(PDF) PhD Thesis_Rolling_Wheels

UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI “L’ORIENTALE” DIPARTIMENTO ASIA AFRICA E MEDITERRANEO CORSO DI DOTTORATO IN VICINO ORIENTE ANTICO (XI CICLO) ROLLING WHEELS CARTS AND WAGONS IN SYRIA AND MESOPOTAMIA DURING THE 3RD MILLENNIUM BC CANDIDATO: TUTOR: MATTIA RACCIDI PROF. CARLO ZACCAGNINI A.A. 2012 - 2013 UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI “L’ORIENTALE” DIPARTIMENTO ASIA AFRICA E MEDITERRANEO CORSO DI DOTTORATO IN VICINO ORIENTE ANTICO (XI CICLO) ROLLING WHEELS CARTS AND WAGONS IN SYRIA AND MESOPOTAMIA DURING THE 3RD MILLENNIUM BC CANDIDATO: TUTOR: MATTIA RACCIDI PROF. CARLO ZACCAGNINI COORDINATORE: PROF. RICCARDO CONTINI A.A. 2012 - 2013 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. CONTENTS List of figures iii List of tables v List of plates vi 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 Research methodology 1 1.2.1 Material culture and the five categories 1 1.2.2 Database and catalogue 2 1.2.3 The interaction between the landscape and wheeled vehicles 6 1.3 The context: Syria and Mesopotamia during the 3 rd millennium BC 7 1.3.1 Syria and Mesopotamia 7 rd 1.3.2 The 3 millennium BC 8 1.4 Brief history of studies 10 1.5 Carts, wagons and chariots 12 1.5.1 Origin and spread 12 1.5.2 From sledges to wheeled vehicles 14 rd 1.5.3 After the 3 millennium BC: the light two-wheeled chariot 16 1.6 Glossary 17 2. TERRACOTTA MODELS 20 2.1 Material, techniques, functions 21 2.2 Typologies 25 2.2.1 Littauer/Crouwel 25 2.2.2 Bollweg 25 2.2.3 Pruß 27 2.2.4 Raccidi 27 2.3 Models Analyses 33 2.3.1 Typological analysis 33 2.3.2 Chronological analysis 36 2.3.3 Spread Analysis 39 2.4 From models to vehicles 43 i Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 3. WRITTEN SOURCES 46 3.1 Wheeled vehicle terminology 46 3.2 Statistical Analyses 48 3.3 Administrative texts: assignment 50 3.3.1 Assignment texts from Ebla 51 3.3.2 Assignment texts from Umma 57 3.4 Administrative texts: inventory 62 3.5 Administrative texts: offering 66 3.5.1 Girsu offerings: the “small car” at the Ambar canal 67 3.5.2 Umma Offerings: the “standing” car and the car “placed at the front” 68 3.5.3 Umma offerings: the car and the moon 68 3.6 Literary and royal/monumental texts 72 3.7 From written sources to vehicles 75 4. GLYPTIC 78 4.1 Types of wheeled vehicles in glyptic representations 78 4.2 The contexts 80 4.3 Statistical analyses 83 4.4 From glyptic representations to vehicles 85 5. “OTHER REPRESENTATIONS” 89 5.1 Metal models 89 5.2 Standards and inlays 92 5.3 Steles and plaques 94 5.4 Vases 98 6. WHEELED VEHICLES 101 6.1 Wheeled vehicles in funerary contexts: the cemeteries at Ur, Kiš and Susa 101 6.2 The Mari wheels and the cartwright’s house 104 7. THE WHEELED VEHICLES LANDSCAPE 106 7.1. The Khabur Basin 106 7.1.1 Geography and Morphology 106 7.1.2 Brief history of Studies 106 7.2 The Environmental Markers 107 7.2.1 Sites 107 ii Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 7.2.2 Hollow ways 107 7.3. Data and methods 108 7.4 Spatial analysis 110 7.4.1 Reclassification of hollow ways and intra-site arrangement 110 7.4.2 Networks and routes: inter-site arrangement 113 7.5 Wheeled vehicles and circulation patterns 116 8. CONCLUSIONS 119 8.1 Morphology 119 8.1.1 Raw materials 119 8.1.2 Components 120 8.1.3 Types of vehicles 121 8.2 Functions 123 8.2.1 War 123 8.2.2 Worship 124 8.2.3 Hunting 124 8.2.4 Elite means of transport 124 8.2.5 Economic functions 125 8.2.6 Symbolic meanings 125 8.3 Wheeled vehicles and their historical-geographical context. 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY 128 CATALOGUE Terracotta models 161 Written sources 217 Glyptic 263 “Other representations” 270 Wheeled vehicles 275 INDEX OF WHEELED VEHICLE QUOTATIONS IN THE ADMINISTRATIVE TEXTS Administrative texts: Assignment 277 Administrative texts: Inventory 297 Administrative texts: Offering 306 iii Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. PLATES 1-53 LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1.1: First evidence of land vehicles in the ancient Near East. 14 Fig. 1.2: Modern examples of tribulum A (from Anderson 2006, 300, Fig. 1a; 2) and plostellum B (from Littauer & Crouwel 1990a, Pl. IIIb-c). 16 Fig. 2.1: Types and sub-types of frontal shield upper edge. 29 Fig. 2.2: Preservation status of terracotta models. 34 Fig. 2.3: Types of wheeled vehicles terracotta models. 34 Fig. 2.4: Sub-types of models of cart with platform body and footboard (Type III). 35 Fig. 2.5: Sub-types of models of wagon with box body (Type V). 35 Fig. 2.6: Sub-types of covered vehicle models (Type VI). 36 Fig. 2.7: Chronological trend of wheeled vehicles terracotta models based on 3rd millennium BC Mesopotamian periods. 37 Fig. 2.8: Chronological trend of wheeled vehicles terracotta models based on 3rd millennium BC regional chronologies (Early Southern/Central Mesopotamia; Early Jazirah; Early Middle Euphrates). 37 Fig. 2.9: Chronological distribution of types and sub-types of wheeled vehicle terracotta models. 39 Fig. 2.10: Distribution of wheeled vehicles terracotta models within the five regions (Southern/Central Mesopotamia; Tigridian; Jazirah; Middle Euphrates; Northern Levant). 40 Fig. 2.11: Distribution of wheeled vehicles terracotta models by site. 40 Fig. 2.12: Regional distribution of types and sub-types of wheeled vehicles terracotta models. 42 giš giš Fig. 3.1: Chronological trend of terms GIGIR and GIGIR2 47 Fig. 3.2: Distribution of written sources by site. 48 Fig. 3.3: Chronological distribution of written sources. 49 Fig. 3.4: Genres of texts related to wheeled vehicles. 50 Fig. 3.5: Chronological distribution of assignment texts by site. 51 Fig. 3.6: Type and quantity of raw materials assigned to wheeled vehicles at Ebla. 56 Fig. 3.7: Chronological distribution of Umma assignment texts. 57 Fig. 3.8: Type and quantity of raw materials assigned to wheeled vehicles at Umma. 61 Fig. 3.9: Chronological distribution of inventory texts by site. 62 Fig. 3.10: Chronological distribution of offering texts by site. 66 Fig. 3.11: Chronological distribution of Umma offering texts concerning the car of day 6 and the car of day 7. 69 iv Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Fig. 3.12: Animals offered to the car of day 6 and the car of day 7. 70 Fig. 3.13: Tripartite lenticular disk wheel compared to the lunar phases of day 6 (waxing crescent) and day 7 (waxing gibbous). 72 Fig. 3.14: Hypothetical colouring of the Ningirsu cart (Reconstruction of the cart after Borker-Klahn 1982, Tafel E). 75 Fig. 4.1: Typology of wheeled vehicles represented in glyptic art (according to Jans & Bretschneider 1998, 184). 79 Fig. 4.2: First pattern of worship scenes. Lower register of Gl10. 81 Fig. 4.3: Second pattern of worship scenes. Upper register of Gl11. 81 Fig. 4.4: Distribution of glyptic representations by site. 83 Fig. 4.5: Chronological distribution of glyptic representations. 83 Fig. 4.6: Types of wheeled vehicles represented in glyptic art. 84 Fig. 4.7: Contexts in which wheeled vehicles are represented. 84 Fig. 4.8: Distribution of wheeled vehicle types within their contexts. 85 Fig. 4.9: Jebelet el-Beidha stele (from Borker-Klahn 1982, no. 13a-b). 88 Fig. 5.1: “Other representation” sub-categories. 89 Fig. 5.2: Bronze model Or28 with and without upholstery. 91 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Synchronised chronological table, based on the ARCANE project periodization table (http://www.arcane.uni-tuebingen.de/EA-EM-EL_phasing_v5-4-6.pdf). Columns from left to right: Mesopotamian periodization; Early Southern Mesopotamia/Early Central Mesopotamia chronology (ESM/ECM); Early Tigridian chronology (ETG); Early Jazirah chronology (EJZ); Early Middle Euphrates chronology (EME); Early Northern Levant chronology (ENL). 7 Table 3.1: List of members of the Ebla court with amount and types of their wheeled vehicles. Question marks show an unknown amount of vehicles. 55 Table 3.2: Name and destination of the royal messengers with the year and month of the assignment of goods for their wheeled vehicles. 60 Table 7.1: Statistical analysis: Internal and external hollow ways. Intensive/specialised and extensive zones. 112 Table 7.2: Number of connections in the Delaunay and Hollow Ways networks of the 28 sites between Wadis Aweidj and Khanzir, v Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. first 10 sites in the table are the hub-sites. 114 LIST OF PLATES 1. Terracotta models from Abu Salabikh (A: Md1; B: Md2; C: Md3; D: Md4; E: Md5; F: Md6; G: Md7; H: Md9). 2. Terracotta models from Girsu (A: Md10) and Kiš (B: Md11; C: Md12; D: Md13; E: Md14; F: Md15; G: Md16). 3. Terracotta models from Kiš (A: Md17; B: Md18; C: Md19; D: Md20; E: Md21), Mari (F: Md22; G: Md23) and Nippur (H: Md24; I: Md25). 4. Terracotta models from Nippur (A: Md26; B: Md27), Šuruppak (C: Md28) and Susa (D: Md29; E: Md30; F: Md31; G: Md32; H: Md33). 5. Terracotta models from Susa (A: Md34; B: Md35; C: Md36; D: Md37; E: Md38), Tell al Wilayah (F: Md39; G: Md40) and Uruk (H: Md41). 6. Terracotta models from Uruk (A: Md42; B: Md43; C: Md44; D: Md46; E: Md47; F: Md48; G: Md50; H: Md51). 7. Terracotta models from Uruk (A: Md52) and Assur (B: Md55; C: Md56; D: Md57; E: Md58; F: Md59; G: Md60; H: Md61; I: Md62). 8. Terracotta models from Gasur (A: Md63; B: Md64; C: Md65; D: Md66; E: Md67) and Tepe Gawra (F: Md68; G: Md69; H: Md70). 9. Terracotta models from Tepe Gawra (A: Md71), Harran (B: Md72; C: Md73) and Kahat (D: Md74; E: Md75; F: Md76; G: Md77; H: Md78). 10. Terracotta models from Kahat (A: Md79; B: Md80; C: Md81), Nabada (D: Md82; E: Md83) and Nagar (F: Md84; G: Md85; H: Md86; I: Md87; J: Md88; K: Md91). 11. Terracotta models from Nagar (A: Md90; B: Md95; C: Md96; D: Md97; E: Md98; F: Md99; G: Md102; H: Md104; I: Md105; J: Md106; K: Md107). 12. Terracotta models from Tell Arbid (A: Md108; B: Md109; C: Md110; D: Md111; E: Md112; F: Md113; G: Md114; H: Md115; I: Md116; J: Md117). 13. Terracotta models from Tell Arbid (A: Md118; B: Md119; C: Md120; D: Md121; E: Md122; F: Md124; G: Md125). 14. Terracotta models from Tell Arbid (A: Md126; B: Md129; C: Md130; D: Md131; E: Md132); Tell Huwayrah (F: Md135; G: Md136) and Tell Khuera (H: Md139; I: Md140). 15. Terracotta models from Tell Khuera (A: Md141; B: Md142; C: Md143; D: Md146; E: Md147; F: Md148; G: Md150; H: Md152; I: Md153; J: Md154). vi Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 16. Terracotta models from Tell Khuera (A: Md155; B: Md156; C: Md157; D: Md159; E: Md160; F: Md161), Tell Melebiya (G: Md164) and Urkeš (H: Md167; I: Md168; J: Md169; K: Md170; L: Md173). 17. Terracotta models from Urkeš (A: Md175; B: Md176; C: Md177; D: Md178) and Ekalte (E: Md179; F: Md180; G: Md182; H: Md186; I: Md188). 18. Terracotta models from Gaziantep (A: Md193), Habuba Khabira (B: Md194; C: Md195), Serug (D: Md196; E: Md197; F: Md198) and Tell Halawa (G: Md199; H: Md204; I: Md205; J: Md207). 19. Terracotta models from Tell Halawa (A: Md210; B: Md211; C: Md212; D: Md213; E: Md215; F: Md218; G: Md222; H: Md223; I: Md225; J: Md228). 20. Terracotta models from Tell Halawa (A: Md229; B: Md230; C: Md231; D: Md237; E: Md240; F: Md243; G: Md244; H: Md247; I: Md248; J: Md249; K: Md250). 21. Terracotta models from Tell Halawa (A: Md252; B: Md253), and Tell Selenkahiye (C: Md255; D: Md256; E: Md257; F: Md258; G: Md259; H: Md281; I: Md282). 22. Terracotta models from Tuttul (A: Md318; B: Md319; C: Md320; D: Md321; E: Md322; F: Md323; G: Md329; H: Md330; I: Md331; J: Md338; K: Md339; L: Md341; M: Md342; N: Md343). 23. Terracotta models from Tuttul (A: Md346; B: Md347; C: Md348; D: Md355; E: Md356; F: Md358; G: Md361; H: Md362: I: Md363). 24. Terracotta models from Tuttul (A: Md374; B: Md376; C: Md381; D: Md384; E: Md385; F: Md386; G: Md388; H: Md389; I: Md390). 25. Terracotta models from Tuttul (A: Md394; B: Md395; C: Md399; D: Md403; E: Md412; F: Md425; G: Md417). 26. Terracotta models from Tuttul (A: Md436; B: Md437; C: Md438; D: Md446; E: Md454; F: Md467), Middle Euphrates area (G: Md485-486) and Aleppo (H: Md487). 27. Terracotta models from Hama (A: Md488; B: Md489; C: Md490; D: Md491), Murek (E: Md493) and Syria (F: Md494; G: Md495; H: Md496). 28. Terracotta models from Syria (A: Md497; B: Md498) and without provenance (C: Md500). 29. Seal impressions from Abu Salabikh (A: Gl1), Ešnunna (B: Gl2); Kiš (C: Gl3) and Mari (D: Gl4; E: Gl5). 30. Seal impressions from Ur (A: Gl6; B: Gl7), Uruk (C: Gl8) and Southern Mesopotamia (D: Gl9). 31. Seal impressions from Nabada (A: Gl10; B: Gl11; C: Gl12; D: Gl13; E: Gl14; F: Gl15; G: Gl16; H: Gl17). 32. Seal impressions from Nabada (A: Gl18; B: Gl19; C: Gl20; D: Gl21; E: Gl22) and Nagar (F: Gl23; G: Gl24; H: Gl25; I: Gl26; J: Gl27; K: Gl28). 33. Seal impressions from Tell Khuera (A: Gl29), Upper Euphrates area (B: Gl31) and Syria (C: Gl32; D: Gl34; E: Gl35). 34. Seal impressions from Syria (A: Gl36) and without provenance (B: Gl37; C: Gl38; D: Gl39). vii Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 35. Seal impressions without provenance (A: Gl40; B: Gl43; C: Gl44; D: Gl45; E: Gl47; F: Gl48). 36. Fragments of Stele of Vultures depicting wheeled vehicles (Or1) and restoration of the Stele (from Borker-Klahn 1982, no. 17b;d). 37. Fragments of Gudea stele depicting wheeled vehicles (A: Or2; B: Or3; C: Or4; D: Or5; E: Or6). 38. Inlay fragments from Kiš (A: Or7), Mari (B: Or9; C: Or10; D: Or11; E: Or13) and Nippur (F: Or15); Painted vase from Susa (G: Or16). 39. Copper model (A: Or17) and votive plaques (B: Or18; C: Or19) from Tell Agrab. 40. Painted vase (A: Or20), carved steatite vase (B: Or21) and votive plaques (C: Or22; D: Or23; E: Or24) from Tutub; votive plaques from Ur (F: Or25). 41. Standard of Ur: “war panel” (Or26). 42. Standard of Ur: “peace panel” (Or26). 43. Metal models from Abamor Hoyuk (A: Or27-29), Syria (B: Or30; C: Or31) and Anatolia (D: Or32; E: Or33; F: Or34). 44. Metal models from Anatolia (A: Or35; B: Or36) and without provenance (C: Or37; D: Or38; E: Or39; F: Or40; G: Or41; H: Or42). 45. Wagon found in tomb Y 237 at Kiš (A: Wv1) and wheels found at Mari (B: Wv5) and in tomb B280 at Susa (C: Wv7). 46. Wagons found in the tombs PG 1232 (A: Wv8) and 789 in the Royal Cemetery at Ur (B: Wv9; C: Wv10); reconstruction of the scene in the death-pit of PG 789 (D: from Woolley 1934, Pl. 30). 47. Map of Near East with investigated sites. Pie-charts show type and percentage of documentation categories (i.e. terracotta models; written sources; glyptic; "other representations"; wheeled vehicles) for each site. (SRTM 90 m DEM, WGS 1984 Datum, scale 1: 500.000). 48. Map of Jazirah region (SRTM 90 m DEM, Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, Zone 37 North WGS 1984 Datum, scale 1:1.000.000). From Raccidi 2013a, Fig. 1. 49. Map of the investigated region with internal, external and narrow hollow ways, intensive/specialised and extensive zones. (ASTER GDEM 30 m, Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, Zone 37 North WGS 1984 Datum, scale 1:30.000). From Raccidi 2013a, Fig. 2. 50. Map of the investigated region showing the density of the hollow ways through line density analysis tool. Two high-density areas have been identified: in the surroundings of Tell Brak/Nagar and in the region between Wadi Khanzir and Wadi Aweidj. (ASTER GDEM 30 m, Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, Zone 37 North WGS 1984 Datum, scale 1:30.000). From Raccidi 2013a, Fig. 3. 51. Map of the investigated region with the hollow ways network linking together 88 sites, red dots indicate the Hub-Sites. (ASTER GDEM 30 m, Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, Zone 37 North WGS 1984 Datum, scale 1:30.000). From Raccidi 2013a, Fig. 4. viii Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 52. Map of the investigated region with the Delaunay network between the 88 sites, red dots indicate the Hub-Sites. (ASTER GDEM 30 m, Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, Zone 37 North WGS 1984 Datum, scale 1:30.000). From Raccidi 2013a, Fig. 5. 53. Map of the investigated region with the hollow ways and least cost routes of the 4 main paths described in Chapter 7. Each path shows hollow ways and least cost route distinguished by two shades of the same colour. Route 1: Tell Brak e Tell Beydar (red); Route 2: Gir Zil Saghir e Tell Beydar (violet); Route 3: Tell Arbid e Tell al-Shur Gharbi (blue); Route 4: Tell Brak e Tell Arbid (green). (ASTER GDEM 30 m, Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, Zone 37 North WGS 1984 Datum, scale 1:30.000). From Raccidi 2013a, Fig. 6. ix Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Objectives The aim of the present study is to analyse the morphology and functions of wheeled vehicles in Syria and Mesopotamia during the 3rd millennium BC through a survey of different types of evidence. As regards morphology, I will strive to recognise different types of vehicles, their components, and the raw materials employed in their construction, and reach a better understanding of the chronological and geographical spread of wheeled vehicles in Syria and Mesopotamia during the 3rd millennium BC. As regards function, I will investigate the contexts in which wheeled vehicles were employed, as well as the character and manner of their actual use. Furthermore, I will be looking at the symbolic meanings taken on by wheeled vehicles during the 3rd millennium BC. My study focusses on the Syro-Mesopotamian area during the 3rd millennium BC, since the abundant evidence from this period provides a detailed picture of the morphological evolution and functional diversification of wheeled vehicles. In order to achieve the abovementioned objectives, the methodological approach I have chosen for this study, explained in detail in the next section, is based on a quantitative and qualitative survey of the material culture related to wheeled vehicles. This survey is supplemented, in Chapter 7, by an analysis, based on environmental markers such as sites and hollow ways, of the landscape of a geographically limited region (the central Khabur basin), with the aim to define the landscape through which wheeled vehicles were moving. 1.2 Research methodology 1.2.1 Material culture and the five categories As I have mentioned above, my study is based on a quantitative and qualitative analysis of material culture from 3rd millennium BC Syria and Mesopotamia related to wheeled vehicles. In this large and heterogeneous corpus of evidence, I have distinguished five main categories: 1) Terracotta models 2) Written sources 3) Glyptic 4) “Other representations” 5) Wheeled vehicles 1 Introduction The first category includes terracotta models representing wheeled vehicles. Models of wheeled vehicles were very common in the ancient Near Eastern terracotta assemblage ever since the first centuries of the 3rd millennium BC. Indeed, they are the most abundant category of evidence for wheeled vehicles, and one of the most valuable sources of information for the morphological reconstruction of carts and wagons. The second category includes texts in which the words for cart or wagon appear. These are dated from the mid-3rd millennium BC onward, although most are from the last century of the 3rd millennium BC. This category of documentation provides important information about the materials employed in the construction of wheeled vehicles and the functions of the vehicles. The third category includes representations of wheeled vehicles on seals and in seal impressions, dating mainly from the third quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. These images provide additional information about the morphology of the vehicles, as well as a visual representation, although stereotypical, of the contexts in which carts and wagons were employed. The fourth category includes all those artefacts related to wheeled vehicles that do not fall under the previous categories. I divided this category into the following four sub-categories: 1) Metal models 2) Standards and inlays 3) Steles and plaques 4) Vases The last category includes the remains of actual wheeled vehicles. Carts and wagons being composed, for the most part, of perishable raw materials, they have not been preserved in the Syro-Mesopotamian environment. Only scarce remains of them have been found, and in most cases so damaged as to be barely recognisable. This category hence provides scanty information about the morphology and functions of wheeled vehicles. Each chapter of the present dissertation will deal with one of the above categories. 1.2.2 Database and catalogue The first stage in my research was the collecting of evidence.1 For the archaeological evidence— terracotta and metal models, seals and seal impressions, standards, inlays, steles, plaques, vases, and remains of wheeled vehicles—I relied mainly on excavation reports, but also on catalogues and specialised publications. For written sources, I mainly drew on the following on-line catalogues of texts: 1) Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI) 2) Database of Neo-Sumerian Texts (BDTNS) 3) Ebla Digital Archives 1 This research began with my study of the terracotta models from Tell Arbid and Tell Barri, published in 2012 (Raccidi 2012a-b), as well as some models from Tell Mozan (Md175-178), whose study ongoing. 2 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. I gathered this large corpus of evidence in a database, which I developed with FileMaker Pro 10 Advanced. I planned this database so as to meet two main requirements, viz., that it allow rational cataloguing of the evidence, and that it allow it to be studied and cross-analysed. The database contains five tables: terracotta models, written sources, glyptic art, “other representations”, wheeled vehicles. Each table contains two layouts for each record: the first layout, “list”, includes the general information about the artefact and serves as the basis for the present catalogue (see below). The second layout, “card”, is a working tool, used to study the artefacts. It contains the basic information with notes, a description, and images (pictures or drawings). The database contains a total of 967 records (500 terracotta models, 367 written sources, 48 glyptic sources, 42 “other representations”, 10 wheeled vehicles) from 45 different sites within the investigated area. The records in the catalogue are ordered into five tables according to their documentation category and following a geographical-chronological criterion. Firstly, I divided the investigated area into five regions (see below) and grouped records within them by site of origin, arranged in alphabetical order. Secondly, I arranged records originating from the same site in chronological order, on the basis of chronological table 1.2 Given the wide geographical and chronological spread of the artefacts recorded in the catalogue, I decided to adopt the regional subdivision and chronological synchronisation proposed by the ARCANE project, whose aim is to synchronize regional chronologies for the ancient Near East within the 3rd millennium BC (Associated Regional chronologies for the ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean: Lebeau 2011, 1; see also http://www.arcane.uni-tuebingen.de/). The regional subdivision is the following (Plate 47): 1) South-Central Mesopotamia (SM/CM) Abu Salabikh (45,053363 / 32,252628 Decimal Degrees); Adab/Bismaya (45,626218 / 31,943893 Decimal Degrees); Bad-Tibira/Tell al-Madain (46,001429 31,384125 Decimal Degrees); Ešnunna/Tell Asmar (44,723659 / 33,482809 Decimal Degrees); Girsu/Telloh (46,177509 / 31,555446 Decimal Degrees); Himrin (44,921154 / 34,365589 Decimal Degrees); Isin/Ishan al-Bahriyat (45,270935 / 31,883811 Decimal Degrees); Kiš/Tell al- Uhaymir (44,578511 / 32,547681 Decimal Degrees); Mari/Tell Hariri (40,897485 / 34,553567 Decimal Degrees); Nippur (45,232863 / 32,124137 Decimal Degrees); Puzriš-Dagan/ Drehem (45,294729 / 32,059892 Decimal Degrees); Šuruppak/Tell Fara (45,504122 / 31,781495 Decimal Degrees); Susa/Shush (48,250020 / 32,193141 Decimal Degrees) 3; Tell al-Wilayah 2 Many records, especially in the terracotta model category, are not dated to a single period (for example Early Dynastic II) but to a range comprising two or more periods (for example Early Dynastic II-Early Dynastic IIIb). In this case, records dated to a single period take precedence and are followed by those dated to two or three periods. Undated records are placed at the end. 3 I included the city of Susa, which geographically falls within the Western Iran region, in the Southern-Central Mesopotamia region on the basis of material cultural similarities. 3 Introduction (45,665925 / 32,312114 Decimal Degrees); Tell Agrab (44,866426 / 33,342421 Decimal Degrees); Tutub/Khafaja (44,552337 / 33,356698 Decimal Degrees); Ubaid (46,027603 / 30,974857 Decimal Degrees); Umm al-Jir (44,852149 / 32,645239 Decimal Degrees); Umma/Tell Jokha (45,889594 / 31,664901 Decimal Degrees); Ur/Tell al-Muqayyar (46,110884 / 30,962960 Decimal Degrees); Uruk/Warka (45,637372 / 31,327018 Decimal Degrees). 2) Tigridian Region (TG) Assur/Qal'at Shirqat (43,381643 / 35,424449 Decimal Degrees); Gasur/Yorghan Tepe (44,254905 / 35,364963 Decimal Degrees); Tepe Gawra (43,262669 / 36,499966 Decimal Degrees). 3) Jazirah (JZ)4 Harran (39,039126 / 36,868782 Decimal Degrees); Kahat/Tell Barri (41,125913 / 36,742671 Decimal Degrees); Nabada/Tell Beydar (40,585776 / 36,735532 Decimal Degrees); Nagar/Tell Brak (41,056909 / 36,671287 Decimal Degrees); Tell Arbid (41,018838 / 36,868782 Decimal Degrees); Tell Huwayrah (39,343697 / 36,685564 Decimal Degrees); Tell Khuera (39,503121 / 36,652251 Decimal Degrees); Tell Melebiya (40,809445 / 36,404787 Decimal Degrees); Urkeš/Tell Mozan (40,990284 / 37,059139 Decimal Degrees). 4) Middle Euphrates (ME) Abamor Höyük (38,313391 / 36,992514 Decimal Degrees); Ekalte/Tell Munbaqa (38,130172 / 36,219189 Decimal Degrees); Gaziantep (37,380642 / 37,071036 Decimal Degrees); Habuba Kabira (38,065927 / 36,169221 Decimal Degrees); Serug (38,427605 / 36,982996 Decimal Degrees); Tell Halawa (38,092101 / 36,116873 Decimal Degrees); Tell Selenkahiye (38,046891 / 36,097837 Decimal Degrees); Tuttul/Tell Bi’a (39,091474 / 35,921757 Decimal Degrees). 5) Northern Levant (NL) Aleppo (37,166490 / 36,197774 Decimal Degrees); Ebla/Tell Mardikh (36,800053 / 35,802784 Decimal Degrees); Hama (36,742946 / 35,131776 Decimal Degrees); Murek (36,683460 / 35,374481 Decimal Degrees). Records have nine fields in common, the remaining ones being specific to each category: 1) N°: catalogue number preceded by the acronym for each category; models (Md), written sources (Ws), glyptic (Gl), other representations (Or), wheeled vehicles (Wv). 2) Inventory: inventory number of the artefact from the publication. 3) Site: site of provenance. 4) Chronology: regional chronology. 5) Period: Mesopotamian periodization5. 4 Here the Arabic term Jazirah, meaning "island", describes the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates encompassing North-Western Iraq and North-Eastern Syria. 4 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 6) Type: type of the represented wheeled vehicle, based on my typology illustrated in Chapter 2.6 7) Location: Museum or Collection in which the artefact is kept. 8) Bibliography: primary publication. 9) Pl: plate. Terracotta model fields: 1) Conservation: preservation status of the model; complete, complete/damaged, fragment. 2) Measurements: length, height Written sources fields: 1) Sub-type: Only for administrative texts: assignment, inventory, offering, other. 2) Term: term used for cart/wagon. 3) Attestation: line/s of the text in which the term is attested. Glyptics field: 1) Context: context in which the vehicle is represented; war, worship, hunt. “Other representations” fields: 1) Documentation: type of medium on which wheeled vehicles are represented (metal models, standards and inlays, steles and plaques, vases). The index of wheeled vehicle quotations in administrative texts follows the general catalogue. It is divided into three tables related to the three main sub-types of administrative texts (i.e. assignment; inventory; offering) and arranged following the same geographical-chronological criterion of the general catalogue. Records of administrative texts have eleven common fields, while the remaining ones are specific to each sub-type: 1) N°: record number within the index tables: AtA = Administrative texts: Assignment; AtI = Administrative texts: Inventory; AtO = Administrative texts: Offering. 2) Ws: Text number corresponding to the written sources table of general catalogue. Many quotations show the same text number since belong to the same text. 3) Site: cf. general catalogue. 4) Period: cf. general catalogue. 5) Day: if specified in the text, indicated by Arabic numerals. 6) Month: if specified in the text, indicated by Roman numerals. 5 Chronology and period are based on the synchronised table proposed by the ARCANE project, see table 1. 6 The field “type” in the written sources table indicates the type of text: administrative, letter, literary, royal/monumental, vocabulary. 5 Introduction 7) Year: if specified in the text; name of the king + year of reign: Lugalanda (Lu), Šulgi (Š), Amar-Sin (AS), Šu-Sin (ŠS), Ibbi-Sin (IS). 8) Person: owner or person in charge of vehicle. 9) God: the deity owning of the vehicle. 10) Structure/place: structure or place where the vehicle is located. 11) Type: number and type of vehicle (cart or wagon)7. Assignment field: 1) Assignment: amount and type of assignments. Inventory fields: 1) Recording: recording types. 2) Components: amount and type of components recorded with the vehicle. 3) Value: value of the vehicle. Offering field: 1) Offering: amount and type of offerings. 1.2.3 The interaction between the landscape and wheeled vehicles The last section of this dissertation proposes a new methodological approach to the study of wheeled vehicles, namely, an investigation of the landscape through which 3rd millennium BC wheeled vehicles moved. This approach is based on the assumption that there was a strong reciprocal influence between wheeled vehicles and the landscape: on the one hand, the character of the landscape influenced the morphological evolution and spread of wheeled vehicles, on the other, wheeled vehicles influenced the landscape. This influence can be traced through a spatial analysis of a number of environmental markers, such as modern remains of pathways (hollow ways) and sites. The methodological approach I have chosen for my study of the “wheeled-vehicle landscape” is based on a range of computational methods for modelling these environmental markers (i.e., hollow ways and sites), using a GIS platform developed for the purpose and a number of spatial statistics methods. I have limited my analysis to a single case study, that of the central Khabur basin, as evidence (both archaeological and epigraphic) is especially abundant in this region, and its favourable environmental conditions have allowed a good preservation of environmental markers, such as hollow ways. 7 The field is absent in the offering index, since offerings always refer to a single unspecified vehicle (cart/wagon). 6 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Table 1.1: Synchronised chronological table, based on the ARCANE project periodization table (http://www.arcane.uni-tuebingen.de/EA-EM-EL_phasing_v5-4-6.pdf). Columns from left to right: Mesopotamian periodization; Early Southern Mesopotamia/Early Central Mesopotamia chronology (ESM/ECM); Early Tigridian chronology (ETG); Early Jazirah chronology (EJZ); Early Middle Euphrates chronology (EME); Early Northern Levant chronology (ENL). 1.3 The context: Syria and Mesopotamia during the 3 rd millennium BC 1.3.1 Syria and Mesopotamia (Plate 47) The present research focuses on a very large area, covering ca. 450,000 km2 from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea, and nowadays included in the territories of modern Iraq and Syria, with small portions lying in South-Eastern Turkey and South-Western Iran. The main rivers in this area are the Tigris and the Euphrates, flowing from north to south, with their main tributaries (Diyala, Lower Zab and Upper Zab for the Tigris, Khabur and Balikh for the Euphrates). Another important river, the Orontes, flows to the west of the Euphrates. The main lakes in the area are: al-Assad Lake (Syria/Euphrates); Hadithah Dam Lake (Iraq/Euphrates); Tharthar Lake (Iraq); Mosul Dam Lake (Iraq/Tigris); Dukan Lake (Iraq/Lower Zab); Darbandikhan Lake (Iraq/Diyala). 7 Introduction Two main mountain ranges surround the region to the east (Zagros) and the North (Taurus), while its south eastern boundary is constituted by the Syro-Arabian desert. The annual average rainfall ranges between ca. 100 mm in the Southern Mesopotamia plain to ca. 600 mm in the mountainous Zagros and Taurus regions. Rainfall is mainly concentrated in the winter and early spring months. This variation determined, since ancient times, different strategies for agricultural exploitation: irrigation agriculture in the Southern Mesopotamia plain, with an annual rainfall of less than 250 mm, dry farming in the region where rainfall exceeded 250 mm (Eastern Jazirah, Middle Euphrates valley and Western Syria). 1.3.2 The 3rd millennium BC Uruk, which had been the agent of the spread of the first urbanisation as well as of important technological innovations, including wheeled vehicles, collapsed between the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, causing a crisis of urbanization and marked regionalisation. In the absence of written sources, we are informed about this crisis and regionalisation, which occurred in the Jamdat Nasr and Early Dynastic I periods (c. 3000-2750 BC) mainly through the study of material culture. South-central Mesopotamia, characterised first by painted pottery of the so-called Jamdat Nasr type and later by Scarlet Ware, was the region that was less affected by the crisis of urbanisation, even though a decline is evident compared to the previous Uruk period. On the contrary, northern Mesopotamia (i.e. Tigridian region and Jazirah) and Western Syria (i.e., the Middle Euphrates region and Northern Levant) faced a severe contraction of urbanization and marked ruralisation. Sites of this period in the former region are characterised by the so-called “Ninevite 5” ware, a pottery type divided into three phases (painted; incised; incised/excised), which derives its name from the deep trial trench dug at Nineveh by Max Mallowan in 1931. The material culture of the latter region, instead, features the so-called “sinuous-sided bowls” and Late Reserved Slip ware. After the recession phase at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, a process of demographic, productive, and political development set in between the Early Dynastic II and the Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2750-2335 BC), whose climax was to be the so-called Second Urban Revolution. A marked polycentrism characterised the South-Central Mesopotamian region, with numerous city- states, very often in conflict with one another. The main Mesopotamian cities of this period were Uruk, Ur, Girsu, Umma, Adab, Šuruppak, Nippur, Kiš, Ešnunna, Mari, a bridgehead between Mesopotamia and Syria, further to the north, and Assur, in the Tigridian Region. Northern Mesopotamia and Western Syria are the regions where the effects of the second urbanisation are most evident, since their main sites grew at a dizzying rate (for example, Nagar/Tell Brak and Urkeš/Tell Mozan expanded to ca. 100 ha) and, for the first time, monumental buildings together with elite art and the first written documents (mainly from Ebla and Tell Beydar/Nabada) appeared. In addition to the expansion of the main centres, this period saw an extraordinary increase in the number of sites (especially in the Middle Euphrates and Northern Levant, for example: Ebla, Tuttul, 8 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Tell Halawa, Tell Selenkahiye), giving rise to a dense network, which favoured inland displacement along the east-west axis. The so-called kranzhügel (“wreath-mound”) sites, whose best known examples are Tell Khuera and Tell Beydar/Nabada—which developed during the mid-3rd millennium BC in a marginal agricultural zone between the North-Eastern Jazirah and the Middle Euphrates— probably served as a bridgehead for trade between these two regions. The hierarchical political organisation of Northern Mesopotamian and Western Syrian communities led, during the Early Dynastic IIIb period, to the hegemony of three main centres, in conflict with one another, viz., Ebla in Western Syria, Mari in Southern Syria, and Nagar in North-Eastern Syria. The end of the Early Dynastic period is marked by the emergence of Akkadian “imperial” expansionism, which led to the rise of the first “empire” in history (c. 2335-2170 BC). During this period, Sargon and his successors (Rimuš, Maništusu, Naram-Sin, Šar-kali-šarri, Dudu, Šu-Turul) subjugated the Southern Mesopotamian city-states, starting from Kiš, and subsequently conquered Northern Mesopotamia, destroying its two main cities, Mari and Ebla,8 and establishing an important regional control centre at Nagar, where they built the palace of Naram-Sin. The Akkadian state management was different in the core and in the periphery: a more compact control was exercised over the core, while the periphery was probably controlled through regional centres, the best-known example being the above-mentioned settlement of Nagar. Further clear evidence of Akkadian presence at Syrian sites comes from Mari and Tuttul, as well as Urkeš, which yielded seal impressions of Naram-Sin's daughter, Tar’am-Agade. Further important Akkadian centres were Gasur in the Tigridian region, as well as Umma, Nippur, Adab, Girsu, Ešnunna, and Tutub in South-Central Mesopotamia, which yielded numerous texts, some of them concerning wheeled vehicles. The fall of the Akkadian “empire”, caused by the Gutian invasion, marks the beginning of the urban crisis in Northern Mesopotamia and Western Syria: many sites drastically shrank, while others were abandoned. Up to date, no unambiguous explanation for this phenomenon exists. Two different hypotheses have been advanced for this crisis, one ascribing it to climate change (Weiss et al. 2003), the other to environmental deterioration caused by the urban societies themselves (Tainter 1988). During the last century of the 3rd millennium BC, the Southern Mesopotamian cities regained their power with local dynasties. Among these, the Second Dynasty of Lagaš stands out, with its most representative king, Gudea. A second Southern Mesopotamia “empire” was established under the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur (Ur III): Ur-Nammu, Šulgi, Amar-Sin, Šu-Sin, Ibbi-sin (c. 2112- 2004 BC). The core of the Ur III state roughly encompassed South-Central Mesopotamia, from the Persian Gulf to the Diyala region. The rulers controlled this area directly through royal officials installed in the main cities of the state. The huge amount of texts produced during the Ur III period has provided important information concerning wheeled vehicles. 8 The issue of the destruction of Mari and Ebla is a still debated topic; for more details see chapter 4. 9 Introduction The fall of the Ur III “empire” at the end of 3rd millennium BC was mainly caused by invasions from the Syrian Steppe (Amorites) and from the Zagros Mountains, combined with an internal decadence of the state apparatus. In Mesopotamia and Syria, the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd millennium BC brought major political and social changes, as well as the introduction of substantial technological innovations, especially as regards wheeled vehicles (see section 1.5.3). 1.4 Brief history of studies The first studies on the evolution and spread of wheeled vehicles date back to the beginning of the 20 th century. They are: O. Nuoffer, Der Rennwagen im Altertum (1904), E. Popplow, Pferd und Wagen im alten Orient (1934), J.A.H. Potratz, Das Pferd in der Frühzeit (1938). Simultaneously with these early studies, the first discoveries of wagons in funerary contexts were made in Mesopotamia (Woolley 1934, Watelin1934; De Mecquenem 1943) and in the Caucasus (Sagona 2013), giving greater prominence to the topic. After the Second World War, the famous Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe published two articles of fundamental importance for the study of wheeled vehicles: “The first Waggons and Carts – from the Tigris to the Severn” (Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 17, 1951) and “The Diffusion of Wheeled Vehicles” (Ethnographisch-archäologische Forschungen 2, 1954). These articles started a new season of studies on wheeled vehicles, whose climax occurred between the late 1970s and late 1990s, with the publication of many important studies on this topic: 1979 – M. A. Littauer and J. H. Crouwel, Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East. 1983 – S. Piggott, The Earliest Wheeled Transport: From the Atlantic Coast to the Caspian Sea. 1987 – A. Sherratt, “Wool, wheels and ploughmarks: local developments or outside introductions in Neolithic Europe?” (Bullettin of the London University Institute of Archaeology 23). 1992 – A. Häusler, Der Ursprung des Wagens in der Diskussion der Gegenwart. 1992 – S. Piggott, Wagon, Chariot and Carriage: Symbol and Status in the History of Transport. 1999 – J.A. Bakker, J. Kruk, A.E. Lanting and S Milisauskas, “The earliest evidence of wheeled vehicles in Europe and the Near East” (Antiquity 73). 1999 – M.U. Vosteen, Urgeschichtliche Wagen in Mitteleuropa: eine archäologische und religionswissenschaftliche Untersuchung neolithischer bis hallstattzeitlicher Befunde. Two volumes in recent years, collecting the studies of many scholars, focus on the origin and diffusion of wheeled vehicles: the first, Rad und Wagen: Der Ursprung einer Innovation: Wagen im Vorderen Orient und Europa, was published in 2004 by M. Fansa and S. Burmeister, while the second, Premiers chariots, premiers araires: la diffusion de la traction animale en Europe pendant les 4. et 3. millénaires avant notre ère, was published by P. Pétrequin et al. in 2006. 10 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Finally, a study of wheeled vehicles and their relationship with the spread of Indo-European populations was published by D.W. Anthony in 2007, with the title The Horse, the Wheel and the Language. How bronze-age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world. The most comprehensive study of ancient Near Eastern wheeled vehicles, still regarded as the main reference work on this topic, is the above-mentioned monograph by Littauer and Crouwel. In this work, the authors analyse the evolution of the wheeled vehicle through a study of material culture from the 4th millennium BC onward. Their proposed distinction of vehicles into 3 different types also applies to terracotta models. Indeed, although originally intended for full-size vehicles, it has been used in many studies on terracotta models of wheeled vehicles. Besides this study, these two scholars published several articles on various aspects of wheeled vehicles, which were collected in a single monograph by P. Raulwing in 2002: Selected Writings on Chariots and other Early Vehicles, Riding and Harness. Many scholars, including Littauer and Crouwel themselves, have focused their attention on only one of the different categories of evidence for wheeled vehicles, namely, terracotta models, most of which are published in excavation reports. The most significant of these essays, which served as basis for the present study, are: 1974 – M. A. Littauer and J. H. Crouwel, “Terracotta Models as Evidence for Vehicles with tilts in the Ancient Near East” (Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 40). 1993 – E.C. Stone, “Chariots of the Gods in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia (c.2000–1600 B.C.)” (Cambridge Archaeological Journal 3). 1999 – J. Bollweg, Vorderasiatische Wagentypen im Spiegel der Terrakottaplastik bis zur Altbabylonischen Zeit. 2001 – P.R.S. Moorey, “Clay Models and Overland Mobility in Syria, c. 2350-1800” (Meyer, J-W., Novák, M., Pruß, A. (Hrsg.), Beiträge zur Vorderasiatische Archäologie). Texts are a further information source on wheeled vehicles in the ancient Near East. The most comprehensive study on terminology related to wheeled vehicles and their components was published by A. Salonen in 1951: Die Landfahrzeuge des alten Mesopotamien. Later, G. Conti published a similar study, but focussing on the Ebla texts: “Carri ed equipaggi nei testi di Ebla” (Quaderni di Semitistica 19, 1997). Finally, only one study focusses exclusively and extensively on representations of wheeled vehicles in ancient Near Eastern glyptic art. It was published by G. Jans and J. Bretschneider in 1998: “Wagon and Chariot Representations in the Early Dynastic Glyptic. They came to Tell Beydar with Wagon and Equid” (Subartu IV.2). 11 Introduction 1.5 Carts, wagons and chariots 1.5.1 Origin and spread Cart and wagons of 3rd millennium BC Syro-Mesopotamia are the result of a combination of different innovations, including: animal traction, connecting components (i.e., yoke and draught pole), early land vehicles (i.e., the threshing sledge and the travois), revolving components (i.e., rollers and wheels). The development and synthesis of these elements occurred during the 4th millennium BC, when wheeled vehicles first appeared. However, the geographical origin and dissemination trajectories of these early vehicles remain a highly debated topic. The difficulties related to this issue depend on three main factors: 1) The vastness of the region where wheeled vehicles may have had origin, which extends from Southern Mesopotamia to Central-Eastern Europe. 2) The relatively short span of time in which this innovation spread (ca. five hundred years). 3) The scarcity of evidence, mostly consisting of artefacts representing wheeled vehicles (models or representations on vases), and the difficulty of obtaining accurate radiocarbon dates. Two basic hypotheses have emerged regarding the origin of wheeled vehicles in the ancient Near East: one according to which they originated and spread from a single centre, and another postulating independent invention in multiple centres. Hereinafter I relate some of the main theories about the origin and spread of wheeled vehicles. 1) According to the most classical and popular hypothesis (Childe 1951; Piggott 1979, 1983; Sherratt 1981, 1987, 2006; Bakker et al. 1999), the favourable socio-economic conditions provided by the Southern Mesopotamian society of Uruk allowed a synthesis of different innovations which led to the transformation of the threshing board into the wheeled vehicle.9 The colonial expansionism of the Uruk civilisation along the Euphrates valley up to South-Central Anatolia and frequent contacts, especially at the elite level, between the Uruk colonies and the Trans-Caucasian populations (Kuro- Araxes culture) were probably the main factors in the rapid spread of wheeled vehicles. Furthermore, wheeled vehicles rapidly spread from the Southern Caucasus regions to East-Central Europe through the Black Sea shores and the Danube Valley. 2) A second hypothesis locates the centre of origin and spread of wheeled vehicles in the Northern Black Sea regions (Hausler 1992; Maran 2004a-b; Matuschik 2006). Many archaeological cultures of these regions have yielded artefacts related to wheeled vehicles, mainly consisting of: 1) Sledge terracotta models, composed of a rounded box with two pierced runners and a pair of oxen protomes attached to the front (Gusev 1998), found in Ukraine and ascribed to the 9 A model for the origin of wheeled vehicles, as well as of many other processes related to complex societies, was proposed by Sherratt, who defined it the “Secondary Products Revolution” (SPR). The scholar suggests that the primary exploitation of animals for their meat was eventually followed by the discovery that domestic animals could also be exploited for their milk, wool and traction power (Sherratt 1981, 1983, 1987). 12 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. transition from the ancient to the recent phase of the Tripolye culture (Tripolye B2-C1),10 which has been radiocarbon-dated to the first half of the 4th millennium BC (Rassamakine 1999; Videiko 1999). 2) Wheeled vehicle terracotta models from Hungary (Budakalasz and szigetszentmarton), composed of a deep squared box body, usually decorated with incised zig-zag lines, four disk wheels and, occasionally, a draught pole or a handle (Milisauskas & Kruk 1982), related to the so-called Baden culture: an Eneolithic culture (c. 3600-2800 BC) widespread in the nowadays Eastern Austria, Slovakia, Serbia, Hungary and Western Romania. 3) Two vases from Southern Poland (Bronocice and Ostrowiec) with incised decoration, representing stylised vehicles with four wheels and draught pole (Milisauskas & Kruk 1982; Uzarowiczowa 1975), belong to the so-called TRBK culture (Trichterbecher Kulturen, i.e. Funnel-beaker culture), a Neolithic and Eneolithic culture (c. 4800-3000 BC) that is found over a vast area encompassing present-day Scandinavia, Poland, Northern Germany and the Netherlands. According to Maran’s assumption, wheeled vehicles were invented in these regions and subsequently spread to the north (Central Europe) and to the south (Mesopotamia). The agent of their southward dissemination was the Maikop culture, attested in Caucasus and coeval with the Kuro-Araxes culture and Middle-Late Uruk society. According to Maran, the contacts among these three cultures which led to the spread of wheeled vehicles took place at the elite level. These first two hypotheses, although they disagree in their identification of the area of origin of wheeled vehicles, agree in the following basic assumptions: 1) There was a single centre of origin and diffusion. 2) The innovation was inspired by economic necessity. 3) 4th millennium BC societies were extraordinarily expansive. 4) Cultural exchanges occurred at the elite level. 3) Finally, today many scholars are in favour of a third hypothesis, namely, that wheeled vehicles were invented independently in multiple locations (Burmeister 2004, Vosteen 2006). Notably, Vosteen suggests that wheeled vehicles were invented simultaneously, around the mid-4th millennium BC, by the populations of East-Central European regions (TRBK and Baden cultures) and by the Uruk civilisation in Southern Mesopotamian. This invention, the scholar argues, was inspired by ritual reasons and not by economic necessity, as the previous hypotheses suggest. The introduction of the 10 The Tripolye culture flourished during the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods (c. 4800-3000 BC) in the region corresponding to present-day Romania, Moldova and Ukraine. 13 Introduction wheeled vehicles as means of transport must have taken place later, between the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BC, in the Peri-Alpine regions (Vosteen 2006, 244). 1.5.2 From sledges to wheeled vehicles As described in the previous section, the geographical origin and trajectories of dissemination of wheeled vehicles are still a debated topic. However, thanks to analyses of the archaeological and iconographic evidence, limited to the Syro-Mesopotamian region, it is possible to identify the reasons and the main steps that led to the introduction of wheeled vehicles within this region. The first evidence of land vehicles date back to the end of the 4th millennium BC and are: 1) Proto-cuneiform signs of Uruk IVa representing a sledge and a sledge-car (Green & Nissen 1987, 220, Nr. 247-248). Fig. 1.1A. 2) A seal impression representing a sledge from Arslantepe (Frangipane, 1997: fig. 16, 1). Fig. 1.1B. 3) A seal impression representing a sledge, without provenance, kept in the J.P. Rosen Collection, New York (Littauer & Crouwel 1990a, 15-16, Pl.IIa). Fig. 1.1C. 4) A steatite plaquette representing a sledge, without provenance, kept at the British Museum (Herzfeld 1934, 223). Fig. 1.1D. Fig. 1.1: First evidence of land vehicles in the ancient Near East. The sledges represented in the seal impression and on the plaquette are of the same type. They are composed of a base (a single board, most probably, or two runners) with a front end bent upward and slightly inward, onto which an arched canopy is installed. The vehicle is pulled by an ox, connected to it by a pole, and driven by a person standing in front of the canopy. A second person is seated under the canopy, probably a king or priest, since, as the British Museum plaquette shows, he is bearded and shows the typical king/priest hairstyle. Two persons standing behind the vehicle complete the scene, as shown in the impression from Arslantepe and New York. In the former, one of these persons holds a “fingered” tool, probably a winnowing shovel. 14 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. The proto-cuneiform signs can be divided into two groups: the first one includes signs that represent a vehicle totally similar to those depicted in seal impressions and on plaquettes. The second group includes signs representing a similar vehicle, but having four wheels or two rollers (the so-called sledge-car). The archaeological and textual evidence for the function of these vehicles and the meaning of these representations has been studied by Littauer, Crouwel and Steinkeller (1990). According to these scholars, the scenes probably represent a harvest ceremony 11 and the vehicles were probably ceremonial sledges12 reproducing actual threshing sledges. Thus, the first use of land vehicles in Mesopotamia was threshing, performed by sledges pulled by oxen13. The vehicle used for this activity, known by the Latin term tribulum, has a very ancient origin14 and was still used up until recent times in Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Anatolia. As these modern examples show, it was composed of a single board made of vertical wooden planks, with the front end bent upward and slightly inward. A large number of flint blades stuck into the bottom of the board ensured the threshing of the cereals15. Modern examples of this contraption were pulled in a circular motion over the cereals by a pair of oxen or donkeys attached to the vehicle by a straight pole, while the farmer stood on the board (sometimes fitted with a seat) holding the reins in order to direct the work of the draught animals and increase friction with his weight. The tribulum was the simplest but not the only farming contraption of this kind employed for threshing. According to Stenkeller, another threshing tool was the so-called plostellum poenicum (Steinkeller 1990, 19-20). This is described by Varro as “a toothed axle running on low wheels” (De Re Rustica I, LII). It was composed of two runners with wooden threshing beaters between them and a stool or seat-board mounted onto them. This is probably the vehicle represented by the proto- cuneiform signs of Uruk IVa depicting a sledge with two rollers. The Southern Mesopotamian plostellum thus contained all the potential innovations necessary for the development of wheeled vehicles, that is: pair of draught animals, a straight draught pole, a stool or 11 These rituals were also prescribed in the so-called Farmer’s Instruction, a text dated to beginning of 2nd millennium BC, but containing information also applicable to the 3rd millennium BC, which describes in chronological order the proper steps involved in the cereal cycle: 95 To open your threshing floor, smooth it completely. / 96 When you thresh, / 97 the teeth of your threshing sledge and its leather straps should be secured with bitumen. / 98 When you make the oxen trample (the grain), / 99 your threshers should be strong. / l00 When your grain is spread on the ground, /101 perform the rites of the grain not yet clean. (Civil 1994, 33) 12 Ceremonial sledges dating back to the mid-3rd millennium BC were found in the royal tomb of Queen Puabi at Ur (Woolley 1934, 78-83) and Tomb A32 in the Donjon cemetery at Susa (Tallon 1987, 297). Further ceremonial sleighs, belonging to Lagaš princesses, are mentioned in texts from the same period (Steinkeller 1990, 21-23). 13 Using sledges was neither the only nor the most common way of threshing. In fact, the simplest and most common methods were flailing and trampling by oxen. It is therefore possible that threshing sledges were only used on important, possibly ritual occasions, as confirmed by the representations described above. 14 P.C. Anderson suggests that this implement had already been introduced as early as the 6th millennium BC (Anderson 1999, 2006). 15 The traces of threshing activities on flint blades from Northern Iraq, Northern Syria and Southern Anatolia sites have been studied by P.C. Anderson (2006). 15 Introduction canopy, the employment of certain raw materials, viz., leather and bitumen,16 and revolving rollers, the ancestors of wheels. However, according to Sherratt, the early evolution of wheeled vehicles occurred in Northern Mesopotamia, Syria, Eastern Anatolia and Trans-Caucasia (Sherratt 2006, 345). There were probably environmental reasons for this: the marshy Southern Mesopotamian landscape was not suitable for wheeled transport and the two great rivers (Tigris and Euphrates), with their many tributaries and canals, made fluvial transport more viable than land transport. On the contrary, the favourable geomorphology of the northern regions17, with their many east-west land routes, led to the evolution of a sledge with revolving rollers, brought to those regions by the expansion of Uruk, into an actual wheeled vehicle. Fig. 1.2: Modern examples of tribulum A (from Anderson 2006, 300, Fig. 1a; 2) and plostellum B ( from Littauer & Crouwel 1990a, Pl. IIIb-c). 1.5.3 After the 3rd millennium BC: the light two-wheeled chariot After the development and spread of carts and wagons during the 3 rd millennium BC, a new type of wheeled vehicle emerged in the ancient Near East as a result of a number of innovations since the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, namely, the light two-wheeled horse-drawn chariot. The chariot shows three main innovations compared to the earlier 3rd millennium BC vehicles: 1) A body with a low open railing. 2) Spoked wheels. 3) Horse traction. 16 Steinkeller, on the basis of the threshing sledge description of the “Farmer’s Instruction” (see note 3), suggests that leather straps and bitumen were used to secured the teeth of plostellum rollers, rather than the flint blades of a tribulum, which were hammered in the base. 17 A case study of the interaction between wheeled vehicles and landscape will be treated in the appendix. 16 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. The synthesis of these three elements was a light, fast and easy to manoeuvre vehicle, composed of a flat platform with an open railing (probably reinforced with leather) set on a fixed axle (usually in the rear part of the vehicle), on which two spoked wheels (with four to eight spokes) revolved; the bent draught pole was fixed to the axle and connected the vehicle to a pair of draught horses. The light horse-drawn chariots were mainly employed in war by the elites of the major powers of the Late Bronze Age: Egypt, Hatti, Mitanni and Assyria. The most conspicuous example of a warrior nobility equipped with chariots was the important caste of the Maryannu in the kingdom of Mitanni. The vehicle usually held two people, a charioteer and an archer, but sometimes also a third person with a shield to protect the other two occupants. Chariots were generally very similar. There could be some variations, however, in the shape and upholstery of the body and, above all, in tyre thickness. Egyptian chariots had very thin tyres, Assyrian chariots very thick ones, perhaps composed of bronze plaques. The reason for this difference was probably due to differences in the terrain these vehicles were used on. As in the case of wheeled vehicles, the invention of the chariot is a much debated issue. There are two main hypotheses: 1) According to Littauer and Crouwel, the invention and synthesis of the three elements that led to the chariot took place within ancient Near Eastern societies. In particular, the scholars suggest that the chariot was an evolution of the 3rd millennium BC “platform car” and, similarly, the spoked wheel derived from the disk wheel (also typical for the 3rd millennium BC), with the cross-bar wheel as an intermediate stage (Littauer & Crouwel 1979, 68-71). 2) On the contrary, Piggott suggests that Near Eastern chariots of the 2nd millennium BC did not evolve from 3rd millennium BC vehicles, but that their appearance “was rather the result of a ready social acceptance of the light, spoked-wheel, horse-drawn vehicle from alien, non-urban, non-literate communities to the north […] who included some within the Indo-European language family18” (Piggott 1978, 42). Thus, Piggott argues that the light two-wheeled horse-drawn chariot was a whole new invention, introduced from the Northern Steppe by Indo-European populations. Technical terms of Indo- European origin related to the training of chariot horses occurring in the famous Kikkuli text from Bogazköy19 are often mentioned as proof of this theory. 1.6 Glossary The following is a brief glossary of the terms used in this study to define the different types of wheeled vehicles and their main components. 18 For a recent study on the connection between wheeled vehicles and the Indo-European language see: Anthony 2007. 19 For a recent study of the Kikkuli text see: Raulwing 2009. 17 Introduction Axle: A wooden rod with a rectangular or circular section. It stood under the body of the vehicle and could be fixed (the wheels revolved on it) or revolving (the wheels and the axle revolved together). Box: A body type composed of a platform with high sides and back, and a high shield on the front. Cart: Two-wheeler vehicle. In the 3rd millennium BC it was equipped with disk wheels. Chariot: Light two-wheeler vehicle with spoked wheels, usually horse-drawn, typical for the mid-2nd millennium BC. Covered vehicle: Four-wheeler vehicle with an inverted U-shaped cover, closed at the back and open on the front. Cross-bar wheel: Wheel spanned by two bars arranged in a cross shape. Disk wheel: The most common type of wheel, widespread in 3rd millennium BC Syria and Mesopotamia. It was composed of three wooden boards (tripartite disk wheel), of which the central one was rectangular shaped or lenticular. A further, but less common, type of disk wheel was made of a single wooden board. Draught pole: Wooden rod, usually circular in section, which served as the connecting element between the vehicle and the yoke. It could be either straight or arched. Footboard: The rear extension of the platform of the vehicle. It served as a platform for a second rider, usually a lancer, to stand on. Frontal shield: A high screen that protected the body of the charioteer. Those of ritual vehicles were lavishly decorated with precious metals and stone, while those of war vehicles were reinforced with two crossed wooden bars arranged in an X-shape. Platform: A body type composed of a simple wooden floor or a wooden block, with no sides. In the first case, the charioteer stood on the floor, in the second case astride the block with his feet on the fixed axle. The latter type occurs only in carts. Platform car: A type of cart with a platform base, sides, a seat, and high frontal shield (cf. Littauer & Crouwel 1979) Rein ring: A metal element, usually attached to the draught pole, through which the reins were strung. It consisted of a single or double ring. The more elaborate examples were surmounted by an animal figure. Sledge: land vehicle without wheels, composed of a base (a board or two runners) with the front end bent upward and slightly inward, supporting a seat or covered superstructure. Sledge-car: A vehicle with the same construction as a sledge, but equipped with four wheels or two rollers. Spoked wheel: A wheel with thin wooden spokes, usually six or eight. It became the most common type of wheel from the mid-2nd millennium BC onward. Straddle car: A type of cart in which the charioteer stood astride the body with his feet on the axle (Cf. Littauer & Crouwel 1979). 18 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Threshing sledge/tribulum: A farming contraption composed of a single large runner made of several slats, bent upward and slightly inward at the front end. A set of lithic tools (obsidian or flint blades) were fixed to the bottom to thresh cereals. Threshing wheel/Plostellum punicum: A farming contraption composed of two runners with wooden threshing beaters between them and a stool or seat-board mounted onto them. Travois: A land vehicle without wheels, formed of two long wooden poles arranged in a V shape, joined by transversal wooden stakes. Tyre: An element that protected the rim of wheels. In the 3rd millennium BC, it was made of wood or rawhide fixed to the wheel with copper nails. Wagon: Four-wheeler vehicle. In the 3rd millennium BC it was equipped with disk wheels. 19 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 2. TERRACOTTA MODELS Models of wheeled vehicles constitute a peculiar category of ancient Near Eastern terracotta, common in assemblages from the beginning of the 3 rd through the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. With 500 specimens in the catalogue, this category of objects is the most numerous among those analysed here (written sources; glyptic; “other representations”; wheeled vehicles). The first part of the present chapter is preceded by a brief history of studies, and will focus on the identification and description of wheeled-vehicle models. I will begin by analysing materials, production techniques, and the purposes of these models. I will then be looking at typologies of terracotta models in chronological order, with special attention to the one proposed by me. The second part of the chapter will present detailed statistical analyses of the models gathered in the catalogue. I will analyse the following aspects: typology; chronology; dissemination. The last section will focus on the information that models provide for the study of full-size vehicles. The study of terracotta models of wheeled vehicles has its roots in the late 19 th century, often framed within the broader study of terracotta anthropomorphic or animal figurines. The first work on this topic is Catalogue des figurines antiques de terre cuites (Heuzey 1882). It focuses on terracotta figurines in the Louvre Museum from early French excavations in Mesopotamia. A few years later, the scholar published the article “Petits chars Chaldéo-Babyloniens en terre cuite” (Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale VII, 1910), a study of a cart model and a mould for the decoration of the frontal shield of the model. The first typological study, based on an examination of hundreds of terracotta figurines from the principal Mesopotamian sites, is Clay figurines of Babylonia and Assyria (Van Buren 1930). The most comprehensive work, regarded as the foundation for studies on this subject, is certainly Figurines et reliefs en terre cuite de la Mesopotamie antique (Barrelet 1968), a study on terracotta models and reliefs in the Louvre from the Mesopotamian sites of Tello, Larsa, Kiš, Mari and Dur Šarrukin. Starting from an analysis of technical manufacturing processes, even across linguistic and literary evidence, the author goes on to describe the chronological evolution of these artefacts from the 5th millennium BC until the Parthian age, and concludes with a typological and iconographical analysis of the specimens in the Louvre Museum. Further major works on ancient Near Eastern terracotta figurines include Die Terrakotten aus Assur im vorderasiatischen Museen, Berlin (Klengel-Brandt 1978), Terre cuites orientales. La collection Klat (Serhal 1995), Ancient Near Eastern Terracottas with a Catalogue of the Collection in the Ashmolean Museum (Moorey 2005). In this last book, Moorey, for the first time, includes specimens from all over the ancient Near East over a time span ranging from prehistory (ca. 8500 BC) to Alexander the Great. 20 Terracotta models These general studies are supplemented by numerous articles and other essays on ancient Near Eastern terracottas, although most of these are “small-finds” sections in excavation reports. In the latter category, the main reports presenting terracotta figurines, in general, and models of wheeled vehicles in particular, are those regarding the excavations of Tell Bi’a (Strommenger & Miglus 2010), Tell Selenkahiye (Liebowitz 1988; Van Loon 2001), Tell Halawa (Neufang & Pruß 1994), Tell Mozan (Bianchi & Wissing 2009), Tell Brak (Oates 2001); Tell Arbid (Raccidi 2012b), Uruk (Wrede 2003) and Tell Munbaqa (Czichon & Werner 1998). On these I have drawn extensively for my database. Only few articles and essays focus exclusively on wheeled-vehicles models. The two scholars who have most contributed to advancing our knowledge of this object category are M.A. Littauer and J.H. Crouwel. Their work mainly focuses on full-size wheeled vehicles, but has also been used as basis for the study of terracotta models. These two scholars have published many fundamental works that have been summarised in the Introduction. Twenty years after the publication of Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East, the scholar J. Bollweg published Vorderasiatische Wagentypen im Spiegel der Terrakottaplastik bis zur altbabylonischen Zeit. The book, the first to focus exclusively on terracotta models, proposes a new typology, distinguishing between 12 different types. It has mainly been followed by German scholars1. 2.1 Material, techniques, functions Figurines, reliefs, vases, tablets, bricks and many other items belong to the same class, that of coroplastics, although they are completely different in form and function. The shared feature of these categories of objects is the material they are made of, viz., clay. Clay, known to humankind since the Neolithic, is the main material used both for the construction of buildings and for creating objects. During the Bronze Age, many written sources refer to the use of clay (Sumerian IM; Akkadian ṭīdu) as a material used for the fabrication of a variety of “objects”. Gudea’s cylinders and statues mention the manufacturing of bricks for the Temple of Ningirsu (Edzard 1997, 68-100). Mythological poems narrate that the gods created human beings by modelling them in clay (Kramer & Bottéro 1991). There is also archaeological evidence for the processing of clay. While few representations of pottery- making have survived—the only one known to me is a single seal impression from Susa dating from the Uruk period (Amiet 1980, fig. 205)—remains of pottery kilns are more numerous and are our major source of information about pottery production. The first step in clay processing was the finding of the raw material. As the inscription on one of Gudea’s statues prescribes, clay should be collected in a “pure place” (Edzard 1997, 38-40). It is not clear whether “pure place” designates a specific type of purified clay or a ritual of some kind. Purified clay, which is mainly found along river banks, was not sufficient to accommodate the entire 1 For example: Wrede 2003; Bianchi & Wissing 2009. 21 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. production demand; most clay was hence obtained from quarries (Barrelet 1968, 29-30). Once extracted, the clay clod was chopped, macerated and mixed with mineral or vegetal inclusions by trampling the clay mass with bare feet. Finally, the mass was divided into smaller pieces, which were used whole or further broken down to suitable size, depending on the size of the object to be modelled. Terracotta figurines, including those showing wheeled vehicle models, were made from a piece of clay between 6-7 cm and 15-18 cm long, easily hand-held.2 Barrelet (1968, 40-41) distinguishes two different production methods: 1) Figurine without trimming or elaborate. The form and volume of the figure is rendered in a naturalistic style. 2) Figurine with trimming or schematic. The naturalistic details are rendered by the application of pieces of clay. Models of wheeled vehicles were usually made of a single piece of clay. The main features of the model (axle/s, frontal shield, body) were modelled by hand. In some cases, the main piece of clay is modelled to obtain the body and separate small lumps of clay are added to form the axle/s, the frontal shield, or the tilt. The scale of wheeled vehicle models is expressed by the following equation: Lv : Wv = Lm : Wm3 The equation indicates that terracotta models were made at scales between 1: 20 and 1: 28. The dimensions of models are not constant, which implies that the scale will also not always be the same, but will fall into a range bounded by a maximum and a minimum value. Moreover, for the dimensions of full-size vehicles the reference is the wagon found in the tomb Y 529 at Kiš (Watelin 1934, 30-31, fig. 3), and the above scales are hence based on the measurements of models of the same type, in particular those from Tell Arbid and Tell Barri (Md114; Md131; Md77). Another common feature of models of wheeled vehicles is decoration. The most common technique is incision, while applied decoration on the frontal shield is quite common, especially among Early Dynastic IIIb models of wagon. Applied bands of bitumen and moulded decorations are less frequent. Since studies on this particular category of artifacts first started, terracotta models of wheeled vehicles have been classified in various ways within the larger class of coroplastics. Below, some of the main systems of classification of terracotta figurines are listed in chronological order (Van Buren 1930; Barrelet 1968; Moorey 2005), followed by the classification proposed by the present writer. In her work on Mesopotamian terracotta figurines, E. Douglas Van Buren opts for a classification of specimens based on their iconographic features, including in the same category figurines and reliefs. The work of Van Buren is therefore divided into 8 categories: 1) Female figures; 2) Goddesses; 3) Male figures; 4) Gods; 5) Divine couples; 6) Animals 7) Religion and magic 8) Daily life. 2 Larger examples also exist, but are few. These can be regarded as true sculptures. 3 Lv = Length of full-size vehicle; Wv = Width of full-size vehicle; Lm = Length of model; Wm = Width of model. 22 Terracotta models Models of wheeled vehicles are placed within the last category, together with other daily life objects like models of boats or furniture. The basic difference between Van Buren’s classification and Barrelet’s is, first of all, the distinction between figurines in the round and moulded reliefs. Barrelet divides figurines into anthropomorphic, male or female. These are distinguished, in their turn, according to their nature: divine, indeterminate, human; figurines of groups, imaginary beings, and animals. A separate category is reserved for scaled-down models, which also include wheeled vehicles. Finally, Moorey divides terracotta figurines collected in the Ashmoleum Museum into 4 categories: 1) Anthropomorphic figurines, 2) Animal figurines; 3) Models of furniture; 4) Models of vehicles. This division is, so far, the most commonly used, especially in excavation reports. I will know analyse different taxa, from the most general to the most particular. In doing so, I will follow a strictly Linnaean classification. Coroplastics is the most general taxon, a class including different artefacts made from the same raw material: clay. Coroplastics include various object categories: vases, bricks, tablets, reliefs, and, obviously, figurines. These last are divided into 3 families: human figurines, animal figurines and model. The last family is in turn divided into 2 main genera: models of furniture and models of vehicles. The first genus includes the sub-genera houses, thrones, beds, chairs, and miniature vessels, the second, boats and wheeled vehicles. Finally, the last taxon, species, includes the different types of wheeled vehicles, mainly divided into carts/chariots and wagons. The classification and typological study of terracotta wheeled vehicle models, which will be addressed in detail in the next section, are much less complex than their functional analysis. This topic has engaged many scholars, but without arriving at any definite conclusion. Not being able to rely on textual data for resolution of the problem, nothing remains but archaeological data in specific find- contexts that are so various as to threaten to make the functional analysis of models useless. The discovery contexts of wheeled vehicle models can be grouped into two main categories: public and private. The first category includes structures connected with power, such as temples or palaces, while the second category includes domestic and funerary structures. It’s hard to indicate which of these categories was prevalent, considering that models were largely found in unclear contexts, such as sub-surface layers. Among the most significant findings in public contexts are the models from the so- called “Ash-tip” at Abu Salabikh (Green 1993), a pit connected with the activities of the nearby temple, which was filled with various materials (such as human figurines, animal figurines, models, fragments of tablets, etc). Similar examples have been found at Tell Khuera (Orthmann 1990, 31), where the models had probably been made in workshops working for temples, and at Tell Arbid, where models have been found in structures connected to the so-called “Southern Temple”, one, most notably, in an ash filling next to a kiln, north-east of the temple (Bielinski 2012, Raccidi 2012b). Models of wheeled vehicles have been also found in palatial buildings. At Tell Bi’a (ancient Tuttul), some specimens were recovered in the area of “Palast B”, dating from the late 3rd millennium BC 23 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. (Strommenger & Kohlmeyer 2000)4. Another significant example from Tell Arbid may have been found inside the so-called “Public Building”, a huge structure located close to the top of the main tell, characterised by a massive mud-bricks wall with buttresses (Bielinski 1998). Many examples could be cited of models found in private contexts, especially domestic buildings. These include specimens from Tell Arbid, Tell Bi’a and Tell Barri, which, however, were often found in secondary positions, as in the case of Md126 and Md127, both from Tell Arbid. The first was found in a silos with numerous pottery shards in dwelling area SD (Bielinski 2005), while the second had been reused, along with other materials, to pave a street in the same area. A fragment of a frontal shield was found in a similar context, among fragments used to pave a street, at Tell Mozan (ancient Urkeš). Since vehicle models were easily broken due to their complex shape, 5 finding reused fragments is hardly surprising. A rare but significant find-context is the tomb. The most important examples for this kind of context were all been found in “Friedhof U” at Tell Bi’a (Strommenger 1990; Strommenger & Kohlmeyer 1998). Two wagon models with their wheels were found in tombs U:41 and U:49 (Md362; Md399). A model of a covered wagon made of frit-ware with a moulded decoration was found in child-tomb U:6 (Md363). On the basis of the different information derived from their discovery contexts, two main functions have been attributed to terracotta models of wheeled vehicles: 1) Toys 2) Cult objects In the first case, the reference is to a clearly distinguished category of objects, used by children and often found by archaeologists in domestic contexts. Most specimens, however, belong to the second category, which encompasses a very broad range of objects. In fact, it is not clear how these objects would actually have been used in worship. According to M. Civil, “the chariot, both as a cultic implement used in processions and as an element in mythological tales […] has a traditional place in Sumerian religion. The bridge between the real chariot and the mythical one is the model chariot, which may be a humble clay object or a piece of jewelry, kept in a sacred place” (Civil 1968, 3). As we will see later, in my chapter on written sources, wheeled vehicles, both carts and wagons, had an important role in Mesopotamian worship, both as a means of transport for statues of deities and as religious objects. It is possible that in the worship sphere models of wheeled vehicles were substitutes of full-size vehicles not only morphologically, but also functionally. When used as means of transport, models were probably grouped with animal and divine figurines, while in the second case they 4 Some specimens have been found in so-called “Palast A” but they dated back to the beginning of 2nd millennium BC. 5 The most fragile part of the model is the frontal shield. It is thin and usually longer than the body. Moreover, it was sometimes made from a separate piece of clay. It is hence not surprising that excavations have yielded many fragments of frontal shields. 24 Terracotta models probably served as votive gifts. Being made of humble materials, vehicle models were used vertically by all social strata of population, both in public and private contexts. Therefore, rather than assuming a functional dichotomy between toys and cult objects, we should regard models as having different functions with ritual implications, whether in publics or private contexts. 2.2 Typologies Scholars have developed different typologies over the years. In this section, I will analyse the main ones in chronological order, starting with the oldest. The last typology discussed is my own, and applies to the models in the present catalogue. 2.2.1 Littauer/Crouwel The first typology was developed by M. A. Littauer and J. Crouwel. It was published in 1979 in their work on wheeled vehicles in the ancient Near East (Littauer & Crouwel 1979). Although mainly focusing on full-size vehicles, it is, to date, the best known and most widely used typology, even by scholars working on models. Scholars distinguish between three types of wheeled vehicles for 3rd millennium BC: a four-wheeler (the so-called “battle car”) and two two-wheelers, the “straddle car” and the “platform car”. The first type gets its name from the fact that these vehicles were often represented in military contexts. The most famous examples are the war panel of the Standard of Ur and the historical side of the Vultures stela of Eannatum of Lagaš.6 The “battle-car” type includes all terracotta models of wagons, without any variation except for the covered wagon, considered as a separate category. The “straddle car” is the first type of two-wheeled vehicle identified by Littauer and Crouwel. “It consists of a thick pole raised over the axle to yoke height and within a casing that rests on the axle. There is no siding, but a rectangular railing, composed of a horizontal cross bar and two uprights, inclined slightly forward, rises to waist height directly in front of the single occupant. He may sit or stand astride the pole casing, with his feet on the axle or on ledges just in front of the axle” (Littauer & Crouwel 1979, 21). Terracotta models of this type have a rectangular body that the axle protrudes from. Finally, the “platform car” is described by scholars as two-wheeled version of “battle car”. This type of vehicle includes terracotta models of carts with a box-like body and a high frontal shield. 2.2.2 Bollweg Exactly twenty years later than Wheeled Vehicle and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East, Jutta Bollweg published the first book entirely focusing on terracotta models of wheeled vehicles: Vorderasiatische Wagentypen im Spiegel der Terrakottaplastik bis zur altbabylonischen Zeit (1999). 6 A second vehicle (i.e. Ningirsu cart) is represented on the divine side; however, its reconstruction is still debated since only a pole fragment remains (Barrelet 1970; Littauer & Crouwel 1973; for more details see section 5.3). 25 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. The scholar, through an analysis of 177 models described in the catalogue at the end of the volume, distinguishes twelve different types of models. The first seven types are two-wheelers, while the last five are four-wheelers. A thirteenth type includes undefined models, while a fourteenth type includes bronze models. Four-wheeler types VIII, IX, X, XI and XII correspond to two-wheeler types I, II, III, IV and VII, while types V and VI are two-wheeler only. Type I – Frontschildeinachser mit Seitenrandsitz – Cart models of this type have a box body and a high frontal shield leaning slightly forward. The axle is usually in the middle of the body. Type II – Frontschildeinachser mit Stehfläche auf Scheibenrädern – Models of this type have a simple platform body without a seat, and a high vertical frontal shield. Type III – Frontschieldeinachser mit Hinterbock auf Scheibenrädern – The peculiar features of this type of model are a platform body, a high vertical frontal shield, and a rear appendage of rectangular shape. Moreover, Bollweg distinguished three sub-types: IIIa – models with a floor frame and the axle in the middle of the body; IIIb – models without a floor frame and the axle in the front, middle or rear part of the body; IIIc – models without a floor frame and the axle in the rear part. The main feature of this sub-type of models, however, is the moulded decoration showing deities on the inner face of the frontal shield. Type IV – Einachsiger Frontschildkasten – Models of this type have a box body and a vertical frontal shield. Type V – Kanzelwagen vom Geländertyp – Models of this type can be considered as representations of chariots, since they usually have spoked wheels. Type VI – Sattelwagen – Models of this type have a saddle-shaped body without the high frontal shield. Type VII – Einachsiger Planwagen – Two-wheeled models with covering. Type VIII – Frontschildzweiachser mit Seitenrandsitz – Models of this type correspond to those of type I. They have a high frontal shield and a seat in the rear. Type IX – Frontschildzweiachser mit Stehfläche – This type of models correspond to those of type II, characterised by a platform body. The frontal axle protrudes slightly forward. Type X – Frontschildzweiachser mit Hinterbock – Like models of type III, they are characterized by a rear appendage of rectangular shape. Bollweg identifies two sub-types: Xa – Models with floor frame; Xb – Models without floor frame. Type XI – Zweiachsiger Frontschildkasten – Models of this type have a huge box body and a high and vertical frontal shield. They correspond to models of type IV. Type XII – Zweiachsiger Planwagen – This type of models include covered wagons and correspond to models of type VII. 26 Terracotta models 2.2.3 Pruß The typology proposed by A. Pruß (2011) focuses on 3rd millennium BC models from sites of Syrian Jazirah and was published in the first volume of the ARCANE project, dedicated to this region (Lebeau 2011). Eight different types are distinguished. The first three are four-wheelers, the next four are two- wheelers, and the last one is a covered wagon. Type C 01 – This category comprises models of wagons of the same type as the “battle car”. They have “an open box with rather high walls and a high vertical front shield. The shield is rectangular and ends with two loops, which the reins could thread through. At the lower corners on the front, two noses protrude forward. At the rear of the box is a small ledge […]. The side of the box and the front shield are always decorated with incised patterns […]. The draught pole was made of wood and was inserted in a hole pierced near the lower end of the frontal shield. The piercing is ether horizontal (indicating a straight pole) or oblique (indicating a bent pole). The holes for the axles are pierced through the base of the box” (Pruß 2011, 244). Type C 02 and C 03 – Models of these two types are “four-wheelers with a slightly oblique trapezoid front shield and just a narrow frame around the platform. At the rear end is a narrow ledge” (Pruß 2011, 244). The difference between these types is the high seat in the rear part of the model, absent in the first type, always present in the second. Type C 04 – Models of this type are two-wheelers without a seat in the rear part. The tube-shaped axle is located under the platform body, surrounded by a narrow frame. The frontal shield is often decorated. Type C 05 – This type of two-wheeler model has a platform body with a low floor frame and a seat in the rear. The tube-shaped axle is usually set under the frontal part of the body and the shield has a fan- like upper end. Type C 06 – Models of this type are characterised by a box body. The axle is located under the central part of the body and in the rear there are a seat and a ledge. The frontal shield and the seat are usually decorated. Type C 07 – Two-wheeled vehicles of this type are called “man-chariot-figurines” (Moortgat & Moortgat-Correns 1976, 44-46). They are “composed of a single axle at the lower end and a pillar- shaped body, extended arm-stubs, and the head of an anthropomorphic figurine” (Pruß 2011, 245). Type C 08 – The last type, as previously said, encompasses models of covered wagons. 2.2.4 Raccidi The last typology in order of time was developed from the study of terracotta models of wheeled vehicles from the north-eastern Jazirah sites of Tell Arbid and Tell Barri/Kahat (Raccidi 2012a; 2012b). Although it is based on models from two sites, it is conceived as a tool for classifying wheeled vehicle models from all Mesopotamian and Syrian sites. 27 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Six types of models are distinguished, three two-wheelers and three four-wheelers. The classification is based on morphological features. These morphological features are in turn distinguished into four categories, analysed in order of importance. The first feature is “number of wheels”. It is considered the most important categories since it allows a distinction into two main macro-types: carts and wagons. The second category is “body morphology”. The body is the core of the models. It was made, as previously said, from a single piece of clay, the other components being usually subsequently added dependent from its shape. I distinguish between two types of body: the platform (a simple piece of clay, usually rectangular and plain or slightly concave on the upper surface), and the box, which can be square or rectangular, and have low or high frames. Both types of body may have a seat and/or a footboard at the back. The footboard is a horizontal ledge, usually trapezoidal in shape, placed outside the rear of the body. As shown by the depiction of a “battle car” on the Standard of Ur, the footboard was used to accommodate a second standing person, usually the lancer. The third category is “positions and shapes of the axle/s”. Although the position of the axles of four- wheelers is obvious – one under the front and one under the rear of the body – that of the single axle of two-wheeler models is, on the contrary, critical, since, along with the thread for the hole for the draught pole, it provides stability to the model, and presumably this was also true of real carts. There are three possibilities: 1) Rear axle: when the axle is located in the rear part of the model, the hole for the draught pole is always parallel to the ground. 2) Central axle: when the axle is located in the central section of the body, the hole for the draught pole can be either slanted or, much more commonly, parallel. 3) Front axle: when the axle is located under the frontal part of model, the hole for the draught pole is always slanted. Regarding the shape of the axle, I distinguish two different types: a tube-shaped axle, external to the body, and an axle pierced through the body of the model. The last category is “Specific features”. It includes several features critical for determining the classification of a model, such as fabric, shape of the frontal shield edge, and decorative pattern. The fabric usually shows low quantities of vegetal and mineral inclusions, and the colour of the clay ranges from predominantly pale yellow (5Y 8/2-3-4; 2.5Y 8/2-3-4; 2.5Y 7/3-4) to yellow-reddish. Brown and dark brown (10YR 4/1-2; 3/1-2; 2/1-2) are also common, especially for low-fired models, usually dating from the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. The frontal shield shows few variations in form. It is usually rectangular, with slightly concave sides. The most characteristic part of the frontal shield is its upper edge, which occurs in three different forms: rounded or squared, the simplest but less frequent ones, or horn-shaped, the most common one. This last type can in its turn be divided into three types and as many sub-types: split-pierced horn- 28 Terracotta models shaped (rounded; pointed; flat); split horn-shaped (rounded; pointed; flat); plain horn-shaped (rounded; pointed; flat). Fig. 2.1: Types and sub-types of frontal shield upper edge. On the frontal shield, usually in the middle of the external face, the hole for the draught pole is visible. Moreover, the frontal shield being normally the largest available surface of a model, it is often decorated. Decoration is a common feature of wheeled vehicle models. In most cases it is limited to the shield, but it also occurs on the sides of the box or on the cover. The most common decoration techniques are incised, excised and impressed, sometimes combined. The motifs are mostly geometric (lines, dots, circles and grids) and evoke structural details of full-size vehicles. The most common examples are the X-shaped lines on the frontal shield, which evoke the cross-bar that reinforced the frontal shield and are visible in several seal impressions and on the wagons depicted on the Standard of Ur. The grid and zig-zag patterns on the covers of wagons evoke the texture of the cover, which was made of wool or hides. Less frequent but equally significant examples are graced with impressed dots. These occur not only on the frontal shield but also on the sides. Dots do not evoke structural elements of full-size vehicles. What they probably represent is the garments (wool or hides) that upholstered the vehicle, as shown on a fragment of votive plaque from Ur (Or25) and confirmed by numerous texts in which wool or hides are assigned to wheeled vehicles (See Chapter 3). Besides incised, excised and impressed decorations, there are less frequent types, such as applied and moulded. Both types occur on the frontal shield and are used to depict human figures, usually deities. However, applied decoration is typical for wagons with a huge box-body of the Early Dynastic IIIb 29 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. period, while the second type is limited to carts with a platform-body and a rear axle. This decoration always graces the inner face of the frontal shield and draws exclusively on models of the Old Babylonian period (Stone 1993). On the basis of my analysis of these four categories, I would propose the following classification: Type I – Two-wheeled platform body – Models of this type have two wheels. The body is usually a simple rectangular platform with rounded corners, and always lacks a seat. Some specimens have a trapezoidal or pointed body. The axle is always pierced through the body and located, in most cases, in the rear part of the model, moving the centre of gravity forward. Stability was ensured by the draught pole, whose hole was always parallel to the ground, which means that the pole was most likely of the straight type. The fabric of these models is usually depurated, with very low chaff inclusions. Since models of this type were usually fired at low temperatures, the clay is of various shades of dark brown (10YR 4/1,2; 3/1,2; 2/1,2). The frontal shield has a usually rounded upper edge, although more elaborate forms also exist. These models are usually undecorated, due to their simplicity. Models of type I coincide with Bollweg type II and Pruß type C 04. Type II – Two-wheeled box body – These types of two-wheelers have an essentially rectangular box body, with high floor frames. The rectangular seat is frequently located in the rear part of the model, as is the footboard, which forms a right angle with the seat. The most common type of axle is the tube-shaped one, although there are several examples of type II models with the axle pierced through the body. In both cases, the axle may be located under the middle part of the body, in which case the hole for the draught pole is oblique, or moved back, in the rear part of the model, in which case the hole for the draught pole is parallel to the ground. The fabric of models of this type is rather depurated, with a prevalence of mineral inclusions. The clay may be brown, but shades of pale yellow predominate (5Y 8/2,3,4; 8/2,3,4; 2.5Y 7/3,4). The upper edge of the frontal shield may have many shapes, ranging from simple rounded or square ones to the more common horn shapes. Within this last type, the most frequent shapes are the split horn and plain horn ones. Decorations with incised and excised lines are common on the frontal shield, especially the X-shaped lines. But, thanks to the surface ensured by the high floor frames, the body, too, may carry decoration, such as vertical incised lines or impressed dots. Models of type II coincide with Littauer and Crouwel’s “platform car”, Bollweg type IV, and Pruß type C 06. 30 Terracotta models Type III – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard – The last type of cart model is characterised by a basically rectangular body with a slightly concave top surface. The seat at the back is generally narrow and rectangular. Models of this type always have a footboard, which in some cases forms an obtuse angle with the seat instead of the more common right angle. The tube-shaped axle may take any of the three positions: frontal, middle, or rear. The positioning of the axle distinguishes three of the four sub-types of this type of model. A Rear axle is typical, but not exclusive, for models dating back to the Old Babylonian period, those with moulded decorations on the inner face of the frontal shield. The colour of the fabrics type III models is similar as for the previous type. Mineral and vegetal inclusions are scarce, with a prevalence of the former. Pale yellow shades predominate, but occur along with dark brown, yellow-reddish and pinkish shades (5YR 6/4,6,8; 5YR 7/4,6,8). The upper edge of the frontal shield is almost always horn-shaped. The most common is the plain type, but split and split-pierced ones also occur. This last type is typical for the above-mentioned Old Babylonian models with moulded decoration. Since models of type III have a rather small body, without floor frames, or sometimes with very low ones, the decoration is usually restricted to the surface of the frontal shield, both internally and externally. The decorations range from basic ones—X-shaped incised lines or impressed dots—to complex ones combining two or three different motifs. The more elaborate decorations include figurative motifs and images or symbol of deities, moulded on the inner surface of the frontal shield (Stone 1993). On the basis of the morphological features of this type of model, four different sub-types have been distinguished: Type IIIa – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard, miniaturist. Type IIIb – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard and front axle. Type IIIc – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard and central axle. Type IIId – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard and rear axle. Models of this type coincide with Littauer and Crouwel’s “straddle car” (especially sub-type IIIc), Bollweg type III, and Pruß type C 04-05. Type IV – Four-wheeled platform body – The first type of four-wheeler has a long and rectangular-shaped body with the upper surface usually plain or sometimes slightly concave. In the rear part of the model there is the footboard, while the seat is absent. The front and rear axles are pierced through the body, and the former protrudes slightly forward, beyond the frontal shield. The fabric and colour of type-IV models is similar to those of type III. Pale yellow and yellow-reddish shades are predominant, accompanied by light brown shades (7.5YR 6/3,4). 31 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. The upper edge of the frontal shield is mainly horn-shaped, especially for split ones. Decoration, as in the previous type, is mainly concentrated on the external surface of the frontal shield. The motifs are basic or, more frequently, complex, such as combinations of incised line and impressed dots. Models of this type coincide to Bollweg type IX and Pruß type C 02. Type V – Four-wheeled box body – For terracotta models of wagons, I have distinguished two different types of body morphology. The first type has a body with a rounded bottom and short frames, while the second type has a flat bottom with very high frames. Both types of body have a footboard at the back, while only the first also has the seat, which is usually narrow and rectangular. Both types of axle have been used for these models, but tube-shaped ones are always associated with the rounded bottom, whereas axles pierced through the body are found on the flat-bottomed variant. The fabric and clay colour is similar to those of the previous types. Depurated fabrics with a prevalence of mineral inclusions are most common, and clay colour ranges from light brown to pale yellow. The upper edge of the frontal shield is almost always horn-shaped. Split and split-pierced frontal shields outnumber plain ones. Decoration is usually located on the frontal shield and sometimes on the floor frames. In the latter case, vertical incised lines or grids are the most common type of decoration. They probably evoke the structural detail of full-size vehicles. Frontal shield decorations range from the common X-shaped incised lines or impressed dots to more complex motifs, such as incised zigzag lines combined with notches and/or horizontal incised lines to evoke the texture of the frontal shield. More elaborated motifs, such as applied figures, are also found. They are usually limbs of the human body and are applied to the shield to give it an anthropomorphic appearance. On the basis of body morphology, I have distinguished two sub-types of wagon models: Type Va – Four-wheeled box body with rounded bottom – Type Vb – Four-wheeled box body with flat bottom – Models of sub-type Va coincide with Bollweg types VIII-X and Pruß type C 03. Models of sub-type Vb coincide with Littauer and Crouwel “battle car”, Bollweg type XI, and Pruß type C 01. Type VI – Four-wheeled covered vehicle – Models of this type may be regarded as a separate category, since they have peculiar features that distinguish them from models of the other types. I have distinguished the body of models of covered vehicles into two types on the basis of manufacturing techniques. The first and more common type has a rectangular body with a flat, in rare 32 Terracotta models cases slightly curved, base, and a U-shaped cover. In the second type, the body and cover merge seamlessly, so that the model takes on the form of a vase. Models of this type have no seat or footboard, and since they have no frontal shield either, they usually have at least one pierced lug (more commonly three) attached to the front instead of the hole for the draught pole (in rare cases the hole for the draught pole is still used). The tube-shaped axles are located under the front and rear of the model. The fabric of models of type VI is quite depurated, although it shows more evident vegetal inclusions, especially chaff, than the previous types. Only two models, those from “Friedhof U” at Tell Bi’a/Tuttul (Md363; 386), are made of a different fabric (fritt-ware). The most common colour of the clay is pale-yellow and light brown, with a prevalence of the latter. Specimens without decoration are rare. The decoration mainly appears on the cover and in some cases on the front, where there are usually incised vertical lines evoking the planks that made up the parapet of full-size vehicles. The decoration of the cover is almost always made of incised lines forming geometric patterns, such as a zigzag, herringbone, or more commonly a grid, arranged in groups or occupying the entire surface. Only the model from tomb U:6 at Tell Bi’a/Tuttul (Md363) carries a different type of decoration: the moulded cover is decorated with a grid pattern above, a herringbone pattern below, and an animal frieze in the middle. On the basis of manufacturing technique, I distinguish two sub-types of covered vehicle models: Type VIa – Four-wheeled covered vehicle with U-shaped cover – Type VIb – Vase-shaped four-wheeled covered vehicle – Models of this type coincide with Bollweg type XII and Pruß type C 08. 2.3 Models Analyses This section analyses the typology, date and dissemination of the 500 terracotta models of carts and wagons in the catalogue to the present volume. 2.3.1 Typological analysis An important datum for the purpose of typological analysis is shown in the pie-chart on figure 2.2. Almost 70% of the catalogue models are fragmentary. Complete models and complete/damaged ones (i.e. models that, although damaged, retain most of their morphological feature) are less than 20% of the total, respectively 15% and 18%. This datum greatly affects typological analyses of models, while it is far less relevant for dating and the study of their dissemination. I was able to assign a type to all complete and complete/damaged models (i.e., 33% of the total), whereas I was unable to assign a type to more than 30% of the 333 fragmentary models. These statistics are summarised in the pie-chart in figure 2.3. Models of uncertain type are 23% (115 units) of the total, second only to the most attested type, the box-body four-wheeler (Type V), with 27% (136 units). Type VI (four-wheeled covered vehicles) and Type III (two-wheeled platform body with footboard) are respectively 19% (94 units) and 17% (83 units), followed by Type II (two-wheeled box body) with 11% (56 units). The less 33 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. attested types are I (two-wheeled platform body) and IV (four-wheeled platform body), respectively accounting for 2% (9 units) and 1% (7 units) of the total. Complete 15% Complete/ damage Fragment 18% 67% Fig. 2.2: Preservation status of terracotta models. I 2% II Uncertain 11% 23% III 17% VI 19% V 27% IV 1% Fig. 2.3: Types of wheeled vehicles terracotta models. Although we have to allow for the high number of fragmentary models of uncertain type, as far as we can tell four-wheelers exceed two-wheelers (61% vs. 39%). As we will see, this predominance is even more clear-cut in glyptic art, whereas it is reversed in written sources. Models of type I, Type IV and Type II have no morphological peculiarities, and the first two also occur in very low percentages. Nevertheless, as I will show in the next section, models of Type I have a well-defined chronological distribution, limited to the first centuries of the 3rd millennium BC, whereas models of Type II become popular starting from the beginning of 2nd millennium BC. As described above, I have divided models of Type III into four sub-types: IIIa – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard, miniaturist; IIIb – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard and front axle; IIIc – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard and central axle; IIId – Two-wheeled platform body with footboard and rear axle. The pie-chart in figure 2.4 shows the different percentages of attestation of these sub-types. I included models that I could not assign to a sub-type in the generic group III. Models with the axle in front 34 Terracotta models (IIIb) significantly outweigh the other three sub-types, accounting for more than 40% of the total. They are followed by models with a central axle, with 27%. Thus, the two sub-types together account for 70% of the total. Sub-types IIId (rear axle) and IIIa (miniaturist) occur in very low percentages, respectively 16% and 6%. Models with rear axle (IIId), however, show a significant increase starting from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC (Old Babylonian period), becoming the most common type. III 8% IIId IIIa V 16% 6% 13% Va IIIc Vb 27% 27% IIIb 60% 43% Fig. 2.4: Sub-types of models of cart Fig. 2.5: Sub-types of models of wagon with platform body and footboard with box body (Type V). (Type III). I divided models of Type V into two sub-types: Va – four-wheeled box body with rounded bottom; Vb – four-wheeled box body with flat bottom. I assigned most Type V models to sub-type Vb, those with a flat base (60%), whereas models with a rounded base (Va) are only 27%. Models of uncertain sub-type are 13% (fig. 2.5). Models of sub-type Vb, those representing the “battle car” of the Standard of Ur, were the most common types of wagon models during the 3rd millennium BC. Chronological and dissemination analyses will add further details to our understanding of the most significant type of models vehicles. Finally, I also divided Type VI models into two sub-types: VIa – four-wheeled covered vehicle with U-shaped cover. VIb – four-wheeled covered vehicle vase-shaped. However, I was unable to assign most models of this type (57%) to a specific sub-type, due to the high number of fragments vs. complete or complete/damaged models (Fig. 2.6). Models of covered vehicles with U-shaped covers exceed vase-shaped ones by more than twenty percentage points. The former are 33%, the latter 10%. In this case, too, an analysis of dissemination will add important information to this unique category of wheeled vehicle models. 35 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. VIb 10% VIa 33% VI 57% Fig. 2.6: Sub-types of covered vehicle models (Type VI). 2.3.2 Chronological analysis Chronological analysis requires an important premise: models, as previously said, are often found in unclear contexts, or even come from uncontrolled excavations. For these two reasons, models of wheeled vehicles often lack associated chronological evidence, or in most cases are generically dated within a long time range spanning different periods. Of the 500 models in the catalogue, archaeologists have dated only 157 to a single period; the remaining 343 are undated (80) or have been assigned very broad dates (263). For the following chronological analysis, I have only taken account of the 157 models dated within a single period. A first step for this type of analysis was the quantitative distribution of models on the basis of their period. The result is a single-line graph showing the increase or decrease of models in different periods of the 3rd millennium BC (Fig. 2.7). Models of wheeled vehicles made their first appearance at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, during the Early Dynastic I period. They show a slight but steady increase until the middle of the 3rd millennium, Early Dynastic II and IIIa periods. Around this time, models suddenly begin to increase, reaching their acme between the Early Dynastic IIIb and the Akkadian Period. At the end of the latter period, models know an equally sudden decrease until the Ur III period. Ultimately, the historical trend of wheeled vehicle models may be divided into two periods, at the beginning and at the end of the millennium, substantially equivalent, separated by a third period, corresponding roughly to the third quarter of the millennium, in which models reach their peak. This trend is also confirmed by the regional graphs in figure 2.8. 36 Terracotta models ED I ED II ED IIIa ED IIIb Akkadian Ur III Fig. 2.7: Chronological trend of wheeled vehicles terracotta models based on 3 rd millennium BC Mesopotamian periods. Fig. 2.8: Chronological trend of wheeled vehicles terracotta models based on 3rd millennium BC regional chronologies (Early Southern/Central Mesopotamia; Early Jazirah; Early Middle Euphrates). The previous graphs show the chronological trend of whole wheeled-vehicle models. Further information may be gleaned from observation of the chronological distribution of types and sub-types, as shown by the histogram in figure 2.9. This type of graph has the advantage, compared to the first, of a double reading: vertical (periods) and horizontal (types). During the Early Dynastic I, only two types are attested: two-wheeled platform body (I) and four- wheeled box body with rounded bottom (Va). In the following period, Early Dynastic II, six types are attested: two-wheeled platform body (I), which reaches its acme in this period, two-wheeled platform body with footboard and central axle (IIIc), four-wheeled platform body (IV), four-wheeled box body with flat bottom (Vb), covered vehicles with U-shaped cover (VIa), and vase-shaped covered vehicles (VIb). During the Early Dynastic IIIa, types slightly decrease but, on the contrary, the number of models increases: two-wheeled box body (II), two-wheeled box body with miniature footboard (IIIa), two- wheeled platform body with footboard and central axle (IIIc), and four-wheeled box body with flat bottom (Vb). In the Early Dynastic IIIb and Akkadian periods, as I mentioned above, not only have the largest number of models but also the largest selection of types and sub-types. Eight types are attested in both periods: two-wheeled platform body (I), two-wheeled box body (II), two-wheeled platform 37 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. body with footboard and front axle (IIIb), two-wheeled platform body with footboard and central axle (IIIc), four-wheeled platform body (IV), four-wheeled box body with rounded bottom (Va), four- wheeled box body with flat bottom (Vb), and covered vehicles with U-shaped cover (VIa) during the former; two-wheeled box body (II), two-wheeled platform body with footboard and front axle (IIIb), two-wheeled platform body with footboard and central axle (IIIc), two-wheeled platform body with footboard and rear axle (IIIc), four-wheeled box body with rounded bottom (Va), four-wheeled box body with flat bottom (Vb), covered vehicles with U-shaped cover (VIa), covered vehicles vase- shaped (VIb) during the latter. Looking at the chronological distribution of types, models of Type I are the earliest. The first examples date back to the Early Dynastic I and reach their acme during the following period, Early Dynastic II. The last specimens of this type date from Early Dynastic IIIb. Models of Type II, on the contrary, make their first appearance from Early Dynastic IIIa onward and are attested in all periods until the end of the 3rd millennium BC, though they reach their peak between the Early Dynastic IIIa and Akkadian periods. The oldest models among Type III sub-types are those with a central axle (IIIc), which are attested seamlessly from the Early Dynastic II until the Ur III period. However, in contrast to other types, they do not have a peak-period, but a fluctuating chronological distribution. Models of sub-type IIIb (front axle) are slightly later; they are attested seamlessly from the Early Dynastic IIIb until the Ur III period, with their peak during the Akkadian period. Models with a rear axle (IIId) are the latest, being attested only during the Akkadian, in most cases, and post-Akkadian period. Miniaturist models (IIIa) are less common, with only a few specimens dating from the Early Dynastic IIIa period. Similarly, models of Type IV have few attestations and date from the Early Dinastic II, IIIb and Ur III periods. Models of sub-type Va (rounded bottom), like those of Type I, are among the earliest types of models, dating all the way back to the Early Dynastic I. After a gap during the Early Dynastic II-IIIa periods, they are attested seamlessly from Early Dynastic IIIb until the Ur III period. Models of sub-type Vb (flat bottom) are attested seamlessly from the Early Dynastic II until the Ur III period, likewise those of sub-type IIIc, but with a peak-period during Early Dynastic IIIb. The first models of Type V, both sub-types, date back to the Early Dynastic II period, but reach their acme between the Early Dynastic IIIb and post-Akkadian periods. 38 Terracotta models Fig. 2.9: Chronological distribution of types and sub-types of wheeled vehicle terracotta models. 2.3.3 Spread Analysis My spread analysis of wheeled vehicle models is inevitably biased by the excavation and, above all, publication of these artefacts. Only recently have models of wheeled vehicles been fully studied and published in excavation reports. In older publications, only the best preserved or “more decorated” 39 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. models were taken into account. Therefore, any consideration concerning the distribution of the models must take into account this crucial fact. Northern Uncertain S./C. Levant 1% Mesopotamia 1% 11% Tigridian 4% Jazirah 21% Middle Euphrates 62% Fig. 2.10: Distribution of wheeled vehicles terracotta models within the five regions (Southern/Central Mesopotamia; Tigridian; Jazirah; Middle Euphrates; Northern Levant). 180 160 Middle 140 Euphrates Northern 120 Levant 100 Mesopotamia Tigridian Jazirah 80 60 40 20 0 Nippur Tuttul Tell Melebiya Abu Salabikh Mari Nagar Tell Huwayrah Kiš Susa Urkeš Kahat Ekalte Šuruppak Assur Gaziantep Aleppo Tepe Gawra Tell Arbid Tell Khuera Tell Selekahiye Tell Halawa Habuba Khabira Murek Girsu Harran Nabada Serug Hama Tell al Wilayah Uruk Gasur Fig. 2.11: Distribution of wheeled vehicles terracotta models by site. The pie-chart of figure 2.10 and histogram of figure 2.11 show the distribution of wheeled vehicle models by region and site. The region with the highest number of models is the Middle Euphrates area indeed, with more than 60%, whereas, 21% come from Jazirah, 11% from Mesopotamia, 4% from Tigridian and only 1% from the Northern Levant. This huge amount in the Middle Euphrates region is essentially 40 Terracotta models concentrated in one site: Tell Bi’a ancient Tuttul. The following two sites, Tell Selenkahiye and Tell Halawa, have a high number of models compared to the sites of the other regions, but still less than half than Tell Bi’a. Jazirah and Mesopotamia show a more stable trend among sites with the highest number of models. Moreover, in both regions models have been found at nine sites, two more than in the Middle Euphrates area. The histogram of figure 2.12 focused on the regional distribution of types and sub-types. Like the chrono-typological graph of figure 2.9, it is read both vertically (regions) and horizontally (types). An analysis of this graph invites many observations. Models of Type I have a more limited distribution, having been found only in Mesopotamia and Jazirah. Two-wheeled box-body models (Type II), instead, have been found in all regions and are the most common type of carts models in the Middle Euphrates region and the Jazirah (in the latter region it occurs together with models of the type with a two-wheeled platform body with a footboard and a central axle, IIIc). Sub-type IIIc is the only type with a two-wheeled platform-body with a footboard found in all regions. Sub-types IIId (rear axle) and IIIb (central axle) are lacking only in Northern Levant, whereas the latter sub-type is the most common type of model in Mesopotamia. Models of Type IV are common in Jazirah and Middle Euphrates regions, along with models of sub- type Va (rounded bottom) and Vb (flat bottom). Models of the latter sub-type (i.e., those carrying images evoking the “battle car” of the Standard of Ur”) surprisingly do not occur in Mesopotamia, nor in the Tigridian and Northern Levant regions. Finally, models of Type VI have also been found in all regions, but with the usual prevalence in Jazirah and Middle Euphrates. 41 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Fig. 2.12: Regional distribution of types and sub-types of wheeled vehicles terracotta models. 42 Terracotta models 2.4 From models to vehicles Being the most numerous category of documentation about wheeled vehicles, models offer critical information for the reconstruction of full-size vehicles. However, this information is biased by several factors intrinsic to the object type or inherent to finds of, and studies on, models. Models are important since they are the only category among those studied that allow three- dimensional representation of wheeled vehicles. Obviously it is not possible to consider these objects as totally faithful representations given the objective difficulty of modelling every detail of full-size vehicles in clay. This is apparent when we look at models of sub-type IIIa (two-wheeled platform body with footboard, miniaturist) and VIb (four-wheeled covered vehicle, vase-shaped). Both sub- types probably do not represent vehicles that actually ever existed, but have nevertheless been depicted by the craftsmen, in the former case for aesthetic reasons, in the second for construction- related ones. Models of sub-type VIa (U-shaped cover) were usually made of two pieces of clay, one for the base and one for the cover. In this way, models had a more realistic form but, on the downside, required more attention in the details and were more fragile (fragments of base or cover are the most common evidence for this sub-type). Models of sub-type VIb, instead, were simpler to produce and also more resistant. The problem of truth to the original also exists for axle shapes. It is difficult if not impossible, to determine if there was a relationship between the two axle shapes (tube-shaped or pierced through the base) and the two axle types of a full-size vehicle (revolving or fixed). However, a tentative answer to this question may be advanced by looking at models of sub-type IIIc. These evoke the so called “straddle car”, a vehicle in which the charioteer “stands astride the pole casing, with his feet on the axle or on the ledges just in front of the axle” (Littauer & Crouwel 1979, 21). Since “straddle cars” had fixed axles and models of type III have, in almost all cases, tube-shaped axles, it is possible that tube axle types were meant to depict fixed axles. Following this reasoning, the pierced axle should depict the revolving axle. This kind of axle has been observed mainly in models of Type I (two- wheeled platform body), IV (four-wheeled platform body) and Vb (four-wheeled box body with flat bottom). According to Littauer and Crouwel, wagon axles “could either have revolved with the wheels or have been fixed […]. The first type is the more primitive and is suitable only for slow transport.” (Littauer & Crouwel 1979, 16). Another critical and, at the same time, controversial feature of models is the frontal shield, in particular its upper edge. Different shapes of frontal shield upper edge have been recognised in the past viz., rounded squared and horn-shaped, the latter being the most common. This type of upper edge also occurs in other categories, first of all on the famous war panel of the Standard of Ur. The largest amount of representations is on seal impressions dated back to the Early Dynastic III period. The peculiar shape of this feature may have both functional and symbolic reasons. In the case of war wagons, the horn-shaped upper edge, whether plain or split, extends the surface of the frontal shield vertically and horizontally, offering adequate protection for the charioteer. 43 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Moreover, in the case of the split horn-shaped upper edge, the gap between the two horns may have served as a resting place for the reins. Besides these two possible functionally uses, horn-shaped upper edges may also have had a symbolic meaning. Its peculiar form evokes an important feature in the Mesopotamian religion, the horns. These were usually depicted on divine tiaras as the main feature distinguishing humans from gods. “Horns” are indeed mentioned in a description of a divine cart, the one that Ishtar was to donate to Gilgamesh in exchange for his love: “10. Let me harness for you a chariot of lapis lazuli and gold, 11. Whose wheels are gold and whose horns are amber.” (George 2003 I, 619) Moreover, in the later Babylonian astronomical diaries (Sachs, Hunger 1988, 17) the stars β Tauri and ζ Tauri, those representing the horns-of-the-bull constellation, were called ŠUR GIGIR šá SI and ŠUR GIGIR šá ULU, the “northern rein of the chariot” and the “southern rein of the chariot” 7. The decoration of models provides further information about the morphology of full-size wheeled vehicles. As I said previously, the very common incised vertical line on the frontal shield or the floor frames may evoke the wooden boards of the vehicles, just as the X-shaped incised lines evoke the cross-bars of the frontal shield. Other patterns, such as impressed dots and combined motifs may evoke the textiles or hides used for upholstering the vehicles. As we will see in the next chapter, textiles, such as wool or linen and hides, were a common assignment of carts and wagons. The information provided by models is not limited to the components of full-size wheeled vehicles. My chronological and spread analyses (allowing for the aforementioned bias) highlight several trends in the historical evolution and geographical distribution of wheeled vehicles. From the historical point of view, models of Types I and Va are the earliest. However, only the former are exclusively limited to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, whereas the latter reach their acme at the end of the millennium. This could mean that carts with platform body were the first type of wheeled vehicles and first appeared in Mesopotamia and Jazirah. From the Early Dynastic II period onward, one observes a steady evolution peaking during Early Dynastic IIIb, the period of the so-called “Second Urban Revolution”, which mainly involved modern Syria and Northern Iraq (i.e. Tigridian, Jazirah, Middle Euphrates and Northern Levant). The amount of models drastically decreases at the end of Akkadian period and attains the slightly higher values than before the “Second Urban Revolution”. The geographical distribution of models provides further interesting data. Surprisingly, models of Type Vb – those graced with images resembling the “battle car” of the Standard of Ur and the wagons found in the royal tombs of Ur and Kiš – are not attested among Mesopotamian models types. Otherwise, sub-type IIIb (i.e. two-wheeled platform body with footboard and front axle) is the most common in Mesopotamia, far ahead of other types. Since models of this type are uncommon in the other regions, they may have-been typically Mesopotamian. It is possible that these vehicles, more 7 Translation is according to Kurtik 2007, 157-158. 44 Terracotta models manoeuvrable and faster, were used by the messengers in their travels from site to site, and recorded in several texts (See section 3.3.2). Such a concentration of carts models has only been recorded in the Middle Euphrates region for models of Type II (i.e., with a two-wheeled box body). Wagon models of Type V are the most common in Jazirah and Middle Euphrates, as well as being the most numerous. I have noted an interesting relationship between sub-type Va (rounded bottom) and sub-type Vb (flat bottom). Sub-type Vb is prevalent in both regions, but Va is more common in Jazirah rather than in the Middle Euphrates, while Vb is more common in the Middle Euphrates than in Jazirah. This geographical distribution of sub-types becomes even more accentuated if we do not include the site of Tell Khuera among those of Jazirah, since almost 60% of models with flat bottoms (Vb) come from this site. With Tell Beydar, Tell Khuera is indeed one of the most important Kranzhügel (“wreath-mounds”). It is located in a dry area between the Balikh and Khabur rivers, fairly close to the Middle Euphrates region. It is possible that this site had more political, economic and cultural contacts with the sites of this latter region than with eastern Jazirah sites, which fell under the control of Tell Brak/Nagar. If we accept this hypothesis, a clear-cut geographical distinction is created between models of sub-type Va and those of sub-type Vb. The former mainly occur in Eastern Jazirah and the second in Middle Euphrates region. Assuming that these sub-types reproduce different types of full-size vehicles, this geographical distinction may be due to a different evolution of wagon morphology in the two regions. Models of covered vehicles, in their turn, invite considerations regarding their geographical spread. They occur in every region, but the Mesopotamian sites where they were found, Mari and Susa, are located in the extreme north and east of the region. No fragments of covered vehicles have been found in Southern or Central Mesopotamian sites. This spread through northern regions is confirmed by the glyptic representations, as I will show in Chapter 4. The reasons for this limited spread may depend on the environmental conditions (especially the higher rainfall) of the northern regions, considering that this type of vehicles has also been found on the Armenian site of Lchashen (Grygorian, 2010, Sagona 2013). 45 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 3. WRITTEN SOURCES Written sources are an important category of evidence about wheeled vehicles, since they provide not only the earliest attestations of land vehicles in the ancient Near East, but also essential information on the morphology and functions of these vehicles, as well as their symbolical meaning. Works focussing on this specific topic are few. In 1951, A. Salonen published his monograph Die Landfahrzeuge des alten Mesopotamien, a fundamental study of the terminology related to wheeled vehicles. In recent years, G. Conti published the article “Carri ed equipaggi nei testi di Ebla” (1997), focusing on wheeled vehicles in the Ebla texts. The first section of this chapter will deal with the terminology related to wheeled vehicles, followed by statistical analyses of texts (types, chronology, geographical distribution). The second and last sections will present a range of text types and focus on specific topics. 3.1 Wheeled vehicle terminology Proto-cuneiform signs of Uruk IVa (ca. 3200-3100 BC) provide the first evidence for the use of wheeled vehicles (Green & Nissen 1987, 220, Nr. 247-248). The signs represent two types of vehicles, the sledge and the so called sledge-car. The latter seems to have been composed of a sledge superstructure supported by two rollers or four disk wheels. However, it is hard to establish if this vehicle was actually a forerunner of the 3rd millennium BC wagon, since these signs had no epigones in the Sumerian sign repertory. After this early evidence, epigraphic documents provide Mesopotamian terminology relating to wheeled vehicles beginning about the middle of 3rd millennium BC (Early Dynastic IIIa). The most giš giš common term used to define both carts and wagons is GIGIR / GIGIR2 (Labat 1988, 486, 511), Akkadian narkabtu (CAD N/I, 353-360; AHW II, 747). The two forms have a different graphical history and, as I will show later, are clearly distinguished chronologically. The first form is composed of the signs LAGAB (block, wooden block) and BAD (open) or TIL (pole, part of a wooden object). Both signs refer to a wooden object, probably round in shape, with an opening or a pole (axle) in the centre. This description perfectly matches the most characteristic part of wheeled vehicles: the wheel itself. The graphic development of this sign starts with classical Sumerian, circa around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. The second form also includes the sign LAGAB, but combined with the sign U (hole) inscribed in it. In this case, too, reference is made to the wheel (a wooden object, probably round, with a hole in the centre) but, compared to the first form, this form has a completely different graphical history. Its 46 Written sources origin has been traced to the proto-cuneiform sign of Uruk III , dated between the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. The chronological relationship between these two forms is even more interesting than their origins or meanings. As shown in the graph of figure 3.1, the form gigir2 is attested from the Early Dynastic IIIa onward and reaches its acme during the Early Dynastic IIIb; it subsequently declines swiftly until the Ur III period. The form gigir, instead, starts to be attested slightly later, beginning in the Early Dynastic IIIb period, and reaches its acme during the Ur III period 1. To date, no likely explanation for this clear-cut chronological divarication between the two forms has been found. It could depend on the existence of two different types of wheeled vehicles or, more probably, we may be merely dealing with a different writing employed in different periods. It is probable that, as suggested by Steinkeller (1981), during the Ur III period ‘the meaning “chariot” was transferred from LAGABXU to LAGABXTIL, while the function of expressing the word for “public fountain” was assumed by LAGABXU. The reason for this transformation was clearly to combine the semantically-related values ‘well’ and ‘public fountain’ under one sign, and to separate them from the meaning “chariot” (Steinkeller 1981, 26). gigir gigir2 ED IIIa ED IIIb Akkadian Ur III Fig. 3.1: Chronological trend of terms gišGIGIR and gišGIGIR2 GIŠ The forms GIGIR / GIŠGIGIR2 were used during the 3rd millennium BC to describe indistinctly both giš types of wheeled vehicles: carts and wagons. The term MAR.GID2.DA (Labat 1988, 307), composed by MAR (cart, wagon) and GID2 (long), in Akkadian eriqqu (CAD E, 296- 297: “wagon” / “cart load”; AHW I, 238: “Lastwagen”) or ṣumbu (CAD Ṣ, 244-245: “wagon”; AHW III, 1111: “ein Wagen”), instead, refers to a specific category of wheeled vehicles, viz., wagons, especially those transporting loads. In the 3rd millennium BC, this term has few attestations, mainly concentrated in the Ur III period. As I will show below, this type of vehicles was especially used in agricultural contexts. The term only became common from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC onward. 1 The data for the graph have been taken from the texts of the catalogue. 47 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Regarding 3rd millennium BC terminology, an important classification of wheeled vehicles types is provided by the Ebla texts, studied and published by Conti (1997). The scholar identifies four types of wheeled vehicles: GIŠ GIGIR2-II: This was the most common designation, usually interpreted as referring to a two- wheeled cart. GIŠ GIGIR2-IV: Less common than the previous one, it has been interpreted as designating the four- wheeled wagon. Whenever specified, the vehicle is drawn by oxen; GIŠ E2 × GIGIR2 (GIŠGIGIR2–E2): This has been interpreted as designating a covered wagon, and usually one assigned to important personalities; GIŠ GIGIR2-SUM: This is the less common type in the Ebla texts. It has been interpreted as designating a wagon used, not in a working context, but in a cultic one, for the transport of the statues of the gods Kura and Barama. 3.2 Statistical Analyses The histogram in figure 3.2 shows the geographical distribution of written sources. Most of the 367 texts in my catalogue come from the Southern Mesopotamian site of Umma (146; Ws110-255), followed by the tablets from the royal palace at Ebla (82; Ws283-364) and those from Girsu (62; Ws19-80). These three sites account for 80% of the total, while the remaining 20% is divided up among fifteen sites, almost all in the Mesopotamian region (Adab: 14, Ws1-14; Bad Tibira: 1, Ws15; Ešnunna: 3, Ws16-18; Himrin: 1, Ws81; Isin: 1, Ws82; Nippur: 4, Ws83-86; Drehem: 7, Ws87-93; Šuruppak: 4, Ws94-97; Susa: 2, Ws98-99; Tutub: 8, Ws100-107; Ubaid: 1, Ws108; Umm al-Jir: 1, Ws109; Ur: 12; Ws256-267), except for Tell Beydar (Jazirah; 7, Ws276-282) and Gasur (Tigridian; 8, Ws268-275). Fig. 3.2: Distribution of written sources by site. 48 Written sources Most of the texts date from the Ur III period (57%), as one would expect, since this period has yielded the largest corpus of written sources in the whole history of the ancient Near East. However, this large body of texts is concentrated in only six sites, in decreasing order of quantity: Umma, Girsu, Ur, Drehem, Nippur, Isin. As to Early Dynastic IIIb (30%) and Akkadian (12%) texts, these come from respectively nine (Ebla, Girsu, Tell Beydar, Lagaš, Adab, Nippur, Ur, Ubaid, Bad Tibira) and ten sites (Adab, Gasur, Tutub, Girsu, Ešnunna, Nippur, Susa, Umma, Himrin, Umm al-Jir). Finally, the few texts of Early Dynastic IIIa come from the Southern Mesopotamian site of Fara, ancient Šuruppak. At most of these sites, the written sources date from a single period. Only two sites have yielded texts from three different periods (ED IIIb, Akkadian, Ur III): Girsu and Nippur. ED IIIa 1% ED IIIb 30% Ur III 57% Akkadian 12% Fig. 3.3: Chronological distribution of written sources. I have divided the whole written documentation (367 texts) by genre. As shown in the graph of figure 3.4, this documentation almost exclusively consists of administrative texts (94%). The remaining 6% includes few but substantial texts, mainly royal/monumental and literary, along with a few vocabularies (only from Ebla) and letters. I have divided the large corpus of administrative texts related to wheeled vehicles, in its turn, into three main categories. The first and most represented category, “assignment”, includes administrative texts in which raw materials for the construction or restoration of wheeled vehicles are recorded. The second category, “inventory”, comprises texts recording objects, including wheeled vehicles, owned by a individuals or institutions (temples or palaces). The “offering” category includes the texts in which animals or foodstuffs are offered to the wheeled vehicles during festivals or cultic activities. A fourth category gathers texts that do not fall under any of the previous three categories. It includes texts concerning lists of crafts, in which cartwrights or other works connected to wheeled vehicles are recorded. It also includes texts recording the allocation of feed for draft animals, along with tablets 49 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. where the year name or field name contains the term for wheeled vehicles. Excessively fragmentary texts also belong to this category. Uncertain 0% Vocabulary 1% Assignment Letter 36% 1% Administrative Offering 94% Literary 29% 2% Other 15% Inventory 14% Royal/Monumental 2% Fig. 3.4: Genres of texts related to wheeled vehicles. 3.3 Administrative texts: assignment Assignment texts are the most numerous among the different categories of administrative texts. However, they have a limited geographical spread, having been found only on six sites, covering a chronological span from Early Dynastic IIIb until Ur III. The geographical spread of this type of texts is anything but uniform. Although the largest number of texts date from Early Dynastic IIIb, these come only from the Syrian site of Ebla. On the contrary, assignment texts related to wheeled vehicles dating from Ur III come from three sites: Umma, Girsu and Ur. As to the Akkadian period it has yielded only a few texts from Adab and Ešnunna. This varying distribution is necessarily biased by the state of excavations and studies. However, it does provide a complete geographical and chronological framework. In the following section, I will analyse two case studies, viz., the two largest groups of texts: the Early Dynastic IIIb texts from Ebla and the Ur III texts from Umma. 50 Written sources Ebla Umma Girsu Adab Ešnunna Ur ED IIIb Akkadian Ur III Fig. 3.5: Chronological distribution of assignment texts by site. 3.3.1 Assignment texts from Ebla The 66 (Ws283-288; 291-318; 325-359) texts registering raw materials for the building or maintenance of wheeled vehicles come from the archive of the royal palace G, dated to the end of the Early Dynastic IIIb period. Thanks to Conti’s aforementioned work (1997), it is possible to identify the most common types of wheeled vehicle mentioned in the texts from Ebla. There is a clear majority of carts, followed by covered vehicles, wagons and load-carrying wagons. The most common raw material allocated to wheeled vehicles in the Ebla texts was wool2. Hundreds of administrative tablets record the monthly expenditure of textiles and wool from the storehouses of royal palace. In the last column of the verso of almost all administrative texts of this type, after the outputs of textiles, the expenditure of wool for different purposes is recorded. Among these purposes there is also the allocation of wool for wheeled vehicles. The amounts of wool, to be used mainly for wheeled vehicles of royal courtiers (table 3.1), were entrusted to officials, usually two3. The wool could be of superior (sag), or inferior ul) quality, carded (ni-za-u3), white (babbar) or black (gi6). Two other types of wool are the nu-za-a-tum and the si-lu-ur4. Different weights of wool were assigned to wheeled vehicles. In the ancient Near East there were, starting from the Early Dynastic period, weight measures specifically used to weigh wool (Michailidou 2008, 179-186). Unfortunately, the weight of the measures for the wool used in the Ebla texts is still unknown, although, the reciprocal values of the various units of measure has been determined by Zaccagnini (1984). The units are: na4, kin, zi-ri2 and they are in the following ratio to one another: 1:2:2. 2 Studies concerning textiles in the Ebla texts used in this work include: Archi 1985; Edzard 1981; Archi & Biga 1982; Biga & Milano 1984; Archi 1988; Sollberger 1986; Lahlouh & Catagnoti 2006; Pomponio 2008; Pomponio 2013. See also: Biga 2011 and, for archaeological data, Peyronel 2004. 3 The prosopographical study of court officials in charge of wagons has been important for classification within the relative chronology of many Ebla texts (Biga & Pomponio 1990, 199-201). 51 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. As histogram in figure 3.6 shows, the most commonly attested type of wool is the plain kind (249,5 kin), followed by superior quality wool (96 kin), black and white wool (25 kin), inferior wool (19 kin), nu-za-a-tum wool (5 kin), si-lu-ur4 wool (5 kin), and carded wool (4 kin). These different types of wool were set aside for the construction or restoration of a single car or for a group of vehicles. Sometimes they were assigned to the lining of vehicle components, such as bits, harnesses or seats. Assignments for a single vehicle: AtA 84, r. VI. 5-7: 6 kin siki / gišgigir2-II-1 / ar-ru12-lum giš AtA 85, r. VI. 6-8: 6 kin siki / gigir2-II-1 / en-na-be AtA 89, r. XII. 17-21: 3 kin siki / gišgigir2-II-1 / šeš-2-ib / surx-bar-an /en AtA 90, r. XII. 23-25: 1 kin siki / gišgigir2-II-1 / ir3-ba(peš2) giš AtA 92, r. VII. 1-3: 4 siki-sag kin / 2 siki kin / gigir2-II-1-gibil giš AtA 94, r. VII. 11-14: 4 siki-sag kin / 2 siki kin / gigir2-II-1 / sag-da-mu giš AtA 97, r. X. 12-14: 5 siki kin / gigir2-II-1 / ne-lum AtA 99, r. VIII. 12-14: 3 ½ kin siki-sag / 1 kin siki-hul / 1 gišgigir2-II / da3-da AtA 100, r. VIII. 16-17; IX. 1-2: 4 kin siki-hul / 2 kin siki-sag / 1 gišgigir2-II / du-bi2-šum AtA 107, r. VIII. 1-3: 2 kin siki / 1 tug2-du8 / 1 gišgigir2-II AtA 108, r. VIII. 4-6: 1 kin siki / 1 gišgigir2-II / i-ti-ᵈì-lam AtA 117, r. VI. 10-12: 1 kin siki / 1 gišgigir2-II / a-mur-da-mu AtA 125, r. V. 17-18; VI. 1-2: 4 kin siki / 1 gišgigir2-II / i-bi2-zi-kir AtA 126, r. I. 1-4: 4 kin siki / unken-ak / 1 gišgigir2-II / ib-ri2-um Ata 128, r. VIII. 4-6: 5 kin siki / 1 gišgigir2-II / ib-ri2-um AtA 137, r. VIII. 22-26: 4 kin siki / be-su3-lux / šu-ba4-ti / 1 gišgigir2-II gibil / en AtA 138, r. IV. 14-17: 1 kin siki / unken-ak / 1 gišgigir2-II gibil / i-bi2-zi-kir AtA 139, r. IV. 8-12: 4 kin siki-hul / 2 ½ kin siki-sag / 1 gišgigir2-II / gibil / en-na-ni AtA 141, r. II. 10-14: 3 kin siki si-lu-ur4 / unken-ak / 1 gišgigir2-II / 'a3-gu-lum / ugula sa-zaxki AtA 142, r. V. 5-10: 1 kin siki ni-za-u3 / 2 kin siki si-lu-ur4 / unken-ak / 1 gišgigir2-II / gibil / en AtA 146, r. VI. 5-7: 5 siki kin / 1 gišgigir2-II dili / in-da-mu AtA 147, r. VI. 8-9: 5 siki kin / 1 gišgigir2-II dili / i3-am₆-da-mu AtA 149, r. VII. 14-16: 5 siki kin / 1 gišgigir2-II dili / iš-da-ma2 AtA 155, r. XII. 12-16: 4 siki kin hul / 2 siki kin sag / 1 gišgigir2-II / ku-tu ra'a3-agki AtA 156, r. XII. 17-19: 5 siki kin / 1 gišgigir2-II / ha-mar-aš-da AtA 157, r. V. 2-5: 2 siki kin sag / 4 siki kin hul / 1 gišgigir2-II / ar-ru12-lum AtA 158, r. V. 6-9: 2 siki kin sag / 4 siki kin hul / 1 gišgigir2-II / en-na-be AtA 159, r. VI. 8-9: 5 siki kin 1 gišgigir2-II / iš-da-ma2 AtA 160, r. VI. 5-8: 3 siki kin / 1 gišgigir2-II / du-bi2-zi-kir / lu2 a-ma 52 Written sources AtA 162, r. XII. 1-2: 4 siki kin / 1 gišgigir2-II AtA 172, r. IV. 14-15: 4 siki kin 1 gišgigir2-II / mu-ri2 Assignments for a group of vehicles. 2 vehicles: AtA 95, r. VIII. 1-4: 10 la2-2 siki-sag kin / 4 siki kin / 2 gišgigir2-II ku3-gi / kun3-nu AtA 113, r. II. 4-6: 10 la2-2 kin siki / kin5-ak 2 gišgigir2-II / en AtA 140, r. VI. 7-10: 8 ½ kin siki / unken-ak / 2 gišgigir2-II gibil / en AtA 165, o. V. 7-10: 6 kin / unken-ak / 2 gišgigir2-II / ma-ri2ki 5 vehicles: AtA 135, o. II. 2-6: 5 kin siki nu-za-a-dum / unken-ak / 5 gišgigir2-II / u5 / be-su3-lux 8 vehicles: AtA 96, r. VIII. 5-7: 25 siki-gi₆-bar₆ kin / 7 siki kin / 10 la2-2 gišgigir2-II / nig2-ba 10 vehicles: AtA 83, r. V. 4-7: 40 kin siki sag / kin5-ak / 10 gišgigir2-II / nig2-ba AtA 161, r. IX 5-8: 50 siki kin / kin5-ak / 10 gišgigir2-II / kab-da-an Indeterminate: AtA 78, o. XI. 7-9: 5 kin siki / gišgigir2-II / dur-du-lum AtA 79, r. XII. 4-7: 4 kin siki sag / 2 kin siki hul / gišgigir2-II gibil / ar-ru12-lum AtA 80, r. III. 12-14: 2 kin siki ni-za-u3 4 kin siki hul / gišgigir2-II / ar-ru12-lum AtA 81, r. IV. 1-3: 4 siki kin hul / gišgigir2-II / iš-da-ma2 AtA 88, r. XII. 8-10: 6 kin siki sag / gišgigir2-IV / en AtA 98, r. XII. 12-14: 20 siki sag kin / gišgigir2-II / en AtA 103, r. III. 5-6: 10 kin siki / giš-e2×gigir2- giš-e2×gigir2 AtA 116, r. V. 1-2 : 6 kin siki / giš-e2×gigir2- giš-e2×gigir2 aga3-us2 AtA 123, r. X. 16-17: 30 kin siki / unken-ak gišgigir2-e2- gišgigir2-e2 As regards vehicle type, wool is mainly destined to carts. The quantity of wool for a single vehicle varies from a maximum value of 6 kin to a minimum value of 1 kin, with an average value of circa 3,5 kin. It is possible that the maximum values were for the construction of carts, the minimum for their restoration. Wool was also allocated to different types of wheeled vehicles, such as wagons (AtA 88) and covered wagons (AtA 103; 116; 123). These vehicles were much bigger that carts, and they certainly required a greater amount of wool to upholster the frames or cover the tilt. 53 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Besides the large amount of wool assigned to carts and wagons few texts record the assigning of textiles for these vehicles: AtA 121, o. VI. 10-11: 1 gadatug2 1 gišgigir2-e2 / ma-lik-tum AtA 122, r. III. 8-9: 1 gadatug2 mug 1 gišgigir2-II / i-bi2-zi-kir AtA 167, o. I 1-4: 3 ib2 dar tug2 / šu-ra / gigir2 / il2-zi AtA 168, r. I. 1-5: 4 nig2-gir3-ak / 2 gišgigir2-e2 / du-si-gu2 / wa / ra-u3-dum AtA 169, o. I. 15-18: 1 gadatug2 / kur6 / 1 gišgigir2-II / i-bi2-zi-kir AtA 170, r. IV. 16-18: 1 gadatug2 / 1 gišgigir2-II / i-bi2-zi-kir These assignments are mainly of linen cloth (gadatug2) for the carts of i-bi2-zi-kir and the covered wagon of ma-lik-tum. Linen cloth must have been a fine fabric and was probably used to decorate the vehicles of the high-ranking officials of the court of Ebla. The metals assigned for the decoration (nu11-za; šir-za) of wheeled vehicles were most commonly gold (ku3-gi), then silver (bar6:ke3) and tin (an-na). They were used mainly for the wheels (gišgam-gam), but also for parts giš.ka) or sides (zag) of carts and wagons: AtA 109, o. I. 1-3: [… k]u3-gi / nu11-za gišgam-gam [x] gišgigir2-II / lu2 i-bi2-zi-kir AtA 110, o. I. 2-3: 7 ku3-gi 4 / nu11-za gišgam-gam [x] gišgigir2-II AtA 111, o. III. 2-3: tar 9 ku3-gi 4 / nu11-za 2 gišgam-gam 1 gišgigir2-II libir AtA 132, o. I. 1-4: šub giš.ka 1 gišgigir2-II / en / ni-la-arki / ša-pi-5 gin2-dilmun an-na AtA 133, o. II. 2-4: tar ku3-gi / šir-za 2 gišgam-gam / gišgigir2-II AtA 143, o. VI. 3-5: tar-4 gin2-dilmun ku3-gi / šir-za 2 gišgam-gam 1 zag / 1 gišgigir2-II gibil giš giš AtA 163, r. I. 5-8; II. 1-4: 5-ni ku3-gi / al6 / bu14-du / in / unken-ak / 4 gam-gam / 2 gigir2-II / lu2 nig2-ba AtA 166, r. V. 8-9; VI. 1-3: 2 ma-na šu-ša bar6:ke3 / [...] / zag / gišgigir2-IV / na-gar3ki Regarding the decoration of wheeled vehicles, two objects are mentioned in the Ebla texts, the zi-kir- ra-tum and the zu-zu-ba-tum. AtA 112, o. II. 3-6: 4 zi-kir-ra-tum 16 / 3 zu-zu-ba-tum 8 / 1 gišgigir2-II libir / lu2 en The zi-kir-ra-tum is always assigned in quantities of four, for sixteen gold shekels. The term has been variously interpreted as referring to a goad, although this is less likely (Conti 1997, note 116), lateral plumes (Conti 1997, note 117), or decorative sticks (Conti 1997, note 118). The zu-zu-ba-tum is usually assigned in numbers of three, for five/eight silver shekels. The term has been interpreted as designating metal foil for covering parts of the vehicle (Conti 1997, note 119). 54 Written sources giš giš giš giš Person gigir2-II gigir2-IV gigir2-sum gigir2-e2 ʾa3-gu-lum 1 a-mur-da-mu 1 ar-ru12-lum 4; ? a-šum 1 be-su3-lux ? du-bi2-zi-kir 1 du-bi2-šum 2 dur-du-lum 1 du-si-gu2, ra-u3-dum 2 En 12; ? 1 2 en-ka-ga 2 en-na-be 2 en-na-ni 1 i-bi2-zi-kir 3; ? ib-ri2-um 3 in-da-mu 1 i-nu-ud-da-mu 1 ir3-am-da-mu 1 ir3-ba (peš) 1 iš-da-ma2 2; ? i-ti-ᵈi3-lam 2 ku-tu 1 lu2 nig2-ba 2 ma-lik-tum 1 mu-ri2 ? ne-lum 1 ri2-i3-ma-lik 1 šeš-2-eb 1 Table 3.1: List of members of the Ebla court with amount and types of their wheeled vehicles. Question marks show an unknown amount of vehicles. 55 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Fig. 3.6: Type and quantity of raw materials assigned to wheeled vehicles at Ebla. 56 Written sources 3.3.2 Assignment texts from Umma The 43 administrative texts from Umma (Ws116; 120-121; 126-127; 132-133; 154; 159-161; 163; 165-166; 168; 171-171; 181; 189-190; 192-193; 202; 210; 213; 219; 221-223; 228-230; 232; 234; 236; 238-239; 242-243; 245-247; 253) concerning accoutrements for wheeled vehicles date from the Ur III period, from the 33rd year of Šulgi to the 2nd of Ibbi-Sin (Fig. 3.7). The largest number of texts date from the reign of Šu-Sin (2037-2029 BC), and especially the 2nd, 1st and 4th years. The texts dating from the reign of Amar-Sin (2046-2038 BC) are mainly concentrated in the 8 th and 9th years, while few texts date back to Šulgi (2094-2047 BC) and Ibbi-Sin (2028-2004 BC) reigns. Š33 Š39 Š46 Š48 AS1 AS3 AS5 AS8 AS9 ŠS1 ŠS2 ŠS3 ŠS4 ŠS5 ŠS6 IS1 IS2 Fig. 3.7: Chronological distribution of Umma assignment texts. Differently than at Ebla, the most common raw material used for the construction/restoration of wheeled vehicles at Umma was hide. The hide of three animals was usually used for cart and wagons: sheep kuš udu), the most common, ox kuš gu4), in only one case a bull kuš gu4 ab2), and goat kuš maš2). These three types of leather were tanned with different substances to obtain specific colouring or waterproofing. Ox hides were tanned with madder, Rubia tinctorum (u2- ab2; Akkadian ), to obtain a red colouring. The roots of the plant were used as a dye. The outer brown layer gives the common variety of the dye, the lower yellow layer the refined variety. The dye is usually fixed to the cloth with alum (Sigrist 1981, 161-162; Van de Mieroop 1987, 31). Sheep hides came in two colours, white (babbar2), the most common, and black (ge6). The first colour was probably obtained through tanning with alum while for black leather oil, strained oil and pomegranate were used (Van de Mieroop 1987, 30-31). Moreover, most sheep skins used to line wheeled vehicles were treated with the extract of sumac bark and leaves (i3-ri2-na), Rhus coriaria. This tanning gave the hide a red tinge. According to Van de Mieroop, sheep skins tanned with sumac were often used for the waterproofing of jars, containers, etc. (Van de Mieroop 1987, 32). They may also 57 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. have been used to waterproof carts and wagons. Finally, goat hides assigned to vehicles were usually untanned, although in a few cases they were treated with sumac. Further common materials destined for wheeled vehicles are glue še-gin2) and bitumen (esir2) (Sigrist 1981, 157-159; Van de Mieroop 1987, 26-27). Glue was used by craftsmen and tanners to make different objects (doors, chairs) and vehicles (carts/wagons and boats). Regarding wheeled vehicles, glue was probably used to fix leather parts or small pieces of wood. Bitumen was probably used to grease the revolving components of the wheeled vehicles, like the axle and wheels (see AtA 25) or to seal certain parts of them. Almost 50% of texts concerning accoutrements of wheeled vehicles at Umma constitute a separate category, since they record equipment šu du11-du11) assigned to (lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal) the wheeled vehicles of royal messengers, made in the sikkum (Ws116; 120; 154; 159; 165; 172; 189-190; 192; 221-222; 232; 239).4 The sikkum (zi-gum; zi-gum-ke4; zi-gum-ma-ke4; zi-gu5; zi-gu5-um-ke4; zi-gu5-um-ma-ke4) was a structure linked to the activities of royal messengers during the Ur III period (table 3.2); notably, it is where the equids and wheeled vehicles used by the messengers were kept. This is where the equids were fed and the vehicles repaired. The sikkum was staffed with grooms, scribes, food providers and food preparers, as well as craftsmen. Its purpose was to facilitate, along with the resting stations (e2- kaš4), the travels of the royal messengers (see Notizia 2009, 16-17, tabella 1). Records of materials designated for the accoutrements of wheeled vehicles of the sikkum follow a standard pattern. First, the quality and quantity of hides are recorded (usually ox hides first, then sheep and goat hides), followed by quantities of glue and/or bitumen, and, at the end, the number of cartwrights and/or tanners, with the amounts of their working days. In only two cases (AtA 69; 73) are containers (giškab2-kul) and oil (i3) assigned to the provisions of wheeled vehicles. AtA 29, o. 1-5; r. 1-2: ½ kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 3 kuš udu a i3-ri2-na / 10 sa gu4 / 10 gin2 še-gin2 / gišgigir zi- gum-ma-ke4 šu du11-du11-ga / 1 guruš u4 1 / giri3 ur-lugal lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal AtA 32, o. 10-12: ½ kuš gu4 u2- ab2 2 guruš u4 1 / gišgigir lu2 kin-gi4-a / zi-gum šu du11-du11-ga giš AtA 40, o. 1-5; r. 1: 1/3 kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 2 kuš udu 15 gin2 še-gin2 / 3 ašgab u4 1 / gigir zi-gu5-um- ke4 šu du11-du11-ga / giri3 pu3.ša-eš18-dar lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal / zabala3ki-še3 gen-na giš AtA 46, o. 1-6: 1/3 kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 1 kuš udu / 15 gin2 še-gin2 / 1 ašgab u4 1 / gigir zi-gu5-um šu ki du11-du11-ga / ra-ši-be-li2 lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal gir2-si -še3 gen-na AtA 48, o. 1-6: ½ kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 1/3 kuš udu 25 gin2 še-gin2 / 1 ašgab u4 3 / gišgigir zi-gu5-um-ke4 šu du11-du11-ga / šar-ru-um-i3-li2 / lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal AtA 49, o. 1-5; r. 1: 3 kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 1 kuš udu 10 gin2 še-gin2 / 1 ašgab u4 1 / gišgigir zi-gu5-um-ke4 šu du11-du11-ga / ur-ab-zu lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal / šušinki-še3 gen-ne 4 For an exhaustive study, see: Heimpel 1994. 58 Written sources AtA 51, o. 1-8: ½ kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 2 kuš udu i3-ri2-na / 2 kuš maš2 a-i3-ri2-na / 1/3 ma-na še-gin2 / 10 gin2 sa / 1 guruš u4 5 / gišgigir zi-gu5-um / šu du11-du11-ga AtA 52, o. 1-3: 1/3 kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / gišgigir zi-gu5-um šu du11-du11-ga / giri3 lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal AtA 53, o. 1-6; r. 1: ½ kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 2 kuš udu i3-ri2-na/ 10 gin2 še-gin2 / 1 ašgab u4 15 / gišgigir zi- gu5-um / šu du11-du11-ga / giri3 šeš-kal-la lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal AtA 54, o. 4-5; r. 1-4: ½ kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 2 kuš udu i3-ri2-na / 1 gin2 še-gin2 / 2 ašgab u4 1 / gišgigir zi- gu5-um šu du11-du11-ga / du-u2-du lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal giš AtA 57, o. 1-5; r. 1-3: 1/3 kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 2 kuš udu i3-ri2-na / 1 sa gu4 / 10 gin2 še-gin2 / gigir zi- gum-ma-ke4 šu du11-du11-ga / 1 guruš u4 1 / giri3 an-na-hi-li-bi / lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal AtA 58, o. 1-6; r. 1: ½ kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 3 kuš udu i3-ri2-na / 1 sa gu4 / 10 gin2 še-gin2 / gišgigir zi-gum- ma-ke4 šu du11-du11-ga / 1 guruš u4 1 / giri3 den-lil2-eb2-gu-ul lu2 kin-gi4-a lugal giš AtA 69, o. 1-5: 10 kab2-kul / 1/3 kuš gu4 / 2 kuš maš2 / 2/3 sila3 i3 / gišgigir zi-gum-ke4 šu du11-du11- ga AtA 73, o. 1-6: 20 giškab2-kul / 2/3 kuš gu4 / 3 kuš maš2 / 1 sila3 i3 / 7 guruš u4 1 / gišgigir zi-gum-ke4 šu du11-du11-ga Two texts (Ws163/AtA50; Ws210/AtA59-64) do not mention the sikkum, but still refer to messenger vehicles. In particular, Ws206 records six different assignments to wheeled vehicles of messengers. AtA 50, o. 1-6: ½ kuš gu4 u2- ab2 / 1 kuš udu babbar2 / 1 kuš udu ge6 / 15 gin2 še-gin2 2 ašgab u4 1 / giš gigir lu2 kin-gi4-a / lugal giš AtA 59, o. 3-6: ½ kuš gu4 2 kuš [...] 5 še-gin2 / 2 guruš u4 2 gigir lu2 kin-gi4-a / gi4-a lu2 sa-gaz [ak] da-x / a [ke4] šu du11-du11-ga giš AtA 60, o. 7-9: 2/3 kuš gu4 2 kuš udu […gin2 še-gin2] guruš / [u4] 1 gigir lu2 kin-gi4-a gu / la-še3 [gen]-na šu du11-du11-ga giš AtA 61, o. 10-12: 1/3 kuš gu4 1 kuš […] gin2 še-gin2 2 / guruš u4 3 gigir lu2 kin-gi4-a lu2-da-ri-a šu / du11-du11-ga […]-a e2 AtA 62, o. 14-16: ½ kuš gu4 2 kuš maš2 gin2 še-gin2 / 2 guruš u4 4 gi? gišgigir lu2 kin-gi4-a / ku-gu-ba e2 [u3]-ma-ni-še gen-na šu du11-du11-ga a-ra2 2 giš AtA 63, r. 7-8: ½ kuš gu4 2 kuš maš2 2 kuš [udu] 10 gin2 še-gin2 / 2 guruš u4 1 gigir lu2 kin-gi4-a šu du11-du11-ga giš AtA 64, o. 10-11: 1/3 kuš gu4 2 kuš maš2 2 kuš udu 1/3 ma-na še kur / 10 gin2 sa 2 guruš u4 2 gigir lu2 kin-gi4-a 59 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. name destination year month ur-lugal AS3 pu3.ša-eš18-dar zabala3ki ŠS1 V ra-ši-be-li2 gir2-siki ŠS2 I šar-ru-um-i3-li2 ŠS2 II ur-ab-zu šušinki ŠS2 II šeš-kal-la ŠS2 VIII du-u2-du ŠS2 VIII an-na-hi-li-bi ŠS3 d en-lil2-eb2-gu-ul ŠS3 Table 3.2: Name and destination of the royal messengers with the year and month of the assignment of goods for their wheeled vehicles. Finally, some texts (7, Ws132-133; 160; 193; 202; 242; 246) refer to the carts/wagons of governors (ensi2). This means that, in addition to their practical purpose, these vehicles were also a token of the special status enjoyed by the elite (Stepien 2012, 23). Indeed, the wheeled vehicles of governors are the only ones to which wool is assigned eš2-la2-tum/ ša3-la2-tum) as well as copper elements (urudamu- gid2-keš2) for the pole (kin til-la). Besides these special accoutrements, hide, glue and bitumen is also set aside for them (esir2 e2-a). In AtA 55, about sixteen litres of bitumen are assigned to the wheeled vehicle and the boat (ma2-gur8) of the governor. AtA 23, r. II. 13: ½ kuš gu4 gišgigir ensi2-ka sag-ri-a5 AtA 25, o. 1-2: 2 sila3 esir2 e2-a / umbin gišgigir ensi2-ka-ke4 su-ba AtA 26, o. 1-4: 1 urudamu-gid2-keš2 / ki-la2-bi ½ ma-na / kin til-la ak / gišgigir ensi2-ka AtA 34, r. I. 8: 1 ma-na siki eš2-la2-tum gišgigir ensi2-ka AtA 35, o. 1-2: 1 ma-na siki / ša3-la2-tum gišgigir ensi2-ka AtA 37, o. 1-2: 2/3 ma-na še-gin2 / gišumbin giš gigir ensi2-ka ga2-ga2-de3 giš AtA 55, r. I. 16: 1 ban2 6 sila3 esir2 e2-a gigir u3 ma2-gur8 ensi2-ka 5 sag-ri-a, like šu du11-du11, is a verb connected to the work to be performed on carts and wagons. For an exhaustive discussion, see Sigrist 1981, 183 note 163. 60 Written sources Fig. 3.8: Type and quantity of raw materials assigned to wheeled vehicles at Umma. 61 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 3.4 Administrative texts: inventory 51 administrative texts (Ws2-3; 5; 8-9; 17; 25; 33; 42; 44; 49; 60; 66; 69; 75-76; 84-85; 92-94; 96; 105-106; 110; 119; 151; 158; 170; 180; 244; 254; 257; 260; 267; 270; 272-275; 289-290; 306; 319- 320; 348; 365-367) fall under this category. The histogram in figure 3.9 shows that inventories have a wider chronological and geographical spread compared to the previous category (i.e., texts recording the assigning of accoutrements). They range in date from the Early Dynastic IIIa to the Ur III period, and have been found at eleven sites, from the Northern Levant through the Tigridian area to Central and Southern Mesopotamia. The oldest examples are from Šuruppak, two texts dating from the Early Dynastic IIIa period. Most Early Dynastic IIIb texts were found at Ebla, but some specimens come from Adab and Girsu. The largest number of inventories date back to the Akkadian (16) and Ur III (22) periods, with an important distinction: texts dating from the Akkadian period have been found at seven sites (Adab, Ešnunna, Girsu, Nippur, Tutub, Umma, Gasur) while those dating to the Ur III period are concentrated on four sites (Puzriš-Dagan, Girsu, Umma, Ur). Ur III Ur III ED IIIb Akkadian Akkadian Ur III Ur III Akkadian ED IIIa Akkadian ED IIIb Akkadian Akkadian Akkadian ED IIIb Fig. 3.9: Chronological distribution of inventory texts by site. The best example of an inventory text, the one recording the largest number of wheeled vehicles, is Ws 365, unfortunately without provenance. It was published by Molina in 1992. The text records 91 wheeled vehicles stored in a temple whose location remains unknown. In spite of the lack of context, much important information on wheeled vehicles may be deduced from this particular text. First of all, the recorded number is an impressive one. 91 vehicles would have required ample space in the temple precincts. Moreover, most of the recorded vehicles have a votive function, and some belong to the king (lugal) and the queen (nin). The vehicles may be old (sumun) or without wheels (umbin nu- tuku). Another interesting datum is related to the material they are made of. 21 vehicles are made of i- ri2-a-num2 (Akkadian eranu), probably holm oak wood (Molina 1992, 92). Moreover, some vehicles 62 Written sources giš are defined gigir gag-sal4. The term gag-sal4, normally translated as dowel or peg (Civil 1968, 10), may identify a specific type of vehicle (Molina 1992, 92). obverse 12 carts/wagons of the king, old 1. 12 gišgigir lugal sumun 6 carts/wagons of the king, old, without wheels 2. 6 gišgigir lugal sumun [umbin] nu-tuku 45 votive carts/wagons giš 3. 45 gigir nig2-ba 6 votive carts/wagons, without wheels giš 4. 6 gigir nig2-ba umbin nu-tuku 4 carts/wagons of the queen made of i-ri2-a- reverse num2 1. 4 gišgigir nin i-ri2-a-num2 du3-a 17 carts/wagons- gag-sal4 made of i-ri2-a-num2, giš 2. 17 gigir gag-sal4 i-ri2-a-num2 du3-a sumun old giš 3. 1 gigir gag-sal4 sumun 1 carts/wagons-K, old 4. e2-a gal2-la are in the temple A separate category of inventory texts is designated by the terms e2-du6-la and nig2-ga. These terms, studied in detail by Maekawa (Maekawa 1996), essentially concerned private property. The texts record servants, domestic animals, garment, furniture and utensils, as well as the amount/weight of foodstuffs and raw materials and the area of orchards, and sometimes of fields or houses. At the end of the texts there is the formula e2-du6-la/ nig2-ga PN (i.e. personal name).6 According to Maekawa, it refers to personal property which has been confiscated by the public administration, most frequently by the king’s order. Three e2-du6-la/ nig2-ga texts concerning wheeled vehicles come from Girsu. Two of these are dated to the 7th month of the 2nd year of the reign of Amar-Sin. One (Ws42/AtI12-13) records the properties of lugal-siki-su13, son of ur-dlamma governor of Girsu, the other (Ws60/AtI18) records the properties of another son of ur-dlamma, ur-dba-ba6. The third text (Ws75/AtI20) is undated and is the only one where the term nig2-ga is used. It records the properties of šeš-kal-la, son of du10-ga. A fourth text (Ws119/AtI36) comes from Umma and records the properties of gub-ba-ni. Wheeled vehicles are usually recorded together with wood objects, such as tables (gišbanšur) and beds (gišna2). In both of the texts recording the properties of the governor’s sons’, each son is assigned two giš vehicles. In the case of šeš-kal-la properties, wheeled vehicles are designated by the term mar-gid2- da (i.e wagon). Inventories also include important evidence for the functions of wheeled vehicles. Votive vehicles are mentioned in the text published by Molina, and elite vehicles, in particular used by kings, governors or messengers, have been dealt with in the previous section. 6 Another term, nig2-ga, is considered a synonym of e2-du6-la, but it is not found in inventory texts concerning wheeled vehicles 63 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Some texts dating from the Akkadian and Ur III periods inform about daily activities carried out by wheeled vehicles, such as transportation of goods from one site to another, or agricultural activities. An Akkadian text from Adab (Ws8) records a list of foodstuffs and other materials loaded onto a wagon7 directed to Akkad (a-ga-de3ki-še3 / e-na-šum2).8 The wagon was loaded with 6 alliaceous vegetables baskets (šum2-sikil gurdub), 10 fish baskets (ku6 gurdub), 1 date basket (zu2-lum gurdub), 7 sheepskins kuš udu), 2 baskets of oil (pisan i3-gal2), 2 (bariga) of mustard seeds (gazi), 5 pots (dug) of oil (geš- šum2-ma) totalling 10 litres (10 sila3), 5 pots (dug) of oil geš- šum2-ma) totalling 6 litres (6 sila3). Wagons used for carrying loads are known also from the texts of Gasur in the Tigridian region, dating from the Akkadian period, but probably slightly later than those from Girsu. In particular, Text Ws268 records expenditures of grain for seeding (Foster 1987, 94). In the second part of the text, on the verso, an additional list of expenditures is recorded under the term ša 3-ba “included within it”. Among these “other expenditures” is the following one: 17, 2 bariga, 3 ban2 še gur a-ga-de3ki / a-na ga-sur2ki / 11 gišgigir2 iriki / u-bil3-nim 17.2.3 Akkad gur of barley / to Gasur / did 11 wagons of the city / bring Although the reason for this expenditure is not clear—Foster suggests it could be a tax payment to the central government (Foster 1987, 94)—it is important to note that in this case, too, wheeled vehicles, most probably wagons, were used for carrying huge loads from one site to another. In this case, 11 wagons would have been carrying circa 5250 litres (17 gur = 5100l; 2 bariga = 120l; 3 ban2 = 30l) of barley, ca. 480 litres per wagon, corresponding to 0.48 m3. On the basis of measurements obtained from the wagons found in tombs at Ur and Kiš, it is possible to estimate their maximum capacity in about 0.9 m3 (1.5 m length; 0.6 m width; 1 m height). Obviously, these wagons were ceremonial/war ones therefore, the actual carrying-load wagons were probably more capacious.9 giš Besides being used for this purpose, wagons (i.e. mar-gid2-da) were also employed in agriculture. This is made clear by a text in the Arizona State Museum collection (Ws255). This text may be part of a court record since it concerns the results of an investigation made by the governor of Umma regarding a case of non-delivery of barley at the threshing floor of the governor’s palace. Obverse: [n] 6 še gur [...]še še-da nu-sa2-a a-ab-ba / še a- ša3 diri-še3 uru4-a-bi ib2-ta-zi / 4 gur še GAN2 lu2-sa6- ga engar im kab2 du11-ga-ka mu-gal2 / še-bi GAN2 ba-la-ka ba-a-du8 bi2-du11 ba-la nu-u3-da-ge-en8 / 7 7 Considering the large quantity of the loaded materials, the vehicle identified by the general term gišgigir2 is assumed to be a wagon. 8 This text was pointed out to me by Massimo Maiocchi, who published it in his book Classical Sargonic Tablets, Chiefly from Adab in the Cornell University collections, 2009. 9 Barley was probably carried in wicker baskets (gurdub, see above) crammed inside the wagon. 64 Written sources giš <gur> še zi3 saga GAN2 ša3 igi-sa6-sa6 engar mar-gid2-da lugal-a2-zi-da-ka i3-ib2-gal2-am3 / e2-duru5 elam-e-ne-še3 ib2-de6 gišmar-bi gu4-bi ur-dnun-gal-ke4 in-dab5 / ki-su7-ka šu lugal gu4-e-ke4 ba-an- šum2 Reverse: še-bi su7 e2-gal-ka la-ba-a-du8 / lugal gu4-e ensi2-ra nu-u3-na-an-du11 / ensi2-ke4 en8-bi in-tar / lugal gu4-e lugal-a2-zi-da szu-du8-a in-na-a-šum2 bi2-du11 / nu-u3-da-gi-in / 1(geš2) gur še še gurx(|SZE.KIN|)-gurx(|SZE.KIN|)-de3 ba-an- šum2 / ur-dšara2 engar-e inim šu in-da-an-du8 / im še gurx(|SZE.KIN|)-a-bi ensi2-ke4 lugal gu4-e tum3-da in-na-an-du11 / nu-mu-da-de6 / lu2 hun-ga2 e2-gal 16-am3 / a-ša3 lugal gu4-e-ka al ib2-ba ur- dnun-gal u3 ba-la-a ib2-gi-in / [x] e2 szu-du8-a lugal-gu4-e [(x)] / [iti] šu-numun / [mu ...] [n] 6 gur of barley [belonging to lu-saga?], barley that was not equal to the barley of A’aba; the barley that was sown for the supplemental field was deducted from it. A’aba?) stated, “4 gur of barley from the plot of lu-saga, the farmer, are (recorded) on the account verification tablet. This barley was held at Bala’s plot”. However,) Bala had not confirmed it with him i.e. A’aba?). 7 gur of barley for making) fine flour for the plot of šaigisasa, the farmer, were “loaded” on the wagon of lugal-azida. It transported (the barley) to the village of the Elamites. (But) ur-nungala seized the wagon and its ox (and) gave it (i.e. ox and wagon with the barley) to lugal-gude at the threshing floor of the palace. Lugal-gude did not inform the governor (about this), (so) the governor investigated it. Lugal-gude stated “I gave it (i.e. the barley) to lugal-azida as security.” However,) he lugal-azida) did not confirm it with him (i.e. the governor) previously. He (lugal-azida?) provided 60 gur of barley to be harvested (by lugal-gude?). Ur-šara, the farmer, was authorized to guarantee it. As for the account verification) tablet (recording) the harvesting of the barley, the governor ordered lugal-gude to bring it forth. (But) he did not bring it (i.e. the tablet) to him (i.e. the governor). (Thus,) hired workers from the palace hoed the field of lugal-gude and bala verified it. [(x)]È security, lugal-gude […] The month of Šunumun [The year…] (Owen & Wasilewska 2000, 32-33) The text mentions the wagon (gišmar-gid2-da) loaded with a quantity of barley for making fine flour in connection with the threshing floor of the palace. The vehicle mainly used for this purpose was the giš mar-gid2-da wagon, as exemplified by the so-called “Farmer’s Instructions” Civil 1994)10. This text describes an entire agricultural year in chronological order, showing the proper steps for the cultivation of cereals, and especially barley. According to Civil, the text is divided into sixteen sections: 1) Introduction; 2) Flood irrigation and drainage; 3) Preparation of tools and implements; 4) The plough; 5) First ploughing and harrowing; 6) General exhortations about field work; 7) Making the seeder-plough; 8) Sowing; 9) Furrows and their maintenance; 10) Irrigation and care of the crops; 11) Harvest; 12) Preparation of the threshing floor; 13) Threshing; 14) Winnowing; 15) Preliminary measuring and release of the grain; 16) Subscript and doxology. 10 Although the text has been dated to the first centuries of the 2nd millennium BC, it describes a work practice that has its roots in the 3rd millennium BC. 65 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. The use of wagons is mentioned in section 12: giš giš giš har-ra-an-gur-zu si sa2-sa2-ab / šu-kar2-zu ha-ra-[x-x] / mar-gid2-da-zu si ha-ra-ab-sa2 / gud mar- gid2-da-zu mur gu7 -bi-ib Establish your paths properly. / Your wagons should be in working order. / Feed the wagon's oxen (well). (Civil 1994, 32-33). Wagons were used to transport the harvested grain or barley to the threshing floor, essentially from the fields to the site. This required adequate roads. The remains of these roads are still visible today, especially via remote sensing, in the landscape of Northern Mesopotamia and will be the subject of the Chapter 7 to the present volume. 3.5 Administrative texts: offering The second most numerous group of administrative texts referring to wheeled vehicles, after texts recording the assigning of accoutrements, is that of offering texts. As I show below, this category is divided into two sub-categories: texts recording offerings for real wheeled vehicles, used in cultic activities, and texts recording offerings to a symbolic wheeled vehicle, linked to the lunar cycle. The latter texts have been found only at Umma and will be treated separately. A total of 106 texts records offerings to wheeled vehicles. More than half of these (65) are from Umma and are related to the lunar cycle. Umma texts from the Ur III period also comprise the largest number of texts referring to real vehicles, followed by texts from Girsu, which have the largest time span. Finally, a relatively limited group of texts from the Ur III period come from Drehem. Most of the offerings were of animals such as sheep, goats or lambs. These could be large or fattened. In particular, the sheep could be grain-fed or grass-fed. Moreover, foodstuffs like beer, barley for beer, dates, fat or ghee could be offered. These offerings could be regular temple offerings (sa2-du11) or related to a particular festival involving the use of wheeled vehicles. Ur III Ur III ED IIIb Ur III Akkadian Puzriš-Dagan Girsu Umma Fig. 3.10: Chronological distribution of offering texts by site. 66 Written sources 3.5.1 Girsu offerings: the “small car” at the Ambar canal The most interesting offering texts from Girsu (Ws19-24) date from the Early Dynastic IIIb period and describe the main rituals of two similar festivals: the festival of the Barley Consumption of Nanše (ezem-še-gu7-dNanše) and the festival of the Malt Consumption of Nanše (ezem-munu4-gu7- d Nanše)(Cohen 1993, 44-46; 51-52). These texts, in the number of six, are dated to the first (Ws23/AtO1), second (Ws24/AtO2), third (Ws21/AtO3; Ws19/AtO4-6; Ws20/AtO7) and sixth (Ws22/AtO8-9) years of the reign of Lugalanda11. The festival went on for six or seven days and included a journey from Girsu to Lagaš to Nina, where the main celebrations were performed in three days, and back. The pilgrims from Girsu and Lagaš included mainly elite personalities, who spent the first days of the festival making preliminary offerings in their cities. Then, before the pilgrimage began, Girsu pilgrims slaughtered a lamb near the Kisurra canal and a sheep at the e2-pa. Finally, they departed to Lagaš. At the beginning of the next day, Girsu and Lagaš pilgrims met outside the city and started celebrations at the Ambar canal (i7/8 ambar), where the Lagaš pilgrims brought standard offerings of emmer beer and dark beer as well as emmer, oil, dates food mixture and goat, while Girsu pilgrims offered a goat maš) to the small car (gišgigir2-re2): AtO1, o. I. 5-7: 1 maš / gišgigir2-re2 / i7 ambar-še3 ba-tum3 AtO3, o. II. 2-4: u4 1-kam / 1 maš i7 ambar-ra tur-ra gišgigir2-re2 / ba-sa6 AtO8, o. I. 1-7: 10 ninda gir2 ba-an-ne2 10 du8 / 1 dug kas sig15 / 1 dug kas ge6 / 1(bariga) še 1(bariga) ziz2 / 1 sila3 i3 1 sila3 zu2-lum 1 sila3 geštin ga'ar ziz2 1 maš / i7 ambar-še3 / gišgigir2-re2 ba-tum3 The offering to the car was made to ensure a safe journey and it is probable that the statues of the gods were transported on this vehicle. Once the pilgrims had arrived in Nina, the three-days festival started with offerings and celebrations to giš Nanše. At the end of the third day, an offering to the car place (ki gigir2) was made, probably in order to guarantee a safe return to Lagaš and Girsu. On the Akkadian and Ur III texts from Girsu there are no traces of this celebration and the offerings to wheeled vehicles are mainly recorded in expenditure texts (zi-ga), along with those for other sacred objects or deities. Some examples are: Akkadian: AtO10, o. 3: 1 sila4 gišgigir AtO11, o. 1: 1 sila4 gišgigir 11 Further information concerning the festival of Barley Consumption of Nanše, but not related to wheeled vehicles, derive from two texts dated to the fourth year of the reign of Urukagina (Allotte de la Fuÿe 1912, 045; Hussey 1912, 41). 67 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Ur III: AtO14, o. II. 16: 1 maš2 gišgigir dnin-geš-zi-da AtO17, o. 5: 2(ban2) kaš 2(diš) ninda um x [x] gišgigir dnin-gir2-su 3.5.2 Umm Offe ings: he “s nding” c nd he c “pl ced he f on ” Among the offering texts from Umma, four (Ws235/AtO74-75; Ws252/AtO103-14; Ws162/AtO122- 123; Ws167/AtO222;223), dated between the sixth and eighth year of the reign of Amar-Sin, record offerings for the celebration of the festival of the month of Nesag (itiezem-nesag). Nesag was the first month of summer and probably the beginning of New Year in the Ur III period calendar at Umma. During this month, the nesag-festival was celebrated in honour of the main city god Šara. The celebrations involved not only Umma but also nearby Kian, a town in the region subjected to Umma. A sequence of offerings to places and cult objects preceded the celebration of the festival. Among giš giš them were the cars “when it is standing” gigir ul-la gub-ba)12 and “placed at the front” gigir-e igi- bi ga2-ra), which transported the statue of Šulgi to and from his ritual barge13. The offerings were mainly animals, such as goat maš2), lamb (sila4) or sheep (udu). Ws235, o. I. 16-17: 1 maš2 gišgigir ul-la gub-ba / 1 sila4 gišgigir-e igi-bi ga2-ra Ws252, o. II. 1; r. I. 13-14: 1 maš2 gišgigir ul-la gub-ba / […] 1 sila4 bar-ba zi-ga / gišgigir-e igi-bi ga2-ra giš Ws162, o. II. 3-4; r. I. 17-18: 1 udu bar-ba zi-ga / gigir ul-la gub-ba / […] 1 udu bar-ba zi-ga / giš gigir-e igi-bi ga2-ra Ws167, o. 1; o. 17: 1 sila4 gišgigir ul-la gub-ba / […] […] gišgigir-e igi-bi ga2-ra The celebration started when the king entered in the Šara temple and performed the rituals. After this, a ceremony related to the preparation of the first malt was held. Then the statue of the king Šulgi was transported by the car to the barge and began its journey to Kian, where offerings to the god Gula were made. It is not clear whether the statue of Šara accompanied the statue of Šulgi in the journey by barge or whether it remained in the temple of Šara at Umma. Finally, after returning to Umma, a procession from the temple of Šara met the statue of Šulgi, which was loaded onto the car and transported to the city. 3.5.3 Umma offerings: the car and the moon Most of the offering texts (65) from Umma concern the offerings to the car of day 6 and the car of day 7 (Ws112-113; 115; 118; 123-125; 128-131; 134-139; 141; 143-147; 149; 150; 152-153; 156-157; 164; 169; 174; 176-179; 182; 184-188; 194-198; 200; 203-205; 212; 214-215; 220; 224-225; 227; 233; 12 In his translation, Cohen adds “fully beautified” (Cohen 1993, 197) 13 Since two epithets have been recorded for gišgigir (i.e. ul-la gub-ba and igi-bi ga2-ra), it has been supposed that the statue of Šulgi was transported to the barge by one vehicle and from the barge by another. However, it is possible that the different epithets describe the same vehicle performing a different function. 68 Written sources 237; 240-241; 249-251). It will be shown later that probably these vehicles are not real cars and the texts refer to a station of the moon during its cycle. Chronologically (fig. 3.11), these texts spread from the 27th year of Šulgi reign to the 2nd year of Ibbi- Sin reign, with the highest concentration during the 5 th and 6th years of Amar-Sin. Two types of offerings texts related to wheeled vehicles linked to the lunar cycle can be identified. Š27 Š34 Š37 Š41 AS5 AS6 AS7 AS8 ŠS1 ŠS2 ŠS3 ŠS4 ŠS6 ŠS7 ŠS9 IS1 IS2 Fig. 3.11: Chronological distribution of Umma offering texts concerning the car of day 6 and the car of day 7. A very restricted group of texts (7; Ws209/AtO25; Ws155/AtO26; Ws201/AtO28; Ws117/AtO29; Ws211/AtO115; Ws114/AtO165-66; Ws206/AtO179 ) refer to the offerings for the moon car (u4-sakar giš gigir). Most of these texts date from the reign of Šulgi (Year 27, 34, 37, 41). Two date, respectively, from the 7th year of the reign of Amar-Sin and that of Šu-Sin. The offerings are of barley še gur), sometimes royal (lugal), and are mainly linked to the preparation of beer še kaš saga). Ws209, o. 4: 1 bariga u4-sakar gišgigir Ws155, o. 1-2: 9, 1 ban2 5 sila3 še gur lugal / še kaš saga u4-sakar gišgigir Ws201, o. 1-2: 9, 1 ban2 5 sila3 še gur lugal / še kaš saga u4-sakar gišgigir Ws117, o. 1-2: 8 še gur lugal / še-bi u4-sakar gišgigir Ws211, o. 1-2: [... gur lugal] / [še]-bi <gurum2> u4-sakar gišgigir Ws114, o. I. 2-12: [x] udu niga / [x] 7(disz) udu u2 / [...] ½ sila3 i3-nun du10-ga / [...] 5 sila3 i3-nun / [...] 2 ban2 5 sila3 ga-[...] / 2, 4 bariga 5 ban2 2 sila3 zu2-lum gur / 150 sa šum2 gaz / 1 ban2 5 sila3 u2-tir babbar / 1 bariga še-lu2 / 360 sa {u2}[|u.en|] / sa2-du11 šu-a gi-[na] u3 u4 [sakar gišgigir] Ws206, o. 1-3: 3, 4 bariga 1 ban2 5 sila3 še gur / še kaš saga u4-sakar / gišgigir iri-ka 69 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. day 6 day 7 Fig. 3.12: Animals offered to the car of day 6 and the car of day 7. As to the largest group of texts, it records the offerings for the cars of days 6 and 7. These texts record regular offerings (sa2-du11) mainly of animals (fig. 3.12), such as lamb (sila2), goat maš2) or sheep (udu). The most common are grass-fed sheep (udu u2) and grain-fed sheep (udu niga), but there are also fattened goat maš2 niga), large goat maš2-gal), large and fattened goat maš2-gal niga) and fat sheep (gukkal). Texts of this type have a standard pattern that may correspond to a precise chronological order related to the lunar cycle: offerings for the new moon (u4-sakar gu-la); offerings for the car of day 6 (gišgigir u4 6); offerings for the car of day 7 (gišgigir u4 7); offerings for the full moon (u4-sakar u4 15). The chronological order of these regular offerings, which refers to the first half of the lunar cycle, from the new moon to the full moon, invites the logical assumption that the cars of Days 6 and 7 are not real votive vehicles, but are fictional vehicles linked to the lunar cycle14. According to W.W. Hallo, the forms gišgigir u4 6 and gišgigir u4 7 are abbreviations for u4-sakar gišgigir as “identification of the half-moon with the two semi-circular blocks of wood which were joined to make up the solid chariot wheels typical of this period” Hallo 1977, 7). An identification of the lunar disk and the Mesopotamian disk wheel makes sense, considering that the sign used for wheeled vehicles clearly refers to the wheel (see above, section 4.1). However, this identification appears to be technically incorrect, since Mesopotamian disk wheels were composed of three pieces, not two. The wheels found in the royal cemeteries at Ur and Kiš, as well as those found at Mari, were all of the same type: tripartite lenticular, i.e. composed of two lateral crescent-shaped boards and a central ogival-shaped board with the hub for the axle. If we observe the moon during its cycle, and especially during the 6th and 7th days, we will note that about 45% of the moon is visible on day 6 (waxing crescent), about 55% on day 7. Thus, the lunar phases must indeed have been 14 The lunar cycle, synodic month, is composed by eight phases (four basic positions and four intermediate phases) for a period of 29 days and a half. It starts with the new moon; followed by waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full moon, waning gibbous, last quarter and waning crescent. 70 Written sources associated with the boards making up the wheel, but not with two “semi-circular blocks”, as suggested by Hallo 15, but with the two crescent-shaped boards. The first is represented by the bright section of the waxing crescent, the second by the dark section of the waxing gibbous (Fig. 3.13). obverse 1 grain-fed sheep for the new moon, 1. [1] udu niga [u4]-sakar gu-[la] 1 grain-fed sheep and 1 grass-fed sheep for giš 2. 1 udu niga 1 udu u2 gigir u4 6 the Chariot of Day 6, 3. 2 udu niga 1 udu u2 gišgigir u4 7 2 grain-fed sheep and 1 grass-fed sheep for 4. 1 udu u2 u4-sakar u4 15 the Chariot of Day 7, 5. sa2-du11 iti-da 1 grass-fed sheep for the full moon of the 15th 6. 1 udu niga ma2 sar-sar-e day, 7. dšul-gi The monthly satukku-offering; 8. 1 udu niga u4-sakar gu-la 1 grain-feed sheep for the ma2 sar-sar-e boat, giš 9. 1 udu niga gigir u4 6 (on behalf of) Shulgi; giš 10. 1 udu niga gigir u4 7 1 grain-fed sheep for the new moon, 1 grain-fed sheep for the Chariot of Day 6, reverse 1 grain-fed sheep for the Chariot of Day 7, 1. 1 udu u2 u4-sakar u4 15 1 grass-fed sheep for the full moon of the 15th 2. sa2-du11 iti-da day, 3. 1 udu u2 kisal e11-e-še3 kux-ra The monthly satukku-offering; 4. 1 udu niga ma2 sar-sar-e 1 grass-fed sheep brought to the …- courtyard d 5. amar-suen (kisal e11-e) 1 line blank 1 grain-feed sheep for the ma2 sar-sar-e boat, 6. |ŠU+LAGAB| 10 la2 1 udu niga 5 udu (on behalf of) Amar-Sin; u2 Total: 9 grain-fed sheep and 5 grass-fed d d 7. [sa2]-du11 szul-gi amar-suen sheep; 8. [ki a]-lu5-lu5-ta satukku-offerings on behalf of (?) Shulgi and Amar-Sin; [withdrawn by] Alulu. (Ws118; Wilhelm 1972, 083) 15 The moon reaches its first quarter, i.e., half-moon, between the 6th and 7th day. 71 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Fig. 3.13: Tripartite lenticular disk wheel compared to the lunar phases of day 6 (waxing crescent) and day 7 (waxing gibbous). The connection between the moon and wheeled vehicles is also attested in Tables I-XIII of the astrological series “Enūma Anu Enlil”, which comprise a distinct section called IGI.DU8.A.ME sa2 30 “visibilities of the moon”. In Table III, we read: if (the moon is) driving a cart / the cart […] (Verderame 2002, 91, note 285). It is not clear if this sentence refers to a metaphoric image of the giš moon, as explained above, or rather to the “cart constellation”. Indeed, the term gigir (narkabtu) is also used to designate a constellation, presumably the one known today as Auriga16. This constellation has a sub-circular form that may evoke a wheel and is linked to the Taurus constellation by a star. The moon during its cycle approaches Auriga several times, and though it is possible that the previous sentence refers to this approach, it is still not easy to find final proof of this hypothesis. 3.6 Literary and royal/monumental texts Literary and royal/monumental texts, taken together, encompass less than 7% of texts regarding wheeled vehicles (Ws15; 26-29; 73-74; 78; 82; 99; 108; 256; 323-324; 342). Despite their low numbers, some of these texts provide important information for the study of carts and wagons during the 3rd millennium BC. Among literary texts referring to wheeled vehicles, the most important one is that published by Civil in 1968: Išme-Dagan and Enlil’s chariot17 (Ws82). In the hymn, the king is presented as the builder of Enlil’s chariot. The first part of the text is an exaltation of the vehicle: each of its components is 16 See: CAD 11 N I, 358-359, 2. Otherwise, the term mar-gid2-da identifies the constellations of the Ursa Major (mulmar.gid2.da) and Ursa Minor (mulmar.gid2.da.an.na), see: Horowitz 1998, 15, 156, 175, 177, 198-199, 256, 278. 17 Although chronologically Išme-Dagan reigned at the very beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, this texts has been included in the documentation related to the 3rd millennium BC since it is culturally linked to the previous Ur III period. 72 Written sources described by a laudatory sentence concerning its form or function. The second part, instead, focuses on the symbolical and mythical meaning of the vehicle. Notably, it describes the procession with the god Enlil riding its cart flanked by Ninurta and the Anunnas. Agricultural implements also play a role in this festival. The text concludes with the prayer of Ninurta to Enlil in favour of the king, who, as cartwright of Enlil’s cart, will become the mystical husband of Inanna. Oh lofty chariot, Enlil, the lord of intelligence, the father of the gods, / Spoke about your construction, in the Ekur, his sublime shrine. / You have been given an auspicious name by Išme-Dagan – the all-wise shepherd, / Born of a beautiful womb, the leader of the country – / He gave orders so that your holy and pure me could become famous. / He applied (his) hand to yo(ur construction, and) has not stopped since. / In his […] he has made you beautiful, / You have been placed with […] by him. / […] the two […], you are a sight to behold. / Your furnishings are outstanding, like the cedar forest. / Your pole, a field with open furrows, abundance of late grain. / Your sudin, a cloud, your bow ?) […], with which) you join heaven and earth. / From your yoke, your huge stock, there is no escape, you clamp down the evildoer, / Your [rope-fastened] pegs are laid like a net, you …[…] / [Your] front […] / Your furnishing, [... fu]ll of charm […] / Your axle, … […] pours a flood. / Your rope-box, [its] whip [and goad] rouse up the donkeys. / Your pole pin, a large net […] does not [release] the evildoer. / Your front guard, the sublime me of […] greatly seeks. / Your platform, warriors […] fighting together. / Your side beams, an ox and a cow carrying a heavy load. / Your cross beams… […] embracing […] / Your side board… […] together […] / Your foot board […] / The [n…] / His king, … […] / Silver, gold, precious) sto[nes…] / (Enlil) completed his great harnessing, he stepped in […] / He emb[raced] Ninlil, the mother, [his] wife. / Ninurta, the Hero, [… in front] / The Anunnas…, after him […] / The chariot shines like lightning, its bellowing [noise] is a pleasure. / […] his donkeys harnessed to the yoke. / Enlil, his mighty chariot, his shining […], is bright. / The secret sign [… of] Nin[…], the trip […] / The place with rejoices the liver […] / The king […] / […] the field implements […] / Which came out from […] / Let the hoe (and) plow, the implements of the working people, have a contest before you. / The king paid attention to the Enlil’s instructions, / Ninurta put the holy plow in good order, and plows the fertile field. / So that the silos and granaries of Enlil / May be piled high, he drops the fertile seed. / The youthful Hero proudly enters the resplendent Ekur. / The lord Ninurta offers a prayer to Enlil: / “Towards Išme-Dagan, the accomplished shepherd …, who as performed (this) service for you, / Towards the king who has built you the chariot, cast a pious glance! / Give to him, as a spouse, Inanna your beloved eldest daughter, / Let them embraced forever! / Delight, Sweetness, holy limbs, / May last a long time in his abundant life” / It is a tigi of Enlil (Civil 1968, 6-7) 73 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. The royal/monumental is the only category, among those studied here, occurring on media other than tablets (bricks, door sockets, bowls, cylinders, obelisks). Most of these texts date from the Early Dynastic period, and especially from the reigns of the kings of the 1st Dynasty of Lagaš and Ur, with three inscriptions of Entemena and another of Aanepada. The first inscription of Entemena is on a foundation tablet and records the building of the e2-muš temple at Bad-Tibira. giš a Ws15, col. II. 8-10: gigir2 kur-dub-dnin-gir2-su2-ka ar-ar-ra-an-eridu.ki-ka gam4.gam-bi / ni2-bi kur-ša3-ga / mu-na-dim2 He fashioned for him the chariot called) “Heaper up of the foreign enemy) lands of the god Ningirsu on the road (to) Eridu, the radiance of whose gam[gam] bird reaches into the heart of the foreign enemy) land s).” (Frayne 2004, 204) As in the case of the Išme-Dagan hymn, the king Entemena has fashioned the vehicle for his god Ningirsu. According to Frayne, the GAMGAM bird, most probably an eagle, was part of the impressive decoration of the upper edge of the frontal shield of the car (Fig. 3.14). A similar image, referring to the Ningirsu car built by Gudea, is depicted on three stele fragments (Or2; Or5-6; see also: Suter 2000, 388, ST.61). A second inscription of Entemena on a door socket is particularly interesting, since it mentions the construction of a “coach-house” of the god Ningirsu. The door-socket was found in-situ at Tell K and it is probable that this structure, annexed to the temple of Ningirsu, was built near a brewery, since it is mentioned in an inscription of Urukagina (Frayne 2004, E1.9.9.6) and on cylinder A of Gudea, confirming the common practice of Mesopotamian rulers to build structures on top of pre-existing ruins. Ws28, 1-11: dnin-gir2-su2 / ur-sag-den-lil2-la2-ra / en-te.me-na / ensi2 / lagaš nu10.bur.la).ki-ke4 / e2- giš gigir2-ra / mu-na-du3 / en-te.me-na / lu2 e2-gišgigir2-ra du3-a / dingir-ra-ni / dšul-muš×pa-am6 For the god Ningirsu, warrior of the god Enlil En-metena, ruler of Lagaš, built a coach-house. En- metena, who built the coach-house — his personal god is the god dšul-muš×pa-am6. As I noted above, Gudea of Lagaš also talks about wheeled vehicles in his long hymn commemorating his reconstruction of the temple of Ningirsu, Eninnu, at Girsu (Ws73; Ws74). Besides the above- mentioned decoration of the upper edge of the shield, and besides the “coach-house”, Gudea’s inscription mentions an important feature of the cars of gods, viz., colour (Fig. 3.14). Lapis-lazuli (za- gin3) is mentioned thrice (twice on cylinder A, once on cylinder B) in connection with the decoration of the blue car (gišgigir- za-gin3). It is probable that the characteristic blue colour was not limited to the 74 Written sources car of Ningirsu, but was common to all the cars of gods, since cylinder B (XVI. 15-16) mentions the blue car of the sun god (dutu). As to the materials used for the construction/decoration of wheeled vehicles, two types of wood are mentioned in cylinder A (VII. 17-18): mes wood giš.mes-e) and l wood giš. a-lu-ub2-ba). The vehicle of Ningirsu was most probably a war-car, since it was equipped with arrows (ti) protruding from a quiver (mar-uru5) and the weapon ankar, the “warrior’s arm” a2-nam-ur-sag). It was harnessed to a team of donkeys (anše.šul.ur3; anše.dun.ur3), sometimes flanked by a lion/bull summoned-for-running (pirig kas4-e pa3-da), and bore the name “It subdued the mountain” kur mu-gurum). Fig. 3.14: Hypothetical colouring of the Ningirsu cart (Reconstruction of the cart after Borker-Klahn 1982, Tafel E). 3.7 From written sources to vehicles Texts are an important source of information for the study of wheeled vehicles, since they provide fundamental data on the morphology, functions and symbolical meanings of wheeled vehicles. Terminology provides a first distinction between different types of vehicle. At Ebla, Conti (1997) giš giš giš identified four types of wheeled vehicle: gigir2-II (cart), gigir2-IV (wagon), gigir2–e2 (covered giš wagon) and gigir2-sum (wagon carrying loads). The most common term used in southern Mesopotamian texts, gišgigir2/ gišgigir,18 is used for all types of vehicles. Only from the last centuries of the 3rd millennium BC onward was a term identifying a wagon used for carrying loads introduced (gišmar-gid2-da). Huge quantities of raw materials were assigned for the construction or upkeep of wheeled vehicles. It is surprising, however, that wood is never mentioned among them, in spite of its being the main 18 For the different use of the two forms, see above 3.1. 75 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. material used in their construction (indeed, the term gigir is preceded by the determinative giš, which identifies wooden objects). The reasons for this absence may be related to the morphology of wheeled vehicles and their construction. It is possible that wood was used only for the construction of the main components of wheeled vehicles, such as wheels, axles and frameworks, and the other parts were made of wool and hides, instead of wooden boards. This may explain the huge amounts of wool and hides assigned to wheeled vehicles. This construction method made the vehicles lighter and thus more manoeuvrable. Moreover, the wooden components of the vehicle (i.e. wheels, axles and frameworks) were probably made in separate workshops and subsequently assembled with the other materials (textiles, glue, bitumen and decorative materials). This production chain required specialized workers such as cartwrights (nagar- gišgigir), who are mentioned above all in texts from Tell Beydar, ancient Nabada. An interesting difference has been noted between the two most numerous groups of texts recording the assigning of materials for wheeled vehicles, those from Ebla and Umma. In the first group, wool is the most common type of material, in the second group, hides. This difference was surely based on a different economic system, mainly based on the wool cycle at Ebla and on leather processing at Umma, but it also had important implications for the morphology of the vehicles, since treated leather is more resistant than wool to impacts and weathering. 3rd millennium BC wheeled vehicles were coloured. At Ebla, in a few cases black and white wool was assigned to vehicles, along with precious metals, such as gold, silver or tin. At Umma, a large number of hides (of ox, sheep or goat) were tanned with red dye, but there was also black and white leather, although in much lower quantities. Moreover, in addition to precious metals, precious stones were used in the decoration of votive vehicles. It is the vehicles of messengers and those of gods that were most often coloured. The vehicles of messenger, as confirmed by the texts from Umma, were mainly coloured red. Red hide is indeed a common material among those assigned to this kind of car. The vehicles of gods, instead, were mainly blue (decorated with lapis-lazuli) as described in the Gudea cylinders and the Gilgameš epic. It is possible that red was used for messenger’s car as well as for the vehicles of the elite, since it was a focussing colour that represented strength and power. On the contrary, the blue was a calming colour and, above all, it was linked to the nature, in particular it represented the colour of the sea and of the sky, where the gods lived (Pizzimenti 2012, 306-307). Moreover, red colouring was obtained by vegetable dye, easy to find and less expensive, therefore appropriated to a “human” vehicle. Otherwise, the blue was obtained by the application of a precious stone (lapis-lazuli), more difficult to find and more expensive therefore, appropriated for a “deity” vehicle. The contrast between red and blue is also found on the standard of Ur, where a red wagon stands out against a background of blue lapis-lazuli19. 19 For an analysis of words for colours in Sumerian and Akkadian, see Landsberger 1967. 76 Written sources Written sources confirm that wheeled vehicles belong mainly to elite personalities, kings, queens, governors or messengers. Therefore, these cars had a ceremonial function and were used mainly for journeys or festivals. The administrative tablets from Tell Beydar/Nabada (Sallaberger 1996) record the allocation of cereals as feed for the donkeys of the rulers of Tell Brak/Nagar during their visits to Nabada and the neighbouring sites. The journeys lasted three to four days, and up to fifty animals accompanied the rulers. This high number of donkeys was probably related to their use as draught animals for the wagons of the rulers and their court. The rulers travelled, in all likelihood, on wagons or covered wagons, since these are more comfortable than carts. Wheeled vehicles were not used only for the ceremonial journeys of rulers, but, during the Ur III period, also for the regular journeys of royal messengers. It is difficult to establish what kind of vehicles was used by these officials. According to Heimpel, they rode cars, possibly coaches with seating for three (Heimpel 1994, 29), which means that these vehicles were wagons. Indeed, the sikkum hosted different types of vehicles and the messengers used the most appropriate depending on the length of the journey they were setting out for. For short journeys, they probably preferred the fast and more manoeuvrable cart, for long journeys probably wagons, since they had loads to carry. In ritual contexts, wagons were probably used for the transportation of divine statues, as described in the texts from Girsu and Umma and confirmed in two texts from Ebla related to the marriage and enthronement of the kings Irkab-Damu and Iš’ar-Damu (Ws323; Ws324). Both texts refer to the wagon (gišgigir2-sum) of Kura and Barama, the main deities of the Ebla pantheon. The ritual journey of the divine statues is probably depicted on a seal impression from Tell Beydar/Nabada and will be described in the next chapter. Texts confirm also that wheeled vehicles, mainly wagons, were used for more daily purposes. In particular, they were used for the transportation of foodstuffs from one site to another or for carrying the harvested cereals from the fields to the threshing floor. Surprisingly, written sources never allude to the use of wheeled vehicles in battle, with the exception of an Early Dynastic IIIa text from Šuruppak (Ws95), in which cars coming (me3-še3 gen) and going (me3-ta gen) from the battle are mentioned (Jacobsen 1957, 121, note 65). The “battle-car” motif is the most common in glyptic and figurative art, and will be discussed in the next chapters. Finally, wheeled vehicles, besides having real functions in the daily life of ancient Mesopotamians, are also mentioned with a symbolical meaning linked to the lunar cycle in the Umma offering texts. giš Moreover, the term gigir20 was commonly used, during the Ur III period, in personal names. This means that wheeled vehicles must have become very common and familiar objects by the mid3rd millennium BC. 20 The most common personal names including the term are: Ur- gišgigir; Lugal- gišgigir and Geme2- gišgigir. 77 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 4. GLYPTIC Seals and seal impressions with representations of wheeled vehicles, while much less numerous than the previous categories of evidence—viz., terracotta models and written sources—, are no less important. In fact, they provide the only in-context representations of carts and wagons (except for the few representations on other media, such as steles, standards or vases). Despite the large amount of studies and catalogues concerning seals and seal impressions, few specifically focus on images of wheeled vehicles. For this chapter, I have mainly drawn on Jans and Bretschneider’s study “Wagon Representations in the Early Dynastic Glyptic. They Came to Tell Beydar with Wagon and Equids” (Subartu IV.2, 1998). The article focuses on seal impressions from Tell Beydar showing wheeled vehicles, but it also presents a detailed catalogue of images of wheeled vehicles in seal impressions from Syria and Mesopotamia during the 3 rd millennium BC. The first part of the present chapter will focus on the identification of different types of vehicles represented in impressions, and compare them with the above typology of terracotta models for similarities. Once I have identified the types of vehicles, I will analyse in detail the contexts of their representation. I will distinguish and classify contexts through the identification of peculiar patterns. Finally, the last part of the chapter will focus on statistical analyses, followed by a section that summarises information about wheeled vehicles provided by seal impressions. 4.1 Types of wheeled vehicles in glyptic representations In glyptic art, wheeled vehicles are depicted in a distinctive fashion. Usually, both carts and wagons (including covered ones) are shown in a side-view, except for the frontal shield, which is always represented frontally, showing the X-shaped cross bars and the horn-shaped upper edge. This manner of representation of wheeled vehicles may be put down to a lack of technical skill on the part of the engravers, but actually it most probably reflects a will to represent in detail one of the most distinctive components of wheeled vehicles. The first typology of wheeled vehicles (Fig. 4.1) represented in seal impressions was developed by Jans and Bretschneider (Jans & Bretscneider 1998, 166). It distinguishes six types: Type 1a: Four-wheeler. The rectangular box has a high front, reinforced by diagonally crossed struts and topped by an open handrail with a central down-curve. Type lb: Four-wheeler. The same as 1a, but without struts. Type lc: Four-wheeler. The same shape as la, but without struts and without a handrail. Type 2a: Four-wheeler, with a half-round superstructure. 78 Glyptic Type 2b: Four-wheeler, with a horizontal platform, two arched lines run from the front to the back of the wagon. Type 2c: This four-wheeler has a square superstructure with a diagonal cross-shaped decoration. Type 3: This four-wheeled wagon consists of a high rectangular structure (tower-shaped). Type 4: Four-wheeler, with two "man-size" screens. Type 5: These two-wheeled chariots have no real box; the floor of the wagon and the pole form a "horizontal-S-shape" (“straddle car”). Type 6: This chariot can be regarded as a two-wheeled version of type I (“platform car”). 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2c 3 4 5 6 Fig. 4.1: Typology of wheeled vehicles represented in glyptic art (according to Jans & Bretschneider 1998, 184). This typology is mainly based on decorative criteria, for example, the presence or absence of the crossed struts or the shape of the upper edge of the frontal shield. Moreover, types 2c, 3 and 4 cannot be regarded as true cars, given the lack of certain features. They can more appropriately be defined as moving platforms. On the basis of these observations, I propose the following new typology: Type II – Carts with box body. Type III – Carts with platform body and footboard. Type IV – Wagons with platform body. Type Va – Wagons with box body and seat. 79 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Type Vb – Wagons with box body. Type VI – Covered wagons. Type VII – Moving platforms. Compared to the previous typology, this matches the typology of wheeled-vehicle terracotta models more closely. For convenience’s sake, I have matched the type-numbers to those of the corresponding types in the typology of models. I have retained the two-wheeler types from the models typology, viz., “Two-wheeled box body” (II) and “Two-wheeled platform body with footboard” (III). The few representations of Type III two- wheeler types are not detailed enough, however, to allow the sub-types of these types to be distinguished. However, the vehicles are mainly represented with rear axle. Two-wheelers with platform bodies (Type I in the terracotta models typology) are not represented in glyptic art. This could mean that the terracotta models of this type were not copies of actual vehicles, but very simple models invented by craftsmen. However, a second explanation for this discrepancy between depictions of wheeled vehicles in models and in glyptic evidence could be chronology. Models of Type I mainly date from the early centuries of the 3rd millennium BC, whereas seal impressions showing wheeled vehicles mainly date from the mid-3rd millennium BC (Early Dynastic IIIa/Akkadian). This could mean that during the Early Dynastic IIIa-b or Akkadian periods carts with simple platform bodies were already obsolete and therefore not worthy of being shown on seals. I have also retained my four-wheeler types, but subdivided them into wagons with a platform body, wagons with a box body with seats, and wagons with a box body, on the basis of body morphology and the presence or absence of a seat. These correspond, respectively, to Types IV (Four-wheeled platform body), Va (Four-wheeled box body with rounded bottom) and Vb (Four-wheeled box body with flat bottom) in my typology of terracotta models. I have unified representations of covered vehicles into a single type, regarding types 2a and 2b as two different graphical renderings of the same vehicle (i.e., “Four-wheeled covered vehicle”). Finally, I have included type 2c, as well as 3 and 4, in a new type, VII (moving platforms). 4.2 The contexts One of the most important items of information provided by representations of wheeled vehicles in glyptic art is the context in which these vehicles were used. The different uses of cars, both in ritual and in daily life, can be deduced from written sources, although, as I remarked in the previous chapter, mentions of cars in military contexts are rare, being essentially limited to text Ws95 from Šuruppak. 80 Glyptic Before going into an analysis of the contexts of wheeled vehicles in representations in glyptic art, I need to remind the reader that the cylinder seal is a medium linked to the elite. The subjects depicted on them are hence limited to heroic or official actions. They never include daily life scenes, such as agricultural work or the transportation of foodstuffs.1 According to Jans and Bretschneider, wheeled-vehicle representations occur in three categories of context: war, worship, and hunting. Each of these contexts can be recognised by specific iconographic traits. War scenes usually involve wagons of Types Va and Vb, more rarely carts of Types II and III. The motif characterising war scenes featuring wheeled vehicles is that of the “fallen enemy”. He usually lies between the legs of draft animals, evoking a charge made with “battle-cars”.2 In addition to this main motif, armed soldiers, with spears or bows and shields, and naked prisoners are sometimes represented. Seventeen seal impressions show wheeled vehicles in war scenes. These can be on a single register or on two registers. In the latter case, the war scene occupies one register, while in the other a frieze, usually animal or heraldic, may appear, or a banquet or worship scene with a covered wagon. Worship scenes only feature covered vehicles. None of the covered vehicles are pulled by animals, except perhaps in the scene depicted on Gl35. Collon (Collon 1987: 158-159) suggests that the covered wagon was pulled by the animal on the left of the vehicle; on the contrary, Jans and Bretschneider (Jans, Bretschneider 1998: 170) interpret the pole behind the animal not as a draught pole connected to the wagon but as a plough, so that the front of the vehicle facing the temple and the pole is leaning on its entrance. In the six worship scenes, two main patterns can be discerned: 1) A covered wagon close to a structure (fixed or movable). Figure 4.2 2) A procession toward an enthroned figure. Figure 4.3 Fig. 4.2: First pattern of worship Fig. 4.3: Second pattern of worship scenes. scenes. Lower register of Gl10. Upper register of Gl11. In the first pattern, the covered wagon is located close to a structure, probably a temple, with its draught pole leaning on the structure. A kneeling person is always represented under the pole. On the 1 Images of vehicles (sledge/threshing board) employed in rituals linked to the agricultural cycle are probably represented in a seal impression from Arslantepe (Frangipane, 1997: fig. 16, 1), a seal impression kept in the J.P. Rosen Collection, New York (Littauer & Crouwel 1990a, 15-16, Pl.IIa) and on a stone plaquette kept at the British Museum (Herzfeld 1934, 223), all of them from the late 4th millennium BC. On ceremonial threshing in the ancient Near East, see: Littauer & Crouwel 1990a; Steinkeller 1990; see Introduction section 1.5.2. 2 As I will show below, this pattern is conventional rather than being a faithful representation of reality. 81 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. sides are depicted individuals performing a ritual gesture, with the left arm raised in greeting and the right arm held low. In the second pattern, the covered wagon is drawn toward an enthroned figure (god or king), being served by a cupbearer or preceded by a table laden with food offerings. Nadali, in his article “Representations of battering rams and siege towers in early Bronze Age glyptic art” (Historiae 6, 2009), suggests a different interpretation for the first pattern. He suggests, on the basis of textual data, that covered vehicles were used during sieges as battering rams. This interpretation has a later parallel in the battering rams depicted in the Assyrian reliefs (for types of Assyrian battering rams see Yadin 1963, 313-316). The vehicles represented in the Assyrian reliefs show close morphological similarities with those of the 3rd millennium BC, and both vehicles are represented facing a structure. However, despite these similarities, the 3rd millennium BC covered wagons are not represented in a clear siege context, as are Assyrian vehicles. Moreover, the presence of the kneeling figure under the draught pole, as well as of the other individuals (all unarmed) performing the ritual gesture, calls for a cultic interpretation of these representations. Few seal impressions (4) show hunting scenes. According to the definition proposed by Jans and Bretschneider, hunting scenes are characterised by “the presence of dogs or other animals such as deer, gazelle or lions; and the absence of a wounded enemy in the field” (Jans & Bretschneider 1998, 162). Vehicles of Type IV (wagon with platform body) are usually represented in these scenes, except for seal impression Gl34, where a vehicle of Type Vb (wagon with box body) is depicted. I recognised a fourth category, which includes five seal impressions, one from Southern Mesopotamia (Gl9) and four from Tell Beydar (Gl19-22), representing mythological scenes. I consider these representations as a version of the iconographic theme defined by Amiet as “Dieu-bateau” (Boat-God) (Amiet 1961, 177-181). Seal impression Gl9 is divided into two registers. The main scene in the upper register shows a boat with a figurehead representing a deity holding an oar. The deity has the sacred horns and a long hair curled at the end. On the boat is another horned deity holding a difficult to recognise tool. The boat is preceded by an animal and followed by a human figure holding a pole and topped by a crescent. In the lower register, two human figures holding long tools (weapons?) precede a Type III cart, with a decorated draught pole and shield, pulled by an equid. The vehicle is driven by a sitting human figure holding the reins and a tool (axe?), and followed by a small quadruped, probably a dog, and a human figure holding a similar tool. The four seal impressions from Tell Beydar show a similar pattern but with the basic difference that the vehicles represented are wagons of Type Va. A large number of glyptic representations of wheeled vehicles belong to a fifth category. Most of these impressions are too fragmentary and it is hence hard to recognise not only the context but even the type of vehicle represented. 82 Glyptic 4.3 Statistical analyses Statistical analyses of glyptic representations of wheeled vehicles are biased by several factors, as is true of the other categories of evidence discussed above. The two main biases are related to the find- context and the preservation status. Almost 50% of glyptic artefacts do not come from controlled excavations, but from the illegal market. Obviously, this limits not only our understanding of their geographical distribution but also our ability to precisely date them (Fig. 4.5). On the other hand, impressions found in stratigraphical excavations are often too fragmentary to allow the subject to be clearly distinguished. The histogram in figure 4.4 shows the numerical distribution of wheeled vehicles representations by site. Apart from specimens from the illegal market, the highest number of seal impressions come from the Jazirah region (Tell Beydar: Gl10-22; Tell Brak: Gl23-28; Tell Khuera; Gl29-30), followed by those from Southern Mesopotamia (Mari: Gl4-5; Ur: Gl6-7; Abu Salabikh: Gl1; Ešnunna: Gl2; Kiš: Gl3; Uruk: Gl8). More than 60% of the specimens date from Early Dynastic IIIb. 23% date from the Akkadian period and 8% from the Ur III period. Finally, a few examples date from the Early Dynastic II and Early Dynastic I periods (4% for each). Ur III ED I ED II 8% 4% 4% Akkadian 23% ED IIIb 61% Fig. 4.4: Distribution of glyptic Fig. 4.5: Chronological distribution representations by site. of glyptic representations. The first statistical analysis I performed regarded vehicle types. As shown on pie-chart 4.6, four- wheelers are the most often represented type (77%), whereas two-wheelers are much less common (8%). A significant percentage of models (15%) cannot be ascribed to any type. Among representations of four-wheelers, Type Va (wagons with box body and seat) is the most frequent (47%), followed by Type Vb (wagons with box body) and Type VI (covered wagons), both with 12%, and Type IV (wagons with platform body), with only 6%. Two-wheelers are almost exclusively of Type III (carts with platform body and footboard), representations of Type II (carts with box body) being rare. 83 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. II III 2% 6% IV 6% no type 15% VI 12% Vb 12% Va 47% Fig. 4.6: Types of wheeled vehicles represented in glyptic art. My second statistical analysis regards the different contexts in which vehicles are represented. As specified in the previous section, most representations of wheeled vehicles (36%) do not fall into any of the main context categories (i.e. war, worship, hunting, mythological). Among these main categories, war scenes are the most frequently attested (33%), followed by worship scenes (13%), hunting scenes (9%) and mythological scenes (8%). war no context 33% 36% mythological worship 10% hunting 13% 8% Fig. 4.7: Contexts in which wheeled vehicles are represented. The third statistical analysis merges the first and the second to highlight the correlation between wheeled vehicle types and contexts. My analysis confirms that there existed a functional specialisation of the different types of vehicles. The most specialised types are Type VI (covered wagons), attested only in worship scenes, and Type IV (wagons with platform body), represented in hunting scenes. Type Va (wagons with box body and seat) is prevalent in war scenes. However, other types of vehicles are also featured in this context, these being, in decreasing order: Type Vb (wagons with box); Type III (carts with platform body and 84 Glyptic footboard); Type II (carts with box body). Type Va is also prevalent in mythological scenes, followed by vehicles of type III. Va Va VI Vb Va IV III II III Va Vb III Fig. 4.8: Distribution of wheeled vehicle types within their contexts. 4.4 From glyptic representations to vehicles The main theme represented in these seal impressions is war. Wagons (mainly with a seat) involved in battle actions are usually depicted with standard elements which shed light on how these vehicles were actually employed. For example, the fallen enemies trampled by the draught animals and the armed soldiers, sometimes shown in the act of fighting, suggest an active involvement of wagons in battle. But were these vehicles really employed to charge the enemy infantry and in the midst of the battle? According to De Backer, the vulnerable spot of a war wagon was its back, since it was not protected by floor frames or frontal shield. Moreover, being heavy and hard to manoeuvre, wagons were an easy target in battle. For these reasons, wagons were backed up by infantry and essentially served as moving platforms for two main purposes: to provide a raised platform for lancers or archers to shoot freely, and to provide commanders and elite troops a clearer view of the battlefield (De Backer 2009). It may very well be that, in addition to their normal functions, wagons were employed by kings or elite troops “as a mean to display their courage and strength, slashing the enemy with their mace/axe/harpè, or piercing his eyes with the point of their spear from afar” (De Backer 2009, 7). These heroic actions, rather than the usual battle tactics, were worthy of being represented on official media, such as seals, steles or standards. Two seal impressions from Mari (Gl4; Gl5), representing wheeled vehicles involved in a battle, are particularly important, since they show some unique features which allow us to identify the owner of the seals and link the representation to an actual battle (Bretschneider et al. 2009). Both impressions have been recomposed from numerous fragments of door sealings. They have a very similar design which suggests a common origin, probably from the same workshop. 85 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. The scene is divided into two registers. In the lower one, warfare action involving a wagon is represented. This scene, as well as the whole impression, is very detailed, bearing witness to the great skill of the craftsman. The vehicles have a seat or a high frame in the rear; the decorations on the sides and the frontal shields are clearly visible. In the former there are vertical grooves, while the shields carry the common X-shaped bars. Moreover, the upper edge of the shields is horn-shaped and a quiver with javelins is attached on the front. In both impressions, above the box, an upside down severed head replaces the charioteer. The vehicles are pulled by equids with the usual fallen enemies beneath their hooves. Finally, in front of the wagons is the traditional groups of fighting human figures. The only difference between the two war-registers is the figure depicted in front of the vehicles, between its pole and the reins. In the first impression an object, whose shape evokes a shuttlecock, is represented, while in the second impression it is replaced by a simple ball. The upper register contains a ritual scene. An enthroned human figure holding a mace is the focal point of the representation. He is bearded in the first impression, beardless in the second. Behind him stand a servant holding a fan and a hero holding two lion hides in the first impression, the hides of a leopard and a lioness in the second. Moreover, in the first impression, astral symbols (eight-pointed star, crescent, three dot-stars), animals (lioness, bull, scorpion) and an acolyte holding a libation object are shown in front of the enthroned figure. Of these figures, only the lioness and the bull are also pictured in the second impression. The element of absolute originality, compared to other impressions showing wheeled vehicles, is an inscription bearing the name of the king Išqi-Mari. The inscription is perfectly integrated into the upper register of the first impression, while in the second impression it was probably added at a later time, since some figures seem to have been erased to make room for it. King Išqi-Mari ruled over Mari at the end of the Early Dynastic IIIb period, and his name is probably linked to the destruction of Ebla and Mari. In this regard, two hypotheses have been proposed: according to Archi and Biga, Išqi-Mari defeated and destroyed Ebla around year 17 of the governor of Ebla, Ibbi-zikir. Then, around the 10th year of the reign of Išqi-Mari, Sargon of Akkad conquered Mari (Archi & Biga 2003, 29-35). On the contrary, Margueron suggests that Išqi-Mari’s ruling overlapped with that of the Akkadian king Naram-Sin, who possibly destroyed Mari (Margueron, 2004, 311). The two seal impressions of Išqi-Mari probably depict one of the main events of this crucial period for the history of the ancient Near East: the battle of Mari against Ebla. As suggested by Archi and Biga, the battle took place during the 35th year of Išar-damu of Ebla, whose governor was Ibbi-zikir (in his 17th year). At that time, ida’ar ruled over Mari, whereas Išqi-Mari was probably a high ranking officer or an official with a military function (Archi & Biga 2003, 7, table 1). Although Išqi-Mari wasn’t king, he led the troops against Ebla and emerged victorious. This success probably determined Išqi-Mari’s subsequent ascent of the throne. Thus, both impressions commemorate the victorious battle of Išqi-Mari against Ebla. However, they differ in an important way, viz., in the fact that the enthroned figure of Išqi-Mari is represented 86 Glyptic bearded in the first impression, beardless in the second. The beard was always regarded as an attribute of royalty in the ancient Near East. The second seal (the one where Išqi-Mari is beardless) was hence probably made when he was still an official. This also would explain why the inscription with the term lugal (king) was added to the second seal in a second time (Bretschneider et al. 2009). According to Bretschneider, an image from Tell Beydar (G110) is comparable to the Išqi-Mari impressions. Like the latter, it was pieced together from numerous fragments of doors sealings. It shows a similar design to the Mari impressions, but the rendering of the details is less refined. The Beydar impression is divided into two registers. In the upper one is a typical war scene with a wagon. The vehicle is driven by a seated charioteer and the fallen enemy lies upside down in front of the draught animal. In the lower register a worship scene is represented. As shown in figure 4.2, it is of the first pattern (i.e. covered wagon close to a structure). This subject, as well as those involving covered wagons in worship scenes, was probably linked to a Northern Mesopotamia ritual related to victory in battle 3. On the contrary, in Southern Mesopotamian representations, such as the standard of Ur or the Išqi-Mari seal impressions, the war scene with wagons is related to a banquet scene. According to Bretschneider, Van Vyve and Jans, the Beydar impression Gl10 shows close similarities with the Jebelet el-Beidha stele (Moortgat-Correns, 1972, 13–24, pl. XIV–XIX) (Fig. 4.9). It was erected on a mountain plateau in the Jabel ‘Abd al-Aziz region, 50 km west of Tell Brak/Nagar and dates from the transition between Early Dynastic IIIb and the Akkadian period. Both artefacts (i.e. the Beydar impression and the Jebelet el-Beidha stele), as well as the Išqi-Mari impressions, may have had the same purpose, viz., to celebrate a victorious battle. (Bretschneider et al. 2009, 16-17). As previously mentioned, worship representations mainly involve covered vehicles, probably linked to a Northern Mesopotamian ritual. On the contrary, the mythological representations from Southern Mesopotamia and Tell Beydar/Nabada probably refer to a pan-mesopotamian ritual, perhaps linked to the journey of divine statue by boat and by cart/wagon. An example, which can be related to this celebration, is recorded on Ur III texts from Umma (see section 3.5.2). Glyptic representations also provide information related to 3rd millennium BC hunting with wheeled vehicles. However, the impressions showing this theme are few and their interpretation is not totally clear. Given their controversial nature, and in the absence of further evidence from other documentary categories, they cannot be regarded as confirmation that wheeled vehicles were actually employed in hunting during the 3rd millennium BC. 3 Amiet classifies this group of impressions as ‘Rituel de Haute Syrie’ (1961, 167-168). 87 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Fig. 4.9: Jebelet el-Beidha stele (from Borker-Klahn 1982, no. 13a-b) 88 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3rd Millennium BC. 5. “OTHER REPRESENTATIONS” The category “other representations” includes within it all artefacts representing wheeled vehicles that do not belong in the previous categories (terracotta models; written sources; glyptic art). Given the heterogeneous nature of these materials, I have grouped them in four sub-categories, each of which will be dealt with in a separate section of the present chapter: 1) Metal models 2) Standards and inlays 3) Steles and plaques 4) Vases 43% of the artefacts in question are metal models (Or17; Or27-42), followed by standards and inlays (26%; Or7-15; Or26) and steles and plaques (23%; Or1-6; Or18-19; Or22-25). The less frequently attested artefacts are vases, which only account for 8% of the total (Or16; Or20-21). Vases Steles and 8% plaques metal 23% models 43% Standards and inlays 26% Fig. 5.1: “Other representation” sub-categories. 5.1 Metal models Three-dimensional representations of wheeled vehicles can be made of different materials than terracotta, for example, metals such as bronze or copper.1 Metal models can be regarded as true art objects for two main reasons: bronze and copper were more precious and expensive than clay and, furthermore, the skill of specialized craftsmen/artists was 1 Several specimens have been tested in laboratories in order to establish their composition and authenticity (Littauer & Crouwel 1973b). 89 “Other representations” needed for the manufacturing of these models. These artefacts are rich in details, and thus complement the information provided by terracotta models. Seventeen models belong to this category. Except for the two-wheeler copper models found in the Šara Temple at Tell Agrab (Or17), they all come, not from controlled excavations, but from the illegal market. Two of them (Or30-31) come from Syria, Or30 from the Homs region, and Or31 from Northern Syria. The other models come from Anatolia, except Or37-42, for which no provenance information is available, although, on the basis of morphological similarities, it can be assumed that they are also from Anatolia. Among the Anatolian models, three (Or27-29) were acquired in 1999 by the Sanliurfa museum and come from the illegal excavation of the necropolis near the site of Abamor Höyük. Model Or32, as well as models Or33 and 36, lack precise provenance indications, but are reported to come from South-Central Anatolia. Finally, the last model (Or35) comes from a cache near Alaca Höyük. Apart from the Tell Agrab model, which dates from the Early Dynastic I period, the chronology of all the other models is uncertain. Scholars date them between the late 3rd to the early 2nd millennium BC (Littauer & Crouwel 1973b; Özgen 1986).2 As to the types of the depicted vehicles, wagons with a box body (Vb) widely outnumber other types. Indeed, all of fifteen models belong to this type. Of the remaining two, one belongs to Type IIIc (carts with a platform body, footboard and central axle) and the other to Type VI (covered wagons). A peculiar feature of metal models is that they are almost always drawn by animals (15 of 17). This distinguishes them from terracotta models, which have never been found with draught animals. Metal wagon models, both covered and not, are towed by a pair of bulls, while the only cart is towed by a team of four asses. The copper cart model from Tell Agrab provides several data about the morphology of these vehicles. The central part of the vehicle (i.e. the body) is a rectangular-shaped block. The axle is fixed under the central part of the body. The frontal shield is slightly oblique and its upper part is a crossbar with knobs; it had to be a kind of handhold. The pole is straight and protrudes forward from the body moreover, in the part nearest to the body, it seems reinforced by a rope or leather band. The yoke is attached to the pole by a pin and fastened to the collars of the inner pair of animals. The reins pass through a ring mounted on the yoke and are twisted around the shield. The wheels are tripartite with the central plank rectangular-shaped. The wheel rims are protected by a tyre held in place with large- headed nails3. Astride the body stand the charioteer with his feet resting on the axle. He wears a skirt fastened with a long belt, and is long-haired and bearded. The only bronze model of covered wagons comes from the necropolis of Abamor Höyük, South Eastern Anatolia (Or27). It has a design similar to that of the terracotta models of Type VIa (i.e. covered wagons with U-shaped cover). The bottom consists of a bronze plate, to the lower side of 2 Although some of these models might be dated to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, I preferred to include all of them in my catalogue due to their morphological similarities to the 3 rd millennium specimens. 3 For a study on ancient Near Eastern tyres, see: Crouwel 2012. 90 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3rd Millennium BC. which the two axles and the arched draught pole are attached by means of rivets. The cover is a single U-shaped bronze plate, with the lower edges slightly introverted and attached with rivets to the base. The front is open, as in the terracotta models, while the back is closed by a bronze plate. The four wheels are of the solid-disk type with a prominent hub. The axles pass through them and are bent backward to hold them. The vehicle is pulled by a pair of bulls. The remaining fifteen models all belong to Type Vb, but can be divided into two groups based on the technique used for the rendering of the body and the shield. The Syrian models are characterised by a solid box body with three vertical ridges on the long sides and two on the short sides. Model Or30 has a long frontal shield with a horn-shaped upper edge, and is pierced through. On each side of the vehicle, two large upward-curving hooks (or horns) rise from the floor level above or nearly above the axles. Although model Or31 is very similar to the previous one, it has no upper edge frontal shield and the side hooks are smaller. Anatolian models are rendered more “realistically”. The rail-work box body and the frontal shield are made of vertical and horizontal bars, usually rounded in section. The upholstery is rendered with a bronze-copper lamina, unfortunately not preserved for all models. The base is usually made of a single plate. The axles and pole, always straight when preserved, are attached to its lower side. The wheels, as in the previous cases, are of the solid-disk type with a prominent hub. Anatolian metal models, as well as Tell Agrab model, provide important information on the construction of real vehicles. Notably, metal models appear to confirm what written sources tell us regarding the employment of wool and hides for the upholstering of vehicles. The Tell Agrab model shows several details of the employment of wool and hides for this purpose. Bands were used to reinforce or fasten parts of cars, such as the draught pole to the body or the yoke to the pole or to the collars of the draught animals. Sheepskin was probably used to cover the seats, in order to make them more comfortable, whereas ox hides were employed to line the sides and the frontal shield of the vehicles, instead of wooden boards. This solution is clearly visible in the Anatolian metal models, where a lamina is enveloped around the rail-work box body and the frontal shield (Fig. 5.2). Fig. 5.2: Bronze model Or28 with and without upholstery. 91 “Other representations” The use of hides instead of wooden boards certainly had both economic and structural reasons. Wood was an expensive asset, especially in Central and Southern Mesopotamia. Its employment was hence preferably limited to the essential components of the vehicles. Furthermore, a wagon made exclusively of wooden boards, besides being very expensive, would also have been very heavy and difficult to move. For these reasons, hides, being less expensive and offering equally good impact resistance, were preferred for the construction of certain parts of wheeled vehicles. Vehicles made exclusively of wooden boards and decorated with precious metals and stones were probably employed to carry rulers or divine statues during ceremonies and festivals. 5.2 Standards and inlays The first artefact that comes to mind when discussing wheeled vehicles in the 3rd millennium BC Mesopotamia is the famous Standard of Ur (Or26). This uncommon object was found by L. Woolley in tomb PG/779 in the royal cemetery at Ur. The artefact being a very bad state of preservation therefore, it underwent intensive restoration in order to protect and recreate the fine inlays of shell, limestone and lapis-lazuli held in place with bitumen.4 The Standard, nowadays exhibited at the British Museum, is a box about 20 cm high and 40 cm long, with the side faces inclined inwards, giving the object a trapezoidal shape. The main scenes are shown on these two inclined panels, commonly known as the “war panel” and “peace panel”. The scenes on both panels are arranged on three registers, with a chronological order from low to high. In the “war panel”, a war scene involving wagons is shown, in the “peace panel” a banquet. Both representations are probably linked to the same theme: the celebration of the king’s victory over his enemies.5 In the “war panel”, a procession of war wagons is located in the lower register. The four wagons advance from left to right, all of them pulled by a team of four equids and driven by a charioteer. A second person (the lancer) stands on the rear footboard. The draught animals of the first three wagons trample the enemies to the ground. This is a topical motive, also found in glyptic art of the same period. It should be noted, however, that equids are typically reluctant to trample obstacles that could jeopardize their fragile articulations, and even more so when they are pulling a heavy wagon. Therefore, the motive of the fallen enemy trampled by equids pulling a war wagon symbolises the humiliation of the defeated enemy rather than faithfully reproducing real action. The vehicles are all of the same type, corresponding to the so-called “battle car” (Littauer & Crouwel 1979) and to my Type Vb, that is, wagons with a box body and without a seat. As in glyptic representations, the box and the wheels as well as the charioteer and the lancer are shown from the 4 As suggested by Dolce, the representations on the main panels of the Standard are slightly altered by the restorations, and the representations on the sides are completely changed (Dolce 1978, 185) 5 Under this regard, there are similarities here with the seal impressions of Išqi-Mari (Gl4-5; see Chapter 4). 92 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3rd Millennium BC. side, while the frontal shield is shown frontally. The box is reinforced by two vertical double-bars. A textile of some kind covers the back and the footboard. It could be a sheepskin, which probably would have served to ensure a better grip and stability for the lancer standing on the footboard. The frontal shield has the typical X-shaped bars reinforcing its external face, and the upper edge is horn-shaped. The pole, of the straight type, is attached to the bottom of the box. An elaborate double-ring, through which the reins are strung, is attached to it. The wheels are of the most common type: tripartite with an ogival central plank. The most interesting information concerning the war wagons represented on the Standard of Ur is their colour: the frames of the wagons as well as their wheels and pole are made of shell, and are hence of a pearl white colour. This material is probably used here to represent the wooden part of the vehicle. The upholstery, the box and the shield, instead, are depicted with reddish limestone inlays. This kind of colour is neither randomly chosen nor solely decorative; it is meant to evoke ox hides tanned with a red dye and very often allocated for the construction and reparation of wheeled vehicles (see section 3.3.2). A fifth wagon is depicted in the left section of the upper register. This vehicle, morphologically identical to the other, differs from it in some important details: the quiver is empty and fastened with a band to one of the horn-shaped protrusions of the upper edge of the frontal shield. Furthermore, the vehicle has no occupants. The charioteer holds the reins standing on the ground behind the wagon, probably waiting for the main passenger and owner of the vehicle, viz., the king, who is represented in the centre of the register at a larger scale than the other figures. Behind the king and preceding his wagon are three generals armed with spears. In front of the king is a procession of defeated enemies. The same procession is pictured in the central register. From the left, soldiers wearing spotted cloaks and helmets, and armed with spears, push forward a number of defeated and naked enemies towards the king. In the “peace panel”, a banquet scene is shown. In this case, too, the main action is depicted in the upper register: the king, noticeably larger than the other figures, wears the typical skirt with wool tufts. He is seated on an elaborated throne with a cup in his right hand. Around him are cupbearers, in front of him a row of six enthroned diners (possibly members of the court or generals). The representation in the upper register is completed by a pair of musicians in the right corner. In the central and lower register, the preparation of the banquet is depicted. Courtiers, farmers, merchants and craftsmen bring animals and foodstuffs as gifts for the royal banquet. Shell inlays representing wheeled vehicles or parts of them have been found in other Southern Mesopotamian cities, such as Kiš (Or7) and Nippur (Or15). Both fragments are incised shell plaquettes representing the same subject: a team of four equids harnessed to an elaborated arched pole. Only part of the vehicle is visible, namely, the frontal shield with a decorated quiver. 93 “Other representations” A large amount of shell inlays comes from the Southern Syrian site of Tell Hariri, ancient Mari (Or8- 14). They were found in the Ishtar temple, in the Ninni-Zaza temple and in the pre-Sargonic palace. Some of these fragments, especially those from the Ninni-Zaza temple, may belong to the so called Standard of Mari6. The inlays from this temple show a wagon very similar to that of the Standard of Ur, but in bad condition and uncoloured. The inlays from the temples of Mari are the only ones that show carts (Or9-11; Or14). The vehicles are probably of Type II, i.e., carts with a box body. The box has a slightly concave horizontal upper bar, reinforced by up to four vertical bars. A cloth hangs from the back of the box. The wheels are located in the centre of the body and are of the tripartite lenticular type. Additional fragments of inlays representing wheels come from the pre-Sargonic palace. These tripartite lenticular wheels have a tyre similar to that of the copper model from Tell Agrab. Inlays, as well as seal and seal impressions, are a medium associated with so-called “elite art”. During the late Early Dynastic III period, the main themes conveyed by these media are war scenes involving wagons, and banquets. This connection assumes “a new connotation, more closely linked to court celebration than to a description of the convivial ritual of the archaic administration. Thus, this traditional visual code undergoes a significant semantic change in order to express new social structures in their interrelations” (Marchesi & Marchetti 2011, 217). In this regard, wheeled vehicles, especially wagons with a box body, represent one of the most characterising symbols of royalty in Early Dynastic Southern Mesopotamia. A similar connotation can be assigned to the vehicles represented in Syrian glyptic art of the same period. However, the association between wheeled vehicles shown in war scenes (wagons with a box body and a seat) and covered wagons occurring in worship scenes may refer to a geographically limited ritual (i.e. Rituel de Haute Syrie, Amiet 1961) rather than a court celebration. 5.3 Steles and plaques Wheeled vehicles were also represented on stone supports, such as steles and plaques that were erected or exhibited near or inside the Temples. The most famous specimen in this category is the so called Stele of Vultures (Or1). The monument was probably erected near the entrance of the Ningirsu temple at Girsu and celebrated the victory of the king Eannatum over the enemy city of Umma. Only seven fragments remain of the entire stele. They are nowadays exhibited in the Louvre Museum. The stele was carved on both sides. The recto shows a mythological scene with the god Ningirsu, the verso a historical representation of the victorious battle of Eannatum and his army against Umma. 6 For a description and interpretation of this artefact, see: Calmeyer 1967; Dolce 1978, 276-278. 94 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3rd Millennium BC. The monument gets its name from a detail represented on this side: In the upper register, king Eannatum is leading a phalanx of soldiers trampling the bodies of enemies, while a group of vultures hovers above them, holding in their beaks the severed heads of the enemies. On each side, a wheeled vehicle is shown. On the historical side, Eannatum, wearing a woollen garment and a helmet, stands alone on his wagon, preceding the phalanx of soldiers. He drives the wagon and holds a long pole, probably a spear, with which he hits enemies. Unfortunately, the lower part of the register is missing and the wagon is not entirely visible. However, some important details may be deduced from this fragment. First of all, the king’s vehicle is a wagon. It has a box body reinforced with vertical bars, at least four. The frontal shield has the X-shaped bars and its upper edge, although not clearly visible, was probably horn-shaped, with the reins leaning on it. The quiver, full of spears, is fastened to the frontal shield, and the draught pole, which is visible only in a fragment, appears to be of the arched type. A second vehicle (viz., Ningirsu’s car) is represented on the mythological side. Unfortunately, all that is left of it is part of the draught pole. The pole is arched and decorated with rectangular-shaped grooves. At the vertex of the pole is attached a ring through which the reins pass. A lion figure surmounts is applied to the top of the ring. Only a very small fragment of the frontal shield is visible, perhaps part of the upper edge. Two main reconstructions have been proposed for Ningirsu’s car, one by Barrelet (1970), the other by Littauer and Crouwel (1973). The first scholar suggests, on the basis of some seal impression from Ur, that the vehicle was a two-wheeler and the god stood on the platform body. Littauer and Crouwel, instead, although they agree that the vehicle is a two-wheeler, assert that it is a “straddle car”, similar to the copper model from Tell Agrab (Or17). Therefore, Ningirsu would not have stood on the platform body, but astride it, with his feet on the axle. A tentative reconstruction of Ningirsu’s cart in the Eannatum stele can be attempted on the basis of three stele fragments (Or2; 5-6) from Tell A/B at Girsu, attributable to the stele of Gudea.7 The vehicle is a two-wheeler, most likely of Type III, with a high frontal shield, a platform body, and a footboard. The axle seems to be located under the central part of the body. The shield is viewed frontally in order to show its elaborate decoration. The cart has a double arched draught pole, represented in side view and decorated with a series of rectangular-shaped grooves, like the cart of the Vultures stele. The pole is attached under the body and follows the shield vertically for its entire height, then bends and assumes a slightly concave shape until it reaches the yoke. The wheels seem to be solid-disk rather than the more common tripartite ones, and have tyres. In the rear of the cart is a quiver full of weapons, including arrows (ti), the ankar weapon, and the “warrior’s arm” (a2-nam-ur- sag). The position of the quiver is actually doubtful, since normally it is shown fastened to the frontal shield. In this regard, there are two possibilities: 1) the quiver is shown in side view, like the draught 7 The cart of Ningirsu is also described in the Cylinders of Gudea. See section 3.6. 95 “Other representations” pole, and is therefore located in the rear of the cart; 2) the quiver is represented frontally, like the shield, and is hence fastened to its side. The first option seems to be the most probable. The frontal shield is the main component of the cart of Ningirsu, since it has a very elaborate decoration, most probably of silver (ku3) and lapis-lazuli (za-gin3). Two bull-men with horned tiaras flank the sides of the shield. Between them is a stylised palm surmounted by an Anzu sinking its claws into the back of a pair of lions. The elements of the decoration can be identified as trophies of Ningirsu, since they are enumerated in Cylinder A at the time of their installation of the temple during its construction.8 Two more fragments of wheeled vehicles are attributable to the stele of Gudea but not to the cart of Ningirsu. The first (Or4) represents a cart with box body, the second (Or3) a wagon. The latter fragment shows an interesting scene: in a mountainous landscape, indicated by three rows of scales, two human figures, of which only the lower part of the legs remains, are pulling a wagon loaded with a stone slab fastened by a rope. Probably the slab was intended for the construction of the temple of Eninnu and was carried on the wagon from the quarry to the river, shown on the right, and then transported on a barge to Girsu. The representations of wheeled vehicles on the steles of Eannatum and Gudea steles provide more important information. First of all, the image of Eannatum on his wagon confirms what I stated earlier about wagons as a symbol of Mesopotamian royalty: the scene celebrates the heroism of the king as he leads his army, drives his wagon, and simultaneously fights the enemy. If the wagon was the Vehicle of the king, through which he expressed his strength and heroism, the Vehicle of the god was the cart, as described in the Cylinders of Gudea as well as in the Išme-Dagan hymn, and depicted on the steles of Eannatum and Gudea. During festivals, the statues of these gods were transported on these magnificent vehicles with elaborate decorations of precious stones and metals. A particular medium on which wheeled vehicles are depicted is the votive plaque. These artefacts are limestone square plaques, perforated in the centre to be affixed to temple walls. The reliefs on the plaques are arranged in three registers and depict human actions (usually banquets or libations) or, less 8 Three-dimensional examples comparable to the cart of Ningirsu include the terracotta models with mould- made decorations on the frontal shield. These models, although they date from the early 2nd millennium BC, have close morphological similarities to the previous cart, both vehicles being two-wheelers with a platform body and a high frontal shield. The elaborated moulded decorations of these models have been studied by Stone (1993). In a sample of 45 models from Kiš, this scholar distinguishes five main decoration patterns: 1) Male figure with mace. 2) Male figure with bow 3) Goddess with bow, arrows, mace, or scimitar. 4) Group of deities 5) Geometric pattern (uncommon). 96 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3rd Millennium BC. commonly, mere decorative patterns. The scenes showing human actions are ordered chronologically from the lowest to the highest register, as on the Standard of Ur. Among banquet scenes, a separate group of reliefs with carts depicted in the lower register can be distinguished. Six plaques, or fragments thereof, belong to this group (Or18-19; 22-25). The best preserved ones come from the Oval Temple at Tutub (Or22) and the Šara Temple at Tell Agrab (Or18), while the others come from the Sin Temple at Tutub (Or23-24), Tell Agrab (Or19) and Ur (Or25). All these artefacts date from the late Early Dynastic period. Unfortunately, only three out of these six reliefs actually picture a wheeled vehicle, and this is always a cart. In the other reliefs, the cart is not preserved, and only the draught animals and part of the draught pole remain. However, the presence of the cart can be at least conjectured, since these reliefs are very standardised, as evidenced by the fragment from Ur that was been used to restore the fragmentary plaque from the Oval Temple at Tutub (Frankfort 1939a, 44, note 4). The carts have a box body and wheels of the tripartite lenticular type, shown under the body. The frontal shield has an unusual shape, being thinner and having a pointed upper edge. This shape may actually depict a different type of frontal shield, or simply denote a different viewing angle. 9 As in the other representations of wheeled vehicles, the quiver is fastened to the shield and the pole is arched. The vehicles are pulled by teams of four animals. Curiously, in at least two cases (viz., the fragment from Ur and the plaque from the Oval Temple at Tutub) these animals seem to be felines rather than equids. Furthermore, no one ever rides the carts. The charioteer holds the reins standing behind the vehicle, as for the king’s wagon on the Standard of Ur. The fragment from Ur shows an interesting detail, viz., the entire surface of the cart is covered by different types of cloths. On the side of the cart are two bands of braided fabric, while the lower part of the shield appears to be upholstered with a spotted hide. Another spotted hide is draped over the back of the cart. The scene in the lower register is often completed with a person wearing a skirt and holding a pole (spear?) before the cart and another, behind the charioteer, holding a jar fastened to a shaft. The central register is divided into two metopes by the central hole. In the left one, a couple of attendants carry a large jar fastened to a shaft, while in the right one a sacrificial animal (a bull, a ram or a gazelle) is represented. In the upper register the main scene takes place, that is, the banquet. Two persons are sitting on thrones facing one another and are served by a number of attendants (cupbearers, musicians etc...). The person on the right is a male, bearded and dressed with a skirt, the one on the left a female with bobbed hair and wearing a dress. Both figures hold in one hand a cup and in the other a harvested plant (grain ears?). 9 This may be the earliest known representation in side view of the frontal shield in Mesopotamian art. 97 “Other representations” The scenes on votive plaques depicting wheeled vehicles appear very similar to those celebrating the victory over enemies on the Standard of Ur and in glyptic art (see Chapter 4, in particular Išqi-Mari impressions and Tell Beydar impression). However, they show substantial differences in both form and meaning. First of all, only carts are represented in reliefs, and they are not clearly involved in war actions. The banquet scene is also different in significant ways. On the Standard, the main diner is clearly the king and the other diners are always men. On the contrary, in the reliefs there are only two diners, a man and a woman. Furthermore, votive plaques carry very standardised representations, commonly occurring in several Mesopotamian cities. For this reason, the reliefs had to “commemorate not historical (and therefore unique) events but ritual (and therefore recurring) celebrations which took place in various cities in approximately the same manner” (Frankfort 1939a, 46). According to Frankfort (1939a, 45), the ritual celebration represented on votive plaques could be part of the New Year’s festival,10 and the subjects involved are a god and a goddess – or a priest and a priestess – sitting at a banquet. The vehicle in the lower register, not surprisingly a two-wheeler, must hence be the god’s cart. To conclude, in Southern Mesopotamian art of the late Early Dynastic period, wheeled vehicles were represented on different media with two main purposes: 1) the exaltation of the king as hero and winner over enemies 2) the celebration of the gods and of the festivals in their honour. Furthermore, there is a clear iconographical distinction between wagons and carts: the former are always associated with the king, the latter always with the gods. 5.4 Vases Wheeled vehicles are shown on only three objects belonging to this sub-category, viz., a shard of carved steatite vase, and two painted vases (Or16; 20-21). All these specimens date from the Early Dynastic II period. The steatite vase shard (Or21) and one of the painted vases (Or20) come from Tutub, while the other painted vase (Or16) comes from Susa. The steatite shard is connected to another larger shard found in the Sin Temple, unfortunately stolen before the beginning of the excavations and later bought by the Oriental Institute (Delougaz & Lloyd 1942, 69). The two shards join, and must hence belong to the same vase. They seem to represent a mythological scene. In the upper part of the larger fragment, a bearded bull-man hero holds two rampant lions. Below this group are an eagle grasping an antelope with its claw and, on the left, a second rampant antelope. In the lower part of the fragment, a series of structures (temples?), all identical, are depicted. The smaller shard completes the right side of this scene. Above, an equid with its head turned toward the bull-man hero precedes a cart driven by a charioteer wearing a skirt and holding a weapon (?). The cart has a platform body, a long and thick draught pole, and a square back. The wheel has a notched 10 On the New Year’s festival, see Cohen 1993, 400-453. 98 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3rd Millennium BC. tyre. Below the cart, part of the eagle wing is visible as well as a second grasped antelope. On the right is another standing bull-man, of a different type. The first painted vase comes from the residential neighbourhood between the Oval Temple and the Sin Temple at Tutub, most probably from square P 43. Unfortunately, in this case, too, the vase was stolen and lately bought and restored by the British Museum (Delougaz 1952, 69)11. The fabric of the vase is the so-called “scarlet-ware”,12 typical of early 3rd millennium BC Southern Mesopotamia and characterised by red and black painted decoration on a buff background. The designs are frequently geometric, especially in the earliest phase, subsequently becoming progressively more elaborate (the Tutub vase belongs to this later phase). The artefact is almost 40cm tall and has the typical shape of a scarlet-ware vase: a ring base, a flattened ovoid body with a ridge around the top of the shoulder, and a vertical neck (unfortunately not preserved in the Tutub specimen). The red and black painted decoration is located on the shoulder (geometric pattern) and on the body (figurative pattern) and is generally stylised. The figurative design on the body is divided into metopes by red-coloured bands. These panels, although distinct, are generally intended as part of a single scene. In the main panel, a wagon is represented. The vehicle has a platform body and a high frontal shield decorated with a cross pattern along the upper edge. The draught pole is arched and thickened near the body. Surprisingly, the two axles are close together and shifted forward. The wagon is pulled by a team of four equids and driven by a standing individual dressed in a long skirt (a king?) behind which is a second, smaller figure holding a spear. The remaining ten metopes can be subdivided by subject matter as follows: three with geometric patterns; two showing an animal with a bird on its back; two showing music scenes; one showing a hero holding two rampant animals (goats?); one showing two seated figures facing each other and drinking from a large jar. All the figures are painted in black, except for the back of the equids and the body and frontal shield of the wagon, which are painted in red. This choice of colour may allude to the animal-hide upholstering of the wagon. In both Tutub vases there is a strong presence of animals linked to wheeled vehicles: on the steatite fragments, the beasts are all around the cart, while on the scarlet-ware vase two metopes show animals exclusively, and in the wagon scene, besides the draught animals, there are a smaller equid, two birds and a fish. Another common motive in both artefacts is the hero holding two rampant animals. This motive is closely connected to the representation of royalty from the end of the 4th millennium BC onward. It is thus possible to interpret the scenes on the Tutub vases as representations of the king subduing wild nature by his power. 11 In his plan of this neighbourhood, Frankfort marked the robbers’ hole where the vase was probably found (Frankfort 1934, fig. 60). 12 This term has been introduced to distinguish this type of polychrome pottery from Jamdat Nasr ware (Delougaz 1952, 60, note 97). 99 “Other representations” This theme seems to precede the Early Dynastic IIIb theme of the king defeating his enemies (as depicted in the Standard of Ur, Eannatum Stele and several seal impressions) and is probably based on a different vision of royalty in the two periods. However, an element remains unchanged in both types of representation, namely, the wheeled vehicle as a symbol of the king’s power. Following up on this interpretation, it is also possible that the scenes showing wheeled vehicles and animals on seal impressions, previously interpreted as hunting scenes, actually have the same theme as the Tutub vases. The last painted vase comes from Susa. It was found by De Mequenem during the excavations of hundreds of Early Dynastic tombs in the Donjon area, at the southern end of the site 13. It is fully preserved. It has a ring base, a globular body with a ridge around the top of the shoulder, and a slightly everted neck. The figured scene is depicted on the shoulder. A wagon pulled by a bull precedes a structure made of three trunks (temple/ziqqurat, or elaborate throne?) on the top of which a person is seated. The wagon has an unusual shape, presumably due to the stylized nature of the representation. Its body is composed of two rectangular parts, and the frontal shield is fixed directly above the arched draught pole. The wheels have spokes of sorts along their perimeter, which may represent a tyre. The vehicle is driven by a sitting charioteer and another person standing under the pole between the wagon and the draught animal. A large bird, probably an eagle, is depicted in a second panel, separated from the previous one by a series of bands decorated with geometric motives. Behind the eagle are two more structures with sitting persons on the top, similar to the previous one, although one is composed of only two trunks. The subject of this representation is not clear. The absence of weapons or elements referring to war argues in favour of a worship scene, probably a procession. 13 The remains of a wagon come from at least one of these tombs, see next chapter. 100 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 6. WHEELED VEHICLES Few and incomplete examples of full-size wheeled vehicles have been found at Syrian and Mesopotamian sites. This datum certainly does not depend on the actual dissemination of wheeled vehicles, as confirmed by the large amount of documentation processed in the previous chapters, but rather on the perishable raw materials these vehicles were usually made of. Wheeled vehicles were probably used as long as possible and then dismantled. This is why, with the exception of extraordinary findings such as the imprints of wheels found at Mari, the only remains of wheeled vehicles in the ancient Near East come from tombs. The most famous remains of 3 rd millennium BC wheeled vehicles were found by Woolley during the excavation of the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Wv8-10). These vehicles date from the Early Dynastic IIIa (ca. 2600 BC) period, like those found, in the same years, by Watelin in a cemetery in Kiš (Wv1-4) and by De Mequenem in a cemetery in Susa (Wv7). Apart from these important early twentieth century findings, the imprints of two wheels came to light during the 2002 and 2003 excavation seasons at Mari (Wv5-6). Although only the impression of the wheels is preserved, this discovery can be considered of primary importance for the study of wheeled vehicles in the ancient Near East since they date back at least two centuries (ca. 2850 BC) before the vehicles of Ur, Kiš and Susa. Besides, they were found in a workshop area, and are thus the first remains of wheeled vehicles found elsewhere than in tombs. 6.1 Wheeled vehicles in funerary contexts: the cemeteries at Ur, Kiš and Susa Sir Charles Leonard Woolley worked on the site of Tell el-Muqayyar, ancient Ur, between 1922 and 1934. The excavation of the famous Royal Cemetery absorbed him for six years, from 1926 to 1931, during which time he unearthed 1850 tombs (Woolley 1934). The cemetery was located in the south-eastern corner of the Temenos, not far from the later mausoleums of the III Dynasty and under the great wall built by Nabucodonosor II, in a waste land used to dump rubbish. Amongst the 1850 tombs excavated by Woolley, the scholar identified only sixteen as royal (337, 580, 777, 779, 789, 800, 1050, 1054, 1157, 1232, 1236, 1237, 1332, 1618, 1631, 1648) on the basis of their structure and the presence of human sacrifices (Woolley 1934, 33-43).1 1 These tombs have a chamber of stone or mud-brick lying at the bottom of a deep pit (“death pit”) entered by a ramp. Inside the tomb, household servants, musicians, soldiers, wagons with draft animals and other precious objects were buried. Woolley’s assumption that the city rulers were buried in the royal tombs of Ur, rather than priests or priestesses, has been debated for many years. The main studies on this topic are those of Moorey “What do we know about the people buried in the Royal Cemetery?” (Expedition 20, 1977) and Marchesi “Who was buried in the Royal Tombs of Ur? The Epigraphic and Textual Data” (Orientalia 73, 2004). 101 Wheeled vehicles A total of three wheeled vehicles were found in the royal tombs of Ur. Two were in tomb PG 789 (Wv9-10), which, as Woolley indicated, belonged to king Abargi,2 another was in tomb PG 1232 (Wv8). Woolley also discovered a non-wheeled vehicle, a sledge, in tomb PG 800, belonging to queen Puabi. The vehicles found in tomb PG 789 were located just in front of the pit entrance. Each was drawn by a team of three oxen and preceded by a group of six soldiers with spears and helmets. Close to the draught animals, the body of a groom was found, and skulls of charioteers near the vehicle. Other outstretched human bodies were located to the right of the car. The perishable components of the vehicles had disappeared, but left very clear imprints in the soil, which Woolley photographed and measured. Thanks to these imprints, both vehicles were recognized as wagons, similar in form but different in size. The first wagon had tripartite lenticular wheels, the front ones with a diameter of 60 cm, the back ones with a diameter of 80 cm. Both had an axle-hole, 10 cm in diameter. The wheels had a band of decayed white substance along the rim, interpreted by Woolley as the remains of a leather tyre. The axles were 70 cm long with a diameter of 14 cm, while the body was 56 cm wide. The second wagon was probably bigger. It had wheels of the same type, but all of the same diameter: 1 m. These wheels probably had had tyres, too, but in this case it was not preserved. The axles were 1m long, and the body was only 50 cm wide. Both vehicles had a draught pole, about 2.7 m long, with a double ring for the reins, made of silver and surmounted by a mascot in the form of a standing ox. The reins, which were strung through the ring, were decorated with large silver beads and smaller lapis-lazuli beads. A third wagon was discovered in PG 1232, a much smaller tomb than the previous one. This vehicle, unlike the previous ones, was drawn by a pair of asses, whose reins were decorated with silver and lapis-lazuli beads. Unfortunately, this wagon was much less preserved than the other ones. Only two wheels on one side were clearly recognisable, while the other two, the axles, the body and the pole had completely disappeared. The wheels had a diameter of 65 cm and were made, like the previous wheels, of three wooden boards, with a protruding hub and an axle-hole, 13 cm in diameter. The wheels had no traces of tyres, these having probably completely decayed. The largest number of wheeled vehicle remains comes from the Y cemetery at Kiš. The cemetery, investigated by Watelin during the excavations seasons 1925-1930, included numerous tombs discovered under the houses level of Area Y, west of the temple area (Watelin 1934, 17-34). The tombs consisted of a single rectangular chamber made of plano-convex bricks,3 usually with a vaulted roof. Inside the grave, the body was positioned on either its right or its left side, with the legs drawn to the chest and the hands, holding a cup, in front of the head. All around the body lay the grave-goods, which included: vases of different materials (clay, stone, metal), metal implements such 2 The identification of Abargi as the owner of the tomb PG 789 is based on a inscribed cylinder seal found in the adjacent tomb, PG 800, of queen Puabi. 3 This type of bricks was typical for Early Dynastic Mesopotamia. 102 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. as weapons or household utensils, ornaments and seals, as well as wheeled vehicles and human sacrifices. Three tombs of the Y cemetery contained car remains. These tombs can be dated to a slightly earlier period than the Royal Cemetery at Ur, perhaps the late Early Dynastic II period4. In his final report, Watelin claims to have found a wagon in tomb Y 237, another vehicle of the same type in Y 357, and six wheels belonging to three carts or one wagon and one cart in Y 529, the richest tomb (Watelin1934, 30). However, Gibson claims that tomb Y 529 contained two wagons (Gibson 1972, 85)5. Unfortunately, only the vehicle in the first tomb was sufficiently preserved to be studied, and it is the only one for which we have a detailed description. The wagon stood on a brick floor, preceded by the skeletons of four equids with leather harnesses, close to which at least five human skeletons lay. This disposition clearly evokes that of tomb PG 789 at Ur. Indeed, since the equid skeletons lay on a higher level than the wagon, they had probably lain on the access ramp of the tomb, as in tomb PG 789. The platform of the wagon was made of wooden planks. It was 45 cm wide, while the length was not determinable since the frontal section was not preserved. In the rear, the half-moon-shaped footboard was clearly visible. It was framed with copper lamina. Instead of the common high floor frame, this wagon had, on each side, a low arched frame reinforced by three spokes. The wheels were all of the same size, 50 cm in diameter, and were composed of three boards held together by transverse boards attached to them by wooden pegs. Copper pins were set in the wheel rims, five millimetres apart. They had probably held a leather tyre, not preserved. The axles were 90 cm long, with a diameter of 8 cm. The rear one was placed under the footboard. The draught pole was not completely preserved, so its shape (arched or straight) and length could not be determined. However, a comparison with the Ur specimen suggests that it would have been straight and about 3 m long. Finally, remains of wheeled vehicles were found in the necropolis of the Donjon area at Susa, excavated by De Mequenem between 1934 and 1939. This burial ground included more than five hundred tombs (De Mequenem 1943, 70-126). Inside tomb B280, measuring 4 x 2 m, along with a human body and a number of vases and tools made of clay and copper, two pairs of wheels were buried. Although these presumably belonged to a single wagon, no traces of the axles or the platform were found, and no skeleton of draught animals or servants. Furthermore, the arrangement of the wheels inside the tomb was not consistent with a wagon structure. The four wheels were different in size: the first pair had a diameter of 83 cm, the second of 66 cm. The same size difference was observed in the wheels of the first vehicle of tomb PG 789 at Ur. It is thus possible that the former wheels belonged to a similar vehicle. 4 The dating of the “chariot burials” at Kiš has been proposed by Moorey (1966, 44) and Gibson (1972, 85-86) on the basis of pottery resembling the scarlet-ware from the Diyala region. 5 For the counting of specimens in the catalogue, I have followed the latter hypothesis. 103 Wheeled vehicles All the wheels were composed of three boards, two half-moon-shaped, the other rectangular. The bigger ones were held in place with four cross-boards, a pair on each side of the axle-hole, the smaller ones only by two cross--boards. The wheels had a series of copper pins (length: 4.5-5 cm; head width: 2.8 cm) set in the rim, probably to hold in place a not preserved leather tyre, as in the specimens from Kiš. The bigger wheels had 86 and 91 pins, respectively, the smaller ones only 63. Tomb B280 shows clear differences compared to those of Ur and Kiš. In the latter, the burial of wheeled vehicles seems to follow a standard pattern. The vehicles (almost always a wagon) were placed at the bottom of the access ramp with the front facing the entrance. They were drawn by draft animals, either oxen or equids, and accompanied by a charioteer, a groom and armed soldiers. In tomb B280, instead, this pattern is much simplified. Only the wheels were buried, perhaps as pars pro toto, and no animal or human sacrifices were found. Wheeled vehicles placed in tombs as grave-goods were symbols of power and wealth and, as confirmed by the artefacts discussed in the previous chapters (steles, plaques, seal impressions), they were closely connected to the royalty. 6.2 The Mari wheels and the cartwright’s house The important discovery at Tell Hariri/Mari of the impression of two wheels imprinted in bitumen opened new horizons for our understanding of the dissemination of wheeled vehicles in Syria and Mesopotamia (Butterlin & Margueron, 2006; Margueron, 2004; 2010). The wheel marks were found during excavation seasons 2002 and 2003, in level C (phases 3-5) of chantier L, pertaining to the first settlement at Mari, the so-called “Ville 1”, founded ca. 2900 BC. Both wheels were found in the same structure, but in different rooms. Moreover, roue 1, the best preserved one, was on the floor level of phase 4, while roue 2 was on the floor level of phase 5. Although no wood traces remained, the very thin mark in the bitumen had preserved many details. The first wheel was a tripartite lenticular disk-wheel with a diameter of 61 cm. In the centre was a domed hub, 18 cm in diameter, projecting for about 3 cm, with a central hole of c. 3 cm. The wheel was composed of three elements: a central board, 22 cm wide and 61 cm long, and two crescent- shaped boards, both 19 cm wide and 54 cm long. Roue 1 (Wv6) was lying on the floor of room 406, one of the ancillary rooms surrounding the courtyard of the building, to the west. Close to the wheel, to the north, there was an equid skeleton stretched along the western wall of the room, while to the south were fragments of large vessels and a number of bronze tools. The second wheel (Wv5) was in a room smaller than room 406, and located on the opposite side of the central courtyard. Though, in worse condition than the other wheel, one could still make out the circular shape, which had a radius of 31 cm. This means that roue 2, being circa 62 cm in diameter, was of the same size as roue 1. As in the previous case, there were abundant ceramic objects and bronze tools on the floor of the room. 104 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Although the Mari wheels do not provide additional information about the morphology of wheeled vehicles, they are of primary importance for two reasons: they are the oldest known remains of wheeled vehicles in the ancient Near East, dating back at least to 2850 BC, and the first evidence found in a production context instead of a funerary one. This last aspect deserves a more detailed analysis. As I mentioned previously, both wheels were found in two different rooms of the same structure, defined by Margueron as Maison (Margueron 2004, 104-105). The structure had five phases grouped in two levels: level A included phases 1-2; level C included phases 3-5, those in which the wheels were found6. The Maison had its entrance to the east, through an enclosure wall, directly from the street. Leaning on the southern wall was a rectangular room, the largest in the building, probably used for residential purposes. In front of it was a rectangular courtyard on whose sides stood small service rooms. During phase 4, rooms west of the courtyard were employed as a workshop area (the first wheel comes from one of these rooms), while the eastern rooms were probably a baking area, with bread ovens. During phase 5, the interior was rearranged. Since the second wheel was found in a room east of the courtyard, it is possible that the workshop area had been extended, incorporating the rooms previously used for baking. The nature of discoveries made in the Maison suggests that this structure was the house of a cartwright, with an annexed workshop. However, no other remains of wheeled vehicles were found in the workshop area. Furthermore, as noted by Butterlin and Margueron, the morphology of the rooms as well as their narrow entrance would have made the passage of cars problematic (Butterlin & Margueron, 2006, 322). It is thus possible that the owner of the structure was a cartwright specialising only in the manufacturing of wheels, and the other vehicle components were produced and assembled elsewhere. 6 A third level, B, was obliterated by the scholars, Butterlin & Margueron, 2006, 319. 105 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 7. THE WHEELED VEHICLE LANDSCAPE 1 7.1. The Khabur Basin 7.1.1 Geography and Morphology (Plate 48) The investigated area lies in the Jazirah region, in modern North-Eastern Syria. It is included in the north-eastern basin of the Khabur river, a tributary of the Euphrates, between Wadi Jaghjagh (east), Wadi Aweidj (west) and Wadi Radd (south). The region is characterized by a generally flat landscape with an average elevation, deduced from the ASTER GDEM 30 m, of 358 m asl (see also Ur, 2011). The only elevation of some relevance is the Ardh al-Shaykh plateau, west of Aweidj. The annual rainfall is usually 300 mm. The main modern cities of the region are Qamishli near the Turkish border, and Hassake, the main regional centre, located to the south on the Khabur River. The region is crossed from north to south by one highway and one railway. Many rural villages are located on the banks of wadis (Raad, Jaghjagh, Aweidj, Khanzir and Jarrah) and usually in the proximity of so-called ”tells”: the modern remains of ancient settlements (Wossink, 2009). This area was settled starting from at least the 5th millennium BC and comprises many multi-stratigraphic tells. The biggest, Tell Brak, ancient Nagar, was the main regional centre for many millennia. Given the chronology, I decided to focus on a limited period: the 3rd millennium BC. I picked this period for good reason: it is one of the most flourishing epochs in this region, which has left us an abundance of sites and evidence (Akkermans and Schwartz, 2003). In this period, advantageous political and economic conditions fostered the evolution and spread of wheeled vehicles, as borne out by the evidence (terracotta models, glyptic representations, written sources) from many important sites in the region, including Tell Brak/Nagar (Oates, 2001), Tell Beydar/Nabada (Sallaberger, 1996; Jans & Bretschneider, 1998), Tell Barri/Kahat (Raccidi, 2012a), and Tell Arbid (Raccidi, 2012a, 2012b). 7.1.2 Brief history of Studies The first studies on the landscape of the Khabur region date from the 1930s. Anton Poidebard flew over the Khabur basin, producing numerous aerial photographs with the aim of studying the landscape of the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire (Poidebard, 1934). In the 1950s, the archaeologists Willem Van Liere and Jean Lauffray were the first to recognize and map hollow ways associated with Bronze Age tells and Byzantine sites (Van Liere & Lauffray, 1954). In recent years, many surveys have been made: in the area around Tell Beydar (Wilkinson, 2000), in the region west of the Wadi Jaghjagh (Lyonnet, 1996, 1998; 2000) and in the surrounding area of Tell 1 This chapter is based on a study presented at the 2 nd Landscape Archaeology Conference (Berlin, June 2012) and published in 2013 by Quaternary International Journal (Raccidi 2013a). 106 The wheeled vehicle landscape Brak (Ur et al., 2011). The two archaeologists who have most studied the landscape and hollow ways of Northern Mesopotamia are Wilkinson (1993; Wilkinson et al., 2010) and Ur (2003, 2009; 2011; Ur & Wilkinson, 2008). Ur mapped more than 6000 km of hollow ways between the Khabur basin and Northern Iraq, based on CORONA satellite photographs (Ur, 2011). 7.2 The Environmental Markers 7.2.1 Sites The first step of my work was identifying the main environmental markers, viz., the ancient sites themselves. These consist of one or more mounds (tells) of various sizes, which are immediately recognizable in the flat landscape of the Khabur basin region. Excavation and survey reports are the most effective tools for the identification and classification of ancient sites. In the investigated area, I identified 367 sites, which I classified according to the system proposed by Ur (2011, p. 60), i.e., into the following categories: complex, tell, low mound, and complex-mounded. A complex is composed of a main Tell, more than 10 ha in extension (the citadel), plus a lower city of varying size, usually extending at the foot of the citadel. I have recognized nineteen complexes in the investigated area. They usually are multi-stratified sites where the principal archaeological phase dates from the 3rd millennium BC. Tell Brak, Tell Beydar, Tell Arbid and Tell Barri fall into this category. A tell differs from a complex because it is smaller and lacks a lower city. Usually, Tells have a mound size ranging between 5 and 10 ha. I identified a total of 111 Tells, usually having at least one Early Bronze Age phase. During that period, they probably were small villages under the influence of the main complexes. A low mound is a small Tell, usually between 1 and 3 ha and less than 5 m high. A complex-mounded site is a group of very small mounds, generally two or three. A huge number of sites fall within these last two categories: I recorded 137 low mounds and 100 complex-mounded sites. In contrast to the first two categories, low mounds and complex-mounded sites are very small settlements of recent formation, dating mainly from the Iron Age, Byzantine, or Islamic periods. 7.2.2 Hollow ways Hollow ways are the second environmental marker, the first in order of importance for this study. They are the modern remains of ancient tracks or paths, produced by the continuous passage of human, animal and vehicle traffic (Wilkinson, 1993; Ur, 2003, 2009, 2011; Wilkinson et al., 2010). As Wilkinson suggests, a modern parallel can be found in the Italian tratturi (Wilkinson et al., 2010), long and large beaten-earth or grassy tracks used by shepherds of Southern Italy during seasonal transhumance (Petrocelli, 1999). Hollow ways in the Syrian Jazirah can be ranged into two types: broad and narrow (Van Liere and Lauffray, 1954; Wilkinson, 1993; Ur, 2003). Broad hollow ways (60-120 m wide; 0,50-1,50 m deep), 107 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. usually associated with 3rd millennium BC sites, are laid out in a radial pattern. Narrow hollow ways (30-60 m wide) are associated with Byzantine and Islamic settlements. Hollow ways are clearly visible via remote sensing, especially by CORONA satellite imagery. They appear as dark lines in the landscape, often with light margins, due to their concavity (this is especially true of broad hollow ways). Ur has identified more than 6000 km of hollow ways in North-Eastern Syria and North-Eastern Iraq (Ur, 2011). In the investigated area, more than 800 hollow ways have been identified. The broad ones spread out in a radial pattern from the main sites of the region. This is especially clearly visible for Tell Brak, ancient Nagar, the main regional centre during the 3rd millennium BC. A dense crown of hollow ways surrounds the site. Three of these, to the north of Tell Brak, have been archaeologically detected (Wilkinson et al., 2010). Through his examination of hollow-way sections, Wilkinson recognised six horizons: the first two are the modern surface and sub-surface, while horizons 3-5 are the filling of the hollow ways. In the deepest layer (horizon 5), Wilkinson found traces of fine gravel, pointing to occasional water flow, perhaps concentrated during the rainy season. The last horizon (number 6) is the natural soil substratum. Moreover, on the basis of a micromorphological analysis and a study of pottery shards found in the filling, Wilkinson suggested that the formation process of hollow ways started in the 5th millennium BC and was concluded in the period of maximum use of the track, between the second half of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. From the mid-2nd millennium BC, probably due to the progressive abandonment of the tracks, the filling process began (Wilkinson et al., 2010, p. 766, Fig. 13). The period of maximum use of the paths suggested by Wilkinson coincides with the increase in documentation related to wheeled vehicles, especially in the Khabur basin region. 7.3. Data and methods For my study of the Khabur basin landscape, I used two types of data: archaeological and remote- sensed. Excavation and survey reports provide basic information on number, position and size of archaeological sites in the region, as well as valuable information on chronology. Remote-sensed data such as CORONA satellite imagery, SRTM 90 m DEM and ASTER GDEM 30 m can be divided into two categories on the basis of their function: CORONA satellite imagery offers views of landscapes in the recent past (1960s-1970s), usually before their intensive exploitation, allowing ancient environmental markers to be identified. I have mainly used SRTM 90 m DEM for landscape analyses such as least-cost analysis, and ASTER GDEM 30 m for the maps of the investigated area. I have processed all the data collected through GIS software (ArcGIS10, Quantum GIS 1.7.4), using a whole range series of computational approaches and spatial analyses in order to define landscape peculiarities and organisation. In my spatial analyses, I have only taken into account the broad hollow 108 The wheeled vehicle landscape ways, which are mainly related to 3rd millennium BC sites (Ur and Wilkinson, 2008, 310-311, 324, Fig. 6). My hollow-way dataset for spatial analysis is based on that published by Ur (2011). Starting from these aspects, I have classified broad hollow ways into internal and external. My reclassification of broad hollow ways reflects a different landscape organisation between intra-site (the territorial boundary of sites, closely linked to farming activities and delimited by internal hollow ways) and inter-site (the area associated with grazing and displacements between sites, characterised by external hollow ways). With the aim to investigate the intra-site arrangement, I have analysed internal hollow ways and field scatters, distribution to highlight production zones, and related my results to the “Thünen rings” model. To analyse the inter-site arrangement, I used a line-density tool and a Delaunay network analysis, which revealed an area with a dense network of links in the western part of the investigated region. The web of hollow ways links together many sites in this area along a number of possible routes. To identify the main regional routes, I conducted a least-cost analysis. In sum, the main analyses I performed were: basic statistic, line density, Delaunay network, and least-cost. I have applied basic statistic tools to the main aspects addressed illustrated in the present work, such as internal and external hollow ways and intensive/specialized and extensive zones, in order to identify their total number, their total distance or area, and their maximum, minimum and average dimensions. The line density tool allows calculation of the density of a path network. I processed all the hollow ways identified in the investigated region with the line density tool in ArcGis10. The Line Density tool calculates a magnitude per unit area from polyline features that fall within a radius around each cell. Starting data: input polyline features (hollow ways of the investigated region). Population field: NONE. Output cell size: 50 (I set this optional parameter to obtain a more detailed output raster). Search radius: 2787.35 (default). Area unit: square kilometre. I calculated the Delaunay network using the Delaunay network tool in QGis 1.7.4 for a selected number of sites. The Delaunay network, or Delaunay triangulation, can be used to determine the best routes between a set of points on a plane (in this case, the sites connected by the hollow ways). Three points connected by straight lines are defined as spatial neighbours when no other points fall inside the circle they describe. The network is connected with Thiessen/Voronoy polygons. The line that connects two neighbouring points in the Delaunay network is perpendicular to the boundary of the polygons determined by these points. Moreover, the centre of the circle coincides with the common vertex of the three neighbouring polygons. Therefore, the Delaunay network is composed of links between points that respect the principle of spatial proximity. This network has several properties, the most important being that of maximum efficiency. I applied least-cost analysis to the main routes of the investigated area in order to define which one was the fastest. I performed all of my least-cost analyses with five ArcGis10 tools, applied in the following sequence: 1) Slope tool: I identified the slope for each cell of the SRTM 90 m DEM, covering the investigated region (srtm_45_05). 109 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 2) Reclassify tool: I reclassified the values for srtm_45_05_slope into 10 classes using the quantile method. 3) Weighted overlay tool: I used this tool to calculate a cost raster based on the slope. 4) Cost distance tool: This tool calculates the least accumulative cost distance for each cell to the destination sites over the cost surface, as well as the output-cost back-link raster. 5) Cost path tool: This tool allows calculation of a least-cost path from a source site to a destination site on the basis of the cost-distance raster and the cost-backlink raster. 7.4 Spatial analysis The landscape of the investigated region, almost totally flat, is naturally suitable for wheeled traffic. The only environmental barriers are the wadis, although some of them only have a seasonal flow. Since in this region rainfall is concentrated in the winter and spring, summer, which is completely dry, and autumn are the perfect times for wagon travel (for detailed data on rainfall, see: Ur, 2011; Wossink, 2009). The continuous passage along the same paths of wheeled as well as human and animal traffic during the dry season led to the formation of beaten tracks. The modern remains of these beaten tracks are what we call “hollow ways”. Hollow ways cannot totally represent the entire ancient network of connections, as over millennia many natural and cultural taphonomic processes occurred. However, favourable natural and cultural conditions, such as relatively low rainfall—and, until recent times, relatively low farming exploitation—has allowed remarkable landscape preservation. An investigation of hollow ways can thus provide a useful model for a study of ancient travel in the North-Eastern Jazirah. 7.4.1 Reclassification of hollow ways and intra-site arrangement (Plate 49) Hollow ways are not casually distributed over the landscape, but show distinctive patterns. My reclassification of hollow ways is based on the identification of these patterns and their effects on the organization of the landscape. When one looks at a map of the hollow ways of the investigated area, the most evident pattern is the radial one. Thirty sites of the investigated region show a more or less dense crown of hollow-way spokes. The number of hollow ways around a single site ranges from a minimum of 4-5 (Tell Barri, Tell Nourek) to a maximum of 38 (Tell Brak). This web of hollow ways eventually dwindles away at what can be assumed to have been the territorial boundary of the site (Wilkinson, 1993, 560, Fig. 9). Therefore, internal hollow ways are those characterised by a radial pattern around sites and describing a territorial boundary. The investigated region extends beyond the territorial boundaries defined by this radial web of hollow ways. There are wide areas between sites where hollow ways are not arranged in a radial pattern. Here the hollow ways follow a more random pattern. In many cases, they are the continuation of internal 110 The wheeled vehicle landscape hollow ways and their purpose is to link sites together. In some cases, internal hollow ways extend beyond territorial boundaries and connect sites. These nevertheless still belong in the internal hollow ways category, as they retain a radial pattern. The external hollow ways are those extending outside the territorial boundaries of the sites. They connect sites and form an inter-site network. In the investigated region, 749 broad hollow ways, covering a total of 1125.65 km, have been identified, 59% are internal and 41% are external. The pattern and purposes of internal and external hollow ways have been correlated to the main economic occupations of 3rd millennium BC households: agriculture and animal husbandry. A line drawn through the end-points of internal hollow ways defines a sub-circular area around the sites. This area has been recognised as the agricultural zone, while the area outside of it must have been the pasture zone (Ur and Wilkinson, 2008, 312; Ur, 2009, 194). Another way to calculate the farming area, which shows comparable results to internal hollow way analysis, has been proposed by M. Widell, on the basis of the following equation: Cultivated Area = (Plow teams ∙ Daily tillage capacity) ∙ (50 ± 5) ÷2 (Widell, 2004, 720-723). In the investigated region, 30 sites have an agricultural area. Natural and cultural processes have inevitably erased a number of internal hollow ways, so that it is not possible to identify the agricultural areas of all the 3rd millennium BC sites in the region. This becomes clear when we compare the eastern part of the region, with only 4 agriculture areas, with the western part, which has 26. A reason for this difference could be the dense exploitation of modern agriculture in the area close to the Wady Jaghjagh. Internal hollow ways and field scatters allow a further division of the agriculture area into two zones: an intensive/specialized zone and an extensive zone. Field scatters are concentrations of pottery shards around sites. They have been documented in many sites worldwide. In North-Eastern Jazirah, a high density of field scatters around 3rd millennium BC sites has been observed. Although a number of natural and cultural processes may determine field scatter distribution, they are usually interpreted as modern remains of ancient manuring practices (Wilkinson and Tucker, 1995). Organic and inorganic waste (mainly pottery fragments and lithics) were collected in settlements and then disseminated over the fields. Decayed organic matter, pottery, and stone tool fragments were thus left in the fields under the form of field scatters. In North-Eastern Jazirah, two important sites show a high density of field scatters, viz., Tell Brak (Ur et al., 2011) and Tell Hamoukar (Ur, 2011). At Tell Brak, a close connection was observed between internal hollow ways and the distribution and density of field scatters (Ur et al., 2011, Fig. 6). In the sub-circular area around the settlement, between the settlement and the starting points of internal hollow ways, there is a very high density of field scatters. In this area, the intensive/specialised zone, it can be assumed that intensive cultivation of cereals as well as specialized crops and processing of raw materials occurred. 111 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. A second concentric sub-circular area lies between the start and end-points of internal hollow ways. Within this zone, the field scatters are less dense, but appear to be mainly distributed along the hollow ways. Therefore, this area, defined as the extensive zone, was used for the extensive cultivation of cereals. Fields, presumably rectangular, lined the paths (Ur, 2009, 195, Fig. 9.7). This division into an agriculture area, composed of two sub-circular concentric zones (intensive/specialised and extensive), and a pasture area external to them, is comparable to the “Thünen rings” model. Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1783-1850) supervised for 40 years the cultivation of the Tellow estate (Mecklenburg, north Germany), accumulating a great number of reports and descriptions, which provided the empirical basis for his theories, published in 1826 in his book Der Isolierte Staat. According to Von Thünen, ideally, by observing the production spaces around an urban area, one can detect a sort of specialization, characterised by a series of concentric rings around a nucleus. The key elements in the logic of the “Thünen ring” sequence are distance from the centre and the costs of transporting materials. The sequence: intensive/specialised zone—extensive zone—pasture area, observed at 30 sites of the investigated region, can be related to the “Thünen rings” model. Activities requiring higher material displacement costs, such as the growing of intensive and specialised crops and the processing of raw materials, were probably carried out in the first ring. Extensive cultivation was carried out in the second, as it had lower displacement costs, since there were suitable paths skirting the fields. Grazing occurred in the marginal areas, as animals moved independently of roads. Internal Hollow ways External Hollow ways Intensive/specialised Extensive zone zone Total number 441 308 30 30 Total distance 645.5 km 480.60 km Maximum distance 6.3 km 6.58km Minimum distance 0.30km 0.32 km Average distance 1.46 km 1.56 km Total area 30.69 km2 372.43 km2 Maximum Area 3.39 km2 37.26 km2 Minimum Area 0.31 km2 3.12 km2 Average Area 1.02 km2 12.41 km2 Table 7.1: Statistical analysis: Internal and external hollow ways. Intensive/specialised and extensive zones. 112 The wheeled vehicle landscape 7.4.2 Networks and routes: inter-site arrangement The intra-site route system does not completely describe possibilities of movement within our investigated region. In the grazing area, farmed animals could move more freely, not being limited by the presence of fields. The passage of flocks was probably one of the reasons for the formation of a more random pattern of paths. However, flock movement was only one of the possible employments of paths outside the agricultural area. 3rd millennium BC settlements in the investigated region were hardly autonomous, self-contained units in the landscape; they were part of a dense network of tracks allowing commercial and cultural exchanges, as well as the entertaining of political relations. For example, the journeys of the lord of Nagar (Tell Brak) to Nabada (Tell Beydar) and its neighbouring sites are recorded on the cuneiform tablets from Tell Beydar (Sallaberger, 1996). Internal and especially external hollow ways are a part of this ancient network. I performed spatial analyses on them in order to assess their efficiency and, insofar as possible, identify the main regional routes. The first step was line-density analysis (Plate 50). In the eastern part of the investigated region, between wadis Jaghjagh and Khanzir, a high density of lines is observable only in the Tell Brak hinterland. Outside of it, the density is relatively low especially north of Tell Brak. The situation in the western part, between Khanzir and Aweidj, is completely different: there are no empty areas and the average density is higher. The most obvious reason for this difference seems to be high agricultural exploitation in modern times. Therefore, I performed my spatial analyses on the western part of the investigated region, where the network is best preserved. In this area, the hollow ways form a dense tangle, and it is difficult to distinguish a network. In order to do so, I isolated external and internal hollow ways connecting sites and filled in the missing parts to produce a web of continuous lines. The result is a network of hollow ways linking 88 sites for a total length of 488 km (Plate 51). This network accounts for 43% of the total length of both internal and external hollow ways (1125 km). The remaining 57% is composed by fade-out internal hollow ways and external hollow ways not connecting sites together. I calculated the Delaunay network for the same 88 sites of the hollow-way network (Plate 52). I then compared the number of connections in the two networks, focusing on only 28 sites in the investigated region, those in the area between wadis Aweidj and Khanzir, where the hollow-way network is better preserved. In the hollow-way network, I counted a total of 131 connections. 93 of these link neighbouring sites, while 38 do not connect neighbouring sites. This means that 71% of connections in the hollow-way network are conform to the principle of spatial proximity. However, these account for only 53% of the possible connections observed in the Delaunay network (176). These data change when we turn to “hub-sites”. Hub-sites are the settlements having the highest number of connections, calculated by counting the connections in both networks. I have identified the 113 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. following hub-sites: Tell Salandar; Tell Bati; Tell Effendi; Tell Cholma Foqani; Tell Ahmar; Tell Mansur; Tell Aswad Tahtani; Tell Aswad Foqani; Tell Hamou; and Tell Aatach/sha’lan. The number of connections between these sites in the Delaunay network is 73. Out of 70 connections in the hollow-way network, 49 are between neighbouring sites. This means that the percentage of connections in the hollow-way network conforming to the principle of spatial proximity (i.e., connections between spatial neighbours) does not change significantly (from 71% to 70%). The percentage of neighbouring-site connections in the hollow-way network compared to those in the Delaunay network changes from 53% to 67%. For the remaining 18 sites, the percentage of neighbouring-site connections in the hollow-way network remains essentially unchanged (72%), while the percentage of neighbouring-site connections compared to those in the Delaunay network decreases to 42%. This suggests that most of the regional movement took place from one neighbouring site to the next. Given the high number of connections, there are many potential regional routes. Below I analyse four examples of possible routes, chosen among those that appear to have been of major importance (Plate 53). Site Delaunay network Hollow ways connections Hollow ways connections connections with spatial neighbouring with no spatial neighbouring sites sites Tell Salandar 10 6 2 Tell Effendi 9 5 2 Tell Hanou 8 3 3 Tell Bati 7 5 3 Tell Cholma Foqani 7 4 3 Tell Ahmar 7 6 1 Tell Aatach’Sha’lan 7 5 1 Tell Mansur 6 5 2 Tell Aswad Tahtani 6 5 2 Tell Aswad Foqani 6 5 2 Tell Shaykh fatmi 7 4 1 Tell Alo 7 3 2 Al Guira Foqani 7 4 1 Bergui al-Buz 7 4 0 Tell Kaferu 7 3 1 Bir Bazan 7 1 1 Tell Tourbe 6 3 2 Tell Mourik Foqani 6 3 1 Tell Cholma Tahtani 5 2 3 Tell Chemma 5 4 0 Tell Na’if 5 2 2 Tell Douzek 5 3 0 114 The wheeled vehicle landscape Maak 5 2 1 Hossi al-Ozsso 5 1 2 Al Guira Tahtani 5 2 0 Tell Sikhur 5 1 0 Tell Zeinar 5 1 0 Tell Shaykh Amin 4 1 0 Total 176 93 38 Table 7.2: Number of connections in the Delaunay and Hollow Ways networks of the 28 sites between Wadis Aweidj and Khanzir, first 10 sites in the table are the hub-sites. The first route connects the regional centre of Tell Brak/Nagar to the sub-regional site of Tell Beydar/Nabada. This was probably one of the most important regional routes during the 3rd millennium BC. Cuneiform texts from Tell Beydar mention the allocations of cereals with which the teams of donkeys of the rulers of Nagar were fed on during their visits at Nabada and other sites (Sallaberger, 1996). Some of these donkeys were probably used to pull the wagons of the Lords of Nagar along this route. The hollow-way route measures 43.93 km and passes through four sites (from east to west): Tell Aatach/sha’lan; Tell Mourik Foqani; Tell Bati; Tell Kaferu. The least-cost route between Tell Brak and Tell Beydar measures 45.26 km, and is thus 1.33 km longer. The two routes intersect at six points, one of these coincides with Tell Keferu, and show a similar pattern. The second route runs through the middle of the investigated region, from Gir Zil Saghir to Tell Beydar. It can be divided into two distinct stretches, a northern one (43.29 km) connecting three complexes (Farhu, Tell Ahmar, Tell Effendi) and three Tells (Tell Maak; Af Guira Foqani; Tell Na’if), and a southern one (45.37 km) connecting eight Tells (the main ones are Tell Hamdun, Tell Mansur, Tell Bati, Tell Kaferu). The least-cost route (43.37 km) is closer to the southern one, which it intersects at the same point as the Tell Brak-Tell Beydar route, viz., the site of Tell Kaferu. The third route crosses the region to the north from Tell Arbid to Tell al-Shur Gharbi. Unlike the previous route, its scale was probably supra-regional. It must have been part of the long-distance route passing through Tell Leilan and Šehna in the 3rd millennium BC, and Šubat-Enlil in the 2nd, connected Northern Iraq (Assyria) to Western Syria. This route seems to coincide with that described in the Old Babylonia itinerary (Hallo, 1964, pp. 71, 87). It is possible that the ancient caravan route of the early 2nd millennium BC was already being used in the 3rd millennium. The hollow-way route links two complexes (Tell Chagar Bazar; Tell Hanou) and eight Tells (the main ones are: Tell Salandar; Tell Cholma Foqani; Tell Douzek). The least-cost route and the hollow-way route intersect at three points, one of these being the site of Tell Douzek. The two routes have a very similar length, respectively 53.36 km and 53.16 km, and are the longest among those analysed here. The last route has a south-north orientation, from Tell Brak/Nagar to Tell Arbid. As in the previous case, it extends beyond the confines of the region. From Tell Arbid it must have continued towards Tell Mozan (ancient Urkeš), and from there through the Tur Abdin Mountains to Southern Anatolia. 115 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. This hollow-way route measures 28.96 km. It goes through Tell Barri (ancient Kahat) and Gir Zil Saghir before reaching Tell Arbid. The least-cost route measures 25.30 km (3.66 km less), because the initial stretches of the two routes run very differently. The hollow-way route runs north-east along the Wadi Jaghjagh to Tell Barri/Kahat, while the least-cost route goes in a north/north-eastern direction. After Gir Zil Saghir, the two routes run very close together along the eastern bank of the wadi all the way to Tell Arbid. 7.5 Wheeled vehicles and circulation patterns By analysing environmental markers in the investigated region, I managed to reconstruct ancient circulation patterns, albeit only partially. There were two main forms of circulation: 1) Intra-site circulation, presumably daily and mainly agriculture-related. It occurred within the farmland area, which in its turn was divided into an intensive/specialised zone and an extensive zone. 2) Inter-site circulation, at the regional and supra-regional scale. This was mainly related to grazing, but also to commercial and cultural exchanges, as well as political relations, and required several days of travel. Bronze Age sites in the investigated region were connected by a network composed of a number of links arranged according to the principle of spatial proximity. Human and animals, as well as wheeled vehicles, must have used these paths, although there is no archaeological evidence to prove this. 3rd millennium BC wagons and carts were hefty and hard-to- manoeuver vehicles, and hence needed suitable tracks, straight and with beaten-earth floors. What role did wagons and carts play within the overall pattern of circulation? Elite functions of wagons and carts, such as warfare and worship, are well known from evidence such as the Standard of Ur (section 5.2), with its famous images of “battle cars”, or the a 3rd millennium seal impressions showing wagons involved both in warfare and in worship. During festivals and celebrations, wagons were probably used to carry gods’ statues within the town area and to neighbouring villages, as documented by the texts from Girsu and Umma (see sections 3.5.1; 3.5.2). This custom is confirmed by early 2nd millennium BC texts from Mari, where a festival for the Nergal’s wagon was celebrated during the month of liliatu (Durand, 2000, 134-135, Nr. 986). As Bottéro suggested (1958), the Nergal’s statue had probably been carried in procession on his wagon. The processions moved along paths within the settlement, as well as on those leading to the closest villages in order to show the statue of the deity to the entire population. This required fairly uniform paths, to make sure that the statue did not topple from the carriage, and quick connections to allow several villages to be visited in one day. 3rd millennium BC wagons were also used as mobile arsenals and firing platforms in warfare (Littauer and Crouwel, 1979, 32-33; De Backer, 2009, 30). They were not used as ancient tanks to charge the 116 The wheeled vehicle landscape infantry, since they were heavy and difficult to steer in the open field, and because the equids used to draw them were mainly donkeys, whose natural reluctance would have made them unsuitable to this use. Nevertheless, wagons did follow the army, and this called for a network of suitable paths to allow faster and more efficient transit. Wagons and carts also had civil uses. As Littauer and Crouwel suggest: “Bovid-drawn vehicles must also have been used to transport agricultural and other material too heavy or bulky for human porters or pack animals to carry” (Littauer and Crouwel, 1979, 31). In this regard, Akkadian texts from Adab and Gasur (section 3.4) represent an important source of information, as well as the early 2nd millennium BC text, so-called “Farmer’s Instructions” (Civil, 1994), in which is described that wagons were used for the transportation of barley from the fields to the threshing floor. Littauer and Crouwel distinguish between bovid-drawn and equid-drawn vehicles, arguing that the former were mainly used for civil purposes and the latter especially in warfare. Actually, it is likely that, within the Khabur basin, equids were employed in both contexts, as this region was known especially for equid breeding. Several species of equids are mentioned in the Tell Beydar texts, and equids were also highly appreciated at Ebla (Lebeau & Suleiman, 2005). Six donkeys were ritually interred in a temple complex at Tell Brak. Their dental remains indicated that they had been used for riding and pulling carts (Clutton-Brock, 2001). Large loads of crops that would have been too heavy for humans or pack animals to carry were probably transported by vehicles, most likely wagons with box body along internal hollow ways leading from the settlement to the fields. Wagons were not the best means of transport for long distance travel. Given their low cost of displacement, pack animals were usually preferred. This does not mean that wagons could not cover long distances: “The presence of some covered wagon models in graves may indicate that they represent vehicles that were not simply used as a means of transport, for which a cover is hardly a necessity in this region, but were also, if not primarily, mobile homes designed to meet the needs of pastoralists moving through the Syrian steppe” (Moorey, 2001, 347). Moorey’s assertion is based primarily on the archaeological evidence, which includes models of covered vehicles as well as images on seals, and on written sources, mainly from Northern Mesopotamia, Syria and Southern Anatolia. Similar vehicles are attested in Caucasus (Grygorian, 2010, Sagona 2013). Even though such wagons were certainly used in 3rd millennium BC Syria, it is difficult if not impossible to prove that they were used over long distances. Further information on regional travel is provided by the Tell Beydar tablets, which mention the journey of the Lords of Nagar to Nabada. It is not possible to ascertain which types of vehicle were used by the Lords of Nagar to travel, although it is most likely that these were the wagons with box body (Type V) or covered vehicles (Type VI). Assuming that these vehicles could cover 20-25 km per day2, and applying these data to the routes between Tell 2 My estimate of the average distance covered by Bronze Age wagons is based on that covered by conestoga wagons drawn by equids (horses or donkeys) or oxen (usually for the hardest routes). Although no information is available about the average distance covered by the 3rd millennium BC wagons, the estimate seems plausible, 117 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. Brak/Nagar and Tell Beydar/Nabada, the journey would have taken two days, since the length of the two routes ranges from 43.93 km (hollow ways) to 45.26 km (least-cost). Probably the caravan stopped for the night 20 km west of Tell Brak, at Tell Aatach/sha’lan, not surprisingly one of the hub- sites mentioned above. The following day the caravan would have completed the second leg of the journey to Tell Beydar. The same average distance can be assumed for other routes between sites, but unfortunately without the support of textual documentation. For example, if we assume Tell Brak/Nagar as the starting point, as it is the main Early Bronze Age centre, and apply our estimated average distance to the Tell Brak- Tell Arbid route (hollow-way route 28.96 km; least-cost route 25.30 km), the journey would have been one day long. Since Tell Mozan/Urkeš, a bridgehead site between Syria and Anatolia, is more than 20 km north of Tell Arbid (the hollow-way route cannot be reconstructed since its vestiges were not preserved), we can conclude that the route between Nagar and Urkeš was two days long and the stopover was at Tell Arbid. since the Old Babylonian itinerary informs us that a pack animal (carrying ca.90 kg) could cover around 25 km per day (Goetze, 1953, 1964; Hallo, 1964; see also Durand, 2000,. 7-68). 118 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 8. CONCLUSIONS I have summarised the results of my survey of 3rd millennium BC Syro-Mesopotamian wheeled vehicles in three sections, corresponding to the three objectives indicated in the introduction to the present study: 1) Morphology. 2) Functions. 3) Wheeled vehicles and their historical-geographical context. 8.1 Morphology My analysis of material culture provides an overview of the morphological development of 3rd millennium BC wheeled vehicles, and a clear differentiation into types. Below I summarise three aspects of the morphological reconstruction of wheeled vehicles, viz., raw materials, components, and types of wheeled vehicles. 8.1.1 Raw materials The construction and decoration of wheeled vehicles, as documented by numerous administrative texts and, to a lesser extent, by the few remains of actual vehicles found in Southern Mesopotamia, required a large number of different raw materials: wood, textiles, hides, metals, stones, bitumen and glue. Administrative texts provide scarce information about types of wood and their employment in the construction of wheeled vehicles. However, thanks to the remains of wheeled vehicles, we know that wood was employed for the construction of all the main parts of the vehicle, such as the platform, the sides, back and front, the draught pole, the axles and the wheels. Administrative texts provide much more information concerning wool and hides (ox; sheep; goat) employed to upholster carts and wagons, probably in replacement of wooden planks, as well as for the covers of wagons. Wool and hides were frequently dyed: white, black and, above all, red. This last colour was obtained from dye plants (madder or sumac) which yielded a reddish colouring, probably similar to that of the wagons pictured on the Standard of Ur. Bands of wool or leather were employed for harnesses and reins. Leather strips, held in place with small copper nails, were used to cover the rim wheels, serving the function of a tyre. Linen textiles probably had a purely decorative function. Given their rare mentions in texts, they were probably intended for elite vehicles. Different metals were employed in the construction and decoration of wheeled vehicles, including copper, bronze, silver and gold. Copper and bronze were usually employed for the production of functional parts, such as the small nails holding the leather tyres in place, linchpins to prevent the wheel from slipping off the axle, or the rings through which the reins passed. This last object was 119 Conclusions sometimes graced by an animal figure (an ox, an equid, or a heraldic animal) made of precious metal such as silver or gold. In addition to silver and gold, gemstones, above all lapis-lazuli, were employed for the decoration of ceremonial vehicles. Decorations were applied mainly to the frontal shield in order to create very complex and colourful figurative motifs, such as those gracing Ningirsu’s cart on the stele of Gudea. Finally, glue and bitumen were employed for the construction of carts and wagons: glue was probably used to attach leather parts or small pieces of wood, while bitumen was probably used to grease the revolving components of the wheeled vehicles, like the axle and wheels, or to seal certain parts. The construction and repair of wheeled vehicles was carried out by specialised cartwrights, probably in specialised structures, of which, however, few archaeological vestiges remain. The only archaeological data pertaining to a cartwright workshop, specialising in the production of wheels, date from the early Early Dynastic period and come from Mari (section 7.2). On the other hand, Ur III texts provide information concerning facilities (sikkum) where cartwrights and tanners repaired the wheeled vehicles of messengers (section 3.3.2). 8.1.2 Components Wheeled vehicles, as complex machines, were assemblies of different components, each with a specific function. The main components were the wheels, the axles, the draught pole, the frontal shield, and the body. Wheels can be regarded, under many respects, as the main component of carts and wagons. Many representations (the best examples being the Standard of Ur, inlays, plaques, and a copper model from Tell Agrab; see Chapter 5) and some actual remains (see Chapter 6) bear witness to the existence, in 3rd millennium BC Syro-Mesopotamia, of a specific type of wheel, the tripartite disk wheel1, composed of three wooden boards fixed by transversal plates (at least two) and with a diameter between ca. 50 and ca. 80 cm. The side boards were crescent-shaped, while the central one could be rectangular (less common) or lenticular (most common). In the centre of the central board was a protruding hub, through which the axle passed. The wheel rim was protected by a tyre composed, in the 3rd millennium BC, by a leather strip held in place by small copper nails, later replaced by bronze plates. Wheels of ceremonial vehicles were sometimes decorated, most probably with gold plate, as confirmed by the Ebla texts (see section 3.3.1). Two axle types are known: one revolving together with the wheels, and a fixed one with the wheels revolving around it. 3rd millennium BC Syro-Mesopotamian wagons were probably mainly equipped with the latter type, as suggested by Woolley for the wagons found in the Royal Tombs at Ur (1934, 64) and confirmed by the discovery of a linchpin, whose purpose was to prevent the slipping of the 1 The reasons for their dissemination are well specified by Sagona: “Whether single block or composite, wheels were always constructed from planks of wood split lengthwise. This ensured strength. A single disc of wood obtained by cutting across the grain of a tree trunk is totally ineffective as a wheel because of structural weakness. Moreover, a tripartite wheel can be constructed from relatively young (thin) trees, more common even in well-wooded country. A single-piece disc wheel, on the other hand, would require a tree with a thick trunk” (Sagona 2013, 278). 120 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. wheel off the axle, in a tomb at Kiš (Watelin 1934, 30). Likewise, carts were probably mainly equipped with a fixed axle, as confirmed by the charioteer of the copper model from Tell Agrab, who stands with his feet resting on the fixed axle. Terracotta models show the axle in two ways: most commonly, tube-shaped and protruding from the body, less frequently, pierced through the base. It is probable that the first represents the fixed axle, the second the revolving axle. Axle measurements are only known for the wagons found in the Royal Tombs, which are about 70 to 100 cm long and have diameters of about 14 cm. Like axles, draught poles also come in two types: a straight one and an arched one. The first, more common and certainly easier to produce, was usually installed on wagons. It was attached to the bottom of the platform and rose obliquely to the yoke. Less frequently, the straight draught pole was installed on carts. It appears especially in the earliest examples, such as the copper model from Tell Agrab (Early Dynastic I) or Type I terracotta models (Early Dynastic I-IIIb). In both examples, the draught pole is a horizontal prolongation of the platform body. As to the arched draught pole, it was more commonly installed on carts, though some glyptic representations show wagons with a platform body equipped with this type of draught pole. It was probably attached under the base of the vehicle, rose vertically until it was higher than the backs of the draught animals, and then bent forward, reaching the yoke. This type of pole was usually bound with leather or woollen bands in the part closest to the vehicle body. The only remains of a draught pole come from Royal Tomb PG789 at Ur and are of the straight type, with a total length of ca. 2.7 m. Frontal shields, although they were part of the vehicle body, have been regarded as a separate component of wheeled vehicles due to their peculiar shapes and functions. The simplest examples were slightly oblique railings with the upper edge rounded or squared. The most common examples were high and flat screens which entirely protected the charioteer’s body. Their upper edge was usually horn-shaped and its outer surface could be reinforced by cross-bars, presumably of wood, on war vehicles, or it could be decorated with precious stones and metals representing figurative motifs, on ceremonial vehicles. I have distinguished two body types: a platform body consisting of a frame of poles covered by wooden planks, whose variant was a single central pole (cf. “straddle car”), and a box body consisting of a platform with the addition of high sides and back made of wooden poles upholstered with wool or hides. The rear extension of the base, attested for both types of body, formed a footboard, which extended the surface of the vehicle and allowed it to be ridden by a second person, usually standing. 8.1.3 Types of vehicles My identification of different types of 3 rd millennium BC Syro-Mesopotamian wheeled vehicles is based on a comparison between terracotta models, glyptic representations, and, to a lesser extent, terms drawn from my analysis of written sources. 121 Conclusions I) Two-wheeled platform body. This type of vehicle was characterised by a simple platform body made of wooden planks and, probably, by a revolving axle set in the rear part of the vehicle. The front shield has a very simplified form or is totally lacking. This type of vehicle is among the most primitive, and indeed the few specimens of terracotta models depicting it date back to the first half of the 3rd millennium. Considering the relatively short span of time during which the representations of these vehicles were widespread and the few examples found within our investigated area (Tell Arbid and Tell Mozan in Jazirah; Kiš and Abu Salabikh in Central Mesopotamia), an extra-Mesopotamian origin, perhaps from Transcaucasia or Western-Central Asia, can be assumed. Typological parallels to terracotta models of this type were indeed unearthed at the site of Altyn-Depe, in Turkmenistan, and date back to the early centuries of 3rd millennium BC. II) Two-wheeled box body. This type of cart was much more common, especially since the mid-3rd millennium BC (Early Dynastic IIIa), when the first examples of terracotta models evoking this type of vehicle appear. They had a box body and a fixed axle, usually located under the central part of the body. The draught pole was probably of the arched type and the frontal shield, reinforced by cross-bars, shows the typical horn-shaped upper edge. III) Two-wheeled platform body with footboard. The most common type of cart was characterised by a platform body with a footboard in the rear, a fixed axle, in most cases located under the frontal part of the body, an arched draught pole, a high frontal shield with a horn-shaped upped edge, reinforced with wooden cross-bars or decorated with precious metals and stones (cf. the cart of Ningirsu), and, in some cases, a seat. The oldest representations of this cart type date from the early 3rd millennium BC. They show a body composed of a single straight draught pole, a fixed axle located under the central part of the body, and a simple railing with a handhold for a frontal shield. A further variant appears beginning in the Akkadian period. It is characterised by a platform body with a fixed axle located under the rear part of the body. Terracotta models evoking the latter type of cart became common in terracotta assemblages during the first century of the 2nd millennium BC, and were characterised by a frontal shield decorated with moulded images of deities (Stone 1993). IV) Four-wheeled platform body. The first type of wagons was characterised by a platform body with a footboard, fixed axles and a slightly oblique frontal shield with horn-shaped upper edge. Like most carts, this type of wagon was equipped with an arched draught pole. Few representations of this wagon type are known. The earliest date from the Early Dynastic I period, though the climax period is comprised between Early Dynastic IIIb and Ur III. The paucity of representations could suggest a very specific function for these wagons, as we shall see in the next section. V) Four-wheeled box body. 122 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. This type of wagon, characterised by a box body with a footboard, two fixed axles, a straight draught pole and a high and flat frontal shield usually reinforced by cross-bars, with a horn-shaped upper edge, is the most commonly depicted wheeled vehicle in 3rd millennium BC Syro-Mesopotamia. I have distinguished two sub-types: the first has low sides and a seat in the back, the second high sides and no seat. The earliest representations date back to the Early Dynastic I and show the first sub-type. In all other periods, both sub-types are attested. The geographical dissemination of terracotta models and, to a lesser extent, of glyptic representations reveals an interesting subdivision: representations of the first sub-type are prevalent in the Eastern Jazirah, while those of the second sub-type prevail in the Western Jazirah and the Middle Euphrates. The reasons for this geographic distribution are unclear, however, we can assume that they may depend on local morphological evolution rather than different functions, since both subtypes are represented in the same functional contexts. VI) Four-wheeled covered vehicle. The last type of wheeled vehicle was characterised by a platform body with two fixed axles and a straight draught pole. An arched superstructure, inverted U-shaped, was mounted above the base. It was open at the front and closed at the rear. No actual remains of such a superstructure have survived, except for the Lchashen wagon, dating from the mid-2nd millennium BC. Its superstructure appears to have been composed of a series of arched rods covered with hides or wool. Representations of this vehicle first appear in the Early Dynastic II period, though they reach their climax between the Early Dynastic IIIb and Akkadian periods. Considering the particular shape of these vehicles and their popularity in the regions of Northern Mesopotamia, Eastern Anatolia and Western Syria, it can be assumed that their morphological and functional evolution (as we shall see in the next section) took place within these regions or perhaps in their northern neighbour (Transcaucasia). 8.2 Functions I summarise the main functions of 3rd millennium BC wheeled vehicles in the following section. 8.2.1 War The main context in which 3rd millennium BC wheeled vehicles are represented is war (this is also true of subsequent periods). This obviously does not mean that during the 3rd millennium BC wheeled vehicles were used only in war actions, only that this was their most common context of representation. Vehicles depicted in war actions were almost exclusively wagons with a box body, of both sub-types. The charioteer is standing or sitting on the seat and a lancer stands on the footboard. Although wagons were usually represented as launched against the enemy troops, they were not used in the midst of the battle. Rather, they were placed behind the front line, preceded by infantry, and served as moving platforms for lancers or archers to shoot freely from, and providing commanders and elite troops with a clearer view of the battlefield. 123 Conclusions The employment of carts, probably with a box body, by kings and elite members as command posts in war cannot be ruled out. Unfortunately, no evidence support this hypothesis. 8.2.2 Worship Both written sources and representations on various media confirm that wheeled vehicles were employed in worship contexts. They mainly served as means of transport for divine statues and were regarded as true divine objects, themselves worthy of offerings. In the Southern Mesopotamian cities of Girsu and Umma, wheeled vehicles were employed in festivals to carry the statues, respectively, of the gods Nanše (festival of Barley and Malt Consumption) and Šara (festival of the Month of Nesag). These vehicles were probably carts with a platform body, as suggested by coeval representations of divine carts, with a high frontal shield richly decorated with figurative motifs rendered in precious metals and stones. At Ebla, instead, the divine statues of Kura and Barama, the main deities of the Ebla pantheon, were carried on a wagon, probably with a box body and without a seat (gišgigir2-sum), on the occasion of the marriage and enthronement of the kings Irkab-Damu and Iš’ar-Damu. Mythological representations in glyptic art, probably related to a pan-Mesopotamian ritual, confirm that gods' carts were mainly used in Southern Mesopotamia while gods' wagons in Northern Mesopotamia. I noted the same difference in the dissemination of terracotta model types: models of cart (Type IIIb), indeed, largely exceed in Southern Mesopotamia, while models of wagon (Type Va- b) in Jazirah and Middle Euphrates. Finally, a number of glyptic representations from Northern Mesopotamia depict covered vehicles involved in a worship scene probably related to victory in battle. Two main patterns can be distinguished: in the first, the covered vehicle is located close to a structure (temple or altar), surrounded by individuals (priests) in ritual attitude, while in the second the covered vehicle is drawn in procession toward an enthroned figure. This particular type of ceremony involving this particular type of vehicle probably is not of Southern Mesopotamian origin, but was developed in Northern Mesopotamia itself. 8.2.3 Hunting Wagons with a platform body were represented in contexts interpreted as hunting scenes. However, representations showing this theme are few and their interpretation is not totally clear. They may in fact be symbolic representations of the power of the king defeating wild nature. Therefore, given the controversial nature of these images, and in the absence of further evidence from other documentary categories, they cannot be regarded as confirmation that wheeled vehicles, in particular wagons with platform bodies, were actually employed in hunting during the 3 rd millennium BC. 8.2.4 Elite means of transport 3rd millennium BC wheeled vehicles mainly belonged to the elite (rulers, officials, priests, etc.) and were employed as means of transport for their journeys. Rulers of the major Syro-Mesopotamian city- 124 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. states took numerous journeys to the main cities under their control. While in Southern Mesopotamia the rulers mainly travelled along waterways, in Northern Mesopotamia and Western Syria they mainly travelled by land on wagons with box bodies or covered vehicles. The best-known example, dating from the Early Dynastic IIIb period, are the journeys of the rulers of Nagar to Nabada and the neighbouring centres. In the Ur III period, wheeled vehicles were kept in appropriate facilities (sikkum) located in the main resting stations to be employed by royal messengers for their trips. It is difficult to establish what kind of vehicle the messengers employed, although written sources provide much information about their upkeep. Messengers probably used carts for short journey and wagons for longer ones. 8.2.5 Economic functions Written sources and vestiges of vehicle circulation in the landscape confirm that wheeled vehicles were not used only for elite functions, but were also employed for daily purposes. Wagons with a box body, probably larger than those employed in war, and pulled by oxen rather than equids, were used for the transportation of large quantity of foodstuffs from one site to another or for carrying the harvested cereals from the fields to the threshing floor. Vehicles of this type and employed for such purposes were designated ever since the late 3rd millennium BC by the term gišmar.gid2.da. A further function of covered vehicles has been suggested by Moorey, who argues they could have been used for long-distance journeys by Syrian steppe pastoralists (Moorey 2001, 347). This hypothesis, although difficult to prove, has two clues in the geographic spread of models representing this type of vehicles and in the network of pathways detected over a significant part of this area. 8.2.6 Symbolic meanings As we have seen above, wheeled vehicles were a familiar object in 3rd millennium BC Syro- Mesopotamian societies, with different types employed in different contexts. It is thus not surprising that they acquired several symbolic meanings. First of all, wheeled vehicles were considered as a symbol of royal and divine power. War wagons were always associated with the victorious king defeating enemies, and magnificent and richly decorated carts or wagons (the latter in Northern Mesopotamia and Western Syria) exalted the power of the gods. Furthermore, several constellations were named after wheeled vehicles, such as Auriga (mulgigir), Ursa Major (mulmar.gid2.da) and Ursa Minor (mulmar.gid2.da.an.na), as were phases in the lunar cycle, especially in the Umma texts (u4-sakar gišgigir; gišgigir u4 6; gišgigir u4 7). Finally, the many Ur III period personal names including the term for wheeled vehicle—Ur- gišgigir; Lugal- gišgigir and Geme2- gišgigir—prove the importance acquired by carts and wagons by the end of the 3rd millennium BC. 125 Conclusions 8.3 Wheeled vehicles and their historical-geographical context. Wheeled vehicles made their first appearance in Southern Mesopotamia, thanks to the favourable conditions provided by the First Urban Revolution. Then, taking advantage of the expansion of the Uruk civilisation, they spread to Northern Mesopotamia and Western Syria, within some Uruk colonies. The collapse of Uruk society at the end of 4th millennium BC and the resulting regionalisation of the early 3rd millennium BC did not arrest the development of wheeled vehicles, as scanty but significant evidence bears out, above all, the wheels found, not surprisingly, at Mari, a city located along the middle Euphrates, which served ever since its foundation as bridgehead between Southern Mesopotamia, Northern Mesopotamia and Western Syria. However, during the first centuries of the 3rd millennium BC the political, social, economic and environmental preconditions for full morphological and functional evolution of wheeled vehicles were lacking. Therefore, only very simple types of carts and wagons were employed for limited functions, mainly linked to the elite. The turning point was the Second Urban Revolution. During this period, the same favourable conditions arose that had caused the invention of wheeled vehicles in the first place, at the time of the First Urbanisation, but with one major difference: the expansion of the First Urbanization took place principally in colonies along the main river courses, while the Second Urban Revolution led to the creation of a settlement network, especially in the lowland areas of Northern Mesopotamia and Western Syria, and this gave a decisive impulse to the use of land vehicles. The full morphological evolution and functional diversification of wheeled vehicles occurred during this period, comprised between Early Dynastic II and Early Dynastic IIIb, and is confirmed by a large increase in the evidence related to wheeled vehicles as well as by landscape organization. The core of this “Second Wheeled Vehicle Revolution”2 was the area encompassing Jazirah and the Middle Euphrates and Northern Levant regions. The importance of wheeled vehicles for this area was confirmed later on, in the early 2nd millennium BC, by the words of the famous Babylonian King Hammurabi, who addressed an ambassador of Zimri-Lim of Mari as follows: « … pourquoi aurais-je désiré Hît ? La force de votre pays, (ce sont) les ânes et les chariots, mais le force de ce pays ce sont le bateaux… » (Charpin et al. 1988, 390-393, Nr. 468). The increase in economic and cultural contacts between Northern Mesopotamian, Western Syria and northern regions such as Anatolia and Transcaucasia probably led to the introduction, starting in Early Dynastic II, of further types of vehicles suitable for those regions, such as covered wagons. 2 I would propose a distinction between a First Wheeled vehicle Revolution, which occurred as a result of the First Urban Revolution in Southern Mesopotamia and during which wheeled vehicles were invented, and a Second Wheeled Vehicle Revolution, which occurred as a result of the Second Urban Revolution in Northern Mesopotamia/Western Syria, during which wheeled vehicles reached the climax of their morphological and functional evolution and diversification. 126 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. 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Building: The Representation of an Early Mesopotamian Ruler in Text and (Ur 2009) Image. Styx Publications, Groningen. Ur, J., 2009. “Emergent Landscapes of Movement in Early Bronze Age (Tallon 1987) Northern Mesopotamia”. In: J.E., Tallon, F., 1987. Métallurgie sienne I. Snead, C., Erickson, W.A., Darling, Paris. (eds.), Landscapes of Movement: Paths, Trails, and Roads in (Tarr 1978) Anthropological Perspective. Tarr, L., 1978. Karren – Kutsche – University of Pennsylvania Museum Karosse – Eine Geschichte des Press, Philadelphia, pp. 180-203. Wagens. Berlin. (Ur 2011) Ur, J., 2011. Urbanism and cultural landscapes in northeastern Syria. The 156 Bibliography Tell Hamoukar survey, 1999–2001. (Van de Mieroop 1983) Oriental Institute Publication, Chicago. Van de Mieroop, M., 1983. “Texts and Fragments”. Journal of Cuneiform (Ur & Wilkinson 2008) Studies 35, 199-204. 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ESM/ECM Green 1993, 106, Fig. 3:16 Md1 6G76:504 Abu Salabikh ED IIIb IIIb Complete 3,8 x 2,9 cm 1A 4b no. 395 ESM/ECM Complete / Green 1993, 106, Fig. 3:16 Md2 6G76:85 Abu Salabikh ED IIIb IIIc 4 x 3,2 cm 1B 4b damaged no. 396 ESM/ECM Green 1993, 106, Fig. 3:17 Md3 6G76:620 Abu Salabikh ED IIIb IIIb Fragment 4 x 2,6 cm 1C 4b no. 397 ESM/ECM Green 1993, 106, Fig. 3:17 Md4 6G76:587 Abu Salabikh ED IIIb I Fragment 2,8 x 2,1 cm 1D 4b no. 398 ESM/ECM Green 1993, 106, Fig. 3:17 Md5 6G76:109 Abu Salabikh ED IIIb Fragment 3,2 x 3,8 cm 1E 4b no. 399 ESM/ECM Green 1993, 106, Fig. 3:17 Md6 6G76:672 Abu Salabikh ED IIIb Fragment 2,8 x 2,1 cm 1F 4b no. 400 ESM/ECM Complete / Green 1993, 107, Fig. 3:17 Md7 6G77:52 Abu Salabikh ED IIIb I 2,2 x 1,7 cm 1G 4b damaged no. 403 ESM/ECM Md8 6G76:686 Abu Salabikh ED IIIb Fragment Green 1993, 107, no. 401 4b Green 1993, 106, Fig. 3:16 n Md9 6G76:403 Abu Salabikh IIIc Fragment 3,2 x 6,4 cm 1H 394 161 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Louvre Museum, Barrelet 1968, 176, 178, Pl. Md10 AO 4125 Girsu/Telloh IIIb Complete 5,5 x 8,8 cm 2A Paris, France XI 118 Kiš/Tell al- Watelin 1934, 10, 32, Pl. Md11 Bollweg VI 08 ESM/ECM 2 ED I I Complete 2B Uhaymir XIV 1,2 Field Museum of Kiš/Tell al- ESM/ECM Md12 Bollweg I 03 ED IIIa II Complete 6,4 x 7,3 cm Natural History, Langdon 1924, 67, Pl. VII 3 2C Uhaymir 4a Chicago, Usa Kiš/Tell al- ESM/ECM Ashmolean Museum, Mackay 1929, 209-11, Pl. Md13 Bollweg VIII 03 ED III a-b Va Complete 7,5 x 9 cm 2D Uhaymir 4a-b Oxford, UK XLVI 8-9 ESM/ECM 2 Field Museum of Kiš/Tell al- Mackay 1929, 210, Pl. Md14 Bollweg XIII 03 - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete Natural History, 2E Uhaymir XLVI fig. 4 no. 1404 4b Chicago, USA ESM/ECM 2 Field Museum of Kiš/Tell al- Mackay 1929, 210, Pl. Md15 Bollweg XIII 04 - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete Natural History, 2F Uhaymir XLVI fig. 1 no. 2606 4b Chicago, USA ESM/ECM 2 Mackay 1929, 210, Pl. Kiš/Tell al- Ashmolean Museum, Md16 Bollweg XIII 05 - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete XLVI fig. 5 no. 958, fig. 7 2G Uhaymir Oxford, UK 4b no. 958 ESM/ECM 2 Kiš/Tell al- Ashmolean Museum, Mackay 1929, 210, Pl. Md17 Bollweg XIII 06 - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete 3A Uhaymir Oxford, UK XLVI fig. 7 no. 1311 4b ESM/ECM 2 Field Museum of Kiš/Tell al- Mackay 1929, 210, Pl. Md18 Bollweg XIII 09 - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete Natural History, 3B Uhaymir XLVI fig. 1 no. 2574 4b Chicago, USA 162 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. ESM/ECM 2 Kiš/Tell al- Iraq Museum, Mackay 1929, 210, Pl. Md19 Bollweg XIII 10 - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete 3C Uhaymir Baghdad, Iraq XLVI fig. 2 no. 795 4b ESM/ECM 2 Field Museum of Kiš/Tell al- Mackay 1929, 210, Pl. Md20 Bollweg XIII 11 - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete Natural History, 3D Uhaymir XLVI fig. 1 no. 2808 4b Chicago, USA ESM/ECM 2 Kiš/Tell al- Complete / De Genouillac 1925, 21 P. Md21 Bollweg XIII 12 - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb 3,8 x 3 cm 3E Uhaymir damaged 97, Pl. XIV 1 4b Mari/Tell Margueron 2004, 107, fig. Md22 ESM/ECM 3 ED II V Fragment 3F Hariri 78,8 Mari/Tell Complete / Margueron 2004, 107, fig. Md23 ESM/ECM 3 ED II VIa 3G Hariri damaged 78,9, fig. 79 ESM/ECM 5 Complete / McCown & Haines 1967, Md24 Bollweg XIII 18 Nippur - ESM/ECM Akkadian IIIb 6,6 x 5,4 cm 3H damaged 94, Pl. 149 no. 8 6 Complete / McCown & Haines 1967, Md25 Bollweg XIII 07 Nippur ESM/ECM 7 Ur III IIIb 7 x 6,4 cm 3I damaged 94, Pl. 149 no. 9 McCown & Haines 1967, Md26 Bollweg XIII 37 Nippur ESM/ECM 7 Ur III IV Fragment 4A Pl. 149 11 Legrain 1930, 30, Pl. XLV Md27 Bollweg VI 06 Nippur IIIa Complete 4,3 x 3,5 cm 4B 239 163 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Šuruppak/ Tell ESM/ECM Heinrich 1931, 70, Tf. 34 Md28 Bollweg I 01 ED IIIa II Complete 7,8 cm 4C Fara 4a a/b ESM/ECM 5 Complete / Steve & Gasche 1971, 59, Md29 Bollweg XIII 15 Susa/Shush - ESM/ECM Akkadian IIIb 5,5 x 5,5 cm 4D damaged 72, Pl. 9:9 6 ESM/ECM 5 Steve & Gasche 1971, 59, Md30 Bollweg XIII 16 Susa/Shush - ESM/ECM Akkadian IIIb Fragment 4E 72, Pl. 9:8 6 ESM/ECM 5 Complete / Stève 1971, 59, 72, Pl. 9:7, Md31 Bollweg XIII 17 Susa/Shush - ESM/ECM Akkadian IIIb 5 x 4,3 cm 4F damaged Pl. 69:7 6 Louvre Museum, De Mecquenem 1943, 125, Md32 Bollweg XIII 28 Susa/Shush IIIb Complete 6,9 x 8,7 cm Sammlung Morgan, 4G 160, fig. 91 b:1 Paris, France Louvre Museum, Md33 Bollweg XIII 14 Susa/Shush IIIb Complete Sammlung Morgan, Forrer 1932, fig. 7,1 4H Paris, France Louvre Museum, Complete / Md34 Bollweg XIII 13 Susa/Shush IIIb Sammlung Morgan, Tarr 1978, 47, abb. 62 5A damaged Paris, France De Mecquenem 1943, 125, Md35 Bollweg III b 06 Susa/Shush IIId Fragment 10,8 x 6 cm 5B 160, fig. 91 b:6 Complete / De Mecquenem 1943, 125, Md36 Bollweg III b 02 Susa/Shush II 10,8 cm 5C damaged 160, fig. 91 b:9 164 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. De Mecquenem 1943, 125, Md37 Bollweg XII 07 Susa/Shush VIa Fragment 12 cm 5D 160, fig. 91 b:10 De Mecquenem 1943, 125, Md38 Bollweg Xa 02 Susa/Shush Va Complete 8,1 x 4,1 cm 5E 160, fig. 91 b:8 ESM/ECM 2 Md39 Bollweg XIII 01 Tell al Wilayah - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete Madhlum 1960, Tf. 10,24 5F 4b ESM/ECM 2 Md40 Bollweg XIII 02 Tell al Wilayah - ESM/ECM ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete Madhlum 1960, Tf. 10,23 5G 4b ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Complete / Wrede 2003, 367, Taf. 51 Md41 W 4209 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM IIIb 7,5 x 4,3 cm 5H - Ur III damaged no. 1328 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Complete / Wrede 2003, 367, Taf. 51 Md42 W 21911 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM II 6,6 x 4,8 cm 6A - Ur III damaged no. 1329 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Wrede 2003, 367, Taf. 51 Md43 W 19403 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM Fragment 7 x 2,9 cm 6B - Ur III no. 1330 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Wrede 2003, 367, Taf. 52 Md44 W 10979 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM IIIc Fragment 6C - Ur III no. 1331 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Md45 W 15643 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM Fragment 9 x 4,2 cm Wrede 2003, 367 - Ur III 7 165 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Wrede 2003, 368, Taf. 52 Md46 W 20311 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM IIIb Complete 5,2 x 6,2 cm 6D - Ur III no. 1333 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Complete / Wrede 2003, 368, Taf. 52 Md47 W 20411 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM IIId 5,6 x 5,5 cm 6E - Ur III damaged no. 1334 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Wrede 2003, 368, Taf. 52 Md48 W 11762 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM IIIa Complete 6F - Ur III no. 1335 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Md49 W 12150 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM Fragment Wrede 2003, 368 no. 1336 - Ur III 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Complete / Wrede 2003, 368, Taf. 52 Md50 W 19847 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM II 3,8 x 3,5 cm 6G - Ur III damaged no. 1337 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Complete / Wrede 2003, 368, Taf. 52 Md51 W 14554 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM II 10,1 cm 6H - Ur III damaged no. 1338 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Wrede 2003, 369, Taf. 52 Md52 W 25072 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM Va Fragment 5,5 x 3,8 cm 7A - Ur III no. 1339 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Md53 W 13941 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM V Fragment Wrede 2003, 369 no. 1340 - Ur III 7 ESM/ECM 6 Akkadian Md54 W16732 Uruk/Warka - ESM/ECM V Fragment 19 x 5 cm Wrede 2003, 369 no. 1341 - Ur III 7 166 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Vorderasiatisches Assur/Qal'at ETG 3 - ETG Klengel-Brandt 1978, 113, Md55 Bollweg Xa 03 ED I-III Va Complete 5,9 x 6,6 cm Museum, Berlin, 7B Shirqat 5 Pl. 24 761-762 Germany Vorderasiatisches Assur/Qal'at 13,2 x 13,2 Andrae 1922, 105, Tf. 61 c- Md56 VA 7899 ETG 9 Ur III IIIb Complete Museum, Berlin, 7C Shirqat cm e Germany Assur/Qal'at Miglus 1989, 99, abb. 5 S. Md57 Bollweg XIII 19 ETG 9 Ur III IIIb Complete 7D Shirqat 100 Assur/Qal'at Complete / Md58 Bollweg XIII 26 ETG 9 Ur III IIIb Andrae 1922, 144, Tf. 62 i 7E Shirqat damaged Assur/Qal'at Complete / Md59 Bollweg XIII 27 IIIb Andrae 1905, abb. nr. 534 7F Shirqat damaged Assur/Qal'at Andrae 1905, abb. 1 Nr. Md60 Bollweg III a 04 II Complete 7G Shirqat 315 Vorderasiatisches Assur/Qal'at 10,8 x 10,8 Klengel-Brandt, 1978, 33, Md61 VA 8137 IIIc Complete Museum, Berlin, 7H Shirqat cm Tf. 2,2 Germany Vorderasiatisches Assur/Qal'at Bollweg 1999, 173, abb. Md62 Bollweg Xa 05 Va Complete 7,3 x 5,2 cm Museum, Berlin, 7I Shirqat 115 Germany Gasur/Yorghan ETG 6 - ETG Md63 Bollweg XIII 21 Akkadian Va Complete 8,5 cm Starr 1937, 11, Pl. 54 F 8A Tepe 7 167 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Gasur/Yorghan ETG 6 - ETG Md64 Bollweg III b 01 Akkadian IIId Complete Starr 1937, 11, Pl. 54 H 8B Tepe 7 Gasur/Yorghan ETG 6 - ETG Complete / Md65 Bollweg III b 07 Akkadian IIId Starr 1937, 11, Pl. 54 I 8C Tepe 7 damaged Gasur/Yorghan ETG 6 - ETG Md66 Bollweg XIII 22 Akkadian IIId Complete 7,5 x 5,5 cm Starr 1937, 11, Pl. 54 G 8D Tepe 7 Gasur/Yorghan ETG 6 - ETG Md67 Bollweg XIII 23 Akkadian IIId Fragment Starr 1937, 11, Pl. 54 E 8E Tepe 7 Complete / Iraq Museum, Speiser 1935, 74, 207, Pl. Md68 Bollweg Xa 04 Tepe Gawra ETG 3 ED I Va 7,2 x 3,7 cm 8F damaged Baghdad, Iraq XXXIV 1-3 Iraq Museum, Speiser 1935, 73, 207, Pl. Md69 Bollweg VI 05 Tepe Gawra ETG 9 Ur III II Complete 5,1 x 8 cm 8G Baghdad, Iraq LXXVII 1, Pl. XXXIV c,2 ETG 4b - Dropsie College, Speiser 1935, 75, Pl. Md70 Bollweg XII 02 Tepe Gawra ED III a-b VIa Complete 6,8 x 6,2 cm 8H ETG 5 Philadelphia, USA XXXV a 2 ETG 3 - ETG University Museum Speiser 1935, 74, 192, Pl. Md71 Bollweg XIII 20 Tepe Gawra ED I-IIIb IIIb Complete 6 x 6,4 cm 9A 5 Philadelphia, USA XXXIV c 4 ED I -Ur Ashmolean Museum, Prag 1970, 89, fig. 10 No. Md72 AN 1965.272 Harran EJZ 1 - EJZ 5 Vb Fragment 7,2 x 8,2 cm 9B III Oxford, UK 80 168 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Prag 1970, 89, fig. 10 No. Md73 Bollweg IX 07 Harran Vb Fragment 8,3 x 12 cm 9C 79 Kahat/Tell Complete / Pecorella & Pierobon- Md74 K22 E.3822 EJZ 3a ED IIIa IIIc 5,6 x 3,9 cm Tell Barri 9D Barri damaged Benoit 2005, 51. Kahat/Tell Pecorella & Pierobon- Md75 K22 E.3904 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Vb Fragment 10,5 cm Tell Barri 9E Barri Benoit 2005, 52 Kahat/Tell Complete / Pecorella & Pierobon- Md76 K22 E.3905 EJZ 3b ED IIIb IV 6,6 x 3,2 cm Tell Barri 9F Barri damaged Benoit 2005, 52 Kahat/Tell Pecorella & Pierobon- Md77 K21 E.3287 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va Fragment 5 x 4,3 cm Tell Barri 9G Barri Benoit 2004, 43 Kahat/Tell Pecorella & Pierobon- Md78 K22 E.3576 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Vb Fragment 7,8 x 4,3 cm Tell Barri 9H Barri Benoit 2005, 49 Kahat/Tell Pecorella & Pierobon- Md79 K24 E.5107 EJZ 4c Akkadian Va Complete 5,7 x 5,6 cm Tell Barri 10A Barri Benoit 2008, 47 Kahat/Tell Pecorella & Pierobon- Md80 K21 E.3196 EJZ 4c Akkadian VIa Fragment 8,2 x 5,9 cm Tell Barri 10B Barri Benoit 2004, 42. Kahat/Tell EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Md81 K15 E.1523 VIb Fragment 12 x 10,2 cm Tell Barri Pecorella 1995, 32. 10C Barri 5 Ur III 169 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Nabada/Tell Md82 9919-M-1 EJZ 3a-b ED III a-b Va Complete Pruß 2011, Pl. 4, 4 10D Beydar Nabada/Tell Lebeau & Suleiman 2007, Md83 28919-M-2 EJZ 3a-b ED III a-b VIa Fragment 10E Beydar 36, fig. 28. Nagar/Tell Md84 EJZ 2 ED II VIb Fragment Oates 2001, 590 No. 21 10F Brak Nagar/Tell Md85 EJZ 2 ED II VIa Fragment Oates 2001, 590 10G Brak Nagar/Tell Oates 2001, 590, No. 12, Md86 TB 12065 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va Complete 8 x 6,7 cm 10H Brak fig. 298. Nagar/Tell Complete / Md87 TB 3010 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va Oates 2001, fig. 299. 10I Brak damaged Nagar/Tell Complete / Oates 2001, 590 No. 14, Md88 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va 9,8 x 5,9 cm 10J Brak damaged fig. 300 Nagar/Tell Complete / Md89 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va Oates 2001, fig. 300. Brak damaged Nagar/Tell Complete / Md90 TB 5092 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian VIb 19,8 x 16 cm Oates 2001, 590 No. 25 11A Brak damaged 170 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Nagar/Tell 7,5 x 11, 5 Md91 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian VIb Fragment Oates 2001, 590 No. 26 10K Brak cm Nagar/Tell Md92 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Vb Fragment 4,2 x 7 cm Oates 2001, 590 No. 19 Brak Nagar/Tell Oates 2001, fig. 302, fig. Md93 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian IIIc Fragment 5,3 x 5,3 cm Brak 488 no. 29 Nagar/Tell Complete / Md94 TB 9067 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian IIIc 5 x 5,6 cm Oates 2001, fig. 488 no.31 Brak damaged Nagar/Tell Complete / Md95 TB 12066 EJZ 4c Akkadian Va 7,3 x 5,5 cm Oates 2001, 590 No. 15 11B Brak damaged Nagar/Tell Md96 EJZ 4c Akkadian VIa Fragment 11,1 x 3,8 cm Oates 2001, 590 No. 18 11C Brak Nagar/Tell Md97 EJZ 4c Akkadian VIa Fragment 16 x 5,3 cm Oates 2001, 590 No. 23 11D Brak Nagar/Tell Md98 EJZ 4c Akkadian VIa Fragment 16 x 5,4 cm Oates 2001, 590 No. 24 11E Brak Nagar/Tell Oates 2001, fig. 301, fig. Md99 TB 6181 EJZ 4c Akkadian IIIb Complete 4,6 x 7,9 cm 11F Brak 488 no. 27 171 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Nagar/Tell Complete / Md100 EJZ 4c Akkadian IIIc 6,3 x 6 cm Oates 2001, fig. 488 no. 30 Brak damaged Nagar/Tell Complete / Md101 EJZ 4c Akkadian II 7,5 x 6 cm Oates 2001, fig. 488 no. 32 Brak damaged Nagar/Tell Complete / Md102 EJZ 4c Akkadian IIId 6,6 x 4,6 cm Oates 2001, fig. 488 no. 34 11G Brak damaged Nagar/Tell V-VI 13,5 x 2,7 Md103 TB 11042 EJZ 3a-b ED III a-b Fragment Oates 2001, 590 No. 17 Brak (?) cm Nagar/Tell Complete / Md104 EJZ 3a-b ED III a-b Va 6,5 x 3,1 cm Oates 2001, 590 No. 13 11I Brak damaged Nagar/Tell Oates 2001, fig. 300, fig. Md105 TB 9066 EJZ 4a-c Akkadian IIIb Complete 4,8 x 7,5 cm 11J Brak 488 no. 28 Nagar/Tell EJZ 2 - EJZ ED II - Mallowan 1947, 215, Pl. Md106 Bollweg III a 02 II Complete 11K Brak 3b ED IIIb LIV 16 Nagar/Tell Complete / Md107 II 8,3 x 4,7 cm Oates 2001, fig. 488 no. 33 11L Brak damaged Arb ‘07 W 52/55 Complete / Md108 Tell Arbid EJZ 2 ED II I 4,1 x 2,1 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613 12A 36a damaged 172 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Arb '07 W 52/55 Complete / Md109 Tell Arbid EJZ 2 ED II I 5,5 x 3,9 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613, fig. 1 12B 55 damaged Arb '07 W 53/55 Md110 Tell Arbid EJZ 2 ED II I Fragment 2,5 x 3,2 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613 12C 9 Arb '08 W 52/54 Md111 Tell Arbid EJZ 2 ED II I Complete 4,9 x 4,5 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613, fig. 1 12D 21 Arb '08 W 52/57 Complete / Md112 Tell Arbid EJZ 2 ED II I 5,2 x 2,2 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613 12E 117-10 damaged Arb '98 S 36/58 Complete / Md113 Tell Arbid EJZ 3a ED IIIa IIIa 2,6 x 2 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 616 12F 48 damaged Arb '98 S 36/60 Complete / Md114 Tell Arbid EJZ 3a ED IIIa IIIa 2,6 x 2,6 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 616, fig. 3 12G 16 damaged Arb '01 S 37/55 Complete / Md115 Tell Arbid EJZ 3b ED IIIb II 5,6 x 5,1 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613 12H 69-8 damaged Arb '04 SD 36/65 Md116 Tell Arbid EJZ 3b ED IIIb II Fragment 7 x 3,6 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613 12I 8-9 Arb '05 SD 35/65 Md117 Tell Arbid EJZ 3b ED IIIb II Complete 4,5 x 6,1 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613, fig. 2 12J 16-1 173 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Arb '01 S 37/55 Md118 Tell Arbid EJZ 4a-b Akkadian III Fragment 5,7 x 4,9 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 616. 13A 59-1 Arb '04 SD 32/64 Complete / Md119 Tell Arbid EJZ 4a-b Akkadian IIIb 4,6 x 8 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 616, fig. 3 13B 7b damaged Arb '07 D 31/41 Der-ez-Zor Museum, Md120 Tell Arbid EJZ 4a-b Akkadian IIIc Complete 4,7 x 6,4 cm Raccidi 212b. 616, fig. 3 13C 28-16 Syria Arb '99 SS 36/55 EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Complete / Md121 Tell Arbid IIIb 4,7 x 9,6 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 616, fig. 3 13D 9 4c Akkadian damaged Arb '98 S 36/61 EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Complete / Md122 Tell Arbid II 5,1 x 3,7 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 613 13E 12 5 Ur III damaged Arb '00 SS 36/54 Md123 Tell Arbid III Fragment 3,2 x 3,7 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 616 18 Arb '96 S 36/55 Md124 Tell Arbid EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va Fragment 4,8 x 5,5 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012, 617 13F 29-1 Arb '99 D 29/43 Complete / Md125 Tell Arbid EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va 9,1 x 4,4 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 617, fig. 5 13G 123-1 damaged Arb '03 SD 14,6 x 16,7 Der-ez-Zor Museum, Md126 Tell Arbid EJZ 3b ED IIIb VIa Complete Raccidi 2012b, 617, fig. 6 14A 36/65 36-1 cm Syria 174 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Arb '04 SD Md127 Tell Arbid EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va Fragment 3,6 x 3,5 Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 617 32/64 7 Arb '04 SD Md128 Tell Arbid EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Vb Fragment 7,4 x 3,7 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 617 35/64 13 Arb ‘09 W EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Md129 Tell Arbid IV Complete 7,1 x 5 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 616, fig. 4 14B 52/57 33-1 4a-b Akkadian Arb ‘09 W EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Md130 Tell Arbid IV Fragment 5,2 x 4,8 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 616 14C 53/56 103-7 4a-b Akkadian Arb '98 S 36/57 EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Complete / Md131 Tell Arbid Va 6,6 x 4,3 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 617 14D 13 4a-b Akkadian damaged Arb '99 SS IX EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Complete / Md132 Tell Arbid Va 8,3 x 5,4 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 617, fig. 5 14E 36/55 4a-b Akkadian damaged Arb '03 SD EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Md133 Tell Arbid Vb Fragment 4,5 x 3 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 617 36/64 102 5 Ur III Arb ‘03 W Md134 Tell Arbid Vb Fragment 7,4 x 2,6 cm Tell Arbid Raccidi 2012b, 617 51/56 106-5 Damascus National Md135 Bollweg VIII 01 Tell Huwayrah EJZ 1 ED I V Complete Moortgat 1959, 43, abb. 44 14F Museum, Syria 175 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Littauer & Crouwel 1973, Md136 Bollweg Xa 01 Tell Huwayrah EJZ 1 ED I Va Complete 5 x 4,5 cm 14G 108, Pl. XLIV C Md137 Bollweg III a 01 Tell Huwayrah EJZ 2 ED II IIIc Complete Moortgat 1962, 11, abb. 8 Orthmann 1995, 41, abb. 17 Md138 90.A.131 Tell Khuera EJZ 3a ED III a Vb Fragment 2 x 3 cm no. 26 Orthmann 1995, 80, abb. 35 Md139 91.B.034 Tell Khuera EJZ 3a ED III a Vb Fragment 8 x 5 cm 14H no. 9 Orthmann 1995, 80, abb. 35 Md140 87.B.037 Tell Khuera EJZ 3b ED IIIb Vb Fragment 6,4 x 8 cm 14I no. 10 Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md141 92.F.015 Tell Khuera EJZ 3b ED IIIb Vb Fragment 7,1 cm 15A 72 no. 60 Orthmann 1995, 133, abb. Md142 88.F.048 Tell Khuera EJZ 3b ED IIIb Vb Fragment 5,4 x 6,3 cm 15B 72 no. 62 Complete / Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md143 92.F.155 Tell Khuera EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va 6,3 cm 15C damaged 71 no. 52 Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md144 88.F.030 Tell Khuera EJZ 3b ED IIIb II Complete 6,5 x 8,6 cm 71 no. 51 176 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md145 92.F.689 Tell Khuera EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va Fragment 6,5 cm 72 no. 59 Complete / Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md146 TCH.90.F.566 Tell Khuera EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Vb 11 x 7 cm 15D damaged 71 no. 55 Orthmann 1995, 80, abb. 35 Md147 90.B.045 Tell Khuera EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Vb Fragment 5,5 x 4,7 cm 15E no. 11 Orthmann 1995, 80, abb. 35 Md148 87.B.018 Tell Khuera EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Vb Fragment 6,5 x 5,7 cm 15F no. 12 Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md149 92.F.507 Tell Khuera EJZ 4c Akkadian Vb Fragment 5,5 cm 71 no. 54 Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md150 92.F.513 Tell Khuera EJZ 4c Akkadian Vb Fragment 10 x 5,5 cm 15G 72 no. 56 Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md151 92.F.601 Tell Khuera EJZ 4c Akkadian VI Fragment 5,5 x 6 cm 72 no. 57 Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md152 92.F.597 Tell Khuera EJZ 4c Akkadian VI Fragment 9 x 7 cm 15H 72 no. 58 Orthmann 1995, 133, abb. Md153 92.F.529 Tell Khuera EJZ 4c Akkadian Va Fragment 3,5 x 8 cm 15I 72 no. 63 177 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Orthmann 1995, 41, abb. 17 Md154 90.A.152 Tell Khuera EJZ 3a-b ED IIIa-b Vb Fragment 8 cm 15J no. 27 Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md155 92.F.615 Tell Khuera EJZ 3a-b ED IIIa-b Vb Fragment 5,5 x 6,6 cm 16A 71 no. 53 EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Orthmann 1995, 132, abb. Md156 92.F.160 Tell Khuera Vb Fragment 6 x 8,5 cm 16B 4b Akkadian 72 no. 61 EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Orthmann 1995, 178, abb. Md157 90.P.012 Tell Khuera Vb Fragment 6 x 8 cm 16C 4b Akkadian 89 no. 10 EJZ 3b - EJZ ED IIIb - Complete / Orthmann 1995, 178, abb. Md158 90.P.036 Tell Khuera IIId 4,8 x 5,5 cm 4b Akkadian damaged 89 no. 11 Orthmann 1995, 41, abb. 17 Md159 92.A.801 Tell Khuera Vb Fragment 10,5 x 6,5 cm 16D no. 25 Orthmann 1995, 41, abb. 17 Md160 88.A.006 Tell Khuera Vb Fragment 6,8 cm 16E no. 29 Md161 Tell Melebiya IIIc Complete 7 x 4,9 cm Lebeau 1993, Pl. 190 no. 1 16F Complete / Md162 Tell Melebiya II 6,9 x 4,3 cm Lebeau 1993, Pl. 190 no. 2 damaged 178 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Complete / Md163 Tell Melebiya II 7,5 x 3,7 cm Lebeau 1993, Pl. 190 no. 3 damaged Md164 Tell Melebiya IIId Fragment 4,7 x 4,8 cm Lebeau 1993, Pl. 190 no. 4 16G Urkeš/Tell Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md165 MZ01C2-i1366 EJZ 3a ED IIIa Vb Fragment 6,1 x 4,3 cm Mozan 208, taf. 45 no. 620 Urkeš/Tell Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md166 MZ01C2-i3492 EJZ 3a ED IIIa Fragment 2,6 x 1,4 cm Mozan 210, Taf. 46 no. 629 Urkeš/Tell Complete / Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md167 MZ01C2-i1385 EJZ 3b ED IIIb I 4,3 x 3,4 cm 16H Mozan damaged 207, taf. 43 no. 618 Urkeš/Tell Complete / Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md168 MZ01C2-i0989 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian IIIc 5,5 x 4,6 cm 16I Mozan damaged 206, taf. 42 no. 613 Urkeš/Tell Complete / Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md169 MZ01C2-i1997 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian IIIc 3,8 x 3,7 cm 16J Mozan damaged 207, taf. 43 no. 614 Urkeš/Tell Complete / Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md170 MZ01C2-i0656 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian IIIb 4,3 x 6,2 cm 16K Mozan damaged 207, taf. 44 no. 617 Urkeš/Tell Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md171 MZ99C2-i1005 EJZ 4c Akkadian II-III Fragment 3,2 x 3,6 cm Mozan 207, no. 615 179 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Urkeš/Tell Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md172 MZ00C2-i0818 EJZ 4c Akkadian Vb Fragment 4,9 x 1,2 cm Mozan 209, taf. 45 no. 624 Urkeš/Tell Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md173 MZ01C2-i0634 EJZ 4c Akkadian Vb Fragment 6,2 x 1,5 cm 16L Mozan 209, taf. 45 no. 626 Urkeš/Tell Bianchi & Wissing 2009, Md174 MZ00C2-i0475 EJZ 4a-c Akkadian II-III Fragment 2,3 x 2,5 cm Mozan 207, no. 616 Urkeš/Tell ED I - Ur Md175 J3q901.1 EJZ 1 - EJZ 5 VIa Fragment 4,9 x 5,3 cm Tell Mozan 17A Mozan III Urkeš/Tell ED I - Ur Md176 J02q616-P1 f244 EJZ 1 - EJZ 5 VIa Fragment 6,2 x 8 cm Tell Mozan 17B Mozan III J02q608-P13 Urkeš/Tell ED I - Ur Md177 EJZ 1 - EJZ 5 VIa Fragment 9,2 x 6,2 cm Tell Mozan 17C f235 Mozan III Urkeš/Tell ED I - Ur Md178 A10.46 EJZ 1 - EJZ 5 VIb Fragment 9,1 x 13,2 cm Tell Mozan 17D Mozan III Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Aleppo Museum, Czichon & Werner 1998, Md179 Mbq 18/27-2 IIIb Complete 7,9 x 6,1 cm 17E Munbaqa EME 6 III Aleppo, Syria 337, Taf. 171 no. 4238 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Complete / Czichon & Werner 1998, Md180 Mbq 26/23-247 II 6,3 x 4,4 cm 17F Munbaqa EME 6 III damaged 337, Taf. 171, 231 no. 4239 180 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md181 Mbq 30/31-9 II Fragment 6 x 3,3 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 171 no. 4240 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md182 Mbq 24/23-11 II Fragment 5,8 x 5,5 cm 17G Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 171 no. 4241 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md183 Mbq 30/29-42 Fragment 9,4 x 5,7 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, no. 4242 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md184 Mbq 32/33-21 II Fragment 5,9 x 2,3 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 171 no. 4243 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md185 Mbq 30/29-134 II Fragment 4,9 x 4 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 171 no. 4244 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md186 Mbq 33/34-16 III Fragment 5,8 x 4,6 cm 17H Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 171 no. 4245 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md187 Mbq 17/26-8 Fragment 4,7 x 2,3 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, no. 4246 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md188 Mbq 30/29-203 VIa Fragment 3,9 x 3,5 cm 17I Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 171 no. 4247 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md189 Mbq 31/31-66 VI Fragment 5,5 x 5,5 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 172 no. 4248 181 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Aleppo Museum, Czichon & Werner 1998, Md190 Mbq 28/30-41 Fragment 5,6 x 5 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III Aleppo, Syria 338, Taf. 231 no. 4249 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md191 Mbq 31/29-12 Fragment 5,1 x 4,9 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 231 no. 4250 Ekalte/Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Czichon & Werner 1998, Md192 Mbq 29/29-81 II Fragment 6 x 3,5 cm Munbaqa EME 6 III 338, Taf. 231 no. 4251 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Uzunoglu 1983, 176, Md193 Bollweg XII 09 Gaziantep VIa Complete 11,2 x 10 cm 18A EME 6 Ur III A.462 Habuba Complete / Bollweg 1999, 84-85, abb. Md194 Bollweg III a 11 EME 5 Akkadian II 8,2 x 6,9 cm 18B Khabira damaged 18 Habuba EME 4 - ED IIIb - Complete / Md195 Bollweg II 03 II 9,2 x 4,8 cm Bollweg 1999, 80, abb. 6 18C Khabira EME 6 Ur III damaged EME 2b - 14 x 14, 5 Adana Regional Ozgen 1986, 170, fig. 3, Pl. Md196 Ozgen ADANA Serug ED I - III Vb Complete 18D EME 4 cm Museum, Turkey XVI a-b Ozgen EME 2b - Gaziantep Museum, Ozgen 1986, 167, fig. 1, Pl. Md197 Serug ED I - III Vb Complete 12 x 13,6 cm 18E GAZIANTEP I EME 4 Turkey XV a Ozgen EME 2b - Gaziantep Museum, Ozgen 1986, 167, fig. 2, Pl. Md198 Serug ED I-III Vb Complete 12,7 x 13 cm 18F GAZIANTEP II EME 4 Turkey 15 b-c 182 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Complete / Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md199 86M28 Tell Halawa EME 6 Ur III II 5,6 x 6,3 cm 18G damaged 164, abb. 48 no. 28 Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md200 81Q57 Tell Halawa EME 6 Ur III VI Fragment 4,5 x 5,6 cm 165, no. 58 Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md201 81Q65 Tell Halawa EME 6 Ur III VI Fragment 4,4 x 3,1 cm 165, no. 59 Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md202 84Q55 Tell Halawa EME 6 Ur III VI Fragment 6,4 x 4,7 cm 166, abb. 50 no. 64 Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md203 81Q244a Tell Halawa EME 6 Ur III IV-V Fragment 3,2 x 2,5 cm 166, no. 71 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, 164, Md204 85Q130 Tell Halawa IIIc Complete 4,4 x 4,4 cm 18H EME 6 - Ur III abb. 48 no. 23 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md205 78T239 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 2,9 x 5,8 cm 18I EME 6 - Ur III 163, abb. 47 no. 2 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md206 78Q101 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 5,5 x 3,4 cm EME 6 - Ur III 163, no. 3 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md207 80T2a Tell Halawa III Fragment 4,2 x 4,3 cm 18J EME 6 - Ur III 163, abb. 47 no. 6 183 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md208 80T2b Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 3,9 x 3,5 cm EME 6 - Ur III 163, no. 7 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md209 80U6 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 5 x 2,5 cm EME 6 - Ur III 163, no. 8 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md210 80U43 Tell Halawa IIId Fragment 4,3 x 5 cm 19A EME 6 - Ur III 163, abb. 47 no. 9 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md211 80Q65 Tell Halawa II Fragment 4,5 x 6,8 cm 19B EME 6 - Ur III 163, abb. 47 no. 11 EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md212 80Q75 Tell Halawa II 7,7 x 4,8 cm 19C EME 6 - Ur III damaged 163, abb. 47 no. 12 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md213 80Q168 Tell Halawa II Fragment 4,4 x 3,9 cm 19D EME 6 - Ur III 163, abb. 47 no. 14 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md214 81Q69 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 5 x 6,6 cm EME 6 - Ur III 163, no. 16 EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md215 82L57 Tell Halawa IIIa 3,6 x 3,6 cm 19E EME 6 - Ur III damaged 163, abb. 48 no. 17 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md216 84M18 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 4,8 x 4,9 cm EME 6 - Ur III 163, no. 18 184 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md217 84Q606 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment EME 6 - Ur III 163, no. 19 EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md218 85R12 Tell Halawa II 4,4 x 3,5 cm 19F EME 6 - Ur III damaged 164, abb. 48 no. 26 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md219 86M36 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 7,1 x 5,2 cm EME 6 - Ur III 164, no. 29 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md220 86M37 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 4,3 x 4 cm EME 6 - Ur III 164, no. 30 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md221 86M57a Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 3,9 x 4,4 cm EME 6 - Ur III 164, no. 31 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md222 86M73 Tell Halawa IIIb Complete 4,5 x 3,2 cm 19G EME 6 - Ur III 164, abb. 48 no. 32 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md223 86M74 Tell Halawa II Complete 6,2 x 6,4 cm 19H EME 6 - Ur III 164, abb. 48 no. 33 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md224 86M108 Tell Halawa II-III Fragment 7,2 x 3,8 cm EME 6 - Ur III 164, no. 35 EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md225 78T200a Tell Halawa Vb 10,2 x 6,3 cm 19I EME 6 - Ur III damaged 164, abb. 48 no. 36 185 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md226 79Q305 Tell Halawa IV-V Fragment 5,6 x 4,5 cm EME 6 - Ur III 164, no. 40 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md227 79Q346 Tell Halawa IV-V Fragment 4,4, x 6,1 cm EME 6 - Ur III 164, no. 41 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md228 80T31b Tell Halawa IV Fragment 4,9 x 3,3 cm 19J EME 6 - Ur III 165, abb. 49 no. 42 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md229 80U5 Tell Halawa Va Fragment 7 x 3,9 cm 20A EME 6 - Ur III 165, abb. 49 no. 43 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md230 80U34a Tell Halawa Va Fragment 6,8 x 4,5 cm 20B EME 6 - Ur III 165, abb. 49 no. 44 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md231 81Q142 Tell Halawa Vb Fragment 5,5 x 3,3 cm 20C EME 6 - Ur III 165, abb. 49 no. 47 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md232 82L83 Tell Halawa IV-V Fragment 4,1 x 3,7 cm EME 6 - Ur III 165, no. 48 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md233 84Q607 Tell Halawa IV-V Fragment 6,9 x 4,2 cm EME 6 - Ur III 165, no. 50 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md234 85Q133 Tell Halawa IV-V Fragment 6,1 x 3,6 cm EME 6 - Ur III 165, no. 51 186 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md235 80T31a Tell Halawa VI Fragment 5,5 x 3,7 cm EME 6 - Ur III 165, no. 52 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md236 80Q4 Tell Halawa VI Fragment 7,2 x 3,1 cm EME 6 - Ur III 165, abb. 49 no. 53 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md237 80Q161a Tell Halawa VI Fragment 3,9 x 4,7 cm 20D EME 6 - Ur III 165, abb. 50 no. 55 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md238 80Q245c Tell Halawa VI Fragment 9,3 x 2 cm EME 6 - Ur III 165, no. 56 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md239 81Q25 Tell Halawa VI Fragment 6,4 x 6,8 cm EME 6 - Ur III 165, no. 57 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md240 81Q230 Tell Halawa VI Fragment 4,1 x 5,5 cm 20E EME 6 - Ur III 166, abb. 50 no. 62 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md241 85Q104 Tell Halawa VI Fragment 6,4 x 4,4 cm EME 6 - Ur III 166, no. 65 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md242 86M119 Tell Halawa VI Fragment 4,9 x 1,3 cm EME 6 - Ur III 166, no. 66 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md243 80U20 Tell Halawa V Fragment 11,8 x 3,7 cm 20F EME 6 - Ur III 166, abb. 50 no. 68 187 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md244 81L175 Tell Halawa Va Fragment 7,1 x 4 cm 20G EME 6 - Ur III 166, abb. 50 no. 70 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md245 86M57b Tell Halawa IV-V Fragment 7,8 x 4,9 cm EME 6 - Ur III 166, no. 73 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md246 86M87 Tell Halawa IV-V Fragment 2,5 x 4 cm EME 6 - Ur III 166, no. 75 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md247 80Q197c Tell Halawa V Fragment 5,6 x 8,2 cm 20H EME 6 - Ur III 166, abb. 50 no. 77 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md248 80Q276 Tell Halawa V Fragment 5,2 x 4,7 cm 20I EME 6 - Ur III 166, abb. 51 no. 79 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md249 81L56 Tell Halawa Vb Fragment 7,7 x 7,9 cm 20J EME 6 - Ur III 166, abb. 51 no. 81 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md250 81Q213 Tell Halawa IV-V Fragment 5,3 x 4,5 cm EME 6 - Ur III 167, no. 83 EME 5 - Akkadian Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md251 82Q23 Tell Halawa V Fragment 3,4 x 5 cm 20K EME 6 - Ur III 167, abb. 51 no. 85 10,4 x 11,6 Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md252 82Q4 Tell Halawa Vb Fragment 21A cm 167, abb. 51 no. 84 188 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Neufang & Pruß 1994, Md253 85Q2 Tell Halawa Vb Fragment 2 x 6,8 cm 21B 167, abb. 51 no. 86 Tell EME 2b - ED I - Ur Md254 SLK 67-160 Fragment 2,4 x 2,6 cm Liebowitz 1988, 57 Selenkahiye EME 6 III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian 8,1 x 12,8 Liebowitz 1988, Pl. 32 No. Md255 SLK 67-894 VIa Fragment 21C Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III cm 1 Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Liebowitz 1988, Pl. 32 No. Md256 SLK 67-567 VIa Fragment 5,1 x 5,7 cm 21D Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III 2 Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Liebowitz 1988, Pl. 32 Md257 SLK 67-873 Vb Fragment 4,7 x 5,5 cm 21E Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III No. 3 Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Liebowitz 1988, Pl. 34 Md258 WRD 67-3 Vb 4,8 x 7,3 cm 21F Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III damaged No. 1 Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Liebowitz 1988, Pl. 31 Md259 SLK 67-980 Vb Fragment 5 x 6,6 cm 21G Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III No. 1 Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Liebowitz 1988, 59, Pl. Md260 SLK 67-1248 II 5,2 x 6,9 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III damaged 31:2 Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Liebowitz 1988, 59, Pl. Md261 SLK 67-669 IIIb 4 x 6,6 cm Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III damaged 31:3 189 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Liebowitz 1988, 58, Pl. Md262 SLK 67-953 II 4,5 x 6,5 cm Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III damaged 31:4 Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md263 S. Surf. 152 Fragment 3 x 8,8 cm Liebowitz 1988, 57 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md264 SI 1 B 146 Fragment 1,2 x 4,2 cm Liebowitz 1988, 57 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md265 SLK 67-87 Fragment 4,1 x 4,1 cm Liebowitz 1988, 57 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md266 SLK 67-395 Fragment 5,5 x 7,5 cm Liebowitz 1988, 58 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md267 SLK 67-424 Fragment 4,1 x 5,7 cm Liebowitz 1988, 58 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md268 SLK 67-495 Fragment 6,3 x 6,7 cm Liebowitz 1988, 58 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md269 SLK 67-836 Fragment 5,5 x 6,1 cm Liebowitz 1988, 58 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md270 SLK 67-867 Fragment 6,6 x 10 cm Liebowitz 1988, 58 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III 190 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md271 SLK 67-893 Fragment 4 x 7,4 cm Liebowitz 1988, 58 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md272 SLK 67-954 Fragment 9,3 x 11,6 cm Liebowitz 1988, 59 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md273 SLK 67-1488 Fragment 3,5 x 4,2 cm Liebowitz 1988, 59 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md274 WRD 67-396 Fragment 4 x 5 cm Liebowitz 1988, 59 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md275 SLK 72-20 IV-V Fragment 7 x 1,5 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.347 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md276 SLK 72-24 IV-V Fragment 3,8 x 4,2 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.347 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md277 SLK 72-25 II-III Fragment 4,6 x 1,9 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.347 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md278 SLK 72-35 II-III Fragment 3,8 x 4,1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.348 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md279 SLK 72-52 III Fragment 6,8 x 7 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.349 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III 191 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md280 SLK 72-86 II-III Fragment 4,8 x 5,1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.349 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md281 SLK 72-145 II Complete 8,5 x 6,4 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.350 21H Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Md282 SLK 72-153 VI 7,2 x 6 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.350 21I Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III damaged Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md283 SLK 72-241 III Fragment 6,3 x 5,1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.352 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md284 SLK 72-268 IV-V Complete 6,3 x 4,7 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.352 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md285 SLK 74-C-1 VI Fragment 4,5 x 4,5 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md286 SLK 74-C-2 Fragment 3,2 x 2,2 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md287 SLK 74-C-3 VI Fragment 3,6 x 0,9 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md288 SLK 74-C-4 II-III Fragment 6 x 1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III 192 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md289 SLK 74-C-5 II-III Fragment 4 x 5,1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md290 SLK 74-C-6 VI Fragment 5,4 x 2,8 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md291 SLK 74-C-7 Fragment 6,2 x 5,1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md292 SLK 74-C-8 II-III Fragment 6 x 3,5 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md293 SLK 74-C-9 II-III Fragment 5,4 x 2 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md294 SLK 74-C-10 II-III Fragment 6,5 x 5,5 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md295 SLK 74-C-11 IV-V Fragment 5,4 x 0,7 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md296 SLK 74-C-12 VI Fragment 6,3 x 3,2 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md297 SLK 74-C-13 II-III Fragment 3,2 x 1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III 193 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md298 SLK 74-C-14 II-III Fragment 3,6 x 3,1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md299 SLK 74-C-15 II-III Fragment 5,3 x 3,7 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md300 SLK 74-C-16 II-III Fragment 6,5 x 3 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md301 SLK 74-C-17 II-III Fragment 5,2 x 4,6 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.361 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md302 SLK 74-C-18 II-III Fragment 4,7 x 3,5 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Complete / Md303 SLK 74-C-19 II-III 8 x 7 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III damaged Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md304 SLK 74-C-20 II-III Fragment 6,8 x 6,7 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md305 SLK 74-C-21 Fragment 4,3 x 3,6 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md306 SLK 74-C-22 II-III Fragment 4,5 x 1,6 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III 194 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md307 SLK 74-C-23 VI Fragment 4,8 x 4,7 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md308 SLK 74-C-24 VI Fragment 10,7 x 0,5 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md309 SLK 74-C-25 VI Fragment 8 x 1 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md310 SLK 74-C-26 VI Fragment 6,1 x 1,3 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.362 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md311 SLK 75-C-1 IV-V Fragment 4 x 4,5 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.381 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md312 SLK 75-C-2 II-III Complete 3,5 x 4,3 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.381 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md313 SLK 75-C-3 IV-V Fragment 3 x 1,2 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.381 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md314 SLK 75-C-4 II-III Fragment 3,1 x 3,6 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.381 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md315 SLK 75-C-5 II-III Fragment 3,5 x 2 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.381 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III 195 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md316 SLK 75-C-6 IV-V Fragment 3,2 x 0,8 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.381 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III Tell EME 5 - Akkadian Md317 SLK 75-C-7 II-III Fragment 4 x 4,2 cm Van Loon 2001, 6.381 Selenkahiye EME 6 - Ur III EME 2b - Complete / Raqqa Museum, Strommenger & Miglus Md318 16/34:49 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a ED II Vb 14 x 8,5 cm 22A EME 3 damaged Raqqa, Syria 2010, 72, Taf. 70,1 EME 2b - Raqqa Museum, Strommenger & Miglus Md319 H:33,1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a ED II IV Complete 21,6 x 15 cm 22B EME 3 Raqqa, Syria 2010, 71, Taf. 68,4 Vorderasiatisches Complete / Strommenger & Miglus, Md320 17/35:11 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 3 ED IIIa II 6,4 x 4,6 cm Museum, Berlin, 22C damaged 2010, 68, 63, Taf. 11 Germany Vorderasiatisches Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md321 15/34:1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 3 ED IIIa IIIc 6,6 x 5,2 cm Museum, Berlin, 22D damaged 2010, 67, Taf. 63,5 Germany Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md322 15/35:49 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 3 ED IIIa II 6,8 x 6 cm 22E damaged 2010, 68, Taf. 63,7 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md323 12/34:3 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 3 ED IIIa II Fragment 7,3 x 2,7 cm Museum, Berlin, 22F 2010, 69, Taf. 65,11 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md324 25/48:73 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 11 x 2,6 cm 2010, 72, Taf. 70,7 196 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Strommenger & Miglus Md325 21/62:109 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 6,9 x 7,4 cm 2010, 72, Taf. 70,8 Strommenger & Miglus Md326 43/23:50 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 3,6 x 8,6 cm 2010, 73, Taf. 71,9 Strommenger & Miglus Md327 43/23:19 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb V Fragment 2,9 x 5,3 cm 2010, 73, Taf. 71,11 Strommenger & Miglus Md328 43/24:42 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 4,7 x 5,8 cm 2010, 73, Taf. 71,12 Strommenger & Miglus Md329 43/23:16 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 7,4 x 8,7 cm 22G 2010, 73, Taf. 72,1 Strommenger & Miglus Md330 43/23:60 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 5,4 x 6 cm 22H 2010, 73, Taf. 72,2 Strommenger & Miglus Md331 43/23:58 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb V Fragment 6,2 x 5,8 cm 22I 2010, 73, Taf. 72,3 Strommenger & Miglus Md332 21/62:58 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 4,8 x 4,8 cm 2010, 73, Taf. 72,8 Strommenger & Miglus Md333 42/23:42 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 10,2 x 5 cm 2010, 74, Taf. 72,11 197 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md334 37/23:1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 6,6 x 5,3 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 74, Taf. 73,1 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md335 24/49:141 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 7,9 x 5,2 cm 2010, 74, Taf. 73,2 Strommenger & Miglus Md336 21/62:77 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb VIa Fragment 10,7 x 3,1 cm 2010, 75, Taf. 74,2 Strommenger & Miglus Md337 37/19:22 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb VI Fragment 8 x 6,4 cm 2010, 77, Taf. 76,10 Strommenger & Miglus Md338 16/35:149 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Vb Fragment 5,7 x 5 cm 22J 2010, 79, Taf. 78,12 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md339 16/34:83 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Fragment 2 x 4,2 cm Museum, Berlin, 22K 2010, 79, Taf. 79,10 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md340 43/23:76 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 ED IIIb Fragment 5 x 5,2 cm 2010, 80, Taf. 80,17 Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md341 16/33:12 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian II 5,7 x 4,9 cm 22L damaged 2010, 68, Taf. 63,9 Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md342 16/35:154 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian II 5,5 x 4,7 cm 22M damaged 2010, 68, Taf. 63,8 198 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md343 17/35:26 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian III Fragment 4,5 x 2,4 cm Museum, Berlin, 22N 2010, 68, Taf. 63,10 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md344 17/34:137 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian II Fragment 4,3 x 2,8 cm 2010, 68, Taf. 63,12 Strommenger & Miglus Md345 24/45:42 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian II-III Fragment 4,3 x 4,7 cm 2010, 68, Taf. 64,1 Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md346 24/49:48 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian II 7,1 x 4,4 cm 23A damaged 2010, 68, Taf. 64,2 Strommenger & Miglus Md347 15/35:16 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian V Fragment 4,9 x 4,5 cm 23B 2010, 72, Taf. 70,3 Strommenger & Miglus Md348 16/35:45 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian Vb Fragment 4 x 9,5 cm 23C 2010, 72, Taf. 71,1 Strommenger & Miglus Md349 17/34:171 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian Vb Fragment 3,9 x 4,2 cm 2010, 73, Taf. 72,7 Strommenger & Miglus Md350 17/34:120 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian VIa Fragment 11,7 x 2,4 cm 2010, 74, Taf. 73,5 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md351 17/35:32 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 4 Akkadian VI Fragment 5,2 x 3,9 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 75, Taf. 74,7 Germany 199 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Strommenger & Miglus Md352 25/45:49 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian VI Fragment 5,1 x 5,4 cm 2010, 76, Taf. 76,6 Strommenger & Miglus Md353 16/35:52 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian VI Fragment 2,2 x 4,9 cm 2010, 77, Taf. 77,4 Strommenger & Miglus Md354 16/33:89 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian Fragment 4,6 x 5,4 cm 2010, 79, Taf. 79,5 Strommenger & Miglus Md355 24/45:55 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian Fragment 5,5 x 8,1 cm 23D 2010, 79, Taf. 79,8 Strommenger & Miglus Md356 25/45:48 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian Fragment 6 x 4,9 cm 23E 2010, 79, Taf. 79,11 Strommenger & Miglus Md357 16/35:165 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 5 Akkadian Fragment 4,4 x 3,4 cm 2010, 79, Taf. 80,4 Strommenger & Miglus Md358 24/49:98 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 6 Ur III Va Fragment 5,7 x 5,1 cm 23F 2010, 70, Taf. 67,2 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md359 21/62:44 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 6 Ur III VI Fragment 7,3 x 6,7 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 76, Taf. 76,5 Germany Strommenger & Miglus, Md360 24/49:139 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 6 Ur III Fragment 6 x 2,3 cm 2010, 77, Taf. 77,7 200 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Strommenger & Miglus Md361 25/46:30 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a EME 6 Ur III Vb Fragment 4,5 x 5,4 cm 23G 2010, 79, Taf. 79,13 EME 2b - 11,9 x 8,4 Strommenger & Miglus Md362 U:277,1.2 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a ED I-II Vb Complete Raqqa Museum, Syria 23H EME 3 cm 2010, 71-72, Taf. 69,2 EME 3 - Strommenger & Miglus Md363 U:131 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a ED III a-b VIa Complete 5,8 x 5,6 cm Raqqa Museum, Syria 23I EME 4 2010, 74, Taf. 73,3 EME 3 - Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md364 43/23:56 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a ED IIIa-b Vb 12,1 x 6,3 cm EME 4 damaged 2010, 72, Taf. 69,3 EME 3 - Strommenger & Miglus Md365 21/62:112 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a ED IIIa-b Fragment 2,8 x 3,4 cm EME 4 2010, 73, Taf. 72,6 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md366 24/49:55 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 2,6 x 2,9 cm EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 69, Taf. 65,10 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & miglus Md367 25/45:26 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a V Fragment 4,3 x 4,5 cm EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 70, Taf. 67,5 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md368 15/35:20 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 2,9 x 5,9 cm EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 72, Taf. 70,4 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md369 B:109 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 5,9 x 5,7 cm EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 73, Taf. 72,5 201 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md370 24/49:56 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 3,5 x 5,6 cm EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 76, Taf. 76,8 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md371 15/35:67 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 7,3 x 4,9 cm EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 79, Taf. 78,13 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md372 17/35:55 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6,1 x 7 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 79, Taf. 79,4 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md373 24/47:30 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6,2 x 6 cm EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 79, Taf. 79,7 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md374 25/45:63 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 10 x 7,6 cm 24A EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 79, Taf. 79,9 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md375 43/23:32 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6,4 x 4,4 cm EME 5 Akkadian 2010, 80, Taf. 80,13 EME 5 - Akkadian Strommenger & Miglus Md376 25/46:25 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Va Fragment 5,2 x 7,1 cm 24B EME 6 - Ur III 2010, 70-71, Taf. 67,6 EME 5 - Akkadian Strommenger & Miglus Md377 24/49:138 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VIa Fragment 5,9 x 4 cm EME 6 - Ur III 2010, 75, Taf. 73,6 Vorderasiatisches EME 5 - Akkadian Strommenger & Miglus Md378 38/23:109 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 8,1 x 8,4 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 - Ur III 2010, 76, Taf. 75,2 Germany 202 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 5 - Akkadian Strommenger & Miglus Md379 24/49:31 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 5,3 x 3,6 cm EME 6 - Ur III 2010, 76, Taf. 75,7 EME 5 - Akkadian Strommenger & Miglus Md380 25/47:94 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 7 x 7,8 cm EME 6 - Ur III 2010, 76, Taf. 76,3 EME 5 - Akkadian Strommenger & Miglus Md381 25/45:30 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6,3 x 6,4 cm 24C EME 6 - Ur III 2010, 79, Taf. 79,15 EME 3 - ED II - Raqqa Museum, Strommenger & Miglus Md382 15/34:30 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VIa Fragment 10,8 x 6,7 cm EME4 ED IIIb Raqqa, Syria 2010, 75, Taf. 73,8 EME 3 - ED II - Strommenger & Miglus Md383 15/34:42 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 9,8 x 1,8 cm EME 4 ED IIIb 2010, 75, Taf. 74,5 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md384 43/24:43 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 7,8 x 6,6 cm 24D EME 6 Ur III 2010, 73, Taf. 72,4 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Complete / 11,5 x 6,8 Strommenger & Miglus Md385 37/23:59 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Va 24E EME 6 Ur III damaged cm 2010, 70, Taf. 66,6 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md386 U:296,1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VIa Complete 5,7 x 5,6 cm Raqqa Museum, Syria 24F EME 6 Ur III 2010, 74, Taf. 73,4 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md387 31/16:33 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 7,4 x 6,6 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 72, Taf. 71,5 203 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 4 - ED IIIb - Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md388 F:20 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a IIIc 6,1 x 5,8 cm 24G EME 6 Ur III damaged 2010, 67, Taf. 63,6 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md389 38/18:13 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II 5,9 x 4,8 cm 24H EME 6 Ur III damaged 2010, 70, Taf. 66,1 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md390 E:56 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a IIId Fragment 8 x 2,7 cm 24I EME 6 Ur III 2010, 69, Taf. 65,1 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md391 29/53:7 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II Fragment 5,2 x 4,2 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 70, Taf. 66,2 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md392 43/23:5 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 7,7 x 4 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 70, Taf. 66,7 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md393 14/34:1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Va Fragment 5,2 x 5,4 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 70, Taf. 67,1 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md394 24/47:27 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Va Fragment 10 x 5,7 cm 25A EME 6 Ur III 2010, 70, Taf. 67, 3 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md395 28/46:67 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Va Fragment 3,4 x 7,2 cm 25B EME 6 Ur III 2010, 71, Taf. 67,4 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md396 37/18:13 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Va Fragment 5,3 x 3,8 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 71, Taf. 67,7 204 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md397 36/19:3 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a V Fragment 6,4 x 3,9 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 71, Taf. 67,8 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md398 29/40:20 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 7,3 x 7,5 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 71, Taf. 67,10 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Raqqa Museum, Strommenger & Miglus Md399 U:281 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a IV Complete 7,6 x 4,9 cm 25C EME 6 Ur III Raqqa, Syria 2010, 71, Taf. 68,3 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md400 21/62:53 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6,2 x 4,2 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 72, Taf. 70,6 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md401 29/50:37 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 3,1 x 6,5 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 72, Taf. 71,2 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md402 31/16:31 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a V Fragment 4,8 x 5,8 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 72, Taf. 71,4 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Raqqa Museum, Strommenger & Miglus Md403 31/16:32 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a V Fragment 4,2 x 10,2 cm 25D EME 6 Ur III Raqqa, Syria 2010, 73, Taf. 71,6 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md404 36/19:27 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 7,7 x 6,5 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 73, Taf. 71,7 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md405 31/37:3 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 3,2 x 7,7 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 73, Taf. 71,8 205 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md406 38/19:12 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a V Fragment 3,2 x 6,4 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 73, Taf. 71,10 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md407 22/46:11 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6 x 5,4 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 74, Taf. 72, 9 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md408 43/23:33 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 7,6 x 4,7 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 74, Taf. 72,10 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md409 43/23:12 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VIa Fragment 9,9 x 3,8 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 75, Taf. 73,7 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md410 25/45:111 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VIa Fragment 5,3 x 3,2 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 75, Taf. 73,9 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md411 25/45:31 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 5,3 x 3,2 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 75, Taf. 73,10 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md412 25/48:71 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VIa Fragment 12,3 x 7 cm 25E EME 6 Ur III 2010, 75, Taf. 74,3 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md413 25/48:86 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 6,1 x 3,3 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 75, Taf. 74,4 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md414 23/47:4 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 10,8 x 3,7 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 75-76, Taf. 74,8 206 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 4 - ED IIIb - Complete / 13,2 x 10,6 Raqqa Museum, Strommenger & Miglus Md415 25/47:50 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VIb 25F EME 6 Ur III damaged cm Raqqa, Syria 2010, 76, Taf. 74,9 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md416 37/23:12 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VIb Fragment 4,3 x 5,4 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 76, Taf. 75,1 Germany Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md417 40/24:39 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 7 x 8 cm Museum, Berlin, 25G EME 6 Ur III 2010, 76, Taf. 75,3 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md418 15/35:11 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 4,7 x 7,3 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 76, Taf. 75,10 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md419 25/47:60 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 5.9 x 3,6 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 76, Taf. 75,11 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md420 38/24:32 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 3,3 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 76,2 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md421 36/19:1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 7,7 x 6,2 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 76,7 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md422 39/23:36 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 3,2 x 7,6 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 76,9 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md423 26/50:26 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 2,8 x 7 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 76,11 207 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md424 35/23:10 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 5,1 x 8,6 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 76,12 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md425 37/19:6 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 8,4 x 8,9 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 77,1 Germany Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md426 38/18:17 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 10,6 x 8 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 77,2 Germany Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md427 38/23:120 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 7 x 8,9 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 77,3 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md428 24/47:71 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 5,6 x 1,7 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 77,8 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & miglus Md429 29/41:19 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6,5 x 5,3 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 78, Taf. 78,2 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md430 24/47:4 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 4,6 x 1,6 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 77, Taf. 78,3 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md431 24/47:37 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6 x 6,3 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 79, Taf. 79,14 Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md432 38/26:3 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6,6 x 7,2 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 80, Taf. 80,14 Germany 208 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Vorderasiatisches EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md433 38/23:84 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 7,4 x 6,5 cm Museum, Berlin, EME 6 Ur III 2010, 80, Taf. 80,15 Germany EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md434 43/24:58 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 3,7 x 5,9 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 80, Taf. 80,16 EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger & Miglus Md435 43/24:30 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6,6 x 5,9 cm EME 6 Ur III 2010, 81, Taf. 80,18 Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md436 29/40:7 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II 6,2 x 4,4 cm 26A damaged 2010, 68, Taf. 64,5 Strommenger & Miglus Md437 43/23:1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a IIIc Complete 5,1 x 6,6 cm Raqqa Museum, Syria 26B 2010, 70, Taf. 65,13 Strommenger & MIglus Md438 39/24:38 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a IIId Fragment 8,3 x 3,6 cm 26C 2010, 69, Taf. 65,5 Strommenger & Miglus Md439 Oberfl. 41 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II Fragment 6 x 3,4 cm 2010, 67, Taf. 63,1 Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md440 Oberfl. 82 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II 4,8 x 4,3 cm damaged 2010, 67, Taf. 63,2 Strommenger & Miglus Md441 B:98 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II Fragment 5,2 x 3,1 cm 2010, 67, Taf. 63,3 209 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Vorderasiatisches Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md442 E:21 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II 6,8 x 5,1 cm Museum, Berlin, damaged 2010, 67, Taf. 63,4 Germany Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md443 26/49:240 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II 5,8 x 5,4 cm damaged 2010, 68, Taf. 64,3 Strommenger & Miglus Md444 25/48:56 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 4,4 x 1,8 cm 2010, 68, Taf. 64,4 Strommenger & Miglus Md445 25/47:17 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II-III Fragment 5,3 x 3,3 cm 2010, 68, Taf. 64,6 Vorderasiatisches Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md446 37/19:3 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II 5,1 x 3,7 cm Museum, Berlin, 26D damaged 2010, 68, Taf. 64, 7 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md447 C:36 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a IIId Fragment 5,4 x 3,8 cm 2010, 69, Taf. 64,11 Strommenger & Miglus Md448 D:1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 8,5 x 3,8 cm 2010, 69, Taf. 64,12 Vorderasiatisches Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md449 J:1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II 6,5 x 3,1 cm Museum, Berlin, damaged 2010, 69, Taf. 65,6 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md450 E:26 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II Fragment 9,3 x 2,2 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 69, Taf. 65,7 Germany 210 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md451 E:5 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a II Fragment 4,8 x 1,8 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 69, Taf. 65,8 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md452 38/17:1 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6,3 x 4,7 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 70, Taf. 65,12 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md453 38/19:19 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Va Fragment 6,9 x 3,1 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 70, Taf. 66,4 Germany Complete / Strommenger & Miglus Md454 Oberfl. 43 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb 6,9 x 2,9 cm 26E damaged 2010, 71, Taf. 68,1 Complete / Raqqa Museum, Strommenger & Miglus Md455 B:76 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb 13,4 x 5,8 cm damaged Raqqa, Syria 2010, 71, Taf. 69,1 Raqqa Museum, Strommenger & Miglus Md456 B:53 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a V Fragment 8,4 x 10,8 cm Raqqa, Syria 2010, 72, Taf. 70,2 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md457 H:17 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 3,3 x 7 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 72, Taf. 70,5 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md458 C:41 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 7,1 x 2,3 cm 2010, 75, Taf. 74,1 Strommenger & Miglus Md459 B:112 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 4,1 x 3,5 cm 2010, 75, Taf. 74,6 211 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md460 B:48 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 6,7 x 4,9 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 76, Taf. 75,4 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md461 E:20 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 8,1 x 8,9 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 76, Taf. 75,5 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md462 E:40 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 5,8 x 10 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 76, Taf. 75,6 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md463 E:68 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 7,5 cm 2010, 76, Taf. 75,8 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md464 B:118 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a VI Fragment 5,2 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 76, Taf. 76,1 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md465 U:191 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6 x 2,8 cm 2010, 77, Taf. 77,5 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md466 B:6 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 3,7 x 3 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 78, Taf. 78,4 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md467 Oberfl. 19 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6,5 x 4,8 cm Museum, Berlin, 26F 2010, 78, Taf. 78,5 Germany Strommenger & Miglus Md468 Oberfl. 94 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 4,8 x 5,3 cm 2010, 78, Taf. 78,6 212 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Strommenger & Miglus Md469 E:61 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6,7 x 5,6 cm 2010, 78, Taf. 78,7 12,4 x 12,7 Raqqa Museum, strommenger & Miglus Md470 B:78 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a IV-V Fragment cm Raqqa, Syria 2010, 78, Taf. 78,8 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md471 17/33:23 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a IV-V Fragment 7,9 x 9,2 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 79, Taf. 78,9 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md472 B:3 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 4,4 x 5,3 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 78, Taf. 78,10 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md473 M:8 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 4,2 x 5,4 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 78, Taf. 78,11 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md474 A:15 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6,6 x 5,8 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 78, Taf. 79,1 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md475 E:23 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 6,6 x 7,4 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 78, Taf. 79,2 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md476 Q:2 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 9,4 x 8,1 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 78, Taf. 79,3 Germany Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md477 A:18 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 5,4 x 6,6 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 78, Taf. 79,6 Germany 213 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Strommenger & Miglus Md478 21/62:82 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6,3 x 6,1 cm 2010, 79, Taf. 79,16 Strommenger & Miglus Md479 26/47:6 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6 x 6,7 cm 2010, 79, Taf. 80,2 Strommenger & Miglus Md480 25/47:134 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 5,1 x 7,3 cm 2010, 79, Taf. 80,3 Strommenger & Miglus Md481 30/16:12 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Vb Fragment 6,5 x 4,4 cm 2010, 80, Taf. 80,7 Strommenger & Miglus Md482 25/48:36 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 5,6 x 6,5 cm 2010, 79, Taf. 80,10 Strommenger & Miglus Md483 32/37:11 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 8,4 x 7,6 cm 2010, 80, Taf. 80,11 Vorderasiatisches Strommenger & Miglus Md484 38/18:2 Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Fragment 3,2 x 7,7 cm Museum, Berlin, 2010, 80, Taf. 80,12 Germany Prahistorische Middle EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger 1990, 297- Md485 Bollweg XII 12 VIa Complete Staatssammlung, 26G Euphrates EME 6 Ur III 306, Pl. 99 Munchen, Germany 214 Catalogue: Terracotta models N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Prahistorische Middle EME 4 - ED IIIb - Strommenger 1990, 297- Md486 Bollweg XII 11 VIa Complete Staatssammlung, 26G Euphrates EME 6 Ur III 306, Pl. 99 Munchen, Germany Md487 Bollweg III b 18 Aleppo ENL 6 Ur III IIIc Complete Suleiman 1984, 1, Pl. V 54 26H Complete / Fugmann 1958, 110, fig. Md488 Bollweg III b 15 Hama ENL 6 Ur III IIIc 27A damaged 136 5A602 Ingholt 1940, 92, fig. 110 S. Md489 Bollweg III b 16 Hama ENL 6 Ur III IIIc Fragment 4 x 5 cm 27B 90 Complete / Ingholt 1940, 106, fig. 132 Md490 Bollweg III b 17 Hama ENL 6 Ur III IIIc 27C damaged B S. 108 ENL 3 - ENL Complete / Fugmann 1958, 62, fig. 64 Md491 Bollweg II 01 Hama ED III a-b II 27D 4 damaged 3C608 ENL 4 - ENL ED IIIb - Fugmann 1958, 72, fig. 93 Md492 Bollweg XII 05 Hama VIa Fragment 6 Ur III 3A343 Nationalmuseum, Md493 Bollweg III b 14 Murek ENL 6 Ur III IIIc Complete 6 x 10 cm Kopenhagen, Ingholt 1940, 57, Pl. XVII 1 27E Denmark Ashmolean Museum, Littauer & Crouwel 1974, Md494 Bollweg XII 08 Syria VIa Complete 19 x 13 cm 27F Oxford, UK 20, 25, fig. 1 215 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Conservation Measures Location Bibliography Pl. Museum Achse, Rad Bollweg 1999, 133-134, Md495 Bollweg XII 13 Syria VIa Complete 14cm und Wagen, Wiehl, 27G abb. 134 Germany 10, 8 x 10,4 Md496 Bollweg XII 14 Syria VIb Complete Ohlig 1992, No. 213 27H cm 14,6 x 14,6 Littauer & Crouwel 1974, Md497 Bollweg XII 15 Syria VIb Complete 28A cm 33, Pl. II 14, 2 x 7,5 Ashmolean Museum, Littauer & Crouwel 1990, Md498 AN 1975.326 Syria Vb Complete 28B cm Oxford, UK 160, fig. 4 a-d Md499 Bollweg IV 01 ED IIIa II Complete Bollweg 1999, 113, abb. 84 ED I - ED Sammlung J. Littauer & Crouwell 1973, Md500 Bollweg VIII 02 Va Complete 11 x 13,5 cm 28C IIIb Bomford, UK 109, Pl. XLIV B 216 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Yale Babylonian ESM/ECM giš Hackman 1958, Ws1 YBC 08443 Adab/Bismaya ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 r. I. 3 Collection, New Haven, 4b 007 Connecticut, USA Hearst Museum of Anthropology, ESM/ECM giš Foxvog 1980, Ws2 HMA 9-01798 Adab/Bismaya ED IIIb administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. I. 8 University of California 4b UCLM9-1798 at Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM giš Ws3 A 00700 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 r. 2 University of Chicago, Zhi 1989, 0700 5 Chicago, Illinois, USA Department of Near Visicato & CUNES 48-12- ESM/ECM giš Eastern Studies, Cornell Ws4 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative assignment GIGIR2 r. II. 4 Westenholz 086 4b University, Ithaca, New 2010, 140 York, USA Department of Near Visicato & CUNES 49-08- ESM/ECM giš Eastern Studies, Cornell Ws5 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. I. 3 Westenholz 049 4b University, Ithaca, New 2010, 167 York, USA Department of Near CUNES 50-04- ESM/ECM giš Eastern Studies, Cornell Maiocchi 2009, Ws6 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 r. 11 070 4b University, Ithaca, New 021 York, USA Department of Near CUNES 48-04- ESM/ECM giš Eastern Studies, Cornell Maiocchi 2009, Ws7 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 o. 2 125 4b University, Ithaca, New 026 York, USA 217 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Department of Near CUNES 48-06- ESM/ECM giš Eastern Studies, Cornell Maiocchi 2009, Ws8 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. 1 201 4b University, Ithaca, New 029 York, USA o. 2 Department of Near CUNES 50-02- ESM/ECM giš o. 3 Eastern Studies, Cornell Maiocchi 2009, Ws9 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 012 4b o. 4 University, Ithaca, New 080 o. 5 York, USA ESM/ECM giš private: Michail, Louise, Pettinato 1997, Ws10 Michail — Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative assignment GIGIR2 o. 6 5 Milan, Italy 15 ESM/ECM giš Banca d'Italia, Rome, Pomponio et al. Ws11 BdI 1, 160 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative assignment GIGIR2 o. 3 5 Italy 2006, 045 Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Ws12 A 00636 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian letter GIGIR2 University of Chicago, Zhi 1989, 0636 5 o. 10 Chicago, Illinois, USA Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM giš Ws13 A 00969 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 r. 1 University of Chicago, Zhi 1989, 0969 5 Chicago, Illinois, USA ESM/ECM giš Banca d'Italia, Rome, Pomponio et al. Ws14 BdI 2, 022 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian administrative assignment GIGIR2 o. 2 5 Italy 2006, 146 Bad- Oriental Institute, Frayne 2004, ESM/ECM giš Ws15 A 07121 Tibira/Tell al- ED IIIb royal/monumental GIGIR2 o. II. 8 University of Chicago, 1.09.05.04, ex. 4b Madain Chicago, Illinois, USA 02 218 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Oriental Institute, Ešnunna/Tell ESM/ECM giš Ws16 A— Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 o. 2 University of Chicago, Gelb 1952, 135 Asmar 5 Chicago, Illinois, USA Oriental Institute, Ešnunna/Tell ESM/ECM giš Ws17 A 07765 Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 r. 2 University of Chicago, Gelb 1952, 272 Asmar 5 Chicago, Illinois, USA Oriental Institute, Ešnunna/Tell ESM/ECM giš Ws18 A 07839 Akkadian administrative assignment GIGIR2 o. 5 University of Chicago, Gelb 1952, 302 Asmar 5 Chicago, Illinois, USA o. I. 2 ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Allotte de la Ws19 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative offering GIGIR2 o. VI. 3 4b France Fuÿe 1912, 043 r. I. 7 o. I. 14 ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Allotte de la Ws20 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative offering GIGIR2 o. IX. 22 4b France Fuÿe 1912, 053 r. I. 3 Thureau- ESM/ECM giš o. II. 3 Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws21 AO 04038 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative offering GIGIR2 Dangin 1903, 4b r. I. 7 France 047 State Hermitage ESM/ECM giš o. I. 7 Nikol'skij Ws22 Erm 14023 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative offering GIGIR2 Museum, St. Petersburg, 4b v. III. 15 1908, 023 Russia ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Allotte de la Ws23 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative offering GIGIR2 o. I. 6 4b France Fuÿe 1912, 197 219 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Musées royaux d’Art et ESM/ECM giš r. III. 4 De Genouillac Ws24 MRAH O.0648 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative offering GIGIR2 d’Histoire, Brussels, 4b r. III. 12 1909, 01 Belgium Donbaz & ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Ws25 Ist L 01056 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. 3 Foster 1982, 4b Istanbul, Turkey 001 Frayne 2004, ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws26 AO 24414 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb royal/monumental GIGIR2 o. II. 8 1.09.05.04, ex. 4b France 01 Frayne 2004, ESM/ECM giš Ws27 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb royal/monumental GIGIR2 o. II. 8 1.09.05.04, ex. 4b 04 Frayne 2004, ESM/ECM giš 6 Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws28 AO 03297 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb royal/monumental GIGIR2 1.09.05.14, ex. 4b 9 France 01 Frayne 2004, ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Ws29 Ist EŞEM — Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb royal/monumental GIGIR2 col. 4. 9 1.09.05.26, ex. 4b Istanbul, Turkey 01 Thureau- ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Ws30 Ist L 01081 Girsu/Telloh Akkadian administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Dangin 1910, 5 Istanbul, Turkey 01081 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws31 Ist L 03108 Girsu/Telloh Akkadian administrative offering GIGIR o. 1 5 Istanbul, Turkey 1910, 03108 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws32 Ist L 04499 Girsu/Telloh Akkadian administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 5 Istanbul, Turkey 1910, 04499 220 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography giš Thureau- ESM/ECM MAR-GID2- Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws33 AO 03383 Girsu/Telloh Akkadian administrative inventory o. II. 2 Dangin 1903, 5 DA France 239 Thureau- ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws34 AO 03364 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 10 Dangin 1903, 7 France 266 ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Maeda 1987, Ws35 BM 018352 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. II. 3 7 London, UK 325 01 ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Lafont 1985, Ws36 AO — Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. II. 16 7 France 050 ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Lafont 1985, Ws37 AO — Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 15 7 France 203 ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Lafont 1985, Ws38 AO — Girsu/Telloh Ur III letter GIGIR r. 1 7 France 351 Oriental Institute, Barton 1905- ESM/ECM giš Ws39 A 31676 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. II. 7 University of Chicago, 1914, 002 (pl. 7 Chicago, Illinois, USA 052) o. 4 Oriental Institute, Barton 1905- ESM/ECM giš Ws40 A 31727 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR envelope University of Chicago, 1914, 058 (pl. 7 o. 7 Chicago, Illinois, USA 070) Semitic Museum, SM ESM/ECM giš Harvard University, Hussey 1915, Ws41 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. II. 10 1899.02.001 7 Cambridge, 003 Massachusetts, USA 221 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Semitic Museum, o. IV. 19 SM ESM/ECM giš Harvard University, Hussey 1915, Ws42 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR o. IV. 20 1904.07.001 7 Cambridge, 005 r. IV. 11 Massachusetts, USA Semitic Museum, o. 2 SM ESM/ECM giš Harvard University, Hussey, 1915, Ws43 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 4 1899.02.010 7 Cambridge, 052 o. 14 Massachusetts, USA ESM/ECM giš o. 3 Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws44 Ist L 00694 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR 7 o. 4 Istanbul, Turkey 1910, 0094 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws45 Ist L 00833 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative offering GIGIR r. 5 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1910, 00833 ESM/ECM giš r. 1 Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws46 Ist L 00869 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR 7 r. 3 Istanbul, Turkey 1910, 00869 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws47 Ist L 03569 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 3 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1910, 03569 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws48 Ist L 06706 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 3 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1921, 06706 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws49 Ist L 06895 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR o. 1 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1921, 06895 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Pettinato 1977, Ws50 Ist L 07544 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 7 7 Istanbul, Turkey 515 222 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Pettinato 1977, Ws51 Ist L 07546 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 13 7 Istanbul, Turkey 517 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Pettinato 1977, Ws52 Ist L 07550 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 11 7 Istanbul, Turkey 521 Free Library of ESM/ECM giš Philadelphia, Sigrist et al. Ws53 FLP 2585 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 9 7 Philadelphia, 1984, 360 Pennsylvania, USA World Museum Gomi, Tohru, WML ESM/ECM giš Ws54 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. III. 26 Liverpool, Liverpool, 1980, Orient 51.63.181 7 UK 16, 077 112 World Museum WML ESM/ECM giš Gomi 1980, Ws55 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 2 Liverpool, Liverpool, 51.63.083 7 083 122 UK ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ws56 BM 016376 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. VIII. 14 Gelb 1972, 027 7 London, UK Thureau- ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws57 AO — Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 2 Dangin 1903, 7 France 308 de Liagre Böhl ESM/ECM giš Collection, Netherlands Hallo 1963, Ws58 LB 0188 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 3 7 Institute for the Near 054 East, Leiden, Holland r. II. 5 Vorderasiatisches ESM/ECM giš Reisner 1901, Ws59 VAT 02270 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. Ir. 1 Museum, Berlin, 7 124 r. Ir. 4 Germany 223 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Vorderasiatisches ESM/ECM giš r. III. 12 Reisner 1901, Ws60 VAT 02317 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR Museum, Berlin, 7 r. V. 25 126 Germany ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Waetzoldt Ws61 BM 014306 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. II. 6 7 London, UK 1972, 016 ESM/ECM giš British Museum, King 1898, pl. Ws62 BM 018958 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 7 7 London, UK 26, BM 018958 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Delaporte Ws63 Ist L 07244 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 4 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1912, 07244 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Delaporte Ws64 Ist L 07362 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 8 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1912, 07362 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Delaporte Ws65 Ist L 07435 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 7 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1912, 07435 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, De Genouillac Ws66 Ist L 06546 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR o. I. 16 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1912, 06546 Semitic Museum, SM ESM/ECM giš Harvard University, Owen 1982a, Ws67 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative offering GIGIR r. 2 1911.05.029 7 Cambridge, AA Massachusetts, USA ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Maekawa 1995, Ws68 BM 087527 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. I. 13 7 London, UK 205, 100 224 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography ESM/ECM giš r. I. 2 British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws69 BM 101979 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR 7 r. I. 3 London, UK 2006a, 0280 Anastasi & ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ws70 BM 093357 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2 Pomponio 7 London, UK 2009, 072 ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Delaporte Ws71 Ist L 07424 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 7 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1912, 07424 ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Mander 1995, Ws72 BM 012636a Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative offering GIGIR r. 5 7 London, UK 056 col. IX. 15 giš col. XIII. 18 Edzard 1997, ESM/ECM GIGIR2; Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws73 MNB 1511b Girsu/Telloh Ur III royal/monumental giš col. XVI. 9 3/1.01.07, Cyl 7 GIGIR France col. XVI. B witness 15 o. VI. 17 Edzard 1997, ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws74 MNB 1511a Girsu/Telloh Ur III royal/monumental GIGIR o. VI. 19 3/1.01.07, Cyl 7 France o. VII. 19 A witness giš ESM/ECM MAR-GID2- British Museum, Maekawa 1996, Ws75 BM 106092 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative inventory o. I. 16 7 DA London, UK 166, 8 Free Library of giš ESM/ECM MAR-GID2- Philadelphia, Sigrist et al. Ws76 FLP 1096 Girsu/Telloh Ur III administrative inventory o. 2 7 DA Philadelphia, 1984, 684 Pennsylvania, USA 225 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography ESM/ECM giš Ws77 entemena 35 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb GIGIR2 col. 4. 9 4b ESM/ECM giš Ws78 entemena 79 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb literary GIGIR2 col. 2. 8 4b ESM/ECM giš Ws79 IM— Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 r. I. 2 Biggs 1976, 15 4b ESM/ECM giš o. II. 7 Crawford 1977, Ws80 4 H-T 38 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 4b o. III. 1 219-222 ESM/ECM giš Rasheed 1981, Ws81 Himrin Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 r. I. 16 5 03 Isin/Ishan al- ESM/ECM giš 1; 70; 72; Ws82 Ur III literary GIGIR Civil 1968 Bahriyat 7 92 Hilprecht-Sammlung, ESM/ECM giš Ws83 HS 0854 Nippur ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 r. I. 1 University of Jena, Pohl 1935, 104 4b Germany University of Pennsylvania Museum ESM/ECM giš o. II. 6o. II. of Archaeology and Westenholz Ws84 CBS 06166 Nippur Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 5 7 Anthropology, 1985, 045 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA 226 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography University of Pennsylvania Museum CBS 06167 + ESM/ECM giš o. II. 4 of Archaeology and Westenholz Ws85 Nippur Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 CBS 07781 5 o. II. 5 Anthropology, 1985, 048 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM giš Owen 1982b, Ws86 A 30061 Nippur Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 3 University of Chicago, 7 877 Chicago, Illinois, USA Rare Manuscript Puzriš-Dagan/ ESM/ECM giš Collections, Cornell Owen 1991, Ws87 RMC 033 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR r. I. 6 Drehem 7 University Library, 146 Ithaca, New York, USA Oriental Institute, Puzriš-Dagan/ ESM/ECM giš Hilgert 1998, Ws88 A 04649 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR r. I. 2 University of Chicago, Drehem 7 306 Chicago, Illinois, USA Puzriš-Dagan/ ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws89 Ist PD — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. II. 16 Drehem 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1988, 1173 Crozer Theological Puzriš-Dagan/ ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 1991, Ws90 Crozer 029 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 6 Seminary, Rochester, Drehem 7 071 New York, USA Puzriš-Dagan/ ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, De Genouillac Ws91 AO 05501 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. II. 20 Drehem 7 France 1911, 5501 227 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Puzriš-Dagan/ ESM/ECM giš Medelhavsmuseet, Widell 2005, Ws92 MM 1977:17 Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. 5 Drehem 7 Stockholm, Sweden 24, 05 o. 1 giš Puzriš-Dagan/ ESM/ECM MAR-GID2- o. 2 Couvent Saint-Etienne, Sigrist 1979, Ws93 SE 142 Ur III administrative inventory Drehem 7 DA o. 3 Jerusalem 241, 1 r. 7 Šuruppak/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Jestin 1937, Ws94 Ist Š 0002 ED IIIa administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. I. 1 Fara 4a Istanbul, Turkey 0002 r. II. 3 Šuruppak/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Jestin 1937, Ws95 Ist Š 0782 ED IIIa administrative other GIGIR2 r. II. 5 Fara 4a Istanbul, Turkey 0782 r. II. 7 Šuruppak/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Jestin 1937, Ws96 Ist Š 0618 ED IIIa administrative inventory GIGIR2 r. I. 2 Fara 4a Istanbul, Turkey 0618 Vorderasiatisches Šuruppak/Tell ESM/ECM giš Deimel 1924, Ws97 VAT 09121 ED IIIa administrative other GIGIR2 r. I. 1 Museum, Berlin, Fara 4a 138 Germany Scheil & ESM/ECM giš o. II. 2 Louvre Museum, Paris, Ws98 Sb 18133 Susa/Shush Akkadian letter GIGIR2 Legrain 1913, 5 o. II. 6 France 33 228 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography f2. III. 2 f2. VIII. 2 Gelb et al. ESM/ECM giš f3. II. 17 Louvre Museum, Paris, 1989, 040 Ws99 Sb 00020 Susa/Shush Akkadian royal/monumental GIGIR2 5 f3. VII. 7 France (Manistusu f3. IX. 18 obelisk) f3. XI. 18 giš Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM GIGIR2; E2- o. 4 Sommerfeld Ws100 A 22028 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian administrative other University of Chicago, 5 GIGIR2 r. 3 1999, 08 Chicago, Illinois, USA giš ESM/ECM GIGIR2; E2- o. 3 National Museum of Sommerfeld Ws101 IM 031234 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian administrative other 5 GIGIR2 o. 5 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 1999, 10 giš Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM GIGIR2; E2- o. II. 8 Sommerfeld Ws102 A 22027 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian administrative other University of Chicago, 5 GIGIR2 r. II. 7 1999, 11 Chicago, Illinois, USA ESM/ECM National Museum of Sommerfeld Ws103 IM 031343 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian administrative other E2-GIGIR2 r. 1 5 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 1999, 13 Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM giš Sommerfeld Ws104 A 22040 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 o. 6 University of Chicago, 5 1999, 15 Chicago, Illinois, USA Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM giš Sommerfeld Ws105 A 22045 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. I. 3 University of Chicago, 5 1999, 47 Chicago, Illinois, USA o. 5 Oriental Institute, ESM/ECM giš Sommerfeld Ws106 A 22033 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. 6 University of Chicago, 5 1999, 60 r. 3 Chicago, Illinois, USA 229 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography ESM/ECM giš National Museum of Sommerfeld Ws107 IM 031204 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 o. 9 5 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 1999, 63 University of Pennsylvania Museum Frayne 2004, ESM/ECM giš of Archaeology and Ws108 CBS 15106 Ubaid ED IIIb royal/monumental GIGIR2 .2 1.13.06.04, ex. 4b Anthropology, 01 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA ESM/ECM giš Foster 1982, Ws109 AIA 08 Umm al-Jir Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 o. I. 4 5 050? AIA 08 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Sollberger Ws110 BM 114393 Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. I. 11 Jokha 5 London, UK 1972, 052 Steinkeller & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš National Museum of Ws111 IM 055101 Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 o. 11 Postgate 1992, Jokha 5 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 32 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Museo di Antichità di Rinaldi 1946, Ws112 MAT 549 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 4 Jokha 7 Torino, Turin, Italy 165 15 o. 3 Bibliothèque Nationale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 et Universitaire de Schneider Ws113 BNUS 230 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 r. 2 Strasbourg, Strasbourg, 1931, 135 r. 3 France Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. I. 12 Montserrat Museum, Schneider Ws114 MM 0174 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 r. I. 2 Barcelona, Spain 1932, 303 230 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Birmingham Museums Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Watson 1993, Ws115 A.0648_1982 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR and Art Gallery, Jokha 7 o. 6 013 Birmingham, UK Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Hackman 1937, Ws116 NBC 01615 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 5 Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 107 New Haven, Connecticut, USA École Pratique des Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Contenau 1915, Ws117 HE 043 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2 Hautes Études, Paris, Jokha 7 043 France o. 2 Anonymous Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 3 private: anonymous, Wilhelm 1972, Ws118 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR 0041 Jokha 7 o. 9 unknown 083 o. 10 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Fish 1952, 37, Ws119 BM 106055 Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR r. I. 5 Jokha 7 London, UK BM 106055 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Fish 1952, 53, Ws120 BM 105753 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 5 Jokha 7 London, UK BM 105753 Museum Forum der Völker Pettinato & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 2 Ws121 MW 08 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR (Völkerkundemuseum Waetzoldt Jokha 7 r.1 der Franziskaner), Werl, 1974, 230 Germany private: Schollmeyer, Pettinato & Schollmeyer Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Ws122 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. II. 13 F.A., unknown Waetzoldt 165 Jokha 7 (dispersed) 1974, 240 231 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Cagni & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 2 Pontificio Istituto Ws123 IB 188 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Pettinato 1976, Jokha 7 o. 3 Biblico, Rome, Italy 111 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš private: Pinches, Sollberger Ws124 Pinches 003 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3o. 5 Jokha 7 unknown (dispersed) 1978, 034 o. 3 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 private: Pinches, Sollberger Ws125 Pinches 015 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 r. 1 unknown (dispersed) 1978, 050 r. 2 Badisches Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Grégoire 1981, Ws126 BLMK 1159 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 4 Landesmuseum, Jokha 7 104 Karlsruhe, Germany Free Library of Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Philadelphia, Sigrist,et al. Ws127 FLP 2617 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 1 Jokha 7 Philadelphia, 1984, 008 Pennsylvania, USA Pushkin State Museum Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Nikol'skij Ws128 GMII — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR of Fine Arts, Moscow, Jokha 7 o. 6 1915, 372 Russia o. 2 Pushkin State Museum Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Nikol'skij Ws129 GMII — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 of Fine Arts, Moscow, Jokha 7 1915, 373 o. 8 Russia 232 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography o. 2 o. 3 o. 10 Pushkin State Museum Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Nikol'skij Ws130 GMII — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 11 of Fine Arts, Moscow, Jokha 7 1915, 374 r. 5 Russia r. 6 r. 12 Grégoire 2001, Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 10 Ashmolean Museum, Ws131 Bod S 146 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR pl. 211, Bod S Jokha 7 o. 15 Oxford, UK 146 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš r. II. 13 Louvre Museum, Paris, De Genouillac Ws132 AO 05672 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR Jokha 7 r. II. 14 France 1922, 5672 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Louvre Museum, Paris, De Genouillac Ws133 AO 05680 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. I. 16 Jokha 7 France 1922, 5680 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 2 Bibliothèque Nationale, Schneider Ws134 BNL — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 3 Luxemburg, Luxemburg 1925, pl. 14 38 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 private: Schneider, N., Schneider Ws135 Schneider — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 6 Germany 1925, pl. 14 39 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 2 Università Cattolica del Boson 1936, Ws136 UCC — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 3 S. Cuore, Milan, Italy 345 Vorderasiatisches Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 3 Schneider Ws137 VAT 07198 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, Berlin, Jokha 7 o. 4 1930, 357 Germany 233 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography o. 3 Vorderasiatisches Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Schneider Ws138 VAT 07058 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, Berlin, Jokha 7 r. 3 1930, 372 Germany r. 4 Vorderasiatisches Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Schneider Ws139 VAT 07206 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, Berlin, Jokha 7 o. 6 1930, 378 Germany Vorderasiatisches Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Schneider Ws140 VAT 07251 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 4 Museum, Berlin, Jokha 7 1930, 443 Germany o. 2 de Liagre Böhl Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 3 Collection, Netherlands Hallo 1963, Ws141 LB 2295 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 5 Institute for the Near 011 o. 7 East, Leiden, Holland Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Museo di Antichità di Boson 1936, Ws142 MAT 695 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 2 Jokha 7 Torino, Turin, Italy 051 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Museo di Antichità di Boson 1936, Ws143 MAT 548 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Jokha 7 Torino, Turin, Italy 162 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Museo di Antichità di Boson 1936, Ws144 MAT 561 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 6 Torino, Turin, Italy 202 Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Hackman 1937, Ws145 NBC 02608 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 o. 6 058 New Haven, Connecticut, USA 234 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography o. 3 Finnish National Holma & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 Ws146 FNM — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, Helsinki, Salonen 1940, Jokha 7 r. 1 Finland 20 (pl.5) r. 2 New York Public Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 3 Sauren 1978, Ws147 NYPLC 126 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Library, New York, Jokha 7 o. 5 053 New York, USA Rosicrucian Egyptian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Jones & Snyder Ws148 RC 2727 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Museum, San Jose, Jokha 7 1961, 142 California, USA Spurlock Museum, SMUI Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš University of Illinois, Kang 1973, Ws149 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2o. 4o. 6 1913.14.0726 Jokha 7 Urbana-Champaign, 254 Illinois, USA Spurlock Museum, SMUI Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš University of Illinois, Kang 1973, Ws150 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 4 1913.14.1243 Jokha 7 Urbana-Champaign, 271 Illinois, USA World Museum WML Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Gomi 1980, Ws151 Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR o. 4 Liverpool, Liverpool, 56.22.304 Jokha 7 065, 81 UK o. 3 École Pratique des Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 Durand 1982, Ws152 HE 304 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Hautes Études, Paris, Jokha 7 r. 3 304 France r. 4 Van de Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 private: Malter, Encino, Ws153 Malter — Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Mieroop 1983, Jokha 7 r. 2 California, USA 200, 1 235 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Syracuse University Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 11 Sigrist 1983, Ws154 SUL 481 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR Library, Syracuse, New Jokha 7 r. 5 060 York, USA Syracuse University Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 1983, Ws155 SUL 110 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2 Library, Syracuse, New Jokha 7 187 York, USA Syracuse University Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 3 Sigrist 1983, Ws156 SUL 077 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Library, Syracuse, New Jokha 7 o. 5 322 York, USA o. 2 Syracuse University Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 3 Sigrist 1983, Ws157 SUL 433 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Library, Syracuse, New Jokha 7 o. 10 338 York, USA r. 1 Syracuse University Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš r. 14 Sigrist 1983, Ws158 SUL 014 Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR Library, Syracuse, New Jokha 7 r. 15 489 York, USA Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz et al. Ws159 Ist Um 0327 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 4 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1988, 0327 Archi & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Università Pontificia Ws160 UPS — Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 2 Pomponio Jokha 7 Salesiana, Rome, Italy 1989, 027 Archi & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Università Pontificia Ws161 UPS — Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 7 Pomponio Jokha 7 Salesiana, Rome, Italy 1989, 029 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. II. 4 British Museum, Gomi & Sato Ws162 BM 106129 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 r. I. 18 London, UK 1990, 409 236 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Gomi & Sato Ws163 BM 106290 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 5 Jokha 7 London, UK 1990, 468 o. 2 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Gomi & Sato Ws164 BM 106250 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Jokha 7 London, UK 1990, 530 o. 8 Princeton Theological Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 Sigrist 1990, Ws165 PTS 0468 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR Seminary, Princeton, Jokha 7 r. 3 141 New Jersey, USA Princeton Theological Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 1990, Ws166 PTS 0333 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 1 Seminary, Princeton, Jokha 7 247 New Jersey, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 1 Cohen 1993, Ws167 YBC 16663 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 o. 17 197-198 Connecticut, USA Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws168 Ist Um 1804 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 2 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1993, 1804 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws169 Ist Um 1881 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1993, 1881 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws170 Ist Um 1918 Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR o. 1 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1993, 1918 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws171 Ist Um 2004 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 4 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1993, 2004 237 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws172 Ist Um 2041 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 5 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1993, 2041 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 1 Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws173 Ist Um 2081 Ur III administrative other GIGIR Jokha 7 r. 1 Istanbul, Turkey 1993, 2081 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws174 Ist Um 2121 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 6 Istanbul, Turkey 1993, 2121 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Yildiz & Gomi Ws175 Ist Um 2267 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 3 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1993, 2267 Waetzoldt & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Ws176 Ist Um 0646 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 6r. 1 Yildiz 1994, Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 0646 Waetzoldt & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 6 Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Ws177 Ist Um 0688 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Yildiz 1994, Jokha 7 o. 9 Istanbul, Turkey 0688 o. 3 Waetzoldt & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Ws178 Ist Um 0695 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Yildiz 1994, Jokha 7 r. 4 Istanbul, Turkey 0695 r. 5 Waetzoldt & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 2 Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Ws179 Ist Um 0955 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Yildiz 1994, Jokha 7 o. 3 Istanbul, Turkey 0955 Grégoire 1996, Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Ashmolean Museum, Ws180 Ashm 1911-207 Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR o. 1 pl. 029, 1911- Jokha 7 Oxford, UK 207 238 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Grégoire 1996, Ashm 1924- Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Ashmolean Museum, Ws181 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. II. 2 pl. 065-066, 0666 Jokha 7 Oxford, UK 1924-0666 State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš D’Agostino Ws182 Erm 03981 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2 Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 1997, 022 Russia State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 3 D’Agostino Ws183 Erm 03984 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 r. 2 1997, 025 Russia o. 3 State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 D’Agostino Ws184 Erm 04004 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 o. 9 1997, 045 Russia o. 10 State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 D’Agostino Ws185 Erm 04008 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 r. 1 1997, 049 Russia State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 D’Agostino Ws186 Erm 04057 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 o. 6 1997, 097 Russia o. 2 State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 D’Agostino Ws187 Erm 04058 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 r. 3 1997, 098 Russia r. 5 o. 3 State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš D’Agostino Ws188 Erm 07517 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 5 Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 1997, 181 r. 3 Russia 239 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Gomi & Yildiz Ws189 Ist Um 2459 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 4 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1997, 2459 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Gomi & Yildiz Ws190 Ist Um 2525 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 2 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1997, 2525 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Gomi & Yildiz Ws191 Ist Um 2615 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 1997, 2615 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Gomi & Yildiz Ws192 Ist Um 3041 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 7 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 2000, 3041 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Gomi & Yildiz Ws193 Ist Um 3479 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. I. 8 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 2000, 3479 o. 2 o. 4 State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 8 Koslova 2000, Ws194 Erm 07662 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 r. 1 142 Russia r. 3 r. 6 State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Koslova 2000, Ws195 Erm 07485 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 o. 6 160 Russia State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 3 Koslova 2000, Ws196 Erm 08073 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 o. 5 166 Russia 240 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Koslova 2000, Ws197 Erm 07990 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 o. 6 169 Russia State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Koslova 2000, Ws198 Erm 07971 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 o. 6 179 Russia State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Koslova 2000, Ws199 Erm 07959 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 7 Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 232 Russia State Hermitage Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Koslova 2000, Ws200 Erm 07416 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 4 Museum, St. Petersburg, Jokha 7 313 Russia Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 2000, Ws201 YBC 01083 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 0176 Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 2000, Ws202 YBC 11703 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 4 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 0624 Connecticut, USA Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Sigrist 2000, Ws203 NBC 11636 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 o. 6 0863 New Haven, Connecticut, USA Nies Babylonian o. 3 Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 Sigrist 2000, Ws204 NBC 11578 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 r. 1 0916 New Haven, r. 2 Connecticut, USA 241 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Nies Babylonian o. 3 Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 Sigrist 2000, Ws205 NBC 11708 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 o. 8 0917 New Haven, o. 9 Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 2000, Ws206 YBC 01350 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 1802 Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 2000, Ws207 YBC 11188 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR r. 2 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 1890 Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 2000, Ws208 YBC 11182 Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 1 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 1946 Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 2000, Ws209 YBC 00046 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 4 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 2043 Connecticut, USA o. 4 o. 8 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 11 Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Gomi & Yildiz Ws210 Ist Um 3504 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 15 Istanbul, Turkey 2001, 3504 r. 8 r. 11 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Arkeoloji Müzeleri, Gomi & Yildiz Ws211 Ist Um 3589 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2 Jokha 7 Istanbul, Turkey 2001, 3589 Royal Ontario Museum ROM Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 of Archaeology, Sigrist 2004, Ws212 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR 967.287.012 Jokha 7 o. 6 Toronto, Ontario, 118 Canada 242 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Royal Ontario Museum ROM Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš of Archaeology, Sigrist 2004, Ws213 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 3 925.062.022 Jokha 7 Toronto, Ontario, 401 Canada Princeton Theological Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 6 Sigrist 2005, Ws214 PTS 0825 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Seminary, Princeton, Jokha 7 o. 9 129 New Jersey, USA Princeton Theological Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 2 Sigrist 2005, Ws215 PTS 1355 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Seminary, Princeton, Jokha 7 o. 3 433 New Jersey, USA o. 6 British Museum, Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Molina 2010, Ws216 BM 106536 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 7 London, United Jokha 7 210 07 r. 5 Kingdom Royal Ontario Museum ROM Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš of Archaeology, Sigrist 2004, Ws217 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 3 925.062.098 Jokha 7 Toronto, Ontario, 033 Canada World Museum WML Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Gomi 1980, Ws218 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Liverpool, Liverpool, 51.63.109 Jokha 7 073, 103 UK Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Sigrist 2001, p. Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Ws219 NBC 04345 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR 2 Babylonian Collection, 176, NBC Jokha 7 New Haven, 04345 Connecticut, USA 243 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography o. 4 Molina & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 6 British Museum, Ws220 BM 107963 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Such-Gutierrez Jokha 7 r. 3 London, UK 2005, 037 r. 5 Molina & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ws221 BM 108285 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 5 Such-Gutierrez Jokha 7 London, UK 2005, 338 Molina & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ws222 BM 108313 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 6 Such-Gutierrez Jokha 7 London, UK 2005, 363 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws223 BM 016104 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 1 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006a, 0043 o. 2 o. 3 o. 7 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws224 BM 106692 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 8 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006a, 0416 o. 12 o. 13 r. 3 o. 3 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 5 British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws225 BM 106817 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 9 London, UK 2006a, 0539 o. 10 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws226 BM 107018 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006a, 0734 244 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography o. 5 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws227 BM 107081 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 8 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006a, 0794 o. 10 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws228 BM 107767 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 5 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006a, 1413 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws229 BM 111667 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 2 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006a, 1732 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws230 BM 111682 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 3 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006a, 1743 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws231 BM 111470 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 2 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006b, 2009 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws232 BM 111820 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 4 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006b, 2077 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 2 British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws233 BM 112283 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Jokha 7 o. 3 London, UK 2006b, 2517 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws234 BM 105572 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 2 Jokha 7 London, UK 2006b, 2650 Al-Rawi & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. I. 16 British Museum, Ws235 BM 104777 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Verderame Jokha 7 o. I. 17 London, UK 2006, 41 245 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography D’Agostino & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Ws236 BM 113760 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 6 Politi 2006, Jokha 7 London, UK 128 American University of Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Beirut Archaeological Lafont 2011, Ws237 AUB 34.72 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 3 Jokha 7 Museum, Beirut, 168, no. 38 Lebanon Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 2 Sigrist & Ozaki Ws238 YBC 13606 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 r. 2 2009a, 0099 Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws239 YBC 14101 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 3 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 2009a, 0422 Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws240 YBC 14268 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 6 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 2009a, 0562 Connecticut, USA Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. 4 Sigrist & Ozaki Ws241 NBC 00925 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 o. 6 2009a, 1354 New Haven, Connecticut, USA Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws242 NBC 01450 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 2 Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 2009a, 1507 New Haven, Connecticut, USA 246 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws243 NBC 02048 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 2 Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 2009b, 1671 New Haven, Connecticut, USA Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws244 NBC 02900 Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR o. 1 Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 2009b, 1866 New Haven, Connecticut, USA Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws245 NBC 03309 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 3 Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 2009b, 2137 New Haven, Connecticut, USA Nies Babylonian Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws246 NBC 03356 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 2 Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 2009b, 2181 New Haven, Connecticut, USA Nies Babylonian o. 4 Collection, Yale Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws247 NBC 03475 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 3 Babylonian Collection, Jokha 7 2009b, 2258 r. 6 New Haven, Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws248 YBC 15967 Ur III administrative other GIGIR r. 3 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 2009b, 2521 Connecticut, USA 247 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Newell Collections of Babylonian Tablets, Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist & Ozaki Ws249 NCBT 01698 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 5o. 8 Yale Babylonian Jokha 7 2009b, 2943 Collection, New Haven, Connecticut, USA r. II. 3 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš British Museum, al-Rawi et al. Ws250 BM 106040 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR r. II. 9 Jokha 7 London, UK 2009, 11 r. r. 9 o. 3 Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Couvent Sainte-Anne, Ozaki & Sigrist Ws251 SA 347 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR o. 5 Jokha 7 Jerusalem 2010, 206 o. 10 Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš o. II. 1 Sigrist 2000, Ws252 YBC 11237 Ur III administrative offering GIGIR Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 r. I. 14 1001 Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Umma/Tell ESM/ECM giš Sigrist 2000, Ws253 YBC 08964 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. 2 Collection, New Haven, Jokha 7 2201 Connecticut, USA Museum of the Buffalo giš Umma/Tell ESM/ECM MAR-GID2- Society of Natural Hussey 1915 Ws254 BSNS — Ur III administrative inventory r. 20 Jokha 7 DA Sciences, Buffalo, New 125, 02 York, USA giš Owen & Umma/Tell ESM/ECM MAR-GID2- Arizona State Museum, Ws255 ASM 00068 Ur III administrative other o. 6 Wasilewska Jokha 7 DA Tucson, Arizona, USA 2000, 053, 92 A'annepada of Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš Ws256 ED IIIb literary GIGIR2 2 Ur 3 Muqayyar 4b 248 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography giš GIGIR; Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš r. Ir. 15 National Museum of Legrain 1937, Ws257 IM — Ur III administrative inventory MAR-GID2- Muqayyar 7 r. II. 17 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 0272 DA Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš National Museum of Legrain 1937, Ws258 IM — Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 2 Muqayyar 7 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 0310 Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš National Museum of Legrain 1937, Ws259 IM — Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 4 Muqayyar 7 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 0758 Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš National Museum of Legrain 1937, Ws260 IM — Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR o. 1 Muqayyar 7 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 1205 Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš British Museum, Legrain 1937, Ws261 BM 130460 Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR r. III. 17 Muqayyar 7 London, UK 1498 Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš National Museum of Legrain 1937, Ws262 IM — Ur III administrative assignment GIGIR o. 5 Muqayyar 7 Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 1744 Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš Loding 1976, Ws263 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 4 Muqayyar 7 0374 Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš Loding 1976, Ws264 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 3 Muqayyar 7 0377 Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš Loding 1976, Ws265 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. 2 Muqayyar 7 0379 249 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM giš Loding 1976, Ws266 Ur III administrative other GIGIR o. ? Muqayyar 7 1330 giš r. I. 12 GIGIR; Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM r. I. 13 British Museum, Legrain 1937, Ws267 BM 130281 Ur III administrative inventory URUDAGIGIR; Muqayyar 7 r. I. 15 London, UK 0752 SI-GIGIR r. II. 3 Gasur/Yorghan giš National Museum of Meek 1935, Ws268 IM 050656 ETG 6 Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 r. I. 9 Tepe Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 038 Semitic Museum, SM Gasur/Yorghan giš Harvard University, Meek 1935, Ws269 ETG 6 Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 o. 4 1998.04.032 Tepe Cambridge, 065 Massachusetts, USA Semitic Museum, SM Gasur/Yorghan giš o. 3 Harvard University, Meek 1935, Ws270 ETG 6 Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 1998.04.059 Tepe o. 5 Cambridge, 104 Massachusetts, USA Semitic Museum, SM Gasur/Yorghan giš Harvard University, Meek 1935, Ws271 ETG 6 Akkadian administrative other GIGIR2 r. 1 1998.04.076 Tepe Cambridge, 129 Massachusetts, USA Gasur/Yorghan giš National Museum of Meek 1935, Ws272 IM 050613 ETG 6 Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. I. 6 Tepe Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq 202 Semitic Museum, SM Gasur/Yorghan giš o. 4 Harvard University, Meek 1935, Ws273 ETG 6 Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 1998.04.104 Tepe o. 6 Cambridge, 203 Massachusetts, USA 250 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Semitic Museum, SM Gasur/Yorghan giš Harvard University, Meek 1935, Ws274 ETG 6 Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. 9 1998.04.115 Tepe Cambridge, 206 Massachusetts, USA Semitic Museum, SM Gasur/Yorghan giš Harvard University, Meek 1935, Ws275 ETG 6 Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. 5 1998.04.105 Tepe Cambridge, 207 Massachusetts, USA Nabada/Tell giš Der-ez-Zor Museum, Ismail et al. Ws276 BEY 93-021 EJZ 3b ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 o. I. 2 Beydar Syria 1996, 045 Nabada/Tell giš Der-ez-Zor Museum, Ismail et al. Ws277 BEY 93-02 EJZ 3b ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 o. III. 5 Beydar Syria 1996, 054 Nabada/Tell giš Der-ez-Zor Museum, Ismail et al. Ws278 BEY 93-031 EJZ 3b ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 r. I. 1 Beydar Syria 1996, 057 Nabada/Tell giš Der-ez-Zor Museum, Ismail et al. Ws279 BEY 93-032 EJZ 3b ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 o. III. 1 Beydar Syria 1996, 059 Nabada/Tell giš Der-ez-Zor Museum, Ismail et al. Ws280 BEY 94-004 EJZ 3b ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 o. III. 1 Beydar Syria 1996,072 Nabada/Tell giš Der-ez-Zor Museum, Ismail et al. Ws281 BEY 94-031 EJZ 3b ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 o. III. 1 Beydar Syria 1996, 099 251 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Nabada/Tell giš Der-ez-Zor Museum, Ismail et al. Ws282 BEY 94-063 EJZ 3b ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 o. III. 3 Beydar Syria 1996,131 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws283 TM.75.G.01327 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. VIII. 13 Archi 1985, 17 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws284 TM.76.G.0530 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. XIr. 8 Archi 1985, 05 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria Ebla/Tell giš r. Ir. 8 National Museum of Ws285 TM.75.G.01278 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-SUM Archi 1985, 16 Mardikh r. Ir. 15 Syria, Idlib, Syria Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Edzard 1981, Ws286 TM.75.G.01644 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. II. 3 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 02 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Edzard 1981, Ws287 TM.75.G.01667 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. VI. 1 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 15 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Edzard 1981, Ws288 TM.75.G.01345 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-IV r. VIII. 14 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 14 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Edzard 1981, Ws289 TM.75.G.01647 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative inventory GIGIR2-IV o. II. 5 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 22 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Edzard 1981, Ws290 TM.75.G.02230 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative inventory GIGIR2-II o. I. 5 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 51 252 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws291 TM.75.G.03371 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2 o. I. 3 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 325 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws292 TM.75.G.03900 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-E2 r. III. 16 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 798 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws293 TM.75.G.03911 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-E2 r. I. 2 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 809 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws294 TM.75.G.03126 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. V. 9 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 108 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws295 TM.75.G.03304 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. I. 3 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 262 Ebla/Tell giš r. VII. 2 r. National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws296 TM.75.G.03532 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh VIII. 5 Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 467 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws297 TM.75.G.03657 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. II. 1 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 588 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws298 TM.75.G.03679 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. r. 7 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 609 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws299 TM.75.G.03694 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. II. 2 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 624 253 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws300 TM.75.G.03701 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. I. 1 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 630 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws301 TM.75.G.03843 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. II. 4 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 755 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws302 TM.75.G.03904 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. III. 5 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 802 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws303 TM.75.G.03912 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. II. IV Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 810 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws304 TM.75.G.04026 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. II. 3 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 907 TM.75.G.01872 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi & Biga Ws305 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-IV r. VI. 2 + Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1982, 338 Archi & Biga TM.75.G.02622 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws306 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative inventory GIGIR2-SUM o. I. 2 1982, 185 + + Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria unpublished Ebla/Tell E2×GIGIR2; r. V. 2 National Museum of Biga & Milano Ws307 TM.75.G.01273 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment giš Mardikh GIGIR2-II r. VI. 11 Syria, Idlib, Syria 1984, 05 Ebla/Tell E2×GIGIR2; r. X. 9 National Museum of Biga & Milano Ws308 TM.75.G.01287 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment giš Mardikh GIGIR2-II r. XI. 1 Syria, Idlib, Syria 1984, 10 254 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Biga & Milano Ws309 TM.75.G.01265 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. VIII. 25 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1984, 04 Ebla/Tell giš o. I. 17 National Museum of Biga & Milano Ws310 TM.75.G.01276 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. IV. 17 Syria, Idlib, Syria 1984, 07 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Biga & Milano Ws311 TM.75.G.01285 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. IV. 16 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1984, 08 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Biga & Milano Ws312 TM.75.G.01502 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. IV. 10 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1984, 16 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Biga & Milano Ws313 TM.75.G.01709 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. VI. 9 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1984, 20 Ebla/Tell giš r. II. 12 National Museum of Biga & Milano Ws314 TM.75.G.02040 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. V. 8 Syria, Idlib, Syria 1984, 25 Ebla/Tell GIGIR2-E2; o. VI. 10 r. National Museum of Sollberger Ws315 TM.76.G.0529 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment giš Mardikh GIGIR2-II III. 8 Syria, Idlib, Syria 1986, 09 Ebla/Tell National Museum of Sollberger Ws316 TM.76.G.0541 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-E2 r. X. 17 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1986, 20 Sollberger Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of 1986, 13 + Ws317 TM.76.G.0537 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. VI. 5 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria unpublished fragment 255 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Ebla/Tell National Museum of Archi 1988, Ws318 TM.75.G.02027 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-E2 o. I. 3 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 044 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi 1988, Ws319 TM.75.G.01555 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative inventory GIGIR2-II o. III. 5 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 003 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Archi 1988, Ws320 TM.75.G.02090 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative inventory GIGIR2-SUM o. I. 2 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 080 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Milano 1990, Ws321 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 o. Ir. 10 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 41 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Milano 1990, Ws322 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative other GIGIR2 o. II. 1 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 42 o. XII. 8 o. IX. 6 o. X. TM.75.G.01939 Ebla/Tell E2×GIGIR2; National Museum of Fronzaroli Ws323 ENL 4 ED IIIb literary giš 7 o. X. + Mardikh GIGIR2-SUM Syria, Idlib, Syria 1998, 02 13 o. XI. 3;12;20 o. VII. 23 o. VIII. 13 TM.75.G.01823 Ebla/Tell giš o. VIII. 19 National Museum of Fronzaroli Ws324 ENL 4 ED IIIb literary GIGIR2-SUM + Mardikh o. IX. 3 Syria, Idlib, Syria 1998, 01 o. IX. 12 o. IX. 20 256 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell E2×GIGIR2; r. Ir. 2 National Museum of Ws325 TM.75.G.05159 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment giš Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh GIGIR2-II r. Ir. 4 Syria, Idlib, Syria 0769 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell National Museum of Ws326 TM.75.G.05254 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment E2×GIGIR2 r. III. 6 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 0831 Lahlouh & Catagnoti 2006, TM.75.G.04830 Ebla/Tell National Museum of Ws327 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-E2 o. I. 2 0498 + 0490 + Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria (part of P243735) Lahlouh & TM.75.G.04819 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws328 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. V. 9 Catagnoti 2006, + Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 0490 + 0498 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws329 TM.75.G.04951 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. I. 1 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 0602 Lahlouh & TM.75.G.05068 Ebla/Tell giš r. VIII. 3 National Museum of Ws330 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Catagnoti 2006, + Mardikh r. VIII. 5 Syria, Idlib, Syria 0699 Lahlouh & TM.75.G.05175 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws331 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. I. 2 Catagnoti 2006, (+) Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 0782 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš o. I. 3 National Museum of Ws332 TM.75.G.05177 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh o. III. 3 Syria, Idlib, Syria 0783 257 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws333 TM.75.G.05186 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. II. 5 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 0792 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws334 TM.75.G.05213 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. II. 5 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 0802 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws335 TM.75.G.05490 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II o. I. 2 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1006 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws336 TM.75.G.05979 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. VI. 2 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1373 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws337 TM.75.G.05859 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. II. 4 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1265 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell National Museum of Ws338 TM.75.G.04123 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment E2×GIGIR2 r. I. 2 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 0017 Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws339 TM.75.G.04114 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. III. 1 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 0009 r. VI. 3 r. VI. 6 Lahlouh & TM.75.G.04478 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws340 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. VI. 9 Catagnoti 2006, + Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria r. VII. 13 0309 r. VII. 15 258 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Lahlouh & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws341 TM.75.G.06020 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-SUM o. II. 2 Catagnoti 2006, Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 1405 Fronzaroli TM.75.G.04679 Ebla/Tell E2×GIGIR2; o. VIII. 2 National Museum of 2003, 14 + Ws342 ENL 4 ED IIIb literary giš + Mardikh GIGIR2-SUM o. VIII. 3 Syria, Idlib, Syria unpublished fragment o. II. 2 r. VII. 3; 7; Ebla/Tell giš 13 National Museum of Pomponio Ws343 TM.75.G.1348 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. VIII. 3; 7 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0008 r. X. 13 r. XII. 13 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws344 TM.75.G.1358 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. XI. 8 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0010 Ebla/Tell giš r. III. 13 National Museum of Pomponio Ws345 TM.75.G.1365 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. Ir. 2 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0013 Ebla/Tell giš r. IV. 11 National Museum of Pomponio Ws346 TM.75.G.1438 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. V. 6 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0021 Ebla/Tell giš r. VIII. 14 National Museum of Pomponio Ws347 TM.75.G.1440 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. IX. 1 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0022 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws348 TM.75.G.1453 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative inventory GIGIR2-II o. VIII. 8 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0024 259 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws349 TM.75.G.1364 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. III. 11 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0012 Ebla/Tell giš r. VI. 6 National Museum of Pomponio Ws350 TM.75.G.1434 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. VI. 9 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0020 o. I. 11 giš Ebla/Tell GIGIR2-II; r. XII. 9 National Museum of Pomponio Ws351 TM.75.G.1537 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment giš Mardikh GIGIR2-IV r. XII. 18 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0027 r. XII. 24 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws352 TM.75.G.1399 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. XII. 6 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0016 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws353 TM.75.G.1874 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. Ir. 14 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2008, 0039 Ebla/Tell giš r. XII. 14 National Museum of Pomponio Ws354 75.G.2246 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. XII. 18 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2013, 0048 Ebla/Tell giš r. r. 4 National Museum of Pomponio Ws355 75.G.2249 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II Mardikh r. r. 8 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2013, 0049 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws356 75.G.2423 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. VI. 8 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2013, 0050 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws357 75.G.2629 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. VI. 6 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2013, 0054 260 Catalogue: Written sources N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws358 75.G.10219 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. IX. 7 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2013, 0058 Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Pomponio Ws359 75.G.10276 ENL 4 ED IIIb administrative assignment GIGIR2-II r. XII. 2 Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2013, 0059 Catagnoti & Ebla/Tell giš o. III. 5 National Museum of Ws360 TM.75.G.10004 ENL 4 ED IIIb letter GIGIR2-SUM Fronzaroli Mardikh o. III. 11 Syria, Idlib, Syria 2010, 5 Catagnoti & Ebla/Tell giš National Museum of Ws361 TM.75.G.1583 ENL 4 ED IIIb letter GIGIR2-SUM r. I. 9 Fronzaroli Mardikh Syria, Idlib, Syria 2010, 3 o. XII. 3 TM.75.G.1822 Ebla/Tell giš o. XII. 4 National Museum of Ws362 ENL 4 ED IIIb vocabulary GIGIR2-III Civil 2008, EA + Mardikh o. XII. 5 Syria, Idlib, Syria o. XII. 6 o. XII. 3 TM.75.G.10011 Ebla/Tell giš o. XII. 4 National Museum of Ws363 ENL 4 ED IIIb vocabulary GIGIR2-III Civil 2008, EC + Mardikh o. XII. 5 Syria, Idlib, Syria o. XII. 6 l. 234 Ebla/Tell giš l. 235 National Museum of Civil 2008, Ws364 Composite text ENL 4 ED IIIb vocabulary GIGIR2-III Mardikh l. 236 Syria, Idlib, Syria 0001 l. 237 261 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Sub-type Term Attestation Location Bibliography o. 1 Facultad de Geografía e o. 2 Historia, Universidad de giš o. 3 Molina 1992, Ws365 FGH — Ur III administrative inventory GIGIR Santiago de o. 4 89, 5 Compostela, Santiago r. 1 de Compostela, Spain r. 2; r. 3 World Museum WML giš Donald 1964, Ws366 Akkadian administrative inventory GIGIR2 o. 6 Liverpool, Liverpool, 56.22.260 260 UK Nies Babylonian giš Collection, Yale MAR-GID2- Hackman 1958, Ws367 NBC 05872 Akkadian administrative inventory o. 1 Babylonian Collection, DA 127 New Haven, Connecticut, USA 262 Catalogue: Glyptic N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Context Location Bibliography Pl. Martin & Matthews 1993, 60, fig. Gl1 cat. 9 Abu Salabikh ESM/ECM 4b ED IIIb II war 29A 2 Ešnunna/Tell Gl2 cat.23 ESM/ECM 4a-b ED IIIa-b Frankfort 1955, Pl. 52, fig. 546 29B Asmar Kiš/Tell al- ESM/ECM 2 - Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Gl3 cat.11 ED I-IIIb Va war Watelin 1934, Pl. XXIV, fig. 2 29C Uhaymir ESM/ECM 4b UK Mari/Tell Bretschneider et al. 2009, 7-8, fig. Gl4 TH 00.162.1–42 ESM/ECM 4b ED IIIb Va war 29D Hariri 1 Mari/Tell Gl5 TH 00.151.1–15 ESM/ECM 4b ED IIIb Va war Bretschneider et al. 2009, 9, fig. 2 29E Hariri Ur/Tell al- Gl6 cat.1 ESM/ECM 4a-b ED IIIa-b Vb war British Museum, London, UK Woolley 1934, Pl. 196, fig. 54 30A Muqayyar Ur/Tell al- ESM/ECM 2 - Gl7 cat. 2 ED I-IIIb III war Legrain 1936, 30, Pl. 16, fig. 298 30B Muqayyar ESM/ECM 4b Gl8 cat.32 Uruk/Warka ESM/ECM 3 ED II Va Finkbeiner 1983, 29, Pl. 1, figs. a-c 30C 263 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Context Location Bibliography Pl. Southern Vorderasiatisches Museum, Gl9 cat. 15 ED IIIa-b III mythological Frankfort 1939, 79, Pl. XV, fig. n 30D Mesopotamia Berlin, Germany Nabada/Tell Va - Jans & Bretschneider, 1998, 158, Gl10 bey.1 EJZ 3b ED IIIb war - worship Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria 31A Beydar VI figs. 11-12, Pl. I Nabada/Tell Jans & Bretschneider, 1998, 159, Gl11 bey.2 EJZ 3b ED IIIb VI worship Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria 31B Beydar fig. 13, Pl. I Nabada/Tell Jans & Bretschneider, 1998, 159, Gl12 bey.3 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria 31C Beydar fig. 14, Pl. I Nabada/Tell Jans & Bretschneider, 1998, 159- Gl13 bey.4 EJZ 3b ED IIIb VI war - worship Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria 31D Beydar 160, 179, Pl. I Nabada/Tell Jans & Bretschneider, 1998, 160, Gl14 bey.5 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria 31E Beydar Pl. I Nabada/Tell Jans & Bretschneider, 1998, 160, Gl15 bey.6 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria 31F Beydar Pl. I Nabada/Tell Gl16 bey.7 EJZ 3b ED IIIb VI worship Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria Jans & Bretschneider, 1998, 179 31G Beydar 264 Catalogue: Glyptic N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Context Location Bibliography Pl. Nabada/Tell Gl17 bey.8 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria Jans & Bretschneider 1998, 180 31H Beydar Nabada/Tell Gl18 bey.52 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va worship Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria Rova 2012, Fig. 5, No. 52 32A Beydar Nabada/Tell Gl19 bey.55 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va mythological Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria Rova 2012, Fig. 5, No. 55 32B Beydar Nabada/Tell Gl20 bey.61 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va mythological Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria Rova 2012, Fig. 5, No. 61 32C Beydar Nabada/Tell Gl21 bey.62 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va mythological Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria Rova 2012, Fig. 5, No. 62 32D Beydar Nabada/Tell Gl22 bey.63 EJZ 3b ED IIIb Va mythological Der-ez-Zor Museum, Syria Rova 2012, Fig. 5, No. 63 32E Beydar Nagar/Tell Matthews et al. 1994, 193, 189, Gl23 cat.6 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va war 32F Brak fig. 1 Nagar/Tell Matthews et al. 1994, 193, 189, Gl24 cat.7 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va war 32G Brak fig.2 265 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Context Location Bibliography Pl. Nagar/Tell Matthews et al. 1994,193, 189, fig. Gl25 cat.8 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va war 32H Brak 3 Nagar/Tell Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Gl26 cat.22 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va Buchanan 1966, 57, fig. 292 32I Brak UK Nagar/Tell Gl27 cat.28 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va Matthews 1991,149-150, fig. 6 32J Brak Nagar/Tell Gl28 cat.29 EJZ 4a-b Akkadian Va Matthews 1991,152, 151, fig. 11 32K Brak Moortgat & Moortgat-Correns Gl29 cat.16 Tell Khuera EJZ 1 ED I IV hunting 33A 1976, 58-61, figs. 22 a-b Gl30 cat.37 Tell Khuera EJZ 2- EJZ 3b ED II-IIIb Moortgat 1960, 18-19, fig. 23 Upper Collection Marcel Aernout - Jans & Bretschneider, 1998, 168, Gl31 cat.13 Euphrates ED IIIa-b Vb war 33B Belgium fig. 15 Area Marcopoli Collection, Gl32 cat.31 Syria ED IIIa-b Va Teissier 1984, 198-199, fig. 347 33C Aleppo, Syria 266 Catalogue: Glyptic N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Context Location Bibliography Pl. Gl33 cat.35 Syria ED IIIa-b Teissier 1984, 198-199, fig. 348 Gl34 cat.17 Syria ED II-IIIb Vb hunting Collection Névart Jans 1993, 181-188, fig. 1 33D Va - Louvre Museum, Paris, Gl35 cat.20 Syria ED I-IIIb war - worship Collon 1987,158-159, fig. 722 33E VI France Vb - Marcopoli Collection, Gl36 cat.21 Syria ED I-IIIb worship Amiet 1961, 167, Pl. 102, fig.1353 34A VI Aleppo, Syria Pierpont Morgan Library, Gl37 cat.3 ED IIIa-b Va war Porada 1948, 17, fig. 118E 34B New York, USA Pierpont Morgan Library, Porada 1948, l7-18, Pl. XX, fig. Gl38 cat.5 ED IIIa-b Va war 34C New York, USA 119. Yale Babylonian Collection - Collection of Edward T- Von der Osten 1934, 17, Pl. V, fig. Gl39 cat.12 ED IIIa-b Vb war 34D Newell, New Haven, 41 Connecticut, USA 267 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Context Location Bibliography Pl. Yale Babylonian Collection - Collection of James B. Nies, Gl40 cat.25 ED IIIa-b Va Buchanan 1981, 130, fig. 344 35A New Haven, Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Collection - Collection of Edward T- Gl41 cat.26 ED IIIa-b Buchanan 1981, 137, fig. 363 Newell, New Haven, Connecticut, USA Yale Babylonian Collection, Gl42 cat.27 ED IIIa-b Va New Haven, Connecticut, Buchanan 1981, 141, fig. 370 USA Pierpont Morgan Library, Porada 1948, 152-153, Pl. CLXN, Gl43 cat.10 Ur III Vb war 35B New York, USA fig. 1082 Pierpont Morgan Library, Porada 1948,152-153, Pl. CLXN, Gl44 cat.19 Ur III IV hunting 35C New York, USA fig. 1081 Gl45 cat.4 ED I-IIIb IV hunting Amiet 1963, 70-7l, Pl. VI, fig. 5 35D Bretschneider & Jans 1998, pp. Marcopoli Collection, Gl46 cat.36 ED I-IIIb 155-194 Aleppo, Syria 268 Catalogue: Glyptic N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Type Context Location Bibliography Pl. Gl47 cat. 18 ED I-IIIb Karg 1984, 52, Pl. 4, fig. 6 35E Vorderasiatische Museum, Gl48 cat. 24 ED I-IIIb III Amiet 1980, 412, Pl. 92, fig. 1214 35F Berlin, Germany 269 Catalogue: “Other representations” N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Documentation Type Location Bibliography Pl. Or1 AO 16 IO9 Girsu/Telloh ESM/ECM 4b ED IIIb Stele Vb-III Louvre Museum, Paris, France Barrelet 1970, 233-258, fig. 1-4 36 VA 2902 + 2903 Vorderasiatisches Museum, Or2 Girsu/Telloh ESM/ECM 6 Ur III Stele III Borker-Klahn 1982, no. 45a 37A and 2904 Berlin, Germany ESEM 5843 + Archaeological Museum of Or3 Girsu/Telloh ESM/ECM 6 Ur III Stele IV-V Borker-Klahn 1982, no. 60 37B 5851 + 5989 Istabul, Istambul, Turkey ESEM 5808 + Archaeological Museum of Or4 Girsu/Telloh ESM/ECM 6 Ur III Stele II Borker-Klahn 1982, no. 61 37C 6150. Istabul, Istambul, Turkey Archaeological Museum of Or5 ESEM 5847 Girsu/Telloh ESM/ECM 6 Ur III Stele III Borker-Klahn 1982, no. 46 37D Istabul, Istambul, Turkey ESEM 5988 + Archaeological Museum of Or6 Girsu/Telloh ESM/ECM 6 Ur III Stele III Borker-Klahn 1982, no. 47 37E 6148. Istabul, Istambul, Turkey Kiš/Tell al- Or7 K 87 ESM/ECM 3 ED II Inlay II-Vb Watelin 1934, 32, Pl. XXIV,3 38A Uhaymir Or8 M4852 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Inlay Parrot 1969, 102, fig. 10 Aleppo Museum, Aleppo, Or9 2466 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Inlay II Parrot 1967, Pl. LXV 38B Syria 270 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Documentation Type Location Bibliography Pl. Aleppo Museum, Aleppo, Or10 2598 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Inlay II Parrot 1967, Pl. LXV 38C Syria Aleppo Museum, Aleppo, Or11 2680 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Inlay II Parrot 1967, Pl. LXV 38D Syria Aleppo Museum, Aleppo, Or12 2476 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Inlay Vb Parrot 1967, Pl. LXV Syria Aleppo Museum, Aleppo, Or13 2587-2463-2462 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Inlay Vb Parrot 1967, Pl. LXV 38E Syria Or14 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Inlay II Parrot 1956, Pl. LVI Oriental Institute Museum, Or15 N 48 Nippur ESM/ECM 3 ED II Inlay II-Vb Haines 1958, 338, fig. 15 38F Chicago, US De Mequenem 1937, 149-152, Or16 Susa/Shush ESM/ECM 3 ED II Vase V 38G fig. 1.1; 3 Or17 Ag. 36:150 Tell Agrab ESM/ECM 2 ED I Metal model IIIc Frankfort 1943, Pl. 58-60 39A Or18 318 Tell Agrab ESM/ECM 4b ED IIIa Votive plaque II Frankfort 1943, Pl. 65 39B 271 Catalogue: “Other representations” N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Documentation Type Location Bibliography Pl. Or19 327 Tell Agrab ESM/ECM 4b ED IIIa Votive plaque II Frankfort 1943, Pl. 67D 39C Or20 ME 123293 Tutub/Khafaja ESM/ECM 3 ED II Vase IV British Museum, London, UK Delougaz 1952, Pl. 62 40A Carved steatite Oriental Institute Museum, Delougaz & Lloyd 1942, 69, fig. Or21 Kh. IV 156 Tutub/Khafaja ESM/ECM 3 ED II III 40B vase Chicago, US 63 Or22 187 Tutub/Khafaja ESM/ECM 4b EDIIIb Votive plaque II Frankfort 1939a, Pl. 107 40C Or23 188 Tutub/Khafaja ESM/ECM 4b EDIIIb Votive plaque II Frankfort 1939a, Pl. 108A 40D Or24 192 Tutub/Khafaja ESM/ECM 4b EDIIIb Votive plaque II Frankfort 1939a, Pl. 109C 40E Ur/Tell al- Or25 B17086 ESM/ECM 4b ED IIIb Votive Plaque II Woolley 1955, fig. 181b 40F Muqayyar Ur/Tell al- Or26 ME 121201 ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIb Standard Vb British Museum, London, UK Woolley 1934, 266, Pl. 91-92 41/42 Muqayyar Şanliurfa Museum, Şanliurfa, Or27 No.1: A. Wagon Abamor Hoyuk Metal model VIa Kulakoğlu 2003, 64, fig. 1-3 43A Turkey 272 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Documentation Type Location Bibliography Pl. Şanliurfa Museum, Şanliurfa, Or28 No. 2: A. Wagon Abamor Hoyuk Metal model Vb Kulakoğlu 2003, 65, fig. 5-7 43A Turkey Şanliurfa Museum, Şanliurfa, Or29 No. 3: A. Wagon Abamor Hoyuk Metal model Vb Kulakoğlu 2003, 65, fig. 9-11 43A Turkey Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 103, Or30 AO 2773 Syria Metal model Vb Louvre Museum, Paris, France 43B Pl. XXXII A-E Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm, Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 103, Or31 14305 Syria Metal model Vb 43C Sweden Pl. XXXIII A-D Metropolitan Museum of Art, Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 104, Or32 66.15 Anatolia Metal model Vb 43D New York, USA Pl. XXXIV A-E Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 104, Or33 Anatolia Metal model Vb Pomerance Collection 43E Pl. XXXV A-E Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 105, Or34 358 Anatolia Metal model Vb P. Adam Collection 43F Pl. XXXVI A-B Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 105- Or35 62.678 Anatolia Metal model Vb 44A USA 106, Pl. XXXVII A-C Museum fur Vor- und KLb 1874 A- Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 106, Or36 Anatolia Metal model Vb Fruhgeschichte, Berlin, 44B C/1966 Pl. XXXVIII A-C Germany 273 Catalogue: “Other representations” N° Inventory Site Chronology Period Documentation Type Location Bibliography Pl. Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 106, Or37 IV Metal model Vb Collection Thierry 44C Pl. XLIV A Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 107, Or38 Metal model Vb Private Collection 44D Pl. XXXIX A-B Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 107, Or39 Metal model Vb Private Collection 44E Pl. XL A-B Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 107, Or40 Metal model Vb Private Collection 44F Pl. XLI A-C Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 107, Or41 Metal model Vb Private Collection 44G Pl. XLII A-B Littauer & Crouwel 1973b, 107, Or42 Metal model Vb Private Collection 44H Pl. XLIII A-B 274 Catalogue: Wheeled vehicles N° Type Site Chronology Period Location Bibliography Pl. Wv1 Vb Kiš/Tell al-Uhaymir ESM/ECM 3 ED II Watelin 19434, 30-34 45A Wv2 Vb Kiš/Tell al-Uhaymir ESM/ECM 3 ED II Watelin 19434, 30-34 Wv3 Vb Kiš/Tell al-Uhaymir ESM/ECM 3 ED II Watelin 19434, 30-34 Wv4 Vb Kiš/Tell al-Uhaymir ESM/ECM 3 ED II Watelin 19434, 30-34 Wv5 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 2 ED I Butterlin & Margueron 2006, 319-323, fig. 6 45B Wv6 Mari/Tell Hariri ESM/ECM 2 ED I Butterlin & Margueron 2006, 319-323, fig. 3-4 Wv7 Vb Susa/Shush ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa De Mecquenem 1943, 122. 45C Wv8 Vb Ur/Tell al-Muqayyar ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Woolley 1934, 106, Pl. 62. 46A Wv9 Vb Ur/Tell al-Muqayyar ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Woolley 1934, 64-65, Pl. 33A. 46B 275 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Type Site Chronology Period Location Bibliography Pl. Wv10 Vb Ur/Tell al-Muqayyar ESM/ECM 4a ED IIIa Woolley 1934, 64-65, Pl. 33B. 46C 276 INDEX OF WHEELED VEHICLE QUOTATIONS IN THE ADMINISTRATIVE TEXTS Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment for 1 1 14 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian VIII 10 cloths (bar-dul5) cart/wagon for 1 ra-i3-si-in 2 11 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian XII 5 cloths (bar-dul5) cart/wagon šagina for 2 3 10 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian 1 (BARIG) bitumen carts/wagons for cloth of 4 4 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian 1 ox hide cart/wagon Ešnunna/Tell for 1 5 18 Akkadian 4 (GIN2) metal object (?) Asmar cart/wagon Š45, for 6 56 Girsu/Telloh Ur III uncertain 46, 47 cart/wagon for me-al-tum 7 35 Girsu/Telloh Ur III IX AS1 4 (MA-NA) wool; 2 (MA-NA) woven wool cart/wagon nin-dingir for me-al-tum 8 58 Girsu/Telloh Ur III IX AS1 4 (MA-NA) wool; 2 (MA-NA) woven wool cart/wagon nin-dingir for giš 2 heavy cloths; 1 felt; 2 harnesses in wool 9 46 Girsu/Telloh Ur III VIII AS7 gigir e2-kas4 cart/wagon goat; 1 rear part 277 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment for d 10 43 Girsu/Telloh Ur III ŠS2 nin-gir2-su 6 ox hides; 1 sheep hide cart/wagon for d 11 43 Girsu/Telloh Ur III ŠS2 ba-ba6 2 ox hides; 30 sheep hides cart/wagon for seat of 12 43 Girsu/Telloh Ur III ŠS2 ensi2 ki-a-nag 2 ox hides; 1 sheep hide cart/wagon for 13 40 Girsu/Telloh Ur III V ŠS3 ensi2 ki ur-gu2-en-na-ta 2 heavy cloths cart/wagon for 14 55 Girsu/Telloh Ur III VIII sukkal-mah 1/2 (SILA3) oil cart/wagon for 15 37 Girsu/Telloh Ur III 2 XI sukkal 1/2 (SILA3) sheep fat cart/wagon for d 16 61 Girsu/Telloh Ur III nin-gir2-su 30 (MA-NA) wool cart/wagon for parts of 17 59 Girsu/Telloh Ur III copper objects cart/wagon for 18 54 Girsu/Telloh Ur III e2-kas4 1 (SILA3) fat cart/wagon 278 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment for 19 48 Girsu/Telloh Ur III 1 sukkal-mah 1/2 (SILA3) sheep fat cart/wagon for d 20 41 Girsu/Telloh Ur III ba-ba6 4 (SILA3) oil cart/wagon for d 21 47 Girsu/Telloh Ur III gu3-de2-a metal, bronze cart/wagon Umma/Tell for d 22 229 Ur III VIII Š33 šara2 2 (SILA3) oil Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for 23 132 Ur III VIII Š39 ensi2 1/2 ox hide Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for 24 132 Ur III VIII Š39 a-kal-la 1/2 ox hide Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for wheels of 25 160 Ur III III Š46 ensi2 2 (SILA3) bitumen Jokha cart/wagon for arched Umma/Tell 26 202 Ur III V Š48 pole (?) of ensi2 1 urudamu-gid2-keš2 Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for 27 245 Ur III XII AS1 1 (MA-NA) bundle; 1/2 (MA-NA) copper Jokha cart/wagon 279 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment for heavy Umma/Tell 28 181 Ur III AS1 cloth of a-kal-la 1 (MA-NA) wool Jokha cart/wagon 1/2 ox hide red dye; 10 bundles of ox hide; Umma/Tell for ur-lugal lu2 29 172 Ur III AS3 zi-gum-ma-ke4 3 sheeps skins tanned with sumac; 10 Jokha cart/wagon kin-gi4-a lugal (GIN2) glue Umma/Tell for 30 121 Ur III IX AS5 dam ensi2 2 conteiners Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for 31 121 Ur III IX AS5 a-kal-la 2 conteiners Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for 32 154 Ur III AS8 lu2 kin-gi4-a zi-gum 1/2 ox hide red dye; 2 workers (1 day) Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for 33 154 Ur III AS8 zi-gum 4 silim hides Jokha cart/wagon for heavy Umma/Tell 34 193 Ur III AS8 cloth of ensi2 1 (MA-NA) wool Jokha cart/wagon for heavy Umma/Tell 35 242 Ur III AS8 cloth of ensi2 1 (MA-NA) wool Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for ur-dištaran lu2 1/2 ox hide red dye; 3 sheep skins tanned 36 230 Ur III III AS9 Jokha cart/wagon kin-gi4-a lugal with sumac 280 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Umma/Tell for wheels of 37 246 Ur III IX AS9 ensi2 2/3 (MA-NA) glue Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for d 38 166 Ur III AS9 šul-gi uncertain Jokha cart/wagon 1 1/2 ox hide; 20 white sheep hides; 5 Umma/Tell for 39 243 Ur III AS9 (MA-NA) bundles; 10 (MA-NA) glue; 1 Jokha cart/wagon tanner (25 days) pu3.ša-eš18-dar Umma/Tell for 1/3 ox hide red dye; 2 sheep hides; 15 40 232 Ur III V ŠS1 lu2 kin-gi4-a zi-gu5-um-ke4 Jokha cart/wagon (GIN2) glue; 3 tanners (1 day) lugal Umma/Tell for ur-dba-ba6 lu2 1/3 ox hide red dye; 1 sheep hide; 10 41 247 Ur III VIII ŠS1 Jokha cart/wagon kin-gi4-a e2-gal (GIN2) glue; 1 tanner (1 day) 1/3 ox hide red dye; 1 white sheep hide; 1 Umma/Tell for ur-dnin-šubur- 42 247 Ur III VIII ŠS1 black sheep hide; 10 (GIN2) glue; 1 tanner Jokha cart/wagon ka dumu lugal (1 day) Umma/Tell for 43 247 Ur III VIII ŠS1 1/3 bull hide; 1 sheep hide; 10 (GIN2) glue Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for 44 234 Ur III XII ŠS1 1 (MA-NA) glue Jokha cart/wagon 281 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Umma/Tell for d 45 219 Ur III ŠS1 šara2 2 (MA-NA) glue Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for ra-ši-be-li2 lu2 1/3 ox hide red dye; 1 sheep hide; 15 46 165 Ur III I ŠS2 zi-gu5-um Jokha cart/wagon kin-gi4-a lugal (GIN2) glue; 1 tanner (1 day) Umma/Tell for d 1/3 ox hide red dye; 1 sheep hide; 10 47 165 Ur III I ŠS2 šul-gi Jokha cart/wagon (GIN2) glue; 1 tanner (1 day) šar-ru-um-i3-li2 Umma/Tell for 1/2 ox hidered dye; 1/3 sheep hide; 25 48 189 Ur III II ŠS2 lu2 kin-gi4-a zi-gu5-um-ke4 Jokha cart/wagon (GIN2) glue; 1 tanners (3 day) lugal Umma/Tell for ur-ab-zu lu2 1/2 ox hide red dye; 1 sheep hide; 10 49 159 Ur III II ŠS2 zi-gu5-um-ma-ke4 Jokha cart/wagon kin-gi4-a lugal (GIN2) glue; 2 tanners (1 day) 1/2 ox hide red dye; 1 white sheep hide; 1 Umma/Tell for 50 163 Ur III III ŠS2 lu2 kin-gi4-a black sheep hide; 15 (GIN2) glue; 2 tanners Jokha cart/wagon (1 day) 1/2 ox hide red dye; 2 sheep skins tanned Umma/Tell for a-a-kal-la zi- with sumac; 2 goat skins tanned with 51 192 Ur III IV ŠS2 zi-gu5-um Jokha cart/wagon gu5-um sumac; 10 (GIN2) bundle; 1/3 (MA-NA) glue; 1 worker (5 days) 282 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Umma/Tell for lu2 kin-gi4-a 52 190 Ur III VIII ŠS2 zi-gu5-um 1/3 ox hide red dye Jokha cart/wagon lugal 1/2 ox hide red dye; 2 sheep skins tanned Umma/Tell for šeš-kal-la lu2 53 228 Ur III VIII ŠS2 zi-gu5-um with sumac; 10 (GIN2) glue; 2 tanners (15 Jokha cart/wagon kin-gi4-a lugal days) 1/2 ox hide red dye; 2 sheep skins tanned Umma/Tell for du-u2-du lu2 54 239 Ur III VIII ŠS2 zi-gu5-um with sumac; 1 (GIN2) glue; 2 tanners (1 Jokha cart/wagon kin-gi4-a lugal day) Umma/Tell for 55 133 Ur III ŠS2 ensi2 1 (BAN2) 6 (SILA3) bitumen Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for anzu2muszen 56 168 Ur III ŠS2 1 ox hide Jokha cart/wagon babbar2 an-na-hi-li-bi 1/3 ox hide red dye; 1 ox hide bundle; 2 Umma/Tell for 57 116 Ur III ŠS3 lu2 kin-gi4-a zi-gum-ma-ke4 sheep skins tanned with sumac; 10 (GIN2) Jokha cart/wagon lugal glue d en-lil2-eb2-gu- 1/2 ox hide red dye; 1 ox hide bundle; 3 Umma/Tell for 58 120 Ur III ŠS3 ul lu2 kin-gi4-a zi-gum-ma-ke4 sheep skins tanned with sumac; 10 (GIN2) Jokha cart/wagon lugal glue 283 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Umma/Tell for 1/2 ox hide; 2 sheep hides; 5 (GIN2) glue; 2 59 210 Ur III ŠS4 lu2 kin-gi4-a Jokha cart/wagon workers (2 days) Umma/Tell for 2/3 ox hide; 2 sheep hides; (?) glue; (?) 60 210 Ur III ŠS4 lu2 kin-gi4-a Jokha cart/wagon worker (1 day) Umma/Tell for 1/3 ox hide; 1 sheep hide; (?) glue; 2 61 210 Ur III ŠS4 lu2 kin-gi4-a Jokha cart/wagon workers (3 days) Umma/Tell for 1/2 ox hide; 2 goat hides; (?) glue; 2 62 210 Ur III ŠS4 lu2 kin-gi4-a Jokha cart/wagon workers (4 day) Umma/Tell for 1/2 ox hide; 2 sheep hides; 2 goat hides; 10 63 210 Ur III ŠS4 lu2 kin-gi4-a Jokha cart/wagon (GIN2) glue; 2 workers (1 day) 1/3 ox hide; 2 sheep hides; 2 goat hides; 10 Umma/Tell for 64 210 Ur III ŠS4 lu2 kin-gi4-a (GIN2) bundle; 1/3 (MA-NA) glue; 2 Jokha cart/wagon workers (2 days) Umma/Tell for 65 126 Ur III 30 XII ŠS5 1 (SILA3) oil Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for nu-ur2-esz18- 2/3 ox hide red dye; 3 sheep skins tanned 66 213 Ur III ŠS5 Jokha cart/wagon dar sukkal with sumac Umma/Tell for 67 236 Ur III 16 III ŠS6 1/3 ox hide; 1 goat hide Jokha cart/wagon 284 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Umma/Tell for 5/6 ox hide red dye; 3 sheep hides; 1/3 68 127 Ur III 30 I IS1 Jokha cart/wagon (SILA3) fat Umma/Tell for 1/3 ox hide; 2 goat hides; 2/3 (SILA3) oil; 69 221 Ur III III IS1 zi-gum2-ke4 Jokha cart/wagon 10 containers Umma/Tell for 70 223 Ur III IS2 4 ox hides Jokha cart/wagon Umma/Tell for 7 skins tanned with sumac; 1/2 (MA-NA) 71 161 Ur III VIII a-kal-la Jokha cart/wagon glue; 1 worker (5 days) Umma/Tell for d 6 ox hides; 4 sheep hides; 6 goat hides; 1 72 253 Ur III VIII šul-gi Jokha cart/wagon worker (30 days); 1 worker (15 days) Umma/Tell for 2/3 ox hide; 3 goat hides; 1 (SILA3) oil; 20 73 222 Ur III zi-gum2-ke4 Jokha cart/wagon containers; 7 workers (1 day) Umma/Tell for 74 238 Ur III uncertain Jokha cart/wagon for heavy Ur/Tell al- 75 262 Ur III XII IS15 cloths of lugal 1 felt Muqayyar cart/wagon for heavy Ur/Tell al- 76 261 Ur III I-XII IS15 cloths of lugal 1 felt Muqayyar cart/wagon 285 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell 78 344 ED IIIb I for carts dur-du-lum 5 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 4 (KIN) superior quality wool; 2 wool of 79 352 ED IIIb I for carts ar-ru12-lum Mardikh inferior quality Ebla/Tell 2 (KIN) wool carded; 4 (KIN) inferior 80 345 ED IIIb II for carts ar-ru12-lum Mardikh quality wool Ebla/Tell 81 345 ED IIIb II for carts iš-da-ma2 1 (KIN) wool; 4 (KIN) inferior quality wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 82 346 ED IIIb II for 1 cart du-bi2-šum 3 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 83 346 ED IIIb II for 10 carts 40 (KIN) superior quality wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 84 350 ED IIIb VII for 1 cart ar-ru12-lum 6 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 85 350 ED IIIb VII for 1 cart en-na-be 6 (KIN) wool Mardikh for 2 bands of Ebla/Tell 86 292 ED IIIb VII 2 covered 1 (KIN) wool Mardikh wagons 286 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell for 4 pairs of 87 351 ED IIIb VIII uncertain Mardikh 2 carts Ebla/Tell 88 351 ED IIIb VIII for carts en 6 (KIN) superior quality wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 89 351 ED IIIb VIII for 1 cart šeš-2-eb 3 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 90 351 ED IIIb VIII for 1 cart ir3-ba (peš) 1 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell for halters of 91 349 ED IIIb XI en-ka-ga 2 (KIN) wool Mardikh 2 carts Ebla/Tell 2 (KIN) wool; 4 (KIN) superior quality 92 343 ED IIIb XII for 1 cart Mardikh wool for bite and 2 Ebla/Tell 93 343 ED IIIb XII reins of 2 ar-ru12-lum 2 (KIN) superior quality wool Mardikh carts Ebla/Tell 2 (KIN) wool; 4 (KIN) superior quality 94 343 ED IIIb XII for 1 cart sag-da-mu Mardikh wool Ebla/Tell 4 (KIN) wool; 8 (KIN) superior quality 95 343 ED IIIb XII for 2 carts Mardikh wool 287 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell 7 (KIN) wool; 25 (KIN) black and white 96 343 ED IIIb XII for 8 carts Mardikh wool Ebla/Tell 97 343 ED IIIb XII for 1 cart ne-lum 5 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 98 343 ED IIIb XII for carts en 20 (KIN) superior quality wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 3 1/2 (KIN) superior quality wool; 1 (KIN) 99 347 ED IIIb XII for 1 cart À-da Mardikh inferior quality wool Ebla/Tell 2 (KIN) superior quality wool; 4 (KIN) 100 347 ED IIIb XII for 1 cart du-bi2-šum Mardikh inferior quality wool for 2 Ebla/Tell 101 325 ED IIIb harnesses and (?) (KIN) wool Mardikh 2 ropes for 2 Ebla/Tell 102 325 ED IIIb harnesses and (?) (KIN) wool Mardikh 2 ropes Ebla/Tell for 1 covered 103 326 ED IIIb 10 (KIN) wool Mardikh wagon Ebla/Tell for 1 covered 104 327 ED IIIb en uncertain Mardikh wagon 288 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment for 2 Ebla/Tell harnesses, 1 105 328 ED IIIb ri2-i3-ma-lik 1 (KIN) wool Mardikh rope and 1 cart Ebla/Tell for wheel of 106 329 ED IIIb uncertain Mardikh cart Ebla/Tell 107 330 ED IIIb for 1 cart i-ti-ᵈi3-lam 2 (KIN) wool; 1 felt Mardikh Ebla/Tell 108 330 ED IIIb for 1 cart i-ti-ᵈi3-lam 1 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell for wheel of [l]u2 [i-b]í-[zi- 109 331 ED IIIb (?) gold Mardikh cart ]kir Ebla/Tell for wheel of 110 332 ED IIIb 7(?) gold Mardikh cart Ebla/Tell for wheel of 111 332 ED IIIb 9 (TAR) gold Mardikh cart Ebla/Tell 112 333 ED IIIb for 1 cart 4 zi-kir-ra-tum; 3 zu-zu-ba-tum Mardikh Ebla/Tell 113 334 ED IIIb for 2 carts en 8 (KIN) wool Mardikh 289 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell 114 335 ED IIIb for 1 cart uncertain Mardikh Ebla/Tell 115 336 ED IIIb for 1 cart uncertain Mardikh Ebla/Tell for covered 116 307 ED IIIb be-su3-lux 6 (KIN) wool Mardikh wagons Ebla/Tell 117 307 ED IIIb for 1 cart a-mur-da-mu 1 (KIN) wool Mardikh for bands of Ebla/Tell 118 308 ED IIIb covered 8 (KIN) wool Mardikh wagons for bands of Ebla/Tell 119 308 ED IIIb covered en 3 (KIN) wool Mardikh wagons for harnesses Ebla/Tell 120 338 ED IIIb of covered uncertain Mardikh wagons Ebla/Tell for 1 covered 121 315 ED IIIb ma-lik-tum 1 linen cloth Mardikh wagon Ebla/Tell 122 315 ED IIIb for 1 cart i-bi2-zi-kir 1 linen cloth mug Mardikh 290 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell for covered 123 316 ED IIIb 30 (KIN) wool Mardikh wagons Ebla/Tell for 10 felts of 124 283 ED IIIb 10 (KIN) wool Mardikh cart Ebla/Tell 125 287 ED IIIb for 1 cart i-bi2-zi-kir du-du-lu 4 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 126 295 ED IIIb for 1 cart ib-ri2-um 4 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 127 296 ED IIIb for 1 cart a-šum uncertain Mardikh Ebla/Tell 128 296 ED IIIb for 1 cart ib-ri2-um 5 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 129 297 ED IIIb for 1 cart ib-ri2-um uncertain Mardikh for 1 bite and Ebla/Tell 130 298 ED IIIb 2 buckles of en du-lu 1 (KIN) wool Mardikh cart Ebla/Tell 131 299 ED IIIb for 2 carts en uncertain Mardikh 291 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell for part of 132 300 ED IIIb en i3-la-ar 5 (GIN2) tin Mardikh cart Ebla/Tell for 2 wheels 133 301 ED IIIb 1 (TAR) gold Mardikh of cart for 1 bite and Ebla/Tell 134 302 ED IIIb 2 buckles of i-nu-ud-da-mu kak-mi-um 1 (KIN) wool Mardikh cart Ebla/Tell 135 303 ED IIIb for 5 carts be-su3-lux 5 (KIN) wool nu-za-a-tum Mardikh for 1 bite and Ebla/Tell 136 304 ED IIIb 2 buckles of uncertain Mardikh cart Ebla/Tell 137 309 ED IIIb for 1 cart en 4 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 138 311 ED IIIb for 1 cart i-bi2-zi-kir 1 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 2 1/2 (KIN) superior quality wool; 4 (KIN) 139 312 ED IIIb for 1 cart en-na-ni Mardikh inferior quality wool Ebla/Tell 140 313 ED IIIb for 2 carts en 8 1/2 (KIN) wool Mardikh 292 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell 141 314 ED IIIb for 1 cart ʾa3-gu-lum (ugula) sa-zaki 3 (KIN) wool si-lu-ur4 Mardikh Ebla/Tell 142 314 ED IIIb for 1 cart en 1 (KIN) quick wool; 2 (KIN) si-lu-ur4 Mardikh for 2 wheels Ebla/Tell 143 317 ED IIIb and 1 right 4 (TAR) 1 (GIN2) gold Mardikh side of cart Ebla/Tell 144 339 ED IIIb for 1 cart uncertain Mardikh Ebla/Tell 145 340 ED IIIb for 6 carts uncertain Mardikh Ebla/Tell 146 340 ED IIIb for 1 cart in-da-mu 5 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 147 340 ED IIIb for 1 cart ir3-am-da-mu 5 (KIN) wool Mardikh for cloths, Ebla/Tell halters and 148 340 ED IIIb en 2 (KIN) wool Mardikh harnesses of cart Ebla/Tell 149 340 ED IIIb for 1 cart iš-da-ma2 5 (KIN) wool Mardikh 293 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell 150 284 ED IIIb for carts 3 (KIN) wool fleece; 1 cloth Mardikh Ebla/Tell for seats of 151 288 ED IIIb en 1 (KIN) wool; 1 ball of wool Mardikh wagons Ebla/Tell 152 341 ED IIIb for wagon uncertain Mardikh Ebla/Tell for container 153 285 ED IIIb 13 (KIN) wool Mardikh of wagon Ebla/Tell for container 154 285 ED IIIb 43 (KIN) wool Mardikh of wagon Ebla/Tell 2 (KIN) superior quality wool; 4 (KIN) 155 354 ED IIIb for 1 cart ku-tu Mardikh inferior quality wool Ebla/Tell 156 354 ED IIIb for 1 cart ha-mar-aš-da 5 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 2 (KIN) superior quality wool; 4 (KIN) 157 355 ED IIIb for 1 cart ar-ru12-lum Mardikh inferior quality wool Ebla/Tell 2 (KIN) superior quality wool; 4 (KIN) 158 355 ED IIIb for 1 cart en-na-be Mardikh inferior quality wool 294 Administrative texts: Assignment N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell 159 356 ED IIIb for 1 cart iš-da-ma2 5 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 160 357 ED IIIb for 1 cart du-bi2-zi-kir 3 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 161 358 ED IIIb for 10 carts 50 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell 162 359 ED IIIb for 1 cart 4 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell for 4 wheels 163 286 ED IIIb lu2 nig2-ba 5 (NI) gold Mardikh of 2 carts for 6 pair of Ebla/Tell 164 318 ED IIIb covered 16 (GIN2) gold Mardikh wagon Ebla/Tell 165 294 ED IIIb for 2 carts ma-ri2{ki} 6 (KIN) wool Mardikh Ebla/Tell for side of 166 305 ED IIIb na-gar3{ki} 2 (MA-NA) 20 (?) silver Mardikh wagon Ebla/Tell for 167 291 ED IIIb íl-zi 3 bands Mardikh cart/wagon 295 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Type Person God Structure/place Assignment Ebla/Tell for 2 covered du-si-gu2, ra- 168 293 ED IIIb 4 buckles Mardikh wagons u3-dum Ebla/Tell 169 310 ED IIIb for cart i-bi2-zi-kir 1 linen cloth Mardikh Ebla/Tell 170 310 ED IIIb for cart i-bi2-zi-kir 1 linen cloth Mardikh for 4 Ebla/Tell 171 337 ED IIIb harnesses of 2 en (?) (KIN) wool Mardikh carts Ebla/Tell 172 353 ED IIIb for cart mu-ri2 4 (KIN) wool Mardikh 296 Administrative texts: Inventory N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value 1 2 Adab/Bismaya ED IIIb inventory 1 (cart/wagon) 2 3 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian inventory 1 (cart/wagon) 3 8 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian inventory 1 (cart/wagon) ur-ddumu- 3 (BARIGA) 4 5 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian payment 2 (cart/wagon) zi-da barley dam-gar3- 5 9 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian payment 1 (cart/wagon) 11 (?) barley kam lu2-dašgigi4- 2 (BARIGA) 5 6 9 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian payment 1 (cart/wagon) kam (?) barley 7 9 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian payment e2-an-ne2 1 (cart/wagon) 8 9 Adab/Bismaya Akkadian payment 1 (cart/wagon) Ešnunna/Tell 9 17 Akkadian inventory dingir-bala 1 (cart/wagon) Asmar 297 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value lugal- 10 25 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb inventory lagaš 1 (cart/wagon) ušumgal 11 33 Girsu/Telloh Akkadian inventory 5 (wagons) inventory e2- 12 42 Girsu/Telloh Ur III VII AS2 1 (cart/wagon) du6-la inventory e2- 13 42 Girsu/Telloh Ur III VII AS2 1 (cart/wagon) du6-la 6 wheel parts; 1 14 76 Girsu/Telloh Ur III VIII AS7 inventory e2-kišib3 ga-gid2 2 transversal 15 49 Girsu/Telloh Ur III AS7 inventory beams 16 44 Girsu/Telloh Ur III inventory 2 (carts/wagons) 17 44 Girsu/Telloh Ur III inventory 1 (cart/wagon) inventory 18 60 Girsu/Telloh Ur III 3 (carts/wagons) e2-du6-la 298 Administrative texts: Inventory N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value uruda 1 mur-gu4; 1 19 69 Girsu/Telloh Ur III inventory small ring inventory nig2- 20 75 Girsu/Telloh Ur III 1 (wagon) ga 21 66 Girsu/Telloh Ur III inventory 1 urudašu2 har-ra-an weight 15 (GIN2) inventory, goods lugal- 22 84 nippur Akkadian 1 (cart/wagon) ka-e-geš-tuku to his heirs inventory, goods lugal- 23 84 nippur Akkadian 1 (cart/wagon) ka-e-geš-tuku to his heirs inventory, goods lugal- 24 85 nippur Akkadian 1 (cart/wagon) ka-e-geš-tuku to his heirs 299 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value inventory, goods lugal- 25 85 nippur Akkadian 1 (cart/wagon) ka-e-geš-tuku to his heirs Puzriš-Dagan/ 2 bronze parts of 26 92 Ur III XI Š44 inventory Drehem cart/wagon Puzriš-Dagan/ 12 wheels; 2 27 93 Ur III XII AS3 inventory e2-a gal2-la 2 (wagons) Drehem central pivots Puzriš-Dagan/ d 28 93 Ur III XII AS3 inventory suen e2-a gal2-la 1 (wagon) Drehem Šuruppak/Tell 29 94 ED IIIa inventory har-tu-dsud3 1 (cart/wagon) Fara Šuruppak/Tell 30 96 ED IIIa inventory sanga-gar 1 (cart/wagon) Fara 31 105 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian inventory 1 (cart/wagon) 32 106 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian inventory u2-da-tum 1 (cart/wagon) 300 Administrative texts: Inventory N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value 33 106 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian inventory a-hu-du10 1 (cart/wagon) 34 106 Tutub/Khafaja Akkadian inventory zu-zu 1 (cart/wagon) Umma/Tell gift for the 35 110 Akkadian 2 (carts/wagons) Jokha king Umma/Tell inventory 36 119 Ur III I Š45 1 (cart/wagon) Jokha e2-du6-la Umma/Tell 37 151 Ur III IX AS2 inventory 2 (carts/wagons) Jokha Umma/Tell 38 244 Ur III AS7 inventory 1 (cart/wagon) Jokha Umma/Tell 39 170 Ur III ŠS2 inventory ensi2 2 (carts/wagons) Jokha Umma/Tell 40 180 Ur III IS1 inventory a-kal-la 1 (cart/wagon) Jokha Umma/Tell expenditure for 41 158 Ur III d 1 (cart/wagon) Jokha Šara2 301 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value Umma/Tell expenditure for 42 158 Ur III d 1 (cart/wagon) Jokha Šara2 Umma/Tell d 43 254 Ur III inventory šara2 3 (wagons) Jokha Ur/Tell al- 44 257 Ur III inventory 8 wheels Muqayyar Ur/Tell al- 45 257 Ur III inventory 2 (carts/wagons) 2 wheels Muqayyar Ur/Tell al- 46 260 Ur III inventory e2-kišib3 1 (cart/wagon) Muqayyar Ur/Tell al- 1 wheel; (?) 47 267 Ur III inventory Muqayyar cart/wagon parts Gasur/Yorghan 48 270 Akkadian inventory šu-i3-li2-su 1 (cart/wagon) Tepe Gasur/Yorghan bu-ka3-x 49 270 Akkadian inventory 1 (cart/wagon) Tepe dumu zu-zu Gasur/Yorghan 50 272 Akkadian inventory 2 (carts/wagons) Tepe 302 Administrative texts: Inventory N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value Gasur/Yorghan 51 274 Akkadian inventory 2 (carts/wagons) Tepe Gasur/Yorghan 52 273 Akkadian inventory tu-tu (?) (cart/wagon) Tepe Gasur/Yorghan 10 53 273 Akkadian inventory šu-i3-li2-su Tepe (carts/wagons) Gasur/Yorghan 54 275 Akkadian inventory 1 (cart/wagon) Tepe 4 studs; 2 Ebla/Tell gift for king's 55 348 ED IIIb V harnesses zi-ki-ra- 12 (GIN2) gold Mardikh son tum of cart Ebla/Tell gift for king of 56 319 ED IIIb 1 (cart) 1 (GIN2) gold Mardikh Mari Ebla/Tell 57 289 ED IIIb inventory e2 i3r-mu-ut 3 (wagons) Mardikh Ebla/Tell 58 290 ED IIIb inventory e2 nagar 2 (carts) Mardikh Ebla/Tell 59 320 ED IIIb expenditure 1 (wagon) 6 (GIN2) silver Mardikh 303 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value Ebla/Tell 400 (MA-NA) 60 306 ED IIIb expenditure ša-nam-gi-nu 2 (wagon) Mardikh copper 61 366 Akkadian inventory 1 (cart/wagon) 62 367 Akkadian inventory e2 ha-lu-ub2 1 (wagon) 12 63 365 Ur III inventory lugal e2-a gal2-la (carts/wagons) 64 365 Ur III inventory lugal e2-a gal2-la 6 (carts/wagons) 45 65 365 Ur III inventory e2-a gal2-la (carts/wagons) 66 365 Ur III inventory e2-a gal2-la 6 (carts/wagons) 67 365 Ur III inventory nin e2-a gal2-la 4 (carts/wagons) 17 68 365 Ur III inventory e2-a gal2-la (carts/wagons) 304 Administrative texts: Inventory N° Ws Site Period Month Year Recording Person God Structure/place Type Components Value 69 365 Ur III inventory e2-a gal2-la 1 (cart/wagon) 305 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings 1 23 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu1 1 goat 2 24 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu2 10 breads; 1 (BARIGA) barley; 1 (BARIGA) emmer 3 21 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu3 1 goat 4 19 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu3 1 goat 5 19 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu3 1 goat 6 19 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu3 1 goat; 1 sheep 10 bread baskets; 1 pot of good beer; 1 pot of dark beer; 1 (BARIGA) barley; 1 (BARIGA) emmer; 1 (SILA3) 7 20 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu3 oil; 1 (SILA3) date; 1 (SILA3) wine; cheese; emmer; 1 goat 10 bread baskets; 1 pot of good beer; 1 pot of dark beer; 1 (BARIGA) barley; 1 (BARIGA) emmer; 1 (SILA3) 8 22 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu6 oil; 1 (SILA3) date; 1 (SILA3) wine; cheese; emmer; 1 goat 306 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings 10 bread baskets; 1 pot of good beer; 1 pot of dark beer; 1 (BARIGA) barley; 1 (BARIGA) emmer; 1 (SILA3) 9 22 Girsu/Telloh ED IIIb Lu6 oil; 1 (SILA3) date; 1 (SILA3) wine; cheese; emmer; 1 goat 10 30 Girsu/Telloh Akkadian 1 lamb 11 31 Girsu/Telloh Akkadian 1 lamb 12 32 Girsu/Telloh Akkadian 1 lamb 13 67 Girsu/Telloh Ur III ŠS6 (?) oil; 2 (BAN2) beer d 14 36 Girsu/Telloh Ur III IS1 nin-geš-zi-da 1 goat 15 70 Girsu/Telloh Ur III XII IS2 1 lamb 16 71 Girsu/Telloh Ur III 1 sheep d 17 72 Girsu/Telloh Ur III nin-gir2-su 2 breads; 2 (BAN2) beer 307 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings 18 45 Girsu/Telloh Ur III 2 (SILA3) 19 63 Girsu/Telloh Ur III 1 goat Puzriš-Dagan/ 20 91 Ur III II Š 47 1 goat Drehem Puzriš-Dagan/ 21 89 Ur III VI AS 1 1 goat Drehem Puzriš-Dagan/ 22 90 Ur III III AS 7 lugal 1 grain-fed sheep Drehem Puzriš-Dagan/ 23 87 Ur III II 1 goat Drehem Puzriš-Dagan/ 24 88 Ur III II 1 goat Drehem Umma/Tell 25 209 Ur III II Š27 1 (BARIGA) barley Jokha Umma/Tell 26 155 Ur III Š34 9 (BAN2) 5 (SILA3) barley for beer Jokha 308 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 27 240 Ur III 6 VII Š37 5 (SILA3) fine flour; 5 (SILA3) semolina Jokha Umma/Tell 28 201 Ur III Š37 9 (BAN2) 5 (SILA3) barley for beer Jokha Umma/Tell 29 117 Ur III IX Š41 8 (?) barley Jokha Umma/Tell 30 185 Ur III 6 I AS5 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 31 185 Ur III 7 I AS5 1 lamb; 2 grain-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 32 143 Ur III 7 I AS5 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 33 112 Ur III 7 II AS5 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 34 203 Ur III 6 III AS5 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 35 203 Ur III 7 III AS5 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha 309 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 36 169 Ur III 7 IV AS5 3 goats; 1 grain-fed sheep; 2 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 37 187 Ur III 6 VII AS5 3 goats; 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 38 187 Ur III 6 VII AS5 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 39 187 Ur III 7 VII AS5 3 goats; 1 grain-fed sheep; 2 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 40 187 Ur III 7 VII AS5 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 41 194 Ur III 6 VIII AS5 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 3 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 42 194 Ur III 6 VIII AS5 1 goat; 1 large fattened goat Jokha Umma/Tell 43 194 Ur III 7 VIII AS5 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 44 194 Ur III 7 VIII AS5 2 large fattened goats; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha 310 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 45 194 Ur III 7 VIII AS5 1 large fattened goat Jokha Umma/Tell 46 194 Ur III VIII AS5 1 sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 47 149 Ur III 6 IX AS5 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 48 149 Ur III 6 IX AS5 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 49 149 Ur III 6 IX AS5 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 50 141 Ur III 7 IX AS5 1 grain-fed sheep; 5 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 51 141 Ur III 7 IX AS5 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 52 141 Ur III 7 IX AS5 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 53 141 Ur III 7 IX AS5 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha 311 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 54 124 Ur III 6 X AS5 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 55 124 Ur III 7 X AS5 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 56 144 Ur III 6 XII AS5 2 goats; 1 grain-fed sheep; 2 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 57 156 Ur III 6 XII AS5 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 58 144 Ur III 7 XII AS5 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 59 156 Ur III 7 XII AS5 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 60 182 Ur III 7 XII AS5 1 large goat Jokha Umma/Tell d 61 191 Ur III AS5 šara2 1/3 (SILA3) ghee Jokha Umma/Tell 62 188 Ur III 6 I AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha 312 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 63 188 Ur III 7 I AS6 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 64 188 Ur III 7 I AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 65 183 Ur III I AS6 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 66 183 Ur III I AS6 1 goat Jokha Umma/Tell 67 205 Ur III 6 II AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 68 212 Ur III 6 II AS6 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 3 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 69 205 Ur III 7 II AS6 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 70 205 Ur III 7 II AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 71 212 Ur III 7 II AS6 1 lamb; 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha 313 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 72 136 Ur III 6 III AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 73 205 Ur III 6 III AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 74 235 Ur III IV AS6 1 goat Jokha Umma/Tell 75 235 Ur III IV AS6 1 lamb Jokha Umma/Tell 76 152 Ur III 6 V AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 77 152 Ur III 6 V AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 78 152 Ur III 7 V AS6 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 79 152 Ur III 7 V AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 80 137 Ur III 6 VII AS6 1 fat sheep; 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha 314 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 81 137 Ur III 7 VII AS6 1 fat sheep; 2 grain-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 82 186 Ur III 6 IX AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 83 186 Ur III 7 IX AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 84 146 Ur III 6 X AS6 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 85 146 Ur III 6 X AS6 1 fat goat Jokha Umma/Tell 86 146 Ur III 7 X AS6 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 87 146 Ur III 7 X AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 88 195 Ur III 6 XI AS6 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 3 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 89 195 Ur III 7 XI AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 5 grass-fed sheeps Jokha 315 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 90 125 Ur III 6 XII AS6 1 fat goat; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 91 196 Ur III 6 XII AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 92 204 Ur III 6 XII AS6 1 fat goat; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 93 204 Ur III 6 XII AS6 1 fat goat Jokha Umma/Tell 94 125 Ur III 7 XII AS6 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 95 196 Ur III 7 XII AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 5 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 96 204 Ur III 7 XII AS6 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 97 204 Ur III 7 XII AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 98 125 Ur III XII AS6 1 fat goat Jokha 316 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 99 125 Ur III XII AS6 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 100 197 Ur III 6 XIII AS6 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 101 197 Ur III 7 XIII AS6 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 102 136 Ur III 7 III AS6/Š42 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 103 252 Ur III IV AS7 1 goat Jokha Umma/Tell 104 252 Ur III IV AS7 1 lamb Jokha Umma/Tell 105 157 Ur III 6 V AS7 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 106 157 Ur III 6 V AS7 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 107 157 Ur III 7 V AS7 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha 317 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 108 157 Ur III 7 V AS7 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 109 138 Ur III 6 VIII AS7 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 110 138 Ur III 6 VIII AS7 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 111 198 Ur III 6 VIII AS7 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 112 138 Ur III 7 VIII AS7 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 113 138 Ur III 7 VIII AS7 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 114 198 Ur III 7 VIII AS7 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 115 211 Ur III AS7 (?) barley Jokha Umma/Tell 116 139 Ur III 6 III AS8 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha 318 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 117 184 Ur III 6 III AS8 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 118 184 Ur III 6 III AS8 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 119 139 Ur III 7 III AS8 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 120 184 Ur III 7 III AS8 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 121 184 Ur III 7 III AS8 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 122 162 Ur III IV AS8 1 sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 123 162 Ur III IV AS8 1 sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 124 214 Ur III 6 VII AS8 2 lambs; 1 grain-fed sheep; 2 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 125 225 Ur III 6 VII AS8 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha 319 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 126 225 Ur III 6 VII AS8 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 127 214 Ur III 7 VII AS8 1 goat; 1 fat goat; 2 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 128 225 Ur III 7 VII AS8 1 lamb; 2 grain-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 129 225 Ur III 7 VII AS8 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell d 130 226 Ur III VII AS8 šara2 3 (MA-NA) flavorings for beer; 1 (GIN2) silver Jokha Umma/Tell 131 113 Ur III 6 VIII AS8 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 132 113 Ur III 6 VIII AS8 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 133 113 Ur III 7 VIII AS8 2 grain-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 134 113 Ur III 7 VIII AS8 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha 320 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 135 241 Ur III 6 X AS8 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 136 241 Ur III 7 X AS8 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 137 145 Ur III 6 XI AS8 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 138 178 Ur III 6 XI AS8 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 139 178 Ur III 6 XI AS8 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 140 145 Ur III 7 XI AS8 1 grain-fed sheep; 5 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 141 178 Ur III 7 XI AS8 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 142 178 Ur III 7 XI AS8 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell d 143 122 Ur III XII AS8 [šul-pa]-e3 uncertain Jokha 321 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 144 118 Ur III 6 ŠS1 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 145 118 Ur III 6 ŠS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 146 118 Ur III 7 ŠS1 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 147 118 Ur III 7 ŠS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 148 231 Ur III ŠS1 ensi2 2 (MA-NA) barley Jokha Umma/Tell 149 115 Ur III 6 II ŠS2 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 150 115 Ur III 7 II ŠS2 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 4 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 151 123 Ur III 6 V ŠS2 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 152 123 Ur III 7 V ŠS2 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha 322 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 153 134 Ur III 6 VII ŠS2 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 154 135 Ur III 6 VII ŠS2 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 3 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 155 134 Ur III 7 VII ŠS2 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 156 135 Ur III 7 VII ŠS2 1 grain-fed sheep; 5 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 157 199 Ur III ŠS2 5 (SILA3) ghee Jokha Umma/Tell 158 237 Ur III 7 II ŠS3 uncertain Jokha Umma/Tell 159 179 Ur III 6 III ŠS3 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 160 179 Ur III 7 III ŠS3 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 161 220 Ur III 7 XII ŠS3 1 (BAN2) 1 (SILA3) beer Jokha 323 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 162 220 Ur III 7 XII ŠS3 1 (BAN2) 5 (SILA3) beer Jokha Umma/Tell 163 220 Ur III XII ŠS3 5 (SILA3) beer Jokha Umma/Tell 164 220 Ur III XII ŠS3 5 (SILA3) beer Jokha (?) grain-fed sheep; 7 grass-fed sheeps; 1 (BAN2) 6 1/2 (SILA3) barley; 5 1/2 (SILA3) ghee; 6 (BARIG) Umma/Tell 165 114 Ur III XIII ŠS3 5(BAN2) 2 (SILA3) date; 150 (bundles) minced garlic; 1 Jokha (BAN2) 5 (SILA3) plant (u2-tir babbar); 1 (BARIG) coriander; 360 (bundles) plant (u2- U.EN) Umma/Tell 166 114 Ur III XIII ŠS3 uncertain Jokha Umma/Tell 167 176 Ur III 6 VII ŠS4 2 lambs; 1 grain-fed sheep; 2 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 168 176 Ur III 7 VII ŠS4 2 lambs; 1 grain-fed sheep; 3 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 169 174 Ur III 6 VIII ŠS4 2 goats; 1 grain-fed sheep; 2 grass-fed sheeps Jokha 324 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 170 174 Ur III 7 VIII ŠS4 2 goats; 1 grain-fed sheep; 3 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 171 251 Ur III 6 IX ŠS4 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 172 251 Ur III 7 IX ŠS4 1 goat; 2 grain-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 173 251 Ur III ? IX ŠS4 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 174 215 Ur III 6 X ŠS4 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 175 215 Ur III 7 X ŠS4 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 176 218 Ur III ŠS5 (?) barley for beer Jokha Umma/Tell 177 153 Ur III 6 VI ŠS6 1 (BAN2) beer Jokha Umma/Tell 178 153 Ur III VI ŠS6 5 (SILA3) beer Jokha 325 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 179 206 Ur III III ŠS7 3, 4 (BARIGA) 1 (BAN2), 5 (SILA3) barley for beer Jokha Umma/Tell 180 200 Ur III 7 IV ŠS7 1 goat Jokha Umma/Tell 181 207 Ur III III ŠS9 2 goats; 4 sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 182 130 Ur III 6 I IS1 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 183 130 Ur III 6 I IS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 184 130 Ur III 6 I IS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 185 130 Ur III 7 I IS1 2 grain-fed sheeps; 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 186 130 Ur III 7 I IS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 187 130 Ur III 7 I IS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha 326 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 188 130 Ur III 7 I IS1 1 sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 189 224 Ur III 6 III IS1 1 lamb; 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 190 224 Ur III 6 III IS1 uncertain Jokha Umma/Tell 191 224 Ur III 6 III IS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 192 224 Ur III 7 III IS1 1 sheep; 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 193 224 Ur III 7 III IS1 uncertain Jokha Umma/Tell 194 224 Ur III 7 III IS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 195 224 Ur III 7 III IS1 1 sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 196 129 Ur III 6 VII IS1 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha 327 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 197 249 Ur III 6 VII IS1 1 lamb; 1 goat; 4 sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 198 129 Ur III 7 VII IS1 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 199 129 Ur III 7 VII IS1 1 lamb Jokha Umma/Tell 200 249 Ur III 7 VII IS1 2 lambs; 1 goat; 3 sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 201 131 Ur III 6 XI IS1 uncertain Jokha Umma/Tell 202 131 Ur III 7 XI IS1 uncertain Jokha Umma/Tell 203 128 Ur III 6 XII IS1 1 lamb; 5 sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 204 128 Ur III 7 XII IS1 1 lamb; 1 goat; 4 sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 205 233 Ur III 6 I IS2 6 grass-fed sheeps Jokha 328 Rolling Wheels. Carts and Wagons in Syria and Mesopotamia During the 3 rd Millennium BC. N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 206 233 Ur III 7 I IS2 6 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 207 227 Ur III 6 IV IS2 1 lamb; 1 goat; 4 sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 208 227 Ur III 7 IV IS2 2 lambs; 1 goat; 2 sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 209 227 Ur III 15 IV IS2 3 sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 210 164 Ur III 6 IX IS2 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 211 164 Ur III 7 IX IS2 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 212 164 Ur III 7 IX IS2 1 goat Jokha Umma/Tell 213 177 Ur III 6 V 1 goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 2 grass-fed sheeps Jokha Umma/Tell 214 177 Ur III 7 V 1 lamb; 1 grain-fed sheep; 3 grass-fred sheeps Jokha 329 Administrative texts: Offering N° Ws Site Period Day Month Year Person God Offerings Umma/Tell 215 147 Ur III 6 XI 1 lamb; 1 grain-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 1 large fattened goat; 1 grain-fed sheep; 1 grass-fed 216 147 Ur III 7 XI Jokha sheep Umma/Tell 217 150 Ur III 7 XI 1 large fattened goat Jokha Umma/Tell 218 250 Ur III 6 uncertain Jokha Umma/Tell 5 (BAN2) 10 (SILA3) beer; 2 (SILA3) flour ( zi3 sig15); 219 250 Ur III 7 Jokha 6 (SILA3) flour (zi3-gu); 2 (SILA3) date (?) (SILA3) flour ( zi3 sig15); 5 (SILA3) flour (zi3-gu); Umma/Tell 220 250 Ur III 7 2 (SILA3) flour; 4 (SILA3) flour heap; 3 (SILA3) date; Jokha 15 (GIN2) ghee; 1 goat Umma/Tell 221 148 Ur III 1 grass-fed sheep Jokha Umma/Tell 222 167 Ur III 1 lamb Jokha Umma/Tell 223 167 Ur III uncertain Jokha 330 PLATES PLATE 1 A B C D E F G H PLATE 2 A B C D E F G PLATE 3 A B C D E F G H I PLATE 4 A B C D E F G H PLATE 5 A B C D E F G H PLATE 6 A B C D E F G H PLATE 7 A B C D E F G H I PLATE 8 A B C D E G F H PLATE 9 A B C D E F H G PLATE 10 A B C D E F G H I J K PLATE 11 A B C D E F G H I J K PLATE 12 A B C D E F G I H J PLATE 13 A B C E F D G PLATE 14 A B C D E F G H I PLATE 15 A B C F E D H G I J PLATE 16 A B C D E F G H I J K L PLATE 17 A B C E D F G H I PLATE 18 B C A D E F G H I J PLATE 19 A B C D E G F H I J PLATE 20 A B C D E F G H I J K PLATE 21 A B C D E F G H I PLATE 22 A C B D E F G H I J K L M N PLATE 23 A B C D E F G H I PLATE 24 A B C D E F G H I PLATE 25 A B C D E F G PLATE 26 A B C D F E G H PLATE 27 A B C D E F G H PLATE 28 A B C PLATE 29 A B C D E PLATE 30 A B C D PLATE 31 A B C D E F G H PLATE 32 A B C D E F G H I J K PLATE 33 A B C D E PLATE 34 A B C D PLATE 35 A B C D E F PLATE 36 PLATE 37 A B C D E PLATE 38 A B E D C F G PLATE 39 A B C PLATE 40 B A D C F E PLATE 41 PLATE 42 PLATE 43 A B C D E F PLATE 44 A B C D E F G H PLATE 45 A B C PLATE 46 A B C D PLATE 47 Van Urmia Abamor Höyük Urkeš/Tell Mozan Gaziantep Serug Tell Arbid Harran Tell Huwayrah Kahat/Tell Barri Habuba Kabira Nabada Tepe Gawra Ekalte/Tell Munbaqa Tell Beydar Nagar/Tell Brak Aleppo Tell Halawa Tell Melebiya Tell Khuera Tell Selenkahiye Tigridian Jazirah Tuttul/Tell Bi’a Ebla/Tell Mardikh Assur/Qal'at Shirqat Murek Middle Euphrates Gasur/Yorghan Tepe Hama Northern Levant Mari/Tell Hariri Central Mesopotamia Himrin Ešnunna/Tell Asmar SYRO-ARABIAN DESERT Tutub/Khafaja Tell Agrab Umm al-Jir Puzriš-Dagan/ Drehem Kiš/Tell al-Uhaymir Tell al-Wilayah Abu Salabikh Adab/Bismaya Susa/Shush Isin/Ishan al-Bahriyat Umma/Tell Jokha Šuruppak/Tell Fara Girsu/Telloh Uruk/Warka Bad-Tibira/Tell al-Madain Southern Mesopotamia Ubaid Ur/Tell al-Muqayyar PLATE 48 PLATE 49 PLATE 50 PLATE 51 PLATE 52 PLATE 53