(PDF) Road construction materials lab characterization and BIM application for heritage conservation: The case study of via del

Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/transportationresearch-interdisciplinary-perspectives Road construction materials lab characterization and BIM application for heritage conservation: The case study of via del Foro in Pompeii archaeological site S.A. Biancardo a,* , M. Intignano a , R. Veropalumbo a , Antonino Russo b, V. Calvanese b, F. Giuliani c , G. Dell’Acqua a a Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Via Claudio 21, Napoli, NA 80125, Italy Pompeii Archaeological Site, Via Plinio 26, Pompei, NA 80045, Italy c Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 181/a, Parma, PR 43124, Italy b A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Stone Pavements Pompeii Archaeological Site BIM Heritage This research presents a detailed investigation of the materials used in the construction of the roads of the ancient city of Pompeii, focusing in particular on the paving of the Via del Foro. Through excavation and laboratory analysis, the study aims to characterize the granular composition and mechanical properties of these materials. Excavation revealed stratigraphic layers composed of various materials, including limestone, volcanic rock, and ceramic fragments. Samples collected from these layers underwent comprehensive laboratory testing, including grading, shape index, flakiness index, water absorption, Los Angeles abrasion, and durability assessments. The results indicate variations in particle size distribution, shape characteristics, water absorption capacities, resis­ tance to fragmentation, and durability among the samples. Furthermore, the study uses Building Information Modeling (BIM) to digitally reconstruct the excavation site and simulate excavation phases, illustrating the potential of BIM in archaeological conservation efforts. These findings provide valuable insights into ancient Roman road construction techniques, material selection practices, and preservation strategies, linking archae­ ology, engineering, and digital technologies to enhance our understanding and management of cultural heritage sites. 1. Introduction The oldest artifacts found in the area of the ancient city of Pompeii date back to prehistoric times. In 89 BC the city was conquered by the Romans. From that moment on, the city experienced a period of important economic and cultural development, as evidenced by impressive architectural works such as the Rectangular Forum (Dobbins, 2009). The Forum was located near an important road junction, with roads branching off towards Neapolis, Nola and Stabiae: it was a small open area around which numerous shops sprang up, mostly built of lava and tuff and cemented with clay (Frankl, 2013). Major restoration work was then carried out during the Augustan period, between the end of the 1st century BCE and the beginning of the 1st century CE, when some works, such as the paving, were redone. The area was buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD (Pescatore et al., 2001) under a thick layer of lapilli and ash and was only brought to light at the beginning of the 19th century. Numerous studies have examined the materials that made up ancient Pompeii (Poehler and Crowther, 2018). This research has revealed a significant presence of lava-based materials, easily found not only in the immediate vicinity of Pompeii and within the city itself, but also in neighboring areas such as the Campi Flegrei and the islands of the Gulf. In particular, a compact grey lava has often been identified, used not only in defensive structures but, to an even greater extent, in road paving. Thanks to its high resistance to wear and tear, this material has proven, both in ancient times and still today (García-González et al., 2020), to be particularly suitable for this purpose. Furthermore, the * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses:

(S.A. Biancardo),

(M. Intignano),

(R. Veropalumbo),

(A. Russo),

(V. Calvanese),

(F. Giuliani), gianluca.

(G. Dell’Acqua). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2025.101830 Received 30 June 2025; Received in revised form 26 December 2025; Accepted 29 December 2025 Available online 5 January 2026 2590-1982/© 2025 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 color variations of the different lava stones have been traced back to distinct lava flows, not all originating from the same eruption (Wells et al., 1985). Considerable attention has also been paid to the geometric config­ uration of the Roman road surfaces in Pompeii. These pavements consist of large irregular polygonal blocks, smooth on the upper surface and rough on the lower surface, firmly interlocked along the sides. The joints were sometimes finished with a thin layer of mortar and, in some cases, with small limestone inserts placed at the intersections (Osanna, 2019; Osanna and Picone, 2018). In recent years, modern pavement-surveying techniques have been applied to the conservation and cataloguing of information on Pompeian road surfaces. For instance, Biancardo et al. (2023c) employed Laser Scanning and Point Cloud segmentation to create a digital information model of Vicolo dei Balconi, a street within the Archaeological Park. Developed according to Building Information Modeling principles, this model aims to support conservation, protection, and online communi­ cation of the site. Other research has gone further, analyzing the characteristics of ancient soils, particularly in areas where roads remained unpaved and resurfacing or construction works were halted by the eruption of Vesuvius. One example is the study by Autelitano et al. (2022), which investigated Vicolo dei Balconi using various non-destructive tech­ niques. These analyses focused on: (1) the frictional properties of the paving stones, closely tied to their microstructure, using a modern road engineering tool, the skid tester; and (2) the mechanical response and homogeneity of the unpaved subgrade, evaluated through minimally intrusive or non-destructive dynamic methods, namely penetrometer tests and deflectometric measurements. To date, only a few studies have addressed the stratigraphy of Roman road structures (Ball and Dobbins, 2017), and virtually no studies have explored the mechanical properties of the individual layers composing these pavements. Hence, the present study is focused on the grain-size distribution and mechanical behavior of materials collected during excavations from the Pompeii archaeological site in Via del Foro, conducted within the “Quadrivio Via del Foro – Via di Mercurio – Via delle Terme – Via della Fortuna” project, whose aim is to deepen our understanding of the forma urbis of Pompeii. In the first experimental phase, the materials recov­ ered during excavation were subjected to modern analytical procedures routinely applied to road aggregates (Fladvad and Ulvik, 2021). These included the determination of particle-size distribution, shape and flakiness index, water absorption capacity, resistance to fragmentation, and durability under freeze–thaw cycles. The aim of this analysis was to demonstrate the engineering skill of the ancient Romans in the con­ struction of high-performance road surfaces without the aid of me­ chanical tests, which are essential for road construction today. Furthermore, the excavation process, combined with the mechanical characterization of the recovered aggregates, allowed for a comparison of the stratigraphic composition of ancient Roman roads with those of today, which require design processes. Today, information on construction and maintenance processes can be managed using digital platforms and methodologies that enable greater efficiency in asset management. It is the case of Building Infor­ mation Modeling (BIM), a consolidated methodology for the digital representation and management of engineering artefacts, integrating geometric information with heterogeneous data throughout the asset life cycle (Eastman et al., 2011). The resulting digital model combines geometry with information such as material properties, schedules, and documentation, enabling coordinated analysis and decision-making (Moon et al., 2015; Parsamehr et al., 2023). BIM relies on interoperability between software platforms, ensured through standardized data schemas and open formats such as IFC and COBie, which allow the correct exchange and interpretation of infor­ mation among different systems (Lavy and Salil, 2014; Shalabi and Turkan, 2017). The presence of an information model at the heart of the AECO (Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operation) pro­ cesses makes BIM highly versatile: recent research confirms the wide­ spread adoption of this methodology across different fields as transport infrastructures and traditional building assets (Biancardo et al., 2021a, 2023a; Fabozzi et al., 2021; Salzano et al., 2023; Guerra de Oliveira et al., 2020). The possibility of extending the horizon of BIM from newly designed works to existing ones has been explored, too (Biancardo et al., 2021b, Oreto et al., 2022). The BIM scope of reference for this paper is the so-called HeritageBIM, or H-BIM, i.e. BIM declined to works of historical and cultural value (Tibaut and Guerra de Oliveira, 2022; Guerra de Oliveira et al., 2022). H-BIM already boasts wide application for important historical archi­ tectural works, even belonging to archaeological sites (D’Agostino et al., 2023), declining further into Archaeological BIM, or Archaeo-BIM. Although less, in line with the general trend whereby BIM for roads and road infrastructures has only developed at a later stage, some H-BIM and Archaeo-BIM applications have concerned the road context, pre­ senting interesting precedents of the subject (Biancardo et al., 2023b; Intignano et al., 2022, 2025). The present work lies in that line, exploring the fourth dimension of BIM (Borrmann et al., 2018), which simulates construction phases. In fact, a dynamic 3D model has been created that updates itself by simulating site work phases as described in section 2 (Case Study). Following this introduction, indeed, the case study will be presented, with a summary of the activities carried out in-situ. Then in the meth­ odologies chapter, all the procedures used to evaluate the materials and digitalization methodological approach will be described. Finally, the results will be discussed and conclusions drawn. 2. Case study The present research focused on the excavation of a section of road in ancient Pompeii with the aim of investigating the orderly sequence of the type and composition of the layers that made up Roman pavement, evaluating the mechanical characteristics of the construction materials, and proposing a Building Information Approach for Heritage Manage­ ment. The excavation was conducted in Via del Foro (see Fig. 1a), northeast of the forum, overlooking the front of Vesuvius. The excava­ tion phase, the flagstones lifting and material removal, and the final restoration of the site, took a total of three working days. The samples are part of the archaeological excavation works referring to the agree­ ment N. 9 of 05–02-2020 between the Archaeological Park of Pompeii and the Ecole Francaise de Rome excavation directed by Prof. Sandra Zanella (Zanella et al., 2023). The excavation site area was 2.5 m wide and 6 m long (see Fig. 1b). The excavation operations first involved lifting the slabs (see Fig. 2a), so it was necessary to remove the material at the edges of the slabs to allow them to be lifted using hoists. This revealed that the larger cavities, used to create waterproof sections, were filled with fragments of ceramic material, meticulously crushed, and fine mortar based on aerial lime. The lifting of the paving stones was carried out according to the order shown in Fig. 2, as the space available next to each of them was crucial for the installation of the harness straps without affecting the adjacent paving stones. A total of five flagstones were removed: After lifting the first stone (see Fig. 2b), a very humid bedding soil was found, composed of different types of material such as limestone, ceramic and small traces of volcanic rock. As the other paving stones were lifted (see Fig. 2c), large limestone boulders were found to serve as a support base for the individual paving stones. Proceeding in more detail into the depth of the section, 100 % volcanic materials were found (see Fig. 2d). In total, the resulting excavation was 80 cm wide, 2 m long, and 150 cm deep, which is the maximum depth reached representing the overall thickness of the slab, the bedding layer, the compensation layer and the filling/subbase (see Fig. 3a). 2 S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 Fig. 1. Site of interest: a) Via del Foro; b) Site area delimitation. Fig. 2. Excavation phases: a) Lifting of the stone; b) first layer; c) second layer; d) third layer. At the end of the excavation operations, the material obtained was subjected to a washing process and then sieved through a 0.5 mm sieve (see Fig. 3b). All the material passing through 0.5 mm was subjected to analysis of archaeological interest with the aim of tracing ceramic, glass, bone, coal, and bronze particles. All material larger than 0.5 mm was the subject of 3 S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 Fig. 3. A) excavated section; b) portion of material prepared for sieving separation. this research for the analyzes described below; in particular, three different sample were collected for the analysis namely Sample 1 (see Fig. 2b-iii), Sample 2 (see Fig. 2c-iii) and Sample 3 (see Fig. 2d-iii). The excavation brings to light materials that are subjected to an initial classification. In a second phase, laboratory analyses characterize their mechanical qualities using modern methodologies. Then, the digital model of the archaeological artefact is produced, with further applica­ tions simulating the timing of the archaeological excavation site and archiving the valuable information obtained from the observations during the excavation and the laboratory study. The use of Building Information Modeling (BIM), in relation to his­ torical heritage (HBIM or ArchaeoBIM), in the study of the stratigraphy of ancient Roman roads, such as those of Pompeii, represents a signifi­ cant innovation because 1) BIM transforms the stratigraphy from a 3. Methods This research proposes an integrated approach for the study and conservation of historical and cultural heritage also in archaeological sites. The methodology follows a circular approach (see Fig. 4): in fact, the study consists of three consequential and potentially reiterative phases. Fig. 4. Methodology graphical scheme. 4 S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 simple 2D drawing to a virtual three-dimensional model enriched with information, namely archaeological data, material data, and data on the state of conservation; 2) The data can be accessed and shared by all scholars on a single platform in real time; 3) the HBIM model allows the reconstruction and visualization of the various construction and modi­ fication phases of the road over time (stratigraphy as a temporal sequence), facilitating the understanding of the urban and road evolu­ tion of Pompeii; 4) It supports conservation and maintenance through dynamic monitoring, in which the model can be updated with new surveys to track changes over time, supporting preventive and informed maintenance while enabling the simulation and planning of conserva­ tion or restoration interventions, assessing the impact and costs before proceeding on the physical asset. Therefore, the methodology presented is recursive, in that future studies will be able to draw on the information collected and contained in the digital model, so that future excavations and investigations can start from a reliable and up-to-date database. of a sample of aggregate grains and is calculated based on their di­ mensions (length, width, and thickness). Low flakiness index value is an indication that the aggregate is close to cubical shape, which is the preferred shape for aggregates used in paving (Anochie-Boateng et al., 2013). The test adopted in the present research was carried out in accor­ dance with EN 933–3 consisting of two sieving operations. First, using test sieves, the sample is separated into various particle size fractions di /Di . Each of the particle size fractions di /Di is then sieved using bar sieves which have parallel slots of width Di /2. The flakiness index (FI) is calculated as the total mass of particles passing through the bar sieves expressed as a percentage of the total dry mass of the particles tested, i.e. according to the following equation: FI = (M2 /M1 ) × 100 where, M1 is the sum of the masses of the particles in each of the particles size fraction di /Di expressed in grams, M2 is the sum of the masses of the particles in each particle size fraction passing the corresponding bar sieve of slot width Di /2 expressed in grams. 3.1. Grading curve In today’s roads, for the proper load-bearing functioning of the road superstructure, the first deepest layer encountered is the subbase. The foundation consists of a mixture of granulometrically stabilized aggre­ gates. In this research, the aggregates recovered from the historic road were subjected to a grading process according to the EN 933–1, i.e. the actual standard for the determination of unbound granular layer (see Fig. 5a). The test consists of dividing and separating the aggregates into different grain size classifications of decreasing size using a series of sieves. The resulting gradings were compared with the limits set by the most common tender specifications of the Southern Italy for a subbase layer. 3.3. Water absorption The water absorption of the aggregates under examination was analyzed by applying the EN 1097–6 (Comité Européen de Normal­ isation, 2022). The method adopted is the same used for aggregates with size above 31.5 mm for road paving. For the present case, the mass of each sample was reduced to 350 g and completely immersed in a water tank for 24 h. Subsequently, the samples were weighed in wet conditions through a hydrostatic balance, recording the water temperature. Once removed from the water, the samples were dried superficially and weighed again, this time in air (M1). Finally, the samples were placed in a drying oven at a temperature of 110 ◦ C until a constant mass was obtained, left to cool, and then weighed again (M3). The water absorption is calculated according to Equation (3). 3.2. Shape and flakiness index The shape of the aggregate particles determines the compaction of the skeletal structure and develops the internal resistance of the pave­ ments to deformation (Hassan et al., 2021). The properties of the aggregate particles are usually expressed through the shape index. The determination of the shape index was carried out in compliance with the EN 933–4 standard. The principle of the test is that in a sample of ag­ gregates the individual particles are classified on the basis of the ratio of their length to thickness (see Fig. 5b). The shape index (SI) is calculated in accordance with the following equation: SI = M2 × 100 M1 (2) WA = M1− M3 × 100 M3 (3) where, M1 is the mass of the saturated and surface-dried test portion, in grams; M2 is the apparent mass in water of the saturated test portion, in grams; M3 is the mass of the oven-dried test portion, in grams. (1) where, M1 is the mass of the test portion expressed in grams, M2 is the mass of the non-cubical particles expressed in grams. The flakiness index parameter provides an indication of the flatness 3.4. Los Angeles The resistance to fragmentation of the aggregates was performed in the Los Angeles drum (see Fig. 5c), in compliance with EN 1097–2 Fig. 5. Laboratory testing: a) grading, b) shape index, c) Los Angeles apparatus and d) freeze–thaw cycling. 5 S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 standard (Comité Européen de Normalisation, 2020). Since the aggre­ gates tested presented sizes above the sieve of 31.5 mm, the mass of the sample used for the test was equal to 10,000 g. As with a traditional material, the clean and dry aggregate together with the steel balls, was placed in the drum subjected to 500 rotations at a constant speed be­ tween 31 and 33 rpm. Finally, all the aggregate was removed from the drum, separating the ball, and then screened through a 31.5 mm sieve. The coefficient Los Angeles (LA) was calculated from the following equation: LA = 100 × 1 − m3 m1 (4) where m1 is the initial dry mass of the test portion (set equal 10,000 g) and m3 is the dry mass retained on the 31.5 mm sieve after fragmenta­ tion in grams. 3.5. Durability Fig. 6. Model visualization in Top-View within the geographical context of the Archaeological Site of Pompeii. The aim of a durability test is to evaluate how an aggregate behaves when it is subjected to the cyclic action of freezing and thawing. In fact, the test consists of soaking at atmospheric pressure and storage in water for thorough water absorption and exposure to frost action under water (see Fig. 5d). In accordance with the EN 1367–1 standard (Comité Européen de Normalisation, 2007) the following operations were car­ ried out for the definition of one cycle: performed through a solid-based modeling approach. Polylines were traced to represent the edges of the road surface, the excavation boundary, and the individual flagstones (see Fig. 7a and 7d). These polylines were used to generate triangulated surfaces (see Fig. 7b and 7e), which were then extruded orthogonally according to the thicknesses measured during the excavation (see Fig. 7c and 7f). The excavation volume was modeled by applying Boolean difference operations, subtracting the volumes of the excavation area and paving stones from the road solid, thereby explicitly representing the strati­ graphic void created during archaeological investigation. Each stratigraphic layer identified during excavation was modeled as a distinct geometric entity. To each modeled element, custom Property Sets were associated in order to store and organize the results of the mechanical characterization carried out in the laboratory. These prop­ erties included grain-size distribution, shape and flakiness indices, water absorption, Los Angeles abrasion, and durability indicators, enabling a direct link between physical samples and their digital counterparts within the BIM environment (see Fig. 8). Once the three-dimensional information model was completed, ma­ terials and textures were assigned to the solids to approximate the visual appearance of the archaeological materials observed on site, supporting both interpretation and communication of the results. To simulate the excavation and lifting phases of the paving stones, the model was exported to Autodesk Navisworks, where a 4D BIM simulation was implemented. The excavation process was decomposed into a sequence of tasks corresponding to the progressive lifting of each paving stone and the deepening of the excavation (see Fig. 2). These tasks were scheduled using the timeline tool, defining start and end times and generating a Gantt chart. The resulting simulation allows the visualization of the excavation phases over time (see Table 1), repro­ ducing the actual sequence followed on site (see Fig. 9). a) first the temperature was reduced from (20 ± 5) ◦ C to (0 to –1) ◦ C in (150 ± 60) min and then held at (0 to –1) ◦ C for (210 ± 90) min; b) then, the temperature was reduced from (0 to –1) ◦ C to (− 17,5 ± 2,5) ◦ C in (180 ± 60) min and held at (− 17,5 ± 2,5) ◦ C for a min­ imum of 240 min; c) the air temperature was allowed to fall below –22 ◦ C; d) after the completion of each freezing cycle the aggregates were left to soak in water at approximately 20 ◦ C. e) after the completion of each thawing phase, the cans were kept in water at (20 ± 3) ◦ C for a maximum of 10 h. Each freeze–thaw cycle were completed within 24 h. The test was finished after ten cycles, and the results of the freeze­ –thaw were calculated in accordance with Equation (5). LAF&T = M1 − M2 × 100 M1 (5) where, M1 is the initial dry total mass of the three test specimens, in grams, M2 is the final dry total mass of the three test specimens, that is retained on the specified sieve, in grams, LAF&T is the percentage loss in mass of the three test specimens after freeze–thaw cycling. 3.6. Building information modeling (BIM) In this study, BIM was adopted as a methodological tool to digitally reconstruct the excavated road section of Via del Foro and to integrate archaeological observations with the results of laboratory testing within a single information model. The BIM model was developed using Autodesk Civil 3D, a software specifically oriented to linear infrastructures and road modeling. The workflow started from the geometric survey carried out in situ, which provided the planimetric and altimetric references of the excavation area and the paving stones. A schematic two-dimensional drawing was first created from the survey data and subsequently geo-referenced using online cartographic services embedded in the software, allowing the model to be spatially contextualized within the Pompeii archaeological site (see Fig. 6). The geometric reconstruction of the road and paving stones was 4. Findings The samples analyzed, resulting from the excavation, were taken at different heights and as can be seen in Fig. 10 their composition high­ lights the ancient Roman construction techniques. The layer directly beneath the paving stones (Sample 3) corresponds to the bedding layer supporting the stone elements. Sample 2 represents an intermediate layer whose primary function is to ensure interlocking and stabilization of the paving blocks. Finally, Sample 1 corresponds to the uppermost bedding layer, incorporating material generated by surface wear, as well as dust and fine residues accumulated over time due to rainfall and environmental deposition. By looking at the grading curves drawn in Fig. 11, different behaviors 6 S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 Fig. 7. Road and flagstones geometry: (a) 2D polylines representation of the road, curbs, and sidewalks edges; (b) triangulated surfaces; (c) extruded 3D solids; (d), (e), and (f), detail on the flagstones. can be observed. Although all samples returned a first reading of 40 mm pass percentage, Sample 2 showed the highest retaining size among all the three samples, followed by Sample 1 and Sample 3. In particular, Sample 2 seems to be more homogeneous in terms of size, as 70 % of the particles are concentrated up to the 20 mm sieve, while 58 % of the retained particles are from Sample 3. Sample 1, compared to the others, provided a more continuous grading curve with the presence of appre­ ciable dimensions up to 0.063 mm. As can be seen from the Fig. 11, which also shows a common restricting zone for the actual road pavement superstructure of the Southern Italy, among the three sample, the Sample 1 fall in the upper part of the restricted zone, unlike the other two samples. This observa­ tion highlights that already in ancient Roman times, the foundation layer was considered the load-bearing structure of a pavement, with an assortment of large and small aggregates designed to distribute the loads passing over the surface above the paving stones on the subgrade, i.e. the part directly in contact with traffic. The geometric features of the aggregates mainly concern the degree of angularity and surface texture. The shape of an aggregate determines the lithic structure of a pavement layer. In general, elements with an elongated and flat surface should be avoided, while granules with a cubic and spheroidal shape are preferred. The shape coefficient is representative of this condition when it occurs in low values. In the specific case of the three samples examined for the case study, whose results in terms of shape index are shown in Fig. 12, it appears that only Sample 1 and 2 comply with the shape requirements, with values not exceeding 28 %; otherwise, Sample 3 shows a very high shape index and does not comply with the loose aggregate requirements for the creation of a foundation layer. In fact, as can be seen from the stratigraphic analysis of the case study described above, it is possible to imagine that this material, resulting from a simple breakage of the hammer of the larger elements and used without particular selection procedures, was used as filling material for a load-bearing layer, mixed with natural soil as a laying surface for the limestone structure directly in contact with the paving stones. High flakiness index values usually represent aggregates with a low indirect tensile strength value which may be subject to wear and dete­ rioration phenomena due to climatic and traffic variations. In the road sector, therefore, it is preferable to use aggregates with high wear resistance. For the present case study, the flakiness index values are shown in Fig. 12, where it can be noted that the maximum value of 8 % is obtained for Sample 1; the lowest flakiness index value was found for Sample 2 (3 %), which reflects the values currently required for a traditional limestone aggregate. In any case, all three samples comply with the flakiness index values currently required for road pavements to obtain proper wear resistance. The results of the Absorption Coefficient are reported in Fig. 13. Sample 2 returned the lowest WA coefficient value equal to 0.5 %, in line with the value today required for a limestone aggregate destined to road pavement. Concerning Sample 1 and Sample 3, they returned respec­ tively an WA coefficient value of 2.4 % and 7.7 %; this is due to the presence of the porosity on the surface of the particle able to absorb more water than Sample 2, which visually shows a porosity-free surface. These results indicate that, over time, the limestone aggregate layer beneath the stone pavement has effectively functioned as a waterproof barrier, limiting vertical water infiltration and thereby ensuring the 7 S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 Fig. 8. Property set. tested through the Los Angeles test. The results reported in Fig. 14 demonstrate that all three samples do not have a good resistance to abrasion since all the results are above an LA value equal to 30 %. This effect is more evident after freeze–thaw cycling since all the samples returned a loss of LA, in particular of 16, 6 and 9 % for Sample 1, Sample 2 and Sample 3 respectively. The variation in LA highlights the results obtained in terms of ab­ sorption coefficient as Sample 2 showed a lower susceptibility to water due to its lower porosity compared to the other samples tested. These results are consistent with modern expectations regarding the use of lightweight (porous and friable) volcanic materials. These findings help explain why such materials were not placed in direct contact with pedestrian and vehicular traffic in antiquity, and why stone paving was instead adopted as the surface layer exposed to Table 1 Excavation timeline fed in Naviswork. Construction site time phases Description t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 Initial state, before excavation Excavation around the flagstones First flagstone lifted Second flagstone lifted Third flagstone lifted Fourth flagstone lifted Fifth flagstone lifted In-depth excavation protection of the underlying layers. Lastly, the mechanical resistance of the three aggregate samples was Fig. 9. Construction site time phases: (a) Overview of the excavation area before work began (t0); (b) First phase of excavation around the flagstones (t1); (c) Lifting the first paving stone (t2); (d) Lifting the second paving stone (t3); (e) Lifting the third paving stone (t4); (f) Lifting the fourth paving stone (t5); (g) Lifting the fifth paving stone (t6); (h) In-depth excavation (t7). 8 S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 mechanical characterization of the aggregates forming the different stratigraphic layers demonstrates that Roman road construction was carried out with a high level of technical awareness and craftsmanship, particularly in the selection and functional arrangement of materials. The experimental results highlight a clear differentiation between layers in terms of grain-size distribution, particle shape, water absorp­ tion, resistance to fragmentation, and durability. The presence of massive stone paving at the surface, combined with a deeper stratified structure, confirms that Roman builders intentionally separated wearresistant materials from those responsible for distribution and drainage. This construction logic anticipates several principles of mod­ ern pavement engineering, despite the absence of formalized design standards or mechanical testing procedures in antiquity. The results further suggest that such design choices contributed to minimizing maintenance requirements over time, as evidenced by the long-term preservation of Pompeii’s paved streets. Beyond material characterization, this work demonstrates the con­ crete potential of digitizing archaeological investigations through a Fig. 10. Excavation depth of the three samples. movement. In particular, since ancient times, Roman builders demon­ strated a sound understanding of material selection along the depth of pavement structures. Moreover, the geographical and climatic context of Pompeii did not pose significant construction constraints, allowing these construction choices to be implemented effectively. The summary data of these results were loaded into the information model built according to the Building Information Modelling method­ ological approach (see section 3.6). BIM was not used merely as a representational tool, but as an inte­ grated information system capable of organizing geometric, archaeo­ logical, and mechanical data, as well as simulating excavation processes. The resulting model provides a structured digital archive of the inter­ vention and represents a reusable basis for future analyses, monitoring activities, or conservation-oriented decision-making. Conclusions This study investigated the stratigraphy and mechanical properties of materials composing an ancient Roman road in Via del Foro, Pompeii, through an integrated approach combining archaeological excavation, laboratory testing, and Building Information Modeling (BIM). The Fig. 12. Shape and Flakiness Indices results. Fig. 11. Grading curve of the three samples: a) Sample 3 at 50 cm digging depth, b) Sample 2 at 80 cm digging depth and c) Sample 3 at 150 cm digging depth. 9 S.A. Biancardo et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 36 (2026) 101830 Fig. 13. Water Absorption coefficient value of the three samples. Fig. 14. LA test results and durability comparisons. Heritage Building Information Modeling (H-BIM) approach. The BIM model developed in this study serves as a structured digital represen­ tation of the excavated road section, capable of storing and organizing geometric data, stratigraphic interpretation, and laboratory-derived mechanical properties within a single information environment. In this sense, BIM is not limited to visualization, but functions as a comprehensive digital archive supporting the documentation and interpretation of archaeological data. In addition, the implementation of a 4D BIM simulation allowed the reconstruction and visualization of excavation and paving-stone lifting phases as a temporal sequence, enhancing the understanding of the archaeological process and the spatial–temporal relationships between construction elements. This approach supports more informed analysis of excavation strategies and provides an effective tool for communi­ cating complex stratigraphic information. The Building Information Model is intended as an operational tool for integrating heterogeneous datasets and simulating archaeological processes: hosted on a cloud-based platform, it can be continuously updated and reused, representing a reliable and evolving database to support future investigations, monitoring activities, maintenance plan­ ning, and conservation-oriented decision-making by institutions man­ aging archaeological sites. Finally, this study emphasizes the importance of road infrastructures within archaeological heritage, which are often overshadowed by monumental architecture despite their crucial role in urban organiza­ tion and construction technology. By focusing on stone-paved streets, the proposed approach contributes to a more comprehensive under­ standing of ancient urban systems. Overall, the integration of laboratory-based mechanical analysis with H-BIM offers a transferable and data-driven methodology for the study, management, and preser­ vation of linear heritage assets in archaeological contexts. CRediT authorship contribution statement S.A. Biancardo: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Conceptualization. M. Intignano: Visuali­ zation, Validation, Software, Data curation. R. Veropalumbo: Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Data curation. Antonino Russo: Writing – review & editing, Data curation. V. Calvanese: Writing – re­ view & editing, Data curation. F. Giuliani: Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition. G. Dell’Acqua: Supervi­ sion, Resources, Conceptualization. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. 10 S.A. 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