sider wh a t a r ch ives ca n offer t h e wor ld Seeger 2006; Dir k sen 2013; Lu h n in g et a l. 2016). Alt h ou gh a n y a t t en t ive sch ola r in volved a s a wh ole, n ot in g pa r t icu la r ly t h a t r epa t r ia t ion m igh t in ver t som e of t h e colon ia l power in r epa t r ia t ion h a s n o dou bt seen t h a t "a pplyin g" et h n om u sicology—wh et h er t h r ou gh st r u ct u r es t h a t a r ch ives a r e com plicit in m a in t a in in g (Seeger 1986,1996, 2on , 2014). In r epa t r ia t ion or n ot —in h er en t ly lea ds t o bet t er (t h a t is, t h ick er ) et h n ogr a ph ic a n a lyses a pa t h br ea k in g a r t icle on t h e su bject , Seeger poin t s t o t h e r ole of t h e a r ch ive in a "post - a n d m or e sen sit ive t h eor et ica l m u sin gs, few h a ve det a iled explicit ly t h is pr ocess. Su ch colon ia l wor ld": silen ce in a dver t en t ly obscu r es t h e con ver sa t ion on r epa t r ia t ion 's va lu e a s a m ea n s of doin g fieldwor k . If collect or s h a ve deposit ed t h eir r ecor din gs in a r ch ives, a n d if t h e a r ch ives h a ve a t t en ded t o t h e pr eser va t ion of t h e r ecor din gs, t h en we ca n a ct ively r ever se t h e colo- n ia l pr ocess a n d h elp "r epa t r ia t e" t h e r ecor din gs. Th r ou gh r epa t r ia t ion a n d t r a in in g MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD: we ca n su ppor t t h e a spir a t ion s of t h e gr ou ps t h a t wer e r ecor ded. We ca n a lso give ot h er cou n t r ies t h e "m ea n s of pr odu ct ion " of com pa r a t ive a n a lysis. SOME IMP ORTAN T STU DIE S (Seeger 1986,267) t o!le is decidedly a dvoca t ive. F or Seeger , t h e lea din g m ot iva t ion s for r epa t r ia t in g Th is is n ot t o sa y, of cou r se, t h a t sign ifica n t ca ses of sch ola r s u sin g r epa t r ia t ion in t h eir m u sic lie in t h e a im of su bver t in g t h e "colon ia l pr ocess." fieldwor k do n ot exist . In fa ct , on e pr om in en t exa m ple com es fr om t h e 19803, wh en Th is et h ica l im per a t ive in fa ct seem s t o u n der lie m ost et h n om u sicologica l N a zir Ali J a ir a zbh oy a n d Am y Ca t lin -J a ir a zbh oy con du ct ed a n ow-da ssic r est u dy con ver sa t ion s a bou t r epa t r ia t ion . Yet given cu lt u r a l r est r ict ion s, qu est ion s of own - of Ar n old Ba k es la t e-i93os fieldwor k in In dia (J a ir a zbh oy a n d Ca t lin 1990). Th e pr o- er sh ip, a n d pr a ct ica l (a n d/or lega l) ba r r ier s, r epa t r ia t ion r a r ely seem s t o be a sim ple ject h a d or igin a lly been m ot iva t ed by a sin gle fa ct or : "t o r et r a ce Ba k es st eps in or der t o pr ocess of t a k in g a r ecor din g fr om a n a r ch ive a n d r et u r n in g it t o it s "or igin a l" sou r ce. det er m in e t h e k in d a n d degr ee of m u sica l ch a n ge t h a t h a d t a k en pla ce in Sou t h In dia Con sequ en t ly, et h n om u sicologica l con ver sa t ion s a bou t r epa t r ia t ion h a ve t en ded t o du r in g t h e pa st for t y-six yea r s" (J a ir a zbh oy 1991. 220)- In t h is con t ext , r epa t r ia t ion wa s focu s on a h a n dfu l of som ewh a t pr a ct ica l pr eoccu pa t ion s: (i) t o wh om sou n d sh ou ld be in clu ded a m on g t h e ot h er t wo som ewh a t su bsidia r y pu r poses of t h e pr oject : t o a cqu ir e r epa t r ia t ed (wh et h er people, com m u n it ies, n a t ion s, or or ga n iza t ion s), (2) wh a t h a ppen s m or e in for m a t ion a bou t Ar n olds r ecor din gs a n d h is field t r ip, a n d t o give copies of h is in t h e com m u n it ies t o wh ich sou n d is r epa t r ia t ed, (3) wh ich r ecor din gs sh ou ld/ca n be r ecor din gs t o t h e or igin a l per for m er s, t h eir fa m ilies, or t h eir com m u n it ies a n d t o lea ve a r elea sed, (4) h ow r ecor din gs sh ou ld be dissem in a t ed, a n d (5) wh o decides own er sh ip copy in ARCE for t h ose in t er est ed in fu r t h er r esea r ch " (220). (La n da u a n d F a r gion 2012,133-136; N a n n yon ga -Ta m u su za a n d Wein t r a u b 2012, 2o8)5 At t h e sa m e t im e, h owever , t h is r epa t r ia t ion a lso figu r ed su bt ly in t h e cou ple's st u dy of Over a ll, t h en , t h e con cer n s t en d t o be wedged bet ween a ppr oa ch es t o r epa t r ia t ion a n d m u sica l ch a n ge. J a ir a zbh oy expla in s: t h e effect s of su ch r epa t r ia t ion . Th e a ft er effect s of r epa t r ia t ion h a ve in fa ct been of gr ea t in t er est t o sch ola r s, especia lly Wh en we pla yed a Ba k e r ecor din g t o m u sicia n s a n d a sk ed t h em , "Do you k n ow t h is given t h a t t h e effect s of r epa t r ia t ion ca n n ever be k n own befor eh a n d. Th e r ecor din gs son g?" a n d "Ca n you sin g it ?" t h e a n swer s wer e oft en a m bigu ou s. ... On r eexa m in in g m a y be em br a ced a n d u sed or , con ver sely, t h ey m a y a lso "r em a in on t h e sh elf, u n - t h ese exper ien ces, it beca m e eviden t t h a t t h e ou t sider 's so-ca lled "object ive" views of t ou ch ed, a ft er bein g pr esen t ed t o t h e com m u n it y—or t h ey m a y disa ppea r com plet ely" iden t it y a n d ch a n ge did n ot n ecessa r ily coin cide wit h t h ose of t h e in dividu a l or t h e (Gr a y 1996, n .p.). As su ch , t h in k in g a bou t r epa t r ia t ion a n d ca r r yin g it ou t a ppea r t o com m u n it y con cer n ed. cr ea t e a sor t of r ecipr oca l dia lect ic bet ween , t o em ploy t h e cla ssic dich ot om y, t h e "la b- (J a ir a zbh oy 1991,222) or a t or y a n d t h e field": t h ose in t h e figu r a t ive "la b" discu ss t h e pr a ct ice a n d et h ics of dissem in a t ion t o for m u la t e pot en t ia l a ppr oa ch es, wh ile t h ose in t h e field gen er a t e on - J a ir a zbh oy a n d Ca t lin a ppea r t o h a ve r epa t r ia t ed t h e r ecor din gs—m a in ly by wa y of a lis- t h e-gr ou n d r epor t s r ega r din g t h e effect s, r epor t s wh ich a r e su bsequ en t ly r ea d by la b t en in g exper ien ce—in a som ewh a t im pr ovised m et h od for u n cover in g m u sica l ch a n ge r esea r ch er s t o r et h in k dissem in a t ion a n d t h u s give con t in u it y t o t h e cycle.6 Th is r ecu r - Specifica lly, it ser ved a s a m ea n s of ga in in g a bet t er u n der st a n din g ofem ic (or in sider ) r en t r eeva lu a t ion ver y oft en r a ises vit a l con cer n s, st im u la t es discu ssion s, a n d pr odu ces views r ega r din g m u sica l ch a n ge: "[A] com pa r ison of t h e em ic in t er pr et a t ion s offer ed by r evela t or y fin din gs. t h e m em ber s of t h e cu lt u r e wit h t h e et ic per cept ion s of t h e ou t side r esea r ch er der ived Wit h it s focu s on pr a ct ica lit y, h owever , t h is a ppr oa ch t o r epa t r ia t ion u n in t en t ion - fr om su ch a Rest u dy m a y h a ve m u ch t o con t r ibu t e t o t h e u n der st a n din g of t h e societ y a lly clea ves it fr om la r ger et h n ogr a ph ic in qu ir ies, n o dou bt exa cer ba t in g t h e dist a n ce a n d it s va lu es" (J a ir a zbh oy 1991, 223). F or J a ir a zbh oy, t h en , t h is a ct of r epa t r ia t ion led t o t h a t is sa id t o sepa r a t e "a pplied" et h n om u sicology fr om it s "t h eor et ica l cou n t er pa r t , im por t a n t r evela t ion s a bou t people a n d t h eir va lu es. 268 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 269 Mor e r ecen t ly, a n d in m u ch m or e exp licit t er m s , t h e Br a zilia n et h n om u s icolo- r esou r ce for la bor a t or y-field in t er a ct ion " (102-103). Alt h ou gh Seeger does n ot develop gist Ca r los Sa n dr on i h a s poin t ed t o r epa t r ia t ion a s a "scien t ific im per a t ive." F or h im , h is a r gu m en t a n y fu r t h er , h is im plicit poin t seem s clea r : r ecor din gs ca n be u sed for et h - t h e r epa t r ia t ion of sou n d r ecor din gs obt a in ed du r in g r esea r ch ca n be u sed "a s a t ool in • n ogr a ph ic r esea r ch . a dva n cin g t h e r esea r ch it self" (Sa n dr on i 2005,4?).7 By wa y of exa m ple, Sa n dr on i r eca lls H owever , beca u se t h e in sigh t s t h a t ca n be ga r n er ed t h r ou gh r epa t r ia t ion va r y h ow r epa t r ia t ion figu r ed in t o h is r est u dy of t h e 1938 Missa o de P esqu isa s F olclor ica s la r gely in a ccor da n ce wit h t h e specific fieldwor k con t ext s a n d ou r r esea r ch qu est ion s, (Mission of F olk lor ic Resea r ch ),8 a pion eer in g effor t led by t h e r en own ed Br a zilia n it beh ooves u s t o a sk wh a t ot h er t ypes of da t a m igh t be glea n ed by em ployin g r epa t r ia - m u sicologist /folk lor ist Ma r io de An dr a de t h a t sou gh t t o docu m en t "folk " m u sic in t ion in ou r fieldwor k . P u t ot h er wise, in wh a t wa ys m igh t r epa t r ia t ion , lik e t r a n scr ipt ion , Br a zils n or t h a n d n or t h ea st (see Sa n dr on i 2014). As pa r t of t h is r est u dy, Sa n dr on i obser va t ion , bim u sica lit y, a n d film a n a lysis,9 con st it u t e a n in t egr a l m et h od r et u r n ed ca sset t e t a pes ofAn dr a de's r ecor din gs t o com m u n it ies t h a t h a d in it ia lly been we m igh t ca ll et h n om u sicologica l? My exper ien ces in Br a zil su ggest t h a t t h e r et u r n of visit ed by t h e Mission , a s well a s t o in dividu a ls lin k ed in som e wa y t o t h e m u sicia n s sou n d r ecor din gs ca n lea d t o a wide a r r a y of r evela t ion s, r a n gin g fr om fu n da m en t a l h ea r d on t h e r ecor din gs. Reflect in g on t h is exper ien ce, Sa n dr on i n ot es: m et a ph or s of m u sica l t r u t h t o t h e va lu e of m u sic in r eligiou s r it u a ls a n d loca l wa ys of list en in g a n d h ea r in g. E ver y t im e I h a ve h a d t h e ch a n ce in m y r esea r ch t o pla y for in for m a n t s t h e r ecor din gs fr om t h e Mission 's a r ch ive... t h e r esu lt h a s been , beyon d em ot ion a lly im pa ct fu l (a n d lik ely du e t o t h is [im pa ct ]), a n a wa k en in g of m em or ies, a ssocia t ion s, a n d com m en t s SE U ME SSIAS, SAG BRAZ, t h a t r evea led t h em selves t o be ext r em ely u sefu l a n d wou ld be ver y difficu lt t o obt a in by ot h er m ea n s. In som e ca ses, su ch com m en t s cla r ified a spect s of m u sica l pr a ct ices AN D MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION IN BAH IA of t h e pa st . In ot h er ca ses, h owever , wh a t t h ey br ou gh t wa s t h e a ct u a l "n a t ive" con - cept ion of t h eir r ela t ion sh ip wit h t h eir "et h n om u sicologica l pa st ," t o qu ot e t h e t it le of a n a r t icle by P h ilip Boh lm a n , In m id-2on , wit h m y sigh t s set on a "Wa ddey r est u dy," I r et u r n ed t o Ba h ia wit h t h e (Sa n dr on i 2005,55-56) deca des-old r eza r ecor din gs a n d a list of n a m es. I wa s dism a yed t o lea r n t h a t m ost of t h e per for m er s wh ose voices Wa ddey h a d or igin a lly ca pt u r ed on t a pe wer e n o lon ger livin g. Lik e J a ir a zbh oy, t h en , Sa n dr on i discover ed t h a t r epa t r ia t ion cou ld elicit "n a t ive" (t h a t is, F u r t h er m or e, it wa s difficu lt t o loca t e people wh o a ct u a lly fou n d t h e r ecor din gs m ea n - em ic or in sider ) con cept ion s of m u sic a n d m u sica l ch a n ge. F u r t h er m or e, for Sa n dr on i, in gfu l. I t h er efor e decided t o ch a n ge m y a ppr oa ch . Ra t h er t h a n sea r ch for per for m er s, t h e r ecor din gs a lso fa cilit a t ed t h e a cqu isit ion of ot h er wise difficu lt -t o-obt a in da t a . I bega n sea r ch in g for ven u es: t h e h om es a t wh ich t h e r eza s h a d been per for m ed. In ot h er Repa t r ia t ion , in t h is ca se, a ppea r s t o h a ve h elped a dva n ce et h n ogr a ph ic r esea r ch a n d t o wor ds, sin ce r eza s a r e h ost ed by people a t t h eir pr iva t e r esiden ces, even if it wa s im pos- con st r u ct r esea r ch r ela t ion sh ips m or e qu ick ly. sible t o r epa t r ia t e t h e r ecor din gs t o t h e m a in per for m er s, I cou ld a t lea st t r y t o r et u r n To offer on e fin a l exa m ple, An t h on y Seeger h a s dem on st r a t ed t h a t t h e r et u r n of Wa ddey's r ecor din gs t o t h e devot ees wh o h a d in it ia lly h ost ed t h e r eza s. Con sequ en t ly, r ecor din gs m a y a lso be em ployed t o explor e m u sica l a est h et ics. H e r epor t s on t h e effec- I bega n m y sea r ch for t h e per son a t wh ose h om e Wa ddey r ecor ded a r eza for Sa in t Roch t ive u se of a h ist or ica l r ecor din g (m a de in 1960 by H a r a ld Sch u lt z) in h is fieldwor k wit h in Au gu st 1978. In h is br ief et h n ogr a ph ic a ccou n t of t h e r eza , Wa ddey expla in s t h a t t h e t h e Kisedje (for m er ly, Su ya ) In dia n s of Cen t r a l Br a zil. Despit e t h e fa ct t h a t t h e r ecor din g even t t ook pla ce in Sa o Br a z, "a t idewa t er villa ge depen den t a lm ost en t ir ely on fish in g, h a d been a lt er ed, m a k in g t h e pit ch es lower a n d t h e t em po slower t h a n t h ey h a d or igi- a t a h ou se "belon gin g t o a gen t lem a n n a m ed Messia s" (1981, 264). I t h u s set ou t t o fin d n a lly been , t h e Kisedje n ever t h eless r ega r ded t h e fa u lt y r ecor din g a s "bea u t ifu l," bein g t h e gen t lem a n n a m ed Messia s wh o, wit h a n y lu ck , wa s st ill livin g in Sa o Br a z. t h e wa y t h e [Kisedje] r ea lly sa n g in t h e old da ys" (Seeger 2004 [1987], 98). Seeger even - t u a lly con clu des t h a t t h e Kisedje pr oba bly la u ded t h e r ecor din g du e t o it s vin t a ge a n d a gen er a l idea liza t ion of t h e pa st . Repa t r ia t ion , Ta k e On e—J a n u a r y 19,2012 H owever , a n d per h a ps m or e im por t a n t ly, t h e slowed-down r ecor din g's lower pit ch es r eson a t ed wit h Kisedje a est h et ic pr efer en ces r ega r din g t h e "big t h r oa t s" of "old m en Aft er m u ch pr epa r a t ion —wh ich in clu ded cor r espon din g wit h Wa ddey, m a k in g n u - wh o wer e good sin ger s" (100-101). H er e t h e Kisedjes u n expect ed posit ive r ea ct ion m er ou s copies of t h e r ecor din g, a n d wr it in g ou t list s of qu est ion s—I decided I wa s r ea dy t o t h e r ecor din g a llowed Seeger a deeper com pr eh en sion of loca l m u sica l a n d socia l t o m a k e m y t r ip t o Sa o Br a z. I wa s u n su r e wh et h er Messia s wa s st ill a live (a n d if so, if h e va lu es (a s well a s t h e r ela t ion sh ip bet ween t h e t wo). Th e et h n om u sicologist con clu des st ill lived in Sa o Br a z), bu t Wa ddey seem ed t o t h in k t h a t "Messia s m igh t well be livin g" by in sist in g t h a t r ecor din gs ou gh t t o be "pr eser ved in pu blicly a ccessible loca t ion s," a s (a s h e wr ot e in a n e-m a il t o m e fr om Decem ber 2011), so it m a de lit t le sen se for m e n ot t h ey n ot on ly ser ve "t h e in t er est s of t h e people r ecor ded" bu t "ca n a lso be a va lu a ble t o t r y t o fin d h im . It wa s a r ou n d n oon wh en I fir st a r r ived a t t h e sm a ll villa ge ofSa o Br a z 2/0 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 271 (F igu r e 14.2), so I lu n ch ed a t on e of t h e few loca l r est a u r a n t s a n d bega n a sk in g a r ou n d Messia s u n expect edly bega n t ellin g m e t h e st or y of a DVD docu m en t a r y on An gola - for t h e devot ee of Sa in t Roch . I lea r n ed n ot on ly t h a t h e wa s st ill a live bu t a lso t h a t h e st yle ca poeir a , t h e in t er n a t ion a lly k n own Br a zilia n spor t /da n ce/m a r t ia l a r t . I soon lived r ela t ively close t o t h e r est a u r a n t a t wh ich I wa s lu n ch in g. lea r n ed t h a t Seu Messia s wa s a h igh ly r espect ed m a st er , or m est r e, ofca poeir a wh o h a d I wa s poin t ed in t h e dir ect ion oflvfessia s's h om e a n d soon fou n d m yself st a n din g be- been in t er viewed for t h e docu m en t a r y. We t h en sa t in a wk wa r d silen ce a s we wa t ch ed for e a t a ll wood-a n d-wir e fen ce, yellin g a cr oss t h e open pa t io t o a m a n r est in g in t h e t h e for t y-five-m in u t e DVD, a ft er wh ich Seu Messia s sh a r ed wit h m e h is m em or ies a n d sh a de of t h e h om e's en t r ywa y: "Good a ft er n oon ! Is t h is t h e h om e of Seu Messia s?" (I exper ien ces ofca poeir a . u sed t h e h on or ific "Seu " in a ddr essin g t h e gen t lem a n .) Th e m a n a ssu r ed m e it wa s a n d Aft er wh a t seem ed a n et er n it y, I bega n t r yin g t o en cou r a ge Seu Messia s t o t a lk a bou t sign a led for m e t o open t h e ga t e. As I t r a ver sed t h e dir t ya r d, I cou ld feel t h e expect a - t h e r eza , t h e r ea son I h a d com e t o h is h om e in t h e fir st pla ce. Soon t h e m est r e bega n t ion s bu ildin g wit h in m e. Aft er a ll, I wa s a ble t o loca t e t h e h ea lt h y, eigh t y-fou r -yea r - expla in in g t o m e t h e gen esis of h is devot ion t o Sa in t Roch , t ellin g m e of h is ch ildh ood, old Messia s (Ma n oel Messia s P er eir a , b. 1927), wh om I r efer t o for t h e r em a in der of t h e h is pet dog, h is pa r en t s, h is fir st wife, a n d h is fir st h om e. All of t h ese seem in gly m u n - ch a pt er a s Seu Messia s, m or e t h a n a gen er a t ion a ft er Wa ddey fir st m et h im ! t v:. da n e det a ils wer e som eh ow in t egr a l t o h is r eza , bu t it wou ld t a k e m e qu it e som e t im e t o As I a ppr oa ch ed t h e elder ly m a n , secu r in g Wa ddey's r ecor din g in m y h a n d, I n er - It u n der st a n d wh y. Im por t a n t ly, Seu Messia s n ever a ct u a lly r efer r ed t o h is r eza a s a r eza , vou sly bu m bled t h r ou gh a st r in g of qu est ion s a n d cr eden t ia ls: "H ow a r e you ? Ar e you ca llin g it in st ea d a "sa m ba ." Wh ile t h is t er m in ologica l su bst it u t ion is h a r dly u n com m on Seu Messia s? I'm h er e t o spea k wit h you . Do you r em em ber Ra lph , t h e for eign er wh o (given t h e pr om in en t r ole ofsa m ba a t t h ese pa t r on sa in t fest iva ls), it does r evea l sa m ba 's r ecor ded you r r eza yea r s a go?" Wit h a gen t le sm ile a n d a n od, Seu Messia s m ot ion ed cen t r a lit y a t Seu Messia s's a n n u a l pr a yer r it u a l. Th e m est r e t h en br iefly t ou ch ed on h is for m e t o en t er h is h om e. I lu m ber ed t h r ou gh t h e en t r ywa y a n d wa s gr eet ed im m edi- en cou n t er wit h Ra lph Wa ddey: "My sa m ba wa s ver y t a lk ed a bou t . H e [Wa ddey] ca m e a t ely by h is wife, Don a Celin a .10 Sh e wa s set t in g t h e t a ble for lu n ch a n d k in dly t u r n ed beca u se it 's ver y big. We h a ve a n oven a , sa m ba , a n d on t h e n ext da y, t h e i/t h [of Au gu st ], t o m e a n d a sk ed, "Ar e you ser ved?" I polit ely declin ed t h e offer , t a k in g a sea t a t t h e la r ge we h a ve ca poeir a ." wooden t a ble t h a t occu pied t h e spa ciou s fr on t r oom of t h e h ou se. As I sa t down , Seu Th e st or ies t h e m est r e h a d been t ellin g m e wer e n o dou bt im por t a n t t o h im , a n d t h ey wer e a good wa y for m e t o con n ect wit h Seu Messia s a n d lea r n a bou t h is life. Bu t ever y- t h in g seem ed on ly t a n gen t ia lly r ela t ed t o t h e r ecor din g; t h e r est u dy seem ed t o be goin g a wr y. Befor e a r r ivin g, a ft er a ll, I h a d im a gin ed t h a t we m igh t list en t o t h e r ecor din g or a t lea st t h a t ou r con ver sa t ion wou ld r evolve a r ou n d t h e h ist or ica l r ecor din g. Bu t we ba r ely even a ck n owledged t h e r ecor din g's exist en ce, let a lon e did we discu ss it . In fa ct , wh en I fir st a r r ived wit h t h e CD in h a n d, t h e m est r es son su ggest ed we give it a list en , a n idea wh ich Seu Messia s dism issed ou t of h a n d: "N ot n ow." Th en , t u r n in g t o m e, h e a m big- u ou sly ju st ified h is r espon se: "Toda y m a r k s a week t h a t m y br ot h er h a s pa ssed a wa y." H e sa id n ot h in g m or e a n d t h ou gh I did n ot qu it e u n der st a n d, I in t u it ively k n ew n ot t o in sist . We sim ply left it a t t h a t . As I depa r t ed fr om Seu Messia s's h ou se t h a t da y, t h e oct o- gen a r ia n in vit ed m e t o h is a n n u a l r eza for Sa in t Roch , wh ich wou ld be h eld a t h is h om e on Au gu st 16, t h e sa in t 's officia l da y. E xcit ed t o r eceive su ch a n in vit a t ion , I t h a n k ed h im a n d t old h im I wou ld of cou r se be deligh t ed t o a t t en d. Repa t r ia t ion , Ta k e Two—Au gu st 15,2012 In t h e Recon ca vo, r eza s t en d t o be h eld on officia l Ch u r ch -est a blish ed sa in t s' da ys. H owever , people oft en decide t o h old t h e pa r t y ea r lier or la t er , a decision t h a t is som e- t im es m a de a t t h e la st m in u t e. Th er efor e, wit h ou t a r elia ble ph on e n u m ber for Seu Messia s, I h a d t o con fir m in -per son t h a t h is ba sh for Sa in t Roch wou ld, in fa ct , occu r on Au gu st 16.1 t h u s em ba r k ed on m y secon d visit t o Seu Messia s's h om e, som e eigh t F IGU RE 14.2 Sa o Br a z, Ba h ia , Br a zil, in 2013. m on t h s a ft er fir st m eet in g h im . I sh owed u p ju st befor e n oon , br a vin g t h e in cessa n t P h ot ogr a ph by Mich a el lya n a ga . win t er r a in fa ll so t ypica l of Au gu st , a n d wa s on ce a ga in wa r m ly r eceived. Seu Messia s 272 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 273 ch eer ed m y a r r iva l by expla in in g t o a visit in g n eigh bor t h a t I h a d com e ba ck "seven - som e t im e. Regr et fu lly, h owever , I h a ve been u n a ble t o a cqu ir e a copy of t een yea r s a ft er m y "fa t h er " h a d r ecor ded h is sa m ba ." I u n com for t a bly cor r ect ed h im , t h e com plet e 1978 r ecor din g a n d t h u s h a ve yet t o m a k e good on m y pr om ise t o deliver it n ot in g t h a t it h a d in fa ct been t h ir t y-fou r yea r s a n d t h a t Wa ddey wa s a fr ien d r a t h er t h a n t o h im . m y fa t h er . U n fa zed by m y a t t em pt t o a m en d t h e det a ils, Seu Messia s sim ply sm iled a n d in vit ed m e in t o h is h om e. Accept in g Don a Celin a 's m ea l offer t h is t im e a r ou n d, I lu n ch ed wit h Seu Messia s a s Repa t r ia t ion , Ta k e Th r ee—Ma y 13,2013 we discu ssed t h e r eza (wh a t h e r efer r ed t o a s h is "sa m ba ") t h a t wou ld t a k e pla ce t h e fol- lowin g da y. Soon a ft er we fin ish ed ea t in g, Don a Celin a in sist ed t h a t we list en t o t h e h is- N ea r ly a yea r a n d a h a lf a ft er m y fir st t r ip t o Seu Messia s's h ou se, a n in t er est in g con - t or ica l r ecor din g. Th is t im e Seu Messia s con cu r r ed a n d we sa t qu iet ly, list en in g t o t h e flu en ce of even t s a llowed m e t o visit Seu Messia s on ce a ga in , bu t t h is t im e t oget h er r eza . Th e m est r e u sed a DVD pla yer h ook ed u p t o h is t elevision t o pla y t h e CD. Th u s wit h Ra lph Wa ddey (F igu r e 14.3). Th ou gh Wa ddey h a d been u n a ble t o digit ize for Seu we bot h sa t fa cin g t h e bla n k blu e scr een a s t h e digit ized r ecor din g bu zzed t h r ou gh t h e Messia s t h e sa m ba fr om 1978, h e did loca t e a digit a l copy of a differ en t sa m ba , r ecor ded t elevision 's spea k er s. Soon a ft er t h e r ecor din g bega n , Seu Messia s's da u gh t er wa lk ed a t Seu Messia s's h ou se in Au gu st 1982. Th er efor e, wh ile I cou ld n ot pr ovide Seu Messia s in t o t h e r oom . H e poin t ed t o t h e t elevision , spr in gin g a qu est ion on h er : "Wh o's t h a t ?" wit h a copy of h is sa m ba fr om 1978,1 cou ld a t t h e ver y lea st fa cilit a t e h is r eceipt of a dif- Sh e a n swer ed wit h a du m bfou n ded—a lbeit m ost ly a pa t h et ic—sh r u g. "It 's Lou r des a n d fer en t r ecor din g of n ea r ly t h e sa m e vin t a ge. Dor a !" Wit h on ly m ild in t er est , h is da u gh t er a sk ed, "Wh er e's t h is fr om ?" Ra isin g h is We a r r ived in Sa o Br a z a t a r ou n d 11:30 a .m . As we en t er ed Seu Messia s's h om e, t h e a r m len gt h wise a n d poin t in g t owa r d t h e t own pla za , h e r espon ded t h a t it wa s fr om "t h e n ow eigh t y-five-yea r -old m a n gr eet ed u s wit h a big sm ile, a h a n dsh a k e, a n d a h u g, a l- ot h er h ou se" (t h a t is, h is pr ior r esiden ce). An d sm ilin g, h e con t in u ed, "It 's fr om befor e beit a som ewh a t st ole on e. We wer e in vit ed t o sit a t t h e t a ble, a n d befor e we k n ew it , you wer e a live! F or Seu Messia s, t h e r ecor din gs a n t iqu it y wa s on e of it s m ost va lu a ble Wa ddey a n d I wer e bein g ser ved lu n ch by Don a Celin a . Wa ddey ga ve t h e 1982 r ecor din g a s s et s . t o Seu Messia s a n d su ggest ed t h a t we a ll list en t o it a s we a t e. As we list en ed, I a sked Seu On t h a t Au gu st n igh t in 1978, Wa ddey st a r t ed h is r ecor der ju st a m in u t e or t wo la t e. Messia s a bou t wh a t h e wa s h ea r in g a n d, a s h e h a d don e du r in g ou r pr ior r epa t r ia t ion ex- Con sequ en t ly, t h e a u dio a br u pt ly begin s a t t h e t a il en d of t h e fir st pr a yer of t h e n oven a . per ien ce, t h e m est r e poin t ed ou t t h e voices of m a n y of t h e sa m ba per for m er s, t ellin g u s In sequ en ce is a sever a l-secon d br ea k befor e t h e cycle's secon d pr a yer . Lik ewise, t h e a ll a bou t t h e m en h e cou ld a u r a lly r ecogn ize. secon d pr a yer is sepa r a t ed by a sh or t in t er va l, a s is t h e t h ir d pr a yer , a n d so on . Th ese br ea k s—t h a t is, m om en t s wit h ou t son g—a r e filled wit h wh a t I in it ia lly h ea r d a s n on - descr ipt ch a t t er . Th is is com m on a t r eza s: followin g a n y su n g t ext , people r egu la r ly h old side con ver sa t ion s a bou t a n y qu ot idia n issu es t h ey h a ve on t h eir m in ds (lya n a ga 2oi3b, xvi). H owever , it wa s t h is a ppa r en t "ba bble" t h a t m ost piqu ed Seu Messia s's in t er est . In fa ct , wh ile t h e m est r e sa t u n m oved a n d u n in t er est ed du r in g t h e sin gin g, h e wou ld lea n in t owa r d t h e t elevision 's spea k er s a ft er ea ch son g. Cock in g h is h ea d sidewa ys in or der t o expose h is ea r m or e fu lly t o t h e ch a t t er , t h e oct ogen a r ia n list en ed in t en t ly a n d in t en sely. Th en , wit h a spr y exu ber a n ce, h e wou ld sh ou t ou t t h e n a m es of t h e people wh ose voices h e r ecogn ized, r em in iscin g t o m e wist fu lly a bou t t h ose h e h a d ou t lived. Wa ddey's or igin a l r eel t a pe r ecor din g of Seu Messia s's ip/S11 r eza is h ou r s lon g. H owever , du e t o som e t ech n ica l difficu lt ies, Wa ddey a n d I wer e on ly a ble t o digit ize t h e fir st h a lf-h ou r of t h e r eza . Th e r ecor din g, t h er efor e, in clu des t h e n oven a , a lm ost in it s en t ir et y (t wen t y-on e m in u t es), cla pped son gs (ca n t iga s) for Sa in t Roch (a r ou n d t wo m in u t es), a n d a bou t six m in u t es of gu it a r s a n d per cu ssion wa r m in g u p befor e t h e bois- t er ou s im pr ovised sa m ba sin gin g. Con sequ en t ly, t h e sa m ba voca ls—vit a l t o a n y sa m ba per for m a n ce a n d la st in g for h ou r s wh en or igin a lly per for m ed in 1978—wer e en t ir ely cu t ou t of t h e digit ized r ecor din g I r epa t r ia t ed t o Seu Messia s. Th is a bsen ce did n ot go F IGU RE 14.3 Left t o r igh t : Ra lph Wa ddey a n d Seu Messia s a t Seu Messia ss h om e in Sa o Br a z, u n n ot iced; t h e m est r e la m en t ed r epea t edly t h a t t h e sa m ba wa s m ost ly m issin g fr om t h e Ba h ia , Br a zil, 2013. r ecor din g. I a ssu r ed h im I wou ld t r y t o digit ize t h e sa m ba for h im , bu t t h a t it wou ld P h ot ogr a ph by Mich a el lya n a ga . 274 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 275 Th is CD, wit h n ea r ly t wo h ou r s of r ecor ded sa m ba , con t in u ed pla yin g well a ft er we discu ssed t h is issu e in som e det a il elsewh er e (lya n a ga 20i3b, 292-299), so I focu s h er e fin ish ed lu n ch a n d ser ved a s ba ck gr ou n d m u sic for ou r fu r t h er t opics of con ver sa t ion . on ly on t h e in t er con n ect edn ess of h a ppin ess, dea t h , a n d sa m ba . Gr a du a lly r u n n in g ou t of su bject s t o discu ss wit h t h e oct ogen a r ia n , a n d t h in k in g t h a t In t h e Recon ca vo, dea t h is in va r ia bly a m om en t of sa dn ess, a m om en t of wh a t people Seu Messia s wa n t ed a br ea k fr om u s, Wa ddey a n d I decided t o t a k e a br ief wa lk ou t - t er m "sen t im en t o," or sen t im en t . F or a ll in t en t s a n d pu r poses, t h en , dea t h silen ces side. To Wa ddey's a n d m y su r pr ise, a s soon a s we st epped ou t in t o t h e fr on t ya r d, Seu sa m ba . Th a t is, beca u se h a ppin ess a n d sa m ba a r e so closely cor r ela t ed, a la ck of sa m ba Messia s t u r n ed off t h e DVD pla yer a n d bega n wa t ch in g t elevision . Ra t h er t h a n a llow t h e is a socia lly explicit sign of a la ck of h a ppin ess. In t h e r eza con t ext , t h er efor e, h a ppi- 1982 sa m ba t o k eep pla yin g, a s h e cou ld n o dou bt h a ve don e, t h e m est r e h esit a t ed on ly n ess a n d sa dn ess a r e expr essed t h r ou gh sa m ba per for m a n ce (or t h e la ck t h er eof). J u st secon ds befor e st oppin g t h e CD. It wa s a s if h e h a d on ly been list en in g t o t h e r ecor din g a s h a ppin ess is socia lly displa yed a n d codified in sa m ba per for m a n ce, so t oo is per son a l/ for ou r sa k es, n ot h is. fa m ilia l sa dn ess m a de socia l by con spicu ou sly r efr a in in g fr om a n d effect ively silen cin g sa m ba . An d wh ile n ever descr ibed a s su ch , t h e silen cin g ofsa m ba m igh t best be u n der - st ood a s a for m of m ou r n in g, a s t h e silen cin g la st s for a pr edet er m in ed (t h ou gh in di- QU E STION S RAISE D, LE SSON S LE ARN E D vidu a lly va r ia ble) per iod. Wh ile t h is per iod is m ost t ypica lly a yea r , for Seu Messia s it a ppea r s t o h a ve on ly been a few m on t h s. In pr a ct ica l t er m s, t h en , if a r ela t ive or close fr ien d pa sses a wa y befor e a pr eviou sly My r epa t r ia t ion exper ien ces t a u gh t m e qu it e a bit a bou t r eza s, bu t n ot dir ect ly, a n d sch edu led sa m ba per for m a n ce, t h a t per for m a n ce will be ca n celed. I h a ve wit n essed cer t a in ly n ot in t h e wa ys I h a d in it ia lly im a gin ed. Ret u r n in g Wa ddey's r ecor din gs t h is ca n cella t ion pr ocess in n u m er a ble t im es n ot on ly a t r eza s bu t a lso a t ot h er t ypes t o Seu Messia s—a n a ct t h a t in it self h a d fa r less a n im pa ct on t h e m est r e t h a n I h a d of even t s, bot h pu blic a n d pr iva t e. Bu t t h er e is m or e, a n d h er ein lies t h e et h n ogr a ph ic a n t icipa t ed—r a ised a wh ole h ost of n ew qu est ion s t h a t wou ld u lt im a t ely lea d m e t o a lesson I lea r n ed wit h Seu Messia s: t h e h a ppin ess is so in t r in sica lly lin k ed t o t h e sa m ba m or e com pr eh en sive u n der st a n din g of t h e r eza pr a ct ice. I explor e h er e som e a n swer s t h a t sim ply list en in g t o it —even a sa m ba r ecor ded a gen er a t ion ea r lier —wou ld disr e- t o wh a t I believe a r e t h r ee of t h e m ost r evea lin g in qu ir ies: (i) H ow wa s t h e dea t h ofSeu spect t h e a ppr opr ia t e "sen t im en t ." Wh en on e is in a st a t e of m ou r n in g it is socia lly in a p- Messia s's br ot h er r ela t ed t o h is decision n ot t o list en t o t h e CD?, (2) Wh y wa s it t h e pr opr ia t e t o exper ien ce (even if on ly a u r a lly) t h e "h a ppin ess em bodied so t r a n spa r en t ly t a lk in g on t h e r ecor din g, r a t h er t h a n t h e sin gin g, t h a t m ost in t er est ed Sen Messia s?, in sa m ba . Th e poin t , clea r t o m e on ly a ft er pr olon ged r eflect ion , is t h a t Seu Messia s's a n d (3) Wh y did Seu Messia s la m en t n ot h a vin g t h e 1978 sa m ba bu t seem m ost ly decea sed br ot h er deser ved "sen t im en t ," even if on ly in sym bolic socia l t er m s, a n d t h is bor ed wit h t h e 1982 sa m ba r ecor din g? Th ese qu er ies, r esu lt in g specifica lly fr om m y m ea n t t h a t t h e sa m ba I br ou gh t wit h m e h a d t o be silen ced. r epa t r ia t ion exper ien ces, m igh t n ever h a ve a r isen t h r ou gh m or e t ypica l in t er views, In som e wa ys, m y secon d qu est ion , r ega r din g t h e va lu e of m u n da n e ch a t t er , ch a llen ges con ver sa t ion s, a n d pa r t icipa n t obser va t ion . Aft er a ll, h ow cou ld I ever h a ve t h ou gh t t o on e of t h e m ost con secr a t ed dich ot om ies of cla ssica l socia l scien ce: t h e division bet ween a sk t h em ? t h e sa cr ed a n d t h e pr ofa n e. Wh et h er it is t h e wor ld a ccor din g t o Du r k h eim , Tu r n er , Let u s begin by look in g a t t h e fir st —a n d for m e t h e m ost vexin g—qu est ion . Wh a t Geer t z, or Ma r x, t h e sa cr ed a n d it s r it u a ls h a ve been defin it ion a lly dist in ct fr om t h e does a br ot h er 's dea t h h a ve t o do wit h list en in g t o a CD? Aft er a ll, t h er e wa s n o in dica - "r ea l" wor ld of ever yda y life. Accor din g t o t h is cla ssic view of societ y, t h en , t h e r eza t ion t h a t t h e m est r e's br ot h er wa s on t h e CD or ot h er wise r espon sible for t h e even t . Yet wou ld be a sa cr ed even t dist in ct fr om t h e pr ofa n e qu ot idia n . In deed, t h is is pr ecisely h e wa s lin k ed in deeper wa ys. Allow m e t o expla in . F ir st , it is im por t a n t t o r em em ber h ow som e h a ve in t er pr et ed t h is Ba h ia n pr a yer t r a dit ion (e.g., Ma r celin 1996). Yet u pon t h a t t h e CD wa s a son ic r epr esen t a t ion ofSeu Messia s's a n n u a l pa t r on sa in t fest iva l, list en in g t o t h e r ecor din g of t h is r eligiou s m om en t fr om 1978, Seu Messia s h ea r d som e- wh ich , for h im , is m a in ly a "sa m ba " for Sa in t Roch . Con sequ en t iy, in t h e eyes of t h e t h in g t h a t wa s m u ch m or e h u m a n t h a n divin e. In fa ct , h e cou ld clea r ly h ea r t h e voices m est r e I wa s r epa t r ia t in g a CD n ot of u n ison a ca pella sin gin g—wh ich is in fa ct m ost ly a n d t h e t opics of con ver sa t ion t h ey expr essed, a n d it wa s on ly t h is "pr ofa n e" a spect t h a t wh a t t h e r ecor din g con t a in s (som et h in g h e cou ld n ot h a ve k n own befor e list en in g t o seem ed t o m a t t er . F or Seu Messia s, t h e r eza is n ot ju st a devot ion t o a spir it u a l en t it y. it )—bu t r a t h er ofr ollick in g sa m ba . It is a lso a pr eciou s m om en t of socia l in t er a ct ion , n ot beca u se it is sepa r a t e fr om t h e St ill sa m ba is n ot ju st son g a n d da n ce; it is a lso em ot ion . Sa m ba is h a ppin ess (t h a t is, pr ofa n e bu t beca u se it em br a ces it . Ma k in g J ea n a n d J oh n Com a r off's (i993> xvi) wor ds a legr id). Th is is a "m et a ph or ic u t t er a n ce" (Rice 2003,164) t h a t poin t s t o a n a t u r a lized m y own , "[r ]a t h er t h a n bein g r edu ced t o a species of cer em on ia l a ct ion t h a t in su la t es equ iva len ce bet ween sou n d/da n ce a n d em ot ion t h a t is cen t r a l t o u n der st a n din g bot h en ch a n t ed, self-r epr odu cin g syst em s fr om t h e 'r ea l' wor ld, t h en , r it u a l m a y be seen for sa m ba a n d h a ppin ess in t h e Recon ca vo. H a ppin ess is n ot som eh ow "r epr esen t ed" by wh a t it oft en is: a vit a l elem en t in t h e pr ocesses t h a t m a k e a n d r em a k e socia l fa ct s a n d sa m ba . Ra t h er , t h e in t r in sic lin k bet ween sa m ba a n d h a ppin ess is su ch t h a t on e ser ves collect ive iden t it ies. a s a qu a si-su r r oga t e of t h e ot h er . In ot h er wor ds, t o per for m sa m ba is t o pu t on es own Th e a br u pt dia logu es wer e pr ecisely wh a t m a de t h e r ecor din g specia l; t h ey h a ppin ess on displa y. Sim ila r ly, in em ic t er m s, h a ppin ess is k ey t o defin in g sa m ba . I h a ve m a r k ed it s h ist or ica ln ess in wa ys t h a t t h e lit u r gy n ever wou ld. Th is is beca u se of em ic 276 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 277 u n der st a n din gs of m u sica l con t in u it y a n d t h e im m u t a bilit y of t h e n oven a . As I h a ve pa r t icipa t e in bot h m om en t s—in t h e n oven a t h ey lea d t h e sin gin g a n d in t h e sa m ba a r gu ed elsewh er e, a s lon g a s t h e fu n ct ion a n d in t en t of ea ch pr a yer r em a in u n a lt er ed, t h ey pa r t icipa t e a s da n cer s a n d sin g t h e r efr a in —m en gen er a lly m a k e t h em selves a bsen t devot ees t en d t o view t h e pr a yer s a s u n ch a n gin g fr om yea r t o yea r even if som e of t h e du r in g t h e n oven a . Th ey st a n d ou t side, con ver sin g, or t h ey sim ply a r r ive a ft er t h e n o- t ext s or m elodies a r e differ en t (lya n a ga 20133). In ot h er wor ds, in depen den t of t h e ven a h a s fin ish ed. Th er efor e, a lt h ou gh t h e ch a t t er of t h e 1978 n oven a ga ve Seu Messia s m elody or specific t ext , ever y son g/or Sa in t Roch (t h e Vir gin Ma r y, God, Sa in t An t h on y, a good sen se of t h e fem a le pr esen ce a t t h a t yea r 's even t , it cou ld n ot h elp h im r em em ber et c.) wou ld essen t ia lly be t r ea t ed a s "t h e sa m e."12 Tliis su ggest s t h a t wh en viewed t h r ou gh t h e m en wh o a t t en ded. a br oa der em ic fr a m e, t h e (u n ch a n gin g) r ou t in e pr a yer cycle ser ves a s som et h in g of a Con sequ en t ly, ju st a s t h e con ver sa t ion s fr om t h e 1978 r ecor din g of t h e n oven a ba ck dr op for t h e n on r ou t in e, u n iqu e con ver sa t ion s bet ween fr ien ds a n d n eigh bor s. m a t t er ed m ost t o Seu Messia s beca u se t h ey h elped h im r em em ber t h e wom en wh o wer e Th u s for som eon e seek in g t o r em em ber t h e pa st , wh ich is a ppa r en t ly t h e on ly r ea son a ct ive in h is r eza t h r ee deca des befor e, h e la m en t ed t h e la ck of sa m ba n ot so m u ch for Seu Messia s wou ld wa n t t o list en t o t h is old r ecor din g, t h e "m u n da n e ch a t t er ," a s I h ea r d t h e sa m ba it self a s for t h e son ic h in t s it wou ld give h im r ega r din g t h e m en wh o h a d it , wa s m u ch m or e va lu a ble t h a n t h e "sa m e" son gs h e h ea r s a n n u a lly. Seu Messia s wa s per for m ed t h a t yea r . As su ch , a few m in u t es of t h e 1982 sa m ba r ecor din gs wer e qu it e n ot a n om a lou s. Mor e oft en t h a n n ot , wh en I a sk ed ot h er devot ees a bou t t h eir a n n u a l su fficien t for Seu Messia s. H e r ecogn ized t h e voices, r elish ed t a cit ly a few m em or ies of fest iva ls, t h ey, lik e Seu Messia s, n ea r ly a lwa ys focu sed on t h e specific people in volved in t h e pa st , a n d t h en gr ew bor ed. It seem s t o m e t h a t Seu Messia s wa s n ot u n in t er est ed in t h e celebr a t ion s. t h e 1982 r ecor din g. Ra t h er , a ft er obt a in in g t h e in for m a t ion t h a t m ost in t er est ed h im , t h e Th er ein h id a n ot h er , su bt le m et h odologica l lesson : lim it in g ou r field r ecor din gs of m est r e did n ot feel com pelled t o con t in u e list en in g t o t h e sa m ba . even t s/r it u a ls t o on ly t h e m u sica l m om en t s beca u se we pr eju dge t h em a s m ost va l- Th e m or e im por t a n t et h n ogr a ph ic poin t , h owever , m a y h a ve been t h e fa ct t h a t t h e r e- u a ble ca n —a n d oft en will—pr odu ce a r ecor din g t h a t m isses, fr om t h e pa r t icipa n t s' cor ded sa m ba ser ved a fu n ct ion lik e t h a t of t h e r ecor ded n oven a . Th is su ggest s t h a t t h e per spect ives, t h e wh ole poin t . IfSeu Messia s is a n y in dica t ion , t h en , devot ees u n der - t wo m u sica l m om en t s, wh ich seem so differ en t —on e is a ca pella sin gin g in P or t u gu ese st a n d t h a t a lt h ou gh t h e sin gin g a t a r eza ca n (t h eor et ica lly) be per for m ed by a n yon e, it a n d La t in t h a t follows a st r ict lit u r gy wh ile t h e ot h er is a m or e spon t a n eou s Afr o- n ever is ju st a n yon e; r a t h er it is a lwa ys per for m ed by "som eon es." Th a t is, a t t en dees a t Br a zilia n da n ce m u sic—in fa ct fu n ct ion sim ila r ly. Bot h a r e socia l celebr a t ion s in t h e r eza s a r e a lwa ys people wh o h a ve n a m es a n d fa ces, a n d u lt im a t ely m a t t er t o t h e pa r t y n a m e of t h e sa in t . In t h is sen se, t h er e is lit t le con cept u a l differ en ce bet ween Ca t h olic h ost in fa r m or e in t im a t e wa ys t h a n a m u sica l et h n ogr a ph er m igh t ever gu ess. pr a yer s a n d sa m ba da n cin g. Bot h a r e fu n da m en t a lly, t h ou gh n ot exclu sively, fu n ct ion a l So h ow t o expla in Seu Messia s's disin t er est in t h e 1982 sa m ba r ecor din g? Tr y a s m u sica l m odes: t h e pr a yer s r evivify t h e sa in t for t h e yea r a n d t h e sa m ba celebr a t es t h a t I m igh t , I h a ve been u n a ble t o a r t icu la t e t h is qu est ion t o Seu Messia s a s effect ively a s r en ewed life (lya n a ga 2oi3b, 62-104). I wou ld like. Bu t I h a ve ga in ed som e in sigh t s. In a visit t o t h e m est r es h om e in ea r ly 2017, 1 t r ied yet a ga in t o br in g u p t h e issu e-wh en I a sk ed h im ' clu it e dir ect ly, wh et h er h e pr e- fer r ed t h e 1978 r ecor din g t o t h e 1982 r ecor din g, h e sim ply a ffir m ed t h a t h e en joyed t h em CON CLU DIN G TH OU GH TS bot h equ a lly. I t h u s t u r n ed t o a differ en t t a ct ic. U pon m y a r r iva l a t h is h om e ea r lier t h a t m or n in g, Seu Messia s h a d sh own m e t h a t h e ca r efu lly gu a r ded t h e h a lf-dozen or so CDs com pr isin g t h e m a n y h ou r s ofsa m ba I h a d r ecor ded a t h is r eza in 2012.1 a sk ed h im if so Repa t r ia t ion is t h u s n ot ju st a m ea n s of a dvoca cy; it is a lso a r esea r ch m et h od. Mu sica l m a n y h ou r s ofsa m ba wer e n ot a lm ost t oo m u ch sa m ba . H e gr in n ed a n d sa id on ly, "It 's a or sou n d r epa t r ia t ion sh ou ld be t r ea t ed n ot sim ply a s a n cilla r y "a pplied" or "a dvoca t ive" lot ofsa m ba ." I in sist ed on m y lin e of qu est ion in g: "Is a r ecor din g bet t er wh en it 's sh or t er wor k , bu t a s a n et h n om u sicologica l m et h od su ch t h a t r epa t r ia t in g sou n d is a lso doin g or lon ger ?" "Sh or t er ," h e im m edia t ely r espon ded. "Do you list en t o t h ese r ecor din gs for et h n om u sicology in t h e m ost cla ssic sen se. We k n ow t h a t r epa t r ia t ion ca n r et u r n som e t h e m u sic or t h e people?" I wa s lea din g h im a bit , bu t I cou ld n ot figu r e ou t h ow else t o power —in t h e for m of pr oper t y a n d k n owledge—t o "su bject s" wh o h a ve been u n wit - a sk t h e qu est ion . H e wa s a ga in qu ick t o a n swer : "Th e people." t in gly exploit ed by ou r (u su a lly) well-in t en t ion ed disciplin a r y a n cest or s.13 Repa t r ia t ion Th e m u sica l con t en t wa s a ppa r en t ly fa r less in t er est in g t o t h e eigh t y-n in e-yea r -old ca n ju st a s well h elp com m u n it ies r em em ber t h e pa st a n d t h u s bu ild n ew fu t u r es, oft en m est r e t h a n t h e socia l con t en t , a n d m a de a lon ger r ecor din g m er ely r epet it ive. Th is is in wa ys t h a t wou ld be difficu lt or im possible t o pr edict . In a ddit ion , a s I h a ve a r gu ed beca u se t h e sa m ba , a s wit h t h e n oven a , m a y a lwa ys be differ en t in it s t ext s a n d m elodies in t h is essa y, r epa t r ia t ion ca n a lso h elp et h n ogr a ph er s do bet t er wor k a n d wr it e bet t er bu t t h e fu n ct ion —t h e son gs' defin in g t r a it —n ever is (lya n a ga 20i3a , 115-116). Th er efor e, et h n ogr a ph ies. m u ch lik e t h e n oven a , t h e on ly t h in g t h a t ch a n ges fr om yea r t o yea r a r e t h e per for m er s. E a r lier in t h is ch a pt er , I su ggest ed t h a t con cen t r a t in g on t h e m et h odologica l ben efit s Im por t a n t ly, t h ese sa m ba m u sicia n s a r e r a r ely fem a le. In fa ct , gen der dist in ct ion s t en d of r epa t r ia t ion , r a t h er t h a n on h ow r epa t r ia t ion ca n h elp com m u n it ies, m igh t seem t o u n der lie t h e r eza 's t wo m a in m u sica l m om en t s (t h ou gh t h is is per h a ps m or e a t en - "self-ser vin g." An d wh ile m y focu s h er e h a s in deed been on h ow r epa t r ia t ion ca n ser ve den cy t h a n a r u le): n oven a :fem a le::sa m ba :m a le. Wh a t is m or e, wh ile wom en t en d t o "u s" (pr ofession a l et h n om u sicologist s),14 t h is sh ou ld n ot su ggest t h a t I do n ot a lso 278 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 279 r ecogn ize h ow im por t a n t r epa t r ia t ion ca n be for com m u n it ies t h e wor ld over . An d in ser vin g "a s a m ea n s of pa ssin g a lon g cer em on ia l son gs t o fu t u r e gen er a t ion s (La n cefield fa ct , u sin g r epa t r ia t ion m or e in ou r fieldwor k m a y a ct u a lly st im u la t e u s t o look h a r der 1998,56). for r ecor din gs t h a t cou ld be r et u r n ed t o com m u n it ies. At t h e sa m e t im e, t h ou gh , it 5. Th ese con cer n s m igh t be divided in t o t h r ee ba sic ca t egor ies: (i) t h e a ft er efF ect s ofr epa - wou ld be u n wise t o for get t h a t r epa t r ia t ion n ea r ly a lwa ys a lso ben efit s (wh et h er im - t r ia t ion (Seeger 1999; H ilder 2012; Ka h u n de 2012; La n da u 2012; Lobley 2012; F ox 2013), (z) et h ica l a n d pr a ct ica l issu es of dissem in a t ion (Gr a y 1996; Toelken 1998; Br in kh u r st plicit ly or explicit ly) t h e r epa t r ia t or s. F or exa m ple, t h e fa ct t h a t r epa t r ia t ion is va lu - 2012; Niles 2012; Aver ill 2013), a n d (3) discu ssion s of in t ellect u a l pr oper t y r igh t s (Seeger a ble t o com m u n it ies ser ves a s a good, et h ica l ju st ifica t ion for wh y sou n d a r ch ives a r e 1992; La n cefield 1998). n eeded (a n d wh y a r ch ivist s sh ou ld con t in u e t o be em ployed), a s well a s wh y fu n ds 6. On e sa lien t exa m ple of t h is "la b"-"field" cycle is discer n a ble in a fa scin a t in g exper ien ce sh ou ld be a lloca t ed for pr oject s su ch a s t h e Mu sic of U ga n da Repa t r ia t ion P r oject , t h e of t h e Mu sic of Uga n da Repa t r ia t ion P r oject , wh ich in it ia t ed t h e r epa t r ia t ion of Kla u s F eder a l Cylin der P r oject , In dia 's Ar ch ive a n d Resea r ch Cen t er for E t h n om u sicology, Wa ch sm a n n 's r ecor din gs in U ga n da : "Recor din gs wer e pla yed ba ck for sm a ll focu s a n d so for t h . gr ou ps.... Th e t ea m u sed t h ese m eet in gs t o dissem in a t e t h e m a t er ia ls a n d t o h elp det er - My poin t is t h a t r epa t r ia t ion a lwa ys ser ves bot h sides of t h e exch a n ge, even if t h e m in e t h e m ost effect ive wa y t o dissem in a t e m a t er ia ls in t h e fu t u r e. Th ese m eet in gs su b- power dyn a m ics a n d t h e ben efit s va r y fr om ca se t o ca se. Th is is pr ecisely wh y explor in g sequ en t ly sh a ped t h e design a n d dir ect ion of t h e r esea r ch " (N a n n yon ga -Ta m u su za a n d t h e specific wa ys in wh ich r epa t r ia t ion h a s been et h n ogr a ph ica lly ben eficia l in a n y Wein t r a u b 2012,2i8). 7. I h a ve t r a n sla t ed t h is cit a t ion fr om P or t u gu ese. All su bsequ en t t r a n sla t ion s a r e a lso m in e. given ca se m a y be so u sefu l. J u dgin g by m y own ca se st u dy, t oget h er wit h t h ose I cit ed 8. Th e r esu lt s of t h is r est u dy wer e pu blish ed m a in ly in t h e for m of a CD t it led Respon ds a ea r lier , r epa t r ia t ion ca n (a t t h e ver y lea st ) fa cilit a t e in t er per son a l in t er a ct ion s, qu ick en r oda ou t r a vez: Mu sica t r a dicion a l de P er n a m bu co e da P a r a iba n o Tr a jet o da Missa o de t h e a cqu isit ion of et h n ogr a ph ic da t a , elu cida t e m u sic's r ole in in dividu a l a n d com m u - 1938 (Sa n dr on i 2004). n it y lives, a n d dr a w ou t em ic per spect ives r ega r din g m u sica l ch a n ge, a est h et ic t a st es, 9. Th er e a r e of cou r se ot h er m et h odologica l a ppr oa ch es t h a t h a ve becom e pa r t ofet h n om u - a n d m et a ph or s of m u sica l t r u t h . Bu t t h is is on ly t h e t ip of t h e iceber g; ea ch in st a n ce sicology, a n d t h is is bu t a sh or t list . H owever , m y poin t is t h a t ea ch of t h ese h a s becom e, of r epa t r ia t ion h a r bor s t h e possibilit y for n ovel t ypes ofet h n ogr a ph ic in sigh t a n d n ew in br oa d t er m s, con secr a t ed a s a n im por t a n t m ea n s of doin g et h n om u sicology. Ar gu a bly, oppor t u n it ies t o en ga ge in dividu a ls a n d com m u n it ies in con ver sa t ion s a bou t t h e m u sic et h n om u sicology (a s com pa r a t ive m u sicology) wou ld n ever h a ve been bor n wit h ou t t h e t h a t m a t t er s t o t h em . m et h odologica l u se of t r a n scr ipt ion (of wa x cylin der r ecor din gs) (P in t o 2005), wh ich con t in u es t o be a fou n da t ion of et h n om u sicologica l a n a lysis. An d pa r t icipa n t obser va - t ion h a s n o dou bt been a pa r t of et h n ogr a ph ic r esea r ch on m u sic a t lea st sin ce t h e m id- NOTE S t wen t iet h cen t u r y, pa r t icu la r ly em ph a sized, for exa m ple, by Mer r ia m (1964) in h is sem in a l Th e An t h r opology of Mu sic. "Bi-m u sica lit y," a t er m coin ed a n d a dvoca t ed by H ood (1957, i. P a r t s of t h is ch a pt er wer e pr esen t ed on Ma y 29, 2013, a t t h e bien n ia l Con fer en ce of t h e 1960), con t in u es t o be im por t a n t in t h e field even if it is n ot n ecessa r ily design a t ed a s su ch Br a zilia n Associa t ion of E t h n om u sicology (ABE T), h eld in J oa o P essoa , Br a zil. I t h a n k (Ba ily 2001). F in a lly, sin ce a t lea st t h e m id-t wen t iet h cen t u r y, film h a s occu pied a pla ce Ra lph Wa ddey a n d Ca r los Sa n dr on i for in sigh t fu l com m en t s. I a lso owe a debt of gr a t it u de of gr owin g im por t a n ce in t h e developm en t of n ew m et h odologica l a ppr oa ch es t o m u sic t o An t h on y Seeger , wh ose in cisive su ggest ion s on a n ea r lier ver sion of t h is ch a pt er wer e, (Ku bik 1965,1972; Qu r esh i 1987; H a r ber t 2010). a s a lwa ys, t r a n sfor m a t ive. Th is ch a pt er wa s com plet ed wit h fu n din g fr om a F u lbr igh t io. In Br a zilia n P or t u gu ese, a s wit h t h e t er m "Seu " for a du lt m a les, t h e h on or ific t it le "Don a " P ost doct or a l Awa r d. is u sed t o r ecogn ize a du lt fem a les (see lya n a ga 20i3b, xii). 2. Th e im por t a n ce of t h is pa ir of a r t icles is discer n a ble, a t t h e ver y lea st , fr om t h e n u m ber ii. An u n pu blish ed r ecor din g m a de by Ra lph Wa ddey in 1978. of a u t h or s wh o con t in u e t o cit e t h em posit ively (Za m it h 1995; F r yer 2000; Sa n dr on i 12. Th is is a m or e com plex issu e t h a n I ca n ela bor a t e u pon h er e. It is n ot exa ct ly t h a t people 2001, 20io; Da r in g 2004; Lu h n in g 2004; Ca r m o 2009; Cr ook 2009; lya n a ga 2010; N obr e wou ld n ot r ecogn ize a differ en ce in m elody or t ext . Ra t h er , a s lon g a s t h e fu n ct ion is u n - 2013). In deed, t h e seem in gly t im eless r eleva n ce ofWa ddey's essa ys is fu r t h er u n der scor ed a lt er ed (e.g., t h e open in g son g, a son g t o bless t h e Vir gin Ma r y, a son g t o a sk for t h e sa in t s by t h eir r epu blica t ion (in P or t u gu ese t r a n sla t ion ) in t h e su ccessfu l dossier su bm it t ed blessin g, et c.), people wou ld sa y it is "t h e sa m e" (lya n a ga 20130,115-116). t o U N E SCO for in clu sion of sa m ba -de-r oda on it s list "Ma st er pieces of t h e Or a l a n d 13. Th ou gh it is im por t a n t n ot t o for get h ow ou r sch ola r s h a ve ben efit ed fr om t h e r ecor din gs In t a n gible H er it a ge of H u m a n it y" (Sa n dr on i a n d Sa n t 'An n a 2007). t h ey h a ve collect ed. As F ox (2013, 534) n ot es, "[a ] va st body of field r ecor din gs m a de du r in g 3. Th e per for m ed in st r u m en t s gen er a lly in clu de pa n deir o5(t a m bou r in es),cylin dr ica lm em - t h e t wen t iet h cen t u r y, h owever , ost en sibly collect ed for t h e pu r poses of r esea r ch a n d ot h er br a n e dr u m s, gu it a r s, ca va qu in h os (sm a ll, st eel-st r in ged u k u leles), a n d viola s (t en -st r in g pu r por t edly n on com m er cia l pu r su it s (pr eser vin g 'va n ish in g' cu lt u r es a s n a t ion a l cu lt u r a l gu it a r s). pa t r im on y ch ief a m on g t h em ), h a ve n on et h eless pr ovided fin a n cia l a n d ot h er ben efit s t o 4. Th e issu e of r epa t r ia t ion wa s a n im por t a n t —a lbeit less pr om in en t —pa r t of et h n om u si- collect or s a n d own er s of t h ese m a t er ia ls, over lon g per iods of t im e. cologica l t h ou gh t well befor e t h e 19803. An d r epa t r ia t ion h a s a lwa ys ca r r ied wit h it a n 14. It is wor t h n ot in g t h a t despit e et h n om u sicologys r oot s in colon ia l expa n sion (Rin ger 1991, et h ica l t on e. Accor din g t o Rober t La n cefield, for in st a n ce, t h e et h n om u sicologist Da vid 191), t h e field h a s a r gu a bly been im por t a n t a s a cou n t er h egem on ic voice wit h in m u sic McAllest er h a d m ost wa n t ed h is N a va jo r ecor din gs t o a ssist t h e N a va jo com m u n it y by sch ola r sh ip du e t o it s "ca n on ic r eflexivit y" (Boh lm a n 1992, n 8). 280 MICH AE L IYAN AGA MU SICAL RE P ATRIATION AS ME TH OD 28l RE F E RE N CE S E t h n om u sicology, edit ed by Br u n o N et t l a n d P h ilip V. 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"'Viola de Sa m ba a n d 'Sa m ba de Viola ' in t h e 'Recou ca vo' of Ba h ia (Br a zil), P a r t 2: 'Sa m ba de Viola .'" La t in Am er ica Mu sic Review 2 (z): 252-279. fr om t h e r ea lm s of a n t h r opology, et h n om u sicology, a n d folk lor e in pr eser vin g pr eciou s Za m it h , Rosa Ma r ia . 1995. "0 sa m ba -de-r oda ba ia n o em t em po e espa ^ o." Revist a In t er fa ces i a r t ifa ct s a n d idea s (St efa n o, Da vis, a n d Cor sa n e 2012). Yet wit h ou t t h eir u se of "t h e 'r ' (2): 53-66. wor d"—wh ich is n ot in com m on u sa ge a m on g t ea ch er s—r epa t r ia t ion n on et h eless r egu - la r ly occu r s t h r ou gh t h e m u sic t h ey offer t h eir you n g st u den t s in t h ou gh t fu lly design ed a n d a ge-a ppr opr ia t e cu r r icu la r exper ien ces. We a r gu e a n d pr ovide eviden ce t o su ppor t t h e posit ion t h a t t ea ch er s h a ve been over look ed in t h eir r epa t r ia t ion effor t s a n d im pa ct , a n d t h a t t h ey a r e a n im por t a n t com pon en t in t h e pr eser va t ion a n d t r a n sm ission ofcu l- t u r a l expr ession s a n d a r t ist ic u n der st a n din gs. Th eir r epa t r ia t ive effor t s occu r a lon g a