(PDF) Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods

y Chapter 3 pan Qualitative ISLA research methodologies Com and methods ing Peter I. De Costa, Robert A. Randez, Carlo Cinaglia and D. Philip Montgomery lish Michigan State University Pub In this chapter, we introduce the principles and practices underlying quali- tative methodologies (e.g., ethnography, case studies, action research) and ins qualitative methods (e.g., field observations, interviews) that are compatible with socioculturally-oriented SLA theories (e.g., language socialization, identity jam theory, Vygotskian sociocultural theory). We highlight the exploratory and interpretive nature of qualitative research in that it intends to explain phe- nomena through the experiences and perspectives of learners and teachers by Ben providing rich descriptions of the learning and teaching contexts in which these learners and teachers are socially situated. Working on the premise that SLA theories need to be aligned with methodologies and research paradigms, we also ohn explain and detail how these theories have been applied to better understand and conduct classroom-based research involving language learners and teachers. Further, we break down qualitative methodology into steps, outlining common J methods and instruments used for collecting data, and highlighting ethical and procedural considerations associated with this research approach. - Keywords: case study, ethnography, grounded theory, conversation analysis, ofs narrative inquiry pro 1. Introducing qualitative research and its importance ted Qualitative research, according to educational scholars Wilson and Anagnostopoulos (2021), focuses on “the why and how of human interactions, people’s perspectives, rec and their lives” (p. 654). Qualitative researchers, they add, explore “mechanisms, forces, factors, and structures that shape social interactions, always with attention cor to context” (p. 654). These same characteristics apply to qualitative research in ISLA, which seeks to problematize and understand L2 learning and teaching pro- Un cesses that take place within and beyond the classroom; this is a key contrastive https://doi.org/10.1075/rmal.3.03dec © 2022 John Benjamins Publishing Company 56 Peter I. De Costa et al. y feature between quantitative and qualitative ISLA research. While the former often pan seeks to measure the effects of instructional interventions on learning outcomes, the latter seeks to better understand the contexts in which these interventions oc- Com cur. Importantly, qualitative research is interpretive in nature. This also explains why qualitative research designs are generally more adaptable and flexible than quantitative designs, because the instruments used in the latter “are often carefully constructed according to existing theory” (Rose, 2017, p. 33). That is not to suggest ing that theory does not matter in qualitative ISLA research, however. In actuality, the importance of theory cannot be overstated, which is why we devote a sizable lish chunk of our chapter (Section 2) to describing two key theories and five constructs often informing and/or adopted in qualitative ISLA research. As stated in De Costa Pub et al. (2019b), qualitative methodology always needs to be aligned with a qualita- tive researcher’s paradigm (i.e., their epistemology and ontology) and the theory that guides a study. Due to space constraints, we will not delve into specific data ins collection methods (i.e., the actual instruments and procedures such as interviews, observations, artifacts) used in qualitative research. For that, we direct you to Rose jam et al. (2019), a book-length volume that explores applied linguistic data collection research methods in an accessible manner. Our primary goal in this chapter is (1) to introduce you to six core methodologies (Section 3) that have been used to inves- Ben tigate phenomena in L2 learning and teaching, and as stated, (2) to underscore the significance of theory and social context in the ISLA qualitative research enterprise. ohn 2. Theories used in qualitative ISLA research J In this section, we (1) introduce two theories (language socialization and Vygotskian sociocultural theory) and five theoretical constructs (identity, agency, emotion, motivation, and investment) that are commonly used in qualitative ISLA research, - and (2) suggest three research concerns that can be explored using each framework. ofs We present these theories and theoretical constructs to highlight their history and associated characteristics, while acknowledging that overlaps exist between them. pro The theories and theoretical constructs are introduced because methodology, the- ory, and paradigm are inextricably linked in qualitative ISLA research (De Costa ted et al., 2017, 2019b). rec 2.1 Language socialization cor Language socialization theory (LS) stems from anthropological studies that sought to understand how children learned to become “legitimate” users of language and Un other semiotic resources in the world around them (Ochs & Schieffelin, 2012, p. 6). Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 57 y Since then, it has expanded to include wide-ranging investigations of how newcom- pan ers use language to gradually become members and then experts in their commu- nities, whether that is a classroom, a workplace, or a community center. LS draws Com parallels with situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991), whereby newcomers are socialized into communities of practice by explicit and implicit language prac- tices across spoken, written, and non-verbal interactions (Friedman, 2019). These interactions are both the process and goal of LS, as newcomers are socialized to ing using language through using language (Ochs & Schieffelin, 2012). A recent edited volume entitled Language socialization in classrooms (Burdelski lish & Howard, 2020) demonstrates the wide-ranging applications of LS in classroom instruction. For example, in a study conducted in Sweden, Cekaite (2020) de- Pub scribes how children with immigrant backgrounds engage with their teacher’s vocabulary-related explanations of Swedish terms. Using classroom observations and interviews with students, she found that students not only learned the language ins through these interactions but also actively negotiated, and sometimes resisted, the tacit cultural values, norms, and worldview embedded within classroom interac- jam tions. In the closing chapter, Duff (2020b) summarizes that, by observing and docu- menting detailed real-time interactions of language practices over an extended time period, researchers can account for not only how language is learned but also how Ben a community comes to share values, habits, norms, subjectivities, and moralities. LS has also evolved to acknowledge multidirectional socializing processes whereby novices socialize each other into communicative practices (Anderson, 2017) or, ohn at times, play a role in socializing the more established members of a community (Goodman & Montgomery, 2020). Especially relevant to the field of ISLA is how LS J has proven useful in understanding international teaching environments (Uzum, 2017). Research concerns that can be explored using LS: – How are international students socialized into the linguistic practices that are - valued in their host universities? ofs – How do classroom interactions socialize pre-service language teachers into acquiring genre-appropriate discourse expected by their academic programs? pro 2.2 Vygotskian sociocultural theory ted Vygotskian sociocultural theory (SCT), informed by the work of Russian psycholo- rec gist Lev Vygotsky, is a framework that views social interaction as the foundation for knowledge development. Lantolf (2011) notes that while SCT was not developed cor exclusively for researching SLA, it does provide a useful lens for understanding the development of an additional language. In particular, SCT holds two important Un ideas in terms of SLA: that social interaction is necessary for L2 development to 58 Peter I. De Costa et al. y occur, and that L2 development must be examined in its social context in order pan to fully understand SLA as a dynamic and situated process. A central concept in SCT that pertains to L2 development is mediation or the process through which Com language is used to construct, appropriate, and regulate knowledge, usually through interaction with others. Another SCT concept relevant to SLA is the zone of prox- imal development (ZPD) or the space between what an individual L2 learner can accomplish unaided and what she can achieve with assistance. ing Related to ZPD, a third SCT concept informing L2 development is scaffolding, which Saville-Troike and Barto (2017) define as “the verbal collaboration of peers lish to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance” (p. 216). Importantly, Saville-Troike and Barto’s definition reflects Pub how scaffolding can be provided by experts as well as by peers, as illustrated in two example studies. Gagné and Parks (2013) examined scaffolding practices among young French-L1 learners of English in Quebec during cooperative learning tasks, ins observing the use of requesting assistance and other-correction, among other prac- tices, in order to negotiate for meaning. In a similar context, van Compernolle jam (2019) analyzed student-teacher interaction among English-L1 university students learning French in the US to examine the development of sociolinguistic and prag- matic variation during a conversation task. Research concerns that can be explored Ben using SCT include: – How do the tasks in the language classroom scaffold the students’ acquisition ohn of the target grammar item? – How do online interactive resources mediate effective student learning? J 2.3 Identity and agency - Examining student identity can provide insights into how students engage in the ofs classroom or interact with instruction as a result of the identity positions (e.g., a “good” or “bad” language learner) they inhabit. ISLA research looks to identify ef- pro fective or ineffective pedagogical strategies that impact L2 acquisition, and identity and agency frameworks complement these areas of inquiry by highlighting how individuals’ perceptions of their environment, and how they position themselves ted and others within this environment, can influence their uptake of such pedagogical strategies. In addition to learner identity, ISLA researchers also need to consider rec the identity of the teacher. With the “I” in ISLA standing for instructed, one should focus not only on the students but also on the teachers, as both are integral partic- cor ipants in interactions that promote learning. In particular, ISLA researchers need to consider how teacher identity (e.g., teacher as an authoritative figure vs. teacher Un as a friend; native vs. nonnative speakers) influences the quality and texture of the Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 59 y instruction delivered in the classroom because the quality of instruction impacts pan the language learning outcomes of students (Norton & De Costa, 2018). Defined as “the socioculturally mediated capacity to act” (Ahearn, 2001, p. 112), Com agency has gained interest in language learning and teaching. Early research about agency in language learning has promoted the view that “learners are not simply passive or complicit participants in language learning and use, but can also make informed choices, exert influence, resist (e.g., remain silent, quit courses), or com- ing ply, although their social circumstances may constrain their choices” (Duff, 2012b, p. 413). Whether understood as residing within individuals or in the space between lish individuals and their surroundings at any given moment, the concept of agency has been applied to research about language teachers as well and has been theorized Pub to include the choices teachers make in and out of their classrooms (Pappa et al., 2019). Whether looking at teacher or learner agency, researchers need to be aware that these two aspects of agency are interdependent as both the teacher and learner ins often occupy the same pedagogical space (Miller, 2012). Agency, therefore, has be- come a useful concept to describe and understand the ways teachers and learners jam navigate language learning and teaching. Research concerns that can be explored using the constructs of identity and agency include: Ben – In what ways are the identities of minoritized language students ratified or denigrated in the classroom? – How do multilingual teachers negotiate a top-down monolingual language ohn policy implemented at their school? J 2.4 Emotion The study of emotion has steadily increased in the field of SLA (Barcelos & Aragao, - 2018). Research in emotions, which has provided great insight into the experi- ofs ences of language learners, specifically learners who come from marginalized back- grounds, often highlights the reflexive nature of qualitative research, that is, as pro researchers learn about their participants’ emotions, they do so in relation to their own (see Section 3.6). The emotion-based ISLA research agenda has extended to language teachers ted in recent years. De Costa et al. (2019a) highlight how focusing on language teacher emotions can provide insight into how teachers process their classroom experiences rec and how these experiences, in turn, influence their instruction. For example, De Costa et al. (2018) used an emotion-based framework to understand how profes- cor sional challenges impacted Math teachers working in an English as a medium of instruction (EMI) school in China and Nepal. The authors found that a lack of Un support from their focal teacher participants’ school administration contributed 60 Peter I. De Costa et al. y to teacher burnout. Consistent with De Costa et al. (2018); Gkonou and Miller pan (2021) demonstrated that attention to teacher emotions could have a more favora- ble impact in the classroom. Based on their findings, they asserted that the more Com conscious teachers were about the impact their profession has on their emotions, the more they were able to cope with any work-related negativity they encountered. Turning to language learners, emotion-framed research can also show how broader sociocultural influences aid, or impede, classroom language acquisition. ing Though applied linguists have examined the effects of policies on language educa- tion, few ISLA researchers have attempted to understand how such policies affect lish learners. One notable exception is Rawal and De Costa (2019). Focusing on the lasting effect of being identified as an English language learner (ELL), they inter- Pub viewed two students who struggled with the perception of being labeled an ‘ELL’ even though they had graduated from ESL classes and joined mainstream classes. Research concerns that can be explored using the construct of emotion include: ins – To what extent do L2 teachers encounter emotional burnout? – In what ways does the emotional trauma encountered by undocumented stu- jam dent immigrants affect their language development? Ben 2.5 Motivation and investment Motivation and investment in SLA are seen as complementary approaches to un- ohn derstanding an individual’s engagement with and commitment to L2 learning. Whereas motivation developed as a psychological construct to examine learner J differences in terms of cognitive and affective factors, investment has emerged as a sociological construct to explore learner experiences in light of social identities and relations of power. As Darvin and Norton (2021) note, the two constructs “hold - up two different lenses to investigate the same reality: why learners choose to learn ofs an additional language” (p. 1). Earlier research on L2 motivation developed from social psychology and sought pro to answer questions such as whether and to what extent learners were motivated (Gardner, 1985). Much of the motivation research at the time adopted a quantitative approach to measuring L2 learning experiences in terms of relationships among ted fixed variables and categories. In contrast, as Darvin and Norton (2021) observe, investment was put forth as a way to better understand the complexity of the L2 rec learning experience by examining the learner in relation to larger social contexts. An example of this difference is observed when comparing the complementary con- cor cepts of willingness to communicate (WTC) (MacIntyre et al., 1998) in motivation and the right to speak (Norton, 2013) in investment. Whereas WTC is understood Un Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 61 y in relation to internal psychological variables, the right to speak is described as pan “a claim to one’s legitimacy as an L2 speaker within contexts of power” (Darvin, 2019, p. 249). Com In light of more recent L2 motivation research, greater convergences and par- allels can be observed between the two constructs. For example, whereas Norton’s (2013) concept of identity sought to expand on notions of fixed personality traits and view the complexity of the individual in relation to the world, Ushioda’s (2009) ing concept of person-in-context and relational view of motivation begins to consider motivation as more of an external process than an internal state. Similarly, the lish concept of imagined communities (Kanno & Norton, 2003), involving real and po- tential identities as and affiliations with L2 users, shares similarities to Dörnyei’s Pub (2009) L2 Motivational Self System, which includes the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self. Darvin and Norton (2021) emphasize that current L2 motivation research, such as a complex dynamic systems approach (Dörnyei et al., 2015), has sought to ins understand motivation less as an internal, stable trait and more as a contextual and transitory process. Research concerns that can be explored using the constructs of jam motivation and investment include: – How do students’ ideal and ought-to selves shape their L2 motivation? Ben – What imagined communities does the language learner want to be part of, and how does their teacher facilitate the development of this imagined identity in the classroom? ohn 3. Guidelines for qualitative methodologies and methods J The theoretical frameworks described in the previous section serve as a foundation for much qualitative research in ISLA, but these frameworks do not often stand - alone in a research project. Rather, and in keeping with De Costa et al.’s (2019b) ofs observation that qualitative methodologies need to be aligned with a researcher’s paradigm (e.g., postpositivist, postmodernist) and the theoretical framework/s se- pro lected to guide a study, we describe in the section that follows six methodologies – case study, ethnography, action research, grounded theory, conversation analysis, ted and narrative inquiry – that can be used when research is informed by any of the previously mentioned theoretical frameworks. Each section provides an overview rec of the methodological approach, a discussion of its principles and procedures, and a recent study that exemplifies the methodology in action. We also provide brief, cor personal comments on each exemplar study. Un 62 Peter I. De Costa et al. y 3.1 Case study pan Case studies are conducted when a particular phenomenon within a specific so- Com cial context is investigated. Duff (2020a) explains that case studies investigating language learning and teaching may focus on a family, a classroom, a program, an institution, a country, or any number of other entities that may be nested within another. A researcher may choose to focus on a single case (e.g., one teacher or ing one classroom) or cast a wider net to include multiple cases (e.g., teachers or class- rooms). Even in multiple case studies, it is typical to include only a handful of lish participants due to the detailed focus on individual experiences in a given context. In this way, case study research aims to achieve a depth – rather than breadth – of Pub analysis (Duff, 2012a). Case studies can be designed in a variety of ways (see Yazan, 2015 for an over- view). While many case studies are rooted in an objectivist, positivist paradigm ins (Yin, 2018), qualitative case studies tend to adopt an interpretive lens that seeks to “make visible some of the complex dimensions of people’s language-related and jam social engagements in events that resonate with others” (Duff, 2020a, p. 144). To carry out a case study research project, researchers should first select a case (or cases) that highlights the phenomenon of interest. For example, case studies in Ben ISLA have explored the ways students reintegrate into their domestic L2 programs after study abroad (Lee & Kinginger, 2018) and how curricular reform impacts EFL teacher identity change (Jiang & Zhang, 2021). Merriam (2009) explains that ohn a case can be selected because it is seen as typical, unique, successful, or simply “intrinsically interesting” (p. 42). Common data sources include semi-structured individual interviews, classroom observations, teaching artifacts like lesson plans or J instructional materials, and participant journaling or project work. Where possible, case studies integrate multiple data sources to present a detailed description of the - context and findings. Case studies also tend to be longitudinal in order to achieve ofs an in-depth understanding of the participants and phenomenon in question. In our exemplar study, Uzum (2017) applies a language socialization framework to ex- pro amine how one Uzbek language teacher’s early learning experiences, interpersonal relationships, and understanding of theory and practice mediated her socialization into her role as a Fulbright language teaching assistant in the U.S. ted Exemplar study: Uzum (2017) rec Research question How are a language teacher’s pedagogical beliefs and practices shaped by biographical, cor contextual, and dialogic factors? Theoretical framework Language socialization Un Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 63 y Methods pan Uzum documented the year-long professional socialization processes of Nargiz (a pseudonym), an Uzbek language teacher in the Fulbright language teaching assistants (FLTA) program. The researcher collected multiple forms of data, including interviews Com at the beginning, middle, and end of the program, audio- and video-recorded lesson observations with accompanying field notes, and a collection of teaching materials (e.g., lesson plans, syllabus). ing Findings The data analytical procedure yielded three categories of factors that impacted Nargiz’s language teacher socialization: lish – biographical (previous life experiences, especially as a language learner), – contextual (interactions with students and institutional resources), and – dialogic (understanding and use of language learning theories in teacher practice). Pub Throughout her year-long experience, Nargiz transformed her beliefs about teaching languages, evidenced by several discourse markers that denote Nargiz’s shifting beliefs. ins Take-aways Nargiz was selected as a focal participant of this single-case study, not only for her unique experience teaching a language the author was familiar with but also because her jam experience may likely represent other teachers of less commonly taught languages who may undergo similar socialization processes. The author then relied on a range of data sources to paint a vivid picture of Nargiz over one year, including her prior learning experiences, her Ben interactions with teachers and students, and her changing beliefs about language teaching. The special attention given to defining the case, justifying its importance, and longitudinally documenting the participant’s experiences and beliefs are hallmarks of a qualitative case ohn study. The personal accounts generated in such a study are not intended to generate generalizable findings for all language teachers, but rather help to verify understandings of language learning and teaching as they relate to varied socialization experiences that occur J in different educational contexts. - 3.2 Ethnography ofs A classroom-based ethnography involves a researcher who is embedded within pro a community for a considerable length of time and who seeks to “explore and track the dynamic and complex situated meanings and practices” of a community’s members (Lillis, 2008, p. 355). This rich involvement in the lives of the research ted participants often affords the researcher an emic (insider) perspective of the cultural practices, beliefs, and values that influence the classroom community. Ethnographic rec studies can range in length from a few months to several years. Traditionally, ethnographies of language learning and teaching have consisted cor of a researcher regularly visiting a classroom to conduct observations, recording spontaneous interactions between teachers and students, and among students Un themselves. Although ethnographic research does not follow a rigid set of protocols 64 Peter I. De Costa et al. y and procedures, ethnographies share a common investigative focus on the culture pan of the research site, understood through prolonged interaction (Copland & Creese, 2017). The researcher’s observations, recordings, and interviews or focus groups Com with students, teachers, or perhaps administrators then form the basis of the data analysis. In this way, researchers hope to develop a multifaceted and nuanced un- derstanding of classroom dynamics. Classroom ethnographies of this sort have been conducted to better understand immigrant student identity construction (De ing Costa, 2010) and the creation and revision of academic writing as a social process (Lillis, 2008). More recently, ethnographic methodologies have expanded to include lish several newer approaches. For instance, “netnography” has emerged to document the ways online communities establish and maintain cultural practices, in an on- Pub line community dedicated to learning Korean (Isbell, 2018). Autoethnography has also recently gained traction, as researchers turn their analytical lens onto them- selves to interrogate their identities and practices as teachers or language learners ins (Mirhosseini, 2018). In our exemplar study, Ferrada et al. (2020) pair ethnographic inquiry with multimodal interactional analysis to reveal the central roles affect jam and emotion play as Latinx youth scrutinize the relations between language, race, identity, and power in their lives. Ben Exemplar study: Ferrada, Bucholtz, & Corella (2020) Research question How is affective agency enacted interactionally? ohn Theoretical framework Agency and emotion J Methods The researchers collected video-recorded interactions of 12 Latinx high-school students during a five-month-long after school program aimed at raising critical awareness of and agentive responses to language practices and ideologies in their lives. Students participated - in discussions about video clips and other media portraying racist and xenophobic stances ofs about language and completed a community awareness project to promote linguistic pluralism. The activities and interactions of one focal participant, Valeria, were analyzed pro to demonstrate how affective responses to linguistic racism represent a form of agency that can promote social justice. Findings ted Ferrada et al. found that affect played an important role in how Valeria moved from encountering to responding to linguistic racism in her community. They detail how rec embodied emotional responses can be leveraged into social action through the development of affective agency. For example, Valeria is drawn to tears while watching an infamous clip of Newt Gingrich equating English with prosperity and Spanish with the cor ghetto. Throughout the program, Valeria’s interactions with peers and workshop facilitators demonstrated the impact that affective responses are challenged, negotiated, supported, and Un potentially transformed into agentive actions as a force for social change. Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 65 y Take-aways pan This study seeks to spotlight emotion in educational spaces, especially for racialized minorities. An ethnographic methodology makes this possible due to its aim to understand cultural practices, beliefs, and values from an insider’s perspective. In order to argue Com that students can use affect as an agentive force to resist bigotry and racism, the authors first needed to get to know Valeria and her background, relationships, and values. Their extended observations of classroom interactions led them to understand Valeria from within her community, not as observers from the outside. An ethnographic approach thus ing seeks to enable researchers to examine such sensitive issues, in all their complexity and dynamism, both critically and ethically. lish 3.3 Action research Pub Action research is a useful methodology that allows language teacher-researchers to investigate their own pedagogical practice, either alone or in collaboration with ins researchers, in order to support student learning. In other words, language teach- ers act as both producers and consumers of professional knowledge. In addition jam to the benefits of immediate pedagogical application and recognition of teacher expertise, another benefit of action research is the capacity for collaboration be- Ben tween teachers. Avineri (2017) notes that this collaboration can occur both locally as teacher-researchers engage in action research with other practitioners in their immediate instructional context and globally as teachers share their findings with ohn the wider community of language educators and researchers. Action research can be understood as a way of engaging in systematic reflec- tion through pedagogical action. In the multi-authored TESOL Quarterly research J guidelines article (Mahboob et al., 2016), Burns describes a cycle of phases that make up the action research process, including planning, acting, observing, reflect- ing, and ongoing acting. The planning phase involves a teacher identifying an issue - of concern in their instructional context or teaching practice and developing a ofs pedagogical plan or modification to address it. The acting and observing phases consist of implementing the developed plan and gathering data as possible evidence pro of the plan’s effectiveness. The reflecting phase requires the teacher to consider the usefulness of their plan in light of the data and any new insights toward their ted teaching practice or their students’ learning process, and this leads once again into an acting phase, thereby continuing the cycle. Teacher-researchers engaging rec in action research make use of various data sources that reflect the teaching and learning processes as well as the contexts and spaces in which they occur. Banegas cor and Consoli (2020) note that these data sources might include observations and recordings of teaching and learning practices, student and teacher artifacts (e.g., assignments and lesson materials), and students’ and teachers’ reflection journals Un 66 Peter I. De Costa et al. y about their experiences, along with traditional data sources such as interviews and pan questionnaires. In our exemplar study, Jones and Mutumba (2019) focus on identity in their action research project to explore how the development of a student-focused Com curriculum might promote students’ literacy development. Exemplar study: Jones & Mutumba (2019) Research question ing How can teachers use mother tongue-based pedagogy and resources to support children’s language and literacy development, and general learning, in the pre-primary classroom? lish Theoretical framework Identity and agency Pub Methods This study involved a collaborative action research project involving one of the co-authors and two teachers at a Ugandan pre-school where English was the language of instruction. Teachers created storybooks in Luganda, the students’ mother tongue (MT), reflecting ins students’ lives and communities, and designed multimodal activities to support their literacy development and achieve the school’s curriculum goals. The teachers collaborated jam in both designing and implementing the lessons in class. Afterward, the teachers reflected together about their pedagogical practices and students’ engagement. Data sources included observations, interviews, field notes, lesson plans, and student-generated work. The data Ben were analyzed to examine student language use and overall learning, as well as expressions of student identity related to MT use. Findings The study found that the MT-based practices and materials affirmed students’ identity by ohn creating a supportive learning environment where students could “understand, expand and contribute their ideas, and strengthen and build their social networks” (p. 217). The teacher-researchers observed (a) student engagement with materials as they validated their J identities and with each other as a classroom community, (b) student agency in interacting with each other and with their teachers, and (c) student awareness of their developing translingual identities as users of both Luganda and English. - Take-aways ofs This research design exemplifies action research in two ways. First, teacher-researchers engaged in a truly collaborative endeavor throughout the entire action research cycle, pro including preparing pedagogical materials, implementing activities, analyzing data, and reflecting on their teaching practices and student experiences. In addition, this study highlights the potential for action research to generate knowledge and increased awareness ted among teacher-researchers, as the teachers participating in this study benefited by developing their own MT-based pedagogical practice. rec cor Un Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 67 y 3.4 Grounded theory pan Created in the U.S. in the 1960s by sociologists Glaser and Strauss, Grounded Theory Com (GT) (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) was developed as an alternative to positivist-oriented research. Reflective of the cultural revolution happening throughout the world at the time, which challenged the notion of inherent standards and norms, GT pushed qualitative research away from applying theoretical frameworks a priori, arguing ing instead that theory should be “grounded” or should originate from the data col- lected (Charmaz, 2014). Often, researchers adapt elements of GT and couple them lish with other methodologies. These types of studies, which we refer to as grounded theory-like, use an abridged version of the GT process. GT-influenced studies are Pub too diverse to be summarized in one publication, but we will draw your attention to a common characteristic which is how researchers have used GT’s unique coding sequence to analyze their data. ins Coding is a common action performed by researchers regardless of the research conducted (i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods). Coding in GT fol- jam lows a particular set of conventions. However, the act of coding is separated into three levels, each with its own purpose. How these levels are labeled differs from researcher to researcher, but the concept remains the same.1 We will use Hadley’s Ben (2017) labels of open, focus, and theoretical coding to explain the three levels. Open coding is the first step of analysis where the researcher engages the data identifying what is and what is not present. Along with memo-writing, reflexivity is central in ohn initial coding, as explained by Hadley (2017), who adds that “coding will always be idiosyncratic. It reveals as much about your ontological and epistemological beliefs as it does about the material being coded” (p. 103). As the researcher extracts codes J from the data, the second level of coding requires these codes to be grouped into categories. Focused coding groups individual codes together in categories based - on commonalities. Throughout the focused coding process, the researcher revisits ofs her data, memos, and initial coding notes to ensure that the focus codes are not omitting information or narrowing the focus of the analysis. As the focused coding pro process continues, the categories that are found begin to lay the foundation for the emergent theory, which is constructed at the theoretical coding level. In our exem- plar study, Henry (2019) uses GT to analyze how motivation develops through ted online media creation among learners of English in Sweden. rec cor 1. It is not uncommon to find in the GT literature these terms used: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding which loosely correspond with Hadley’s (2017) open, focus, and theoretical coding categories, respectively. Un 68 Peter I. De Costa et al. y pan Exemplar study: Henry (2019) Research questions How can we understand L2 motivation that arises when learners create online media? Com Theoretical framework Motivation and identity Methods ing Henry collected data in the form of field notes, interviews, observations, and student blog posts. From these pieces of data, he created his open codes, which were then compared to previous literature on the media practices of individuals the same age as his participants. lish From these back-and-forth analyses, three conceptual categories of motivational influences were identified: influences associated with (1) the blog artifacts, (2) the perception of the online media audience, and (3) the documentation of identities constructed by his Pub participants. Henry then applied those conceptual categories to the data set to verify their relevance before arriving at a theoretical framework to guide his study. Findings ins He found that L2 motivation in online spaces is highly dependent on the relevance of the tasks being performed and thus called for digital L2 motivation to be treated as an jam original construct. In addition, as technology use becomes more common in language classrooms, he asserted that teachers need to be conscious of the activities they implement and the connection between in-class activities and activities that their students are already Ben performing outside of the classroom. Take-aways Henry’s study demonstrates the effectiveness GT offers when exploring contexts with little or no preexisting attention. This is important in ISLA research because instruction ohn has branched beyond traditional classrooms. Non-traditional digital platforms such as online media used by language learners require new methodologies of inquiry that can be constructed through GT or GT-like research. GT can be a useful methodology for J ISLA researchers who hope to explore non-traditional classrooms, pedagogical practices and modalities, and other language learning contexts that have arisen from technological innovation and social advancements. - ofs 3.5 Conversation analysis pro The usefulness of conversation analysis (CA) for ISLA research is reflected in Wong and Waring’s (2021) observation that “conversation is the medium through which ted we do language learning” (p. 2). CA is ideal for observing how interactional com- petence develops and how opportunities for L2 learning are created in interactional rec contexts (Kasper & Wagner, 2011). By seeking to understand interactional com- petence in terms of language learners’ communicative practices (e.g., turn-taking, cor sequencing, and repair), CA highlights the structural aspects as well as the social nature of L2 development. Importantly, CA is both a theory and a methodology. Un Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 69 y CA principles can be understood in terms of three processes: data collection, pan transcription, and analysis. CA data must be collected from naturally occurring interaction, including classroom interaction, not produced for or solicited by the Com analyst in any way. CA observes the development of L2 interactional competence within naturally-occurring talk. To capture such data, audio or video recordings of interaction are necessary because they facilitate transcription and analysis by al- lowing for repeated listening and providing a multimodal record of the interaction. ing The next step is transcribing the data so that they can be analyzed visually in written form. In addition to recording the content of talk-in-interaction, CA lish transcription practices have the power to capture paralinguistic features of talk (e.g., pauses, stress, and volume), which may also carry interactional meaning. Pub Furthermore, researchers should transcribe interaction as they hear it, not mak- ing corrections to what is actually said. This maintains an authentic record of the interaction as the participants produced it. Finally, researchers should provide a ins transcription key to illustrate symbols or notation used to signify linguistic and paralinguistic features of interaction. jam The third step is analyzing the data. A central principle to analysis is CA’s emic approach to understanding talk-in-interaction from participants’ perspectives. Analyzing CA data begins with identifying interactional practices and routines, Ben such as turn-taking, silence, or repetition. While some analysts may already have an interactional practice they plan to investigate, they should also engage in unmo- tivated looking for potential practices of relevance that emerge through inductive ohn analysis. While this bottom-up tendency stems from CA’s ethnomethodological perspective, which intentionally avoids starting with an externally imposed theory J in conducting analysis, Kasper and Wagner (2011) note that “post-analytic con- nections to exogenous theory may be guided by the researcher’s agenda” (p. 125). In our exemplar study, van Compernolle (2019) combines the methodological ap- - proach of CA with Vygotskian SCT to explore how a L2 learner develops a socio- ofs linguistic repertoire through talk-in-interaction. pro Exemplar study: van Compernolle (2019) Research question How is one student’s L2 sociolinguistic repertoire mediated through social interaction with ted his tutor? Theoretical framework rec Vygotskian SCT Methods cor The data come from a larger study focusing on developing L2 sociolinguistic awareness among U.S. university students learning French. Explicit instruction and communicative tasks focused on different language constructions, including the presence or absence of Un 70 Peter I. De Costa et al. y the particle ne, which is used or omitted for negation, depending on different pragmatic pan scenarios or relationships. One-on-one tutor meetings between one focal student, Leon, and a teacher were audio and video recorded, and examples of Leon’s negation were analyzed structurally (i.e., for the presence or absence of ne) as well as interactionally (i.e., Com in terms of how the construction developed amid the ongoing talk). Findings Analysis revealed the development of Leon’s negation practices as shaped by interaction ing with his teacher and the context of the task scenario. Leon progressed from using only ne-present negation constructions to varying between ne-present and ne-absent constructions for different scenarios. Furthermore, he engaged in “self-repair,” a practice lish whereby speakers make modifications to their own ongoing talk to deal with difficulties in speaking, hearing, or understanding. Leon’s ability to adjust his construction use is viewed as “gaining regulatory control” over his L2 (p. 889). Pub Take-aways van Compernolle’s study exemplifies CA in that it traces the development of interactional competence by focusing on specific communicative practices observed by analyzing ins talk-in-interaction, reflecting a view of SLA as interactionally mediated. Specifically, L2 development is revealed to involve the use of lexicogrammatical structures (i.e., negation jam with or without the particle ne) in contextually-sensitive ways, achieved via interactional practices such as self-repair. As illustrated in this study, CA has “the potential to provide insight into the microgenetic [real time] developmental processes as they occur in usage” Ben (p. 873). ohn 3.6 Narrative inquiry Narrative inquiry allows researchers to analyze the personal experiences of indi- J viduals with the aim of understanding how and why these individuals interact with a phenomenon in question. Traditionally, narratives have taken the form of writ- ten documents provided by the participant, whose response was elicited by the re- - searcher (Vásquez, 2011). However, recent narrative inquiry research has expanded ofs narratives to encompass oral interviews and/or journaling (Barkhuizen, 2016; Swain et al., 2015). Though the variety of modalities in which a narrative takes shape has pro grown, attention to the experience of the individual remains the central focus. Researchers who intend to use narrative inquiry as a means of analysis should reflexively consider the relationship between the participant and the researcher. ted The narrative is constructed collaboratively as the participant shares their narrative, verbally or written, with the researcher who contextualizes it within the broader rec social context in which the narrative is situated. Because narratives are (co)con- structed by the researcher and their participants (Barkhuizen, 2016), researchers cor always need to be conscious that they are not projecting their own experiences onto their participants’ narratives when presenting and analyzing the latter’s sto- Un ries. How the teacher’s identity, ideology, agency, and emotions interact with their Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 71 y pedagogical practices are common objects of investigation in narrative inquiry pan research. Barkhuizen (2016), who used narrative inquiry to study the imagined identity of a novice teacher, for example, found that the teacher’s personal beliefs Com affected how she approached her role as a teacher. Equally common in narrative inquiry research is how researchers connect the narratives of their participants with broader social contexts. For example, Swain et al. (2015), who paired narrative inquiry with SCT, examined how their participants reflected on how their personal ing lives influenced the ways they learned or taught languages. The authors also took into consideration the impact of emotions on the language learning and teaching lish experiences of their participants and how these emotions were shaped by forces beyond the classroom. In our exemplar study, Prior (2016) use narrative inquiry Pub to study teacher agency and professional identity in relation to curriculum change. Exemplar study: Prior (2016) ins Research questions What are the sociolinguistic trajectories of adult working-class immigrants? jam Theoretical framework(s) Identity and emotion Methods Ben Prior’s data set consisted of multiple interviews. The first participant in the study helped recruit others using their own social network. Though sexual orientation was not an element of inquiry by Prior, it became a commonality that bound Prior to his participants as their shared sexual orientation contributed to the participants’ willingness to contribute ohn to the study. Findings J Prior found that the experiences of his participants were often sources of trauma tied to their status as immigrants and their sexual orientation. These traumatic experiences resulted in participants forming close social groups of individuals who shared similar - characteristics. This further segregated the participants and solidified their identity as an immigrant or outsider. Prior also found the research process emotionally charged for ofs himself and the participants. As participants shared their trauma with Prior, his reflexivity was shifted from researcher to confidant. Prior was forced to recognize his own emotions in pro relation to his participants’ stories. Take-aways Prior’s study highlights: (1) reflexivity between the story owner and storyteller, and (2) time ted and space of the narrative. As shown by the recruitment process and the data collection process, Prior’s reflexivity greatly influenced the participants’ willingness to engage the rec study and what they were willing to share during the interviews. This influenced how the narratives were shaped, which did not reflect Prior’s original intention. Regarding the second point, Prior shows how broader sociocultural constructs shaped how the narratives cor were constructed. The participants’ identities tied to their immigration status and sexual orientation were directly influenced by the perception of the majority population both of Un which further segregated them. 72 Peter I. De Costa et al. y 4. Advice for future qualitative researchers pan To reiterate, qualitative methodologies need to be aligned with the theories that guide Com the study. However, in tandem with the social orientation of such methodologies, ISLA researchers will need to expand their theoretical scope by learning about socially-oriented SLA theories. A good place to start is Atkinson’s (2011) edited volume, Alternative approaches to second language acquisition. This edited volume ing is a nice complement to this chapter as it maps onto the theoretical approaches we discuss, as well as other approaches not mentioned in this chapter. Throughout lish this chapter, we have also emphasized the need to be reflexive about your role as a researcher. Such reflexivity, which entails providing detailed and transparent Pub explanations of your rationalizations as a researcher regarding the choices made throughout your study, contributes significantly to the study’s and your credibility as a researcher (Duff, 2012a). ins At the same time, because of the evolving nature of data and data collection processes, you need to be both theoretically and methodologically adaptable and jam flexible (Rose, 2017), a point to which we alluded at the outset of this chapter. In this vein, you will also need to be reflexive about unexpected dilemmas that occur during the data collection, analysis, and presentation phases of your study (for Ben details, see De Costa et al., 2021). Again, flexibility is key here because researchers routinely must make executive just-in-time decisions to uphold the core ethical principles of respect for persons, yielding optimal benefits while minimizing harm ohn and preserving justice. And this includes deciding where to present and publish your research so that your findings can be accessible to a wider audience (e.g., J teachers, policymakers, parents) and not just an exclusive, academic audience. While we did not address the meta-methodological aspects of qualitative ISLA research, we would like to direct you to the growing place and value of qualitative - research synthesis (QRS). In contrast to a meta-analysis which is quantitative in ofs nature, QRS is “a useful method to aggregate qualitative findings of naturalistic classroom-based studies, which are often criticized because of their lack of gener- pro alizability” (Chong & Plonsky, 2021, p. 3). In fact, Chong and Plonsky discuss two benefits of QRS, namely, its potential (1) to offer a more holistic view of how specific pedagogical interventions are implemented and experienced and (2) to facilitate ted research-pedagogy dialogue by reaching audiences beyond academia. rec cor Un Chapter 3. Qualitative ISLA research methodologies and methods 73 y 5. Trouble-shooting qualitative methods pan Researchers are likely to encounter challenges when they begin to use qualitative Com methods in their work. With regard to study design, we strongly recommend that you immerse yourself in the social context (e.g., the physical or virtual classroom or the broader community in which the classroom or school is situated) that con- stitutes your research site. Prolonged engagement with the site will give you a bet- ing ter idea of which aspect of language learning or teaching (e.g., identity, emotion, agency) to focus on and, correspondingly, which methodology best aligns with the lish phenomenon in question. Due to the difficulty in gaining access and establishing trust with research participants, it may be a good idea to start with contexts and Pub participants you already know well. Another common challenge researchers face is choosing what data to collect and ensuring that the analytical method aligns with the theoretical framework ins being applied. You may start with a methodology that typically involves certain document analysis. However, your selection of methods will ultimately depend jam on what data you need and have access to. For example, a participant might grant you consent to audio but not video recording, which will determine the subse- quent mode of data analysis. One quick way to acquaint yourself with the wide Ben array of discourse analytic approaches would be to consult a handbook such as The Routledge handbook of discourse analysis (Gee & Handford, 2012) before exploring in greater depth a specific approach that you select. Keep in mind that you may ohn need to be flexible as you adapt to the constraints of your available data. However, in the end, there needs to be discourse and analytic and theoretical congruence. Put J simply, there is no shortcut or silver bullet to resolving design, data collection, and data analysis concerns; you need to invest the time in learning about the available options – both theoretical and methodological – before making a decision. - ofs 6. Conclusion pro In this chapter, we introduced you to six methodologies that have been used in qualitative ISLA research. But the menu we have offered you is by no means ex- ted haustive. Given the transdisciplinary nature of our field, it would not be surprising if ISLA researchers decide to adopt methodologies such as phenomenology and rec historiography (Wilson & Anagnostopoulos, 2021) from other disciplines in the near future. In keeping with Dewaele’s (2019) call for ontological, epistemological, cor and methodological diversity in applied linguistics, we argue that such diversity should also be applied to ISLA research. This step forward can take the form of Un embracing mixed methods research (Sato, this volume) as we think of new ways to extend and enhance the ISLA research agenda. 74 Peter I. De Costa et al. y 7. Further reading and additional resources pan 7.1 General overview of different methodologies Com Phakiti, A., De Costa, P. I., Plonsky, L., & Starfield, S. (Eds.). (2018). The Palgrave handbook of applied linguistics research. Palgrave. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59900-1 McKinley, J., & Rose, H. (Eds.). (2020). The Routledge handbook of research in applied linguistics. ing Routledge. lish 7.2 Specific methodologies Case study: Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research: Design and methods (6th ed.). Sage. Pub Ethnography: Copland, F., & Creese, A. (2017). Linguistic ethnography: Collecting, analyzing and presenting data. Sage. Grounded theory: Hadley, G. (2017). Grounded theory in applied linguistics: A practical guide. ins Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315758671 Action research: Avineri, N. (2017). Research methods for language teaching. Palgrave. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56343-9 jam Conversation analysis: Wong, J., & Waring, H. Z. (2021). Conversation analysis and second lan- guage pedagogy: A guide for ESL/EFL teachers (2nd ed.). Routledge. Narrative Inquiry: Barkhuizen, G., Benson, P., & Chik, A. (2014). Narrative inquiry in language Ben teaching and learning research. Routledge. ohn References J Ahearn, L. M. (2001). Language and agency. Annual Review of Anthropology, 30(1), 109–137. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.109 Anderson, T. (2017). The doctoral gaze: Foreign PhD students’ internal and external academic discourse socialization. Linguistics and Education, 37, 1–10. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2016.12.001 ofs Atkinson, D. (Ed.). (2011). Alternative approaches to second language acquisition. 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(2020)), CIT0111 (((Narrative Inquiry)): Barkhuizen, G., Benson, P., & Chik, A. (2014))” since citation is missing in the article. Pub ins jam Ben ohn - J ofs pro ted rec cor Un