Preliminaries, https://rumfa.org.ng Department of Arts and Humanities, School of Continuing Education, Bayero University, Kano, Series IV No. 2 RUMFA JOURNAL OF ARTS https://rumfa.org.ng Vol. 4, No. 2, January, 2026, https://rumfa.org.ng © Published by the Department of Arts and Humanities School of Continuing Education Bayero University, Kano P.M.B. BUK 3011 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251, https://rumfa.org.ng i Preliminaries, https://rumfa.org.ng © 2026 Department of Arts and Humanities School of Continuing Education Bayero University, Kano- Nigeria https://rumfa.org.ng All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, shared, stored in a retrieved system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISSN: 2992-4251 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251, https://rumfa.org.ng ii Preliminaries, https://rumfa.org.ng RUMFA Journal of Arts Department of Arts and Humanities P.M.B. BUK 3011 EDITORIAL BOARD Dr. Abdulkadir Usman Isma’il Editor – in –Chief Prof. Hafiz Yusuf Imam Member Dr. Sulaiman Salihu Imam –Akiki Member Dr. Abdulmumin Muhammad Member Dr. Umar Bawa Musa Member Dr. Abdallah Usman Umar Member Dr. Shamsuddeen Rabiu Muhammad Member Dr. Laure Jibril Garba Member EDITORIAL ADVISORS Prof. Usman Da’u Aliyu Bayero University, Kano Prof. Jafar Makau Kaura Usmanu Danfodio University, Sokoto Prof. Salisu Ahmad Yakasai Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto Prof. Iliyasu Abbas Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Prof. Salihu Lawal Malumfashi Bayero University, Kano Prof. Usman Sani Abbas Bayero University, Kano Prof. Abdulhameed Abubakar University of Maiduguri Prof. Hafiz Yusuf Imam Bayero University, Kano Dr. Mustapha Muhammad Qasim Bayero University, Kano Dr. Ahmad Muhammad Gusau Federal University, Dutsin-ma Dr. Muhammad Sani Mukhtar Kaduna State University, Kaduna Dr. Munir Muhammad Bakura Federal University, Gusau Dr. BelloYakeen University of Ilorin Dr. Ezekiel Bolaji Lagos State University of Education Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251, https://rumfa.org.ng iii Preliminaries, https://rumfa.org.ng EDITORIAL COMMENT The Rumfa Journal of Arts, Bayero University, Kano (RUMJABUK) is a peer-reviewed academic journal of the Department of Arts and Humanities, School of Continuing Education (SCE), Bayero University, Kano. Established to advance knowledge, foster rigorous scholarly inquiry, and provide a reputable forum for intellectual engagement, the journal publishes research across all disciplines of the Arts and Humanities, including Arabic, English, Hausa, Literature, Culture, Folklore, History, Linguistics, Islamic Studies, Translation Studies, and related fields. Rumfa Journal is committed to maintaining the high standards expected of internationally recognized academic publications. For the 2026 edition, all manuscripts were evaluated by independent, highly qualified reviewers from accredited universities and tertiary institutions in strict accordance with internationally accepted principles of academic publishing. The review process was conducted with the utmost objectivity, fairness, and scholarly integrity. The Editorial Board congratulates authors whose papers have been accepted for publication and encourages contributors whose submissions did not meet the required standards to carefully consider reviewers’ feedback and undertake the necessary revisions for future submission. It is hoped that this edition of the Rumfa Journal of Arts will be intellectually stimulating, academically enriching, and professionally rewarding for its readership. The editors’ express sincere appreciation to all contributors for their commitment to scholarly excellence and to the sustained quality of the journal. The Editorial Board also acknowledges, with deep gratitude, the Vice-Chancellor, Professor Haruna Musa, the Management of Bayero University, the Dean of the School of Continuing Education, and the staff of the Department of Arts and Humanities for their invaluable guidance, institutional support, and encouragement. May Almighty Allah continue to grant wisdom, guidance, and success to all engaged in this noble academic enterprise. Dr. Abdulkadir Usman Isma’il Editor – in -Chief January, 2026 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251, https://rumfa.org.ng iv Preliminaries, https://rumfa.org.ng About Rumfa Journal: The Rumfa Journal of Arts is a peer-reviewed academic publication of the Department of Arts and Humanities, School of Continuing Education, Bayero University, Kano. The journal is published annually and provides a platform for scholarly contributions in Arabic, English, Islamic Studies, History, Hausa, and other disciplines related to the Arts and Humanities. Articles may be submitted in English, Arabic, or Hausa. Guidelines for Contributors Manuscripts must be original and should not have been previously published in a journal or conference proceedings, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere. Research should demonstrate originality, sound methodology, and be free from grammatical, spelling, and typographical errors. Manuscripts should be between 10 and 15 pages, typed in MS Word. English and Hausa manuscripts should use Times New Roman, size 12; Arabic manuscripts should use Traditional Arabic, size 16. Submissions may be written in English, Arabic, or Hausa. Both APA and MLA referencing styles are accepted. Each manuscript must include an abstract of no more than 150 words. The cover page must include the author’s full name of the author, institution or place of work, and email address. Fees: Submission fee: ₦5,000 (Six Thousand Naira Only), non-refundable Publication fee for accepted articles: ₦25,000 (Twenty Thousand Naira Only) Manuscripts should be submitted via email to:
[email protected], https://rumfa.org.ng Dr. Shasuddeen Rabiu Muhammad Secretary Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251, https://rumfa.org.ng v Preliminaries, https://rumfa.org.ng Contents SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 Content Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal’s Hausa Girl Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficienc Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cimma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251, Pages 1 – 10 11 – 27 28 – 40 41 – 59 60 – 76 77 -99 100 – 113 114 – 128 129 – 141 142 - 159 160 – 170 171 - 185 186 - 197 198 – 207 208 – 217 218 – 232 https://rumfa.org.ng vi Preliminaries, 16 17 https://rumfa.org.ng Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ’s Plays Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Americanah Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251, 233 -249 250 -265 https://rumfa.org.ng vii Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano THE ROLE OF THE MUSLIM STUDENTS’ SOCIETY OF NIGERIA (MSSN) IN CURBING IMMORALITY AMONG STUDENTS OF BAYERO UNIVERSITY KANO By Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani Islamic Studies Unit Department of Arts and Humanities School of Continuing Education Bayero University, Kano
[email protected]Abubakar Muhammad Baba M.A Student Department of Islamic Studies and Shari’ah Bayero University, Kano. Academic Staff of Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education, Kano ABSTRACT This paper examines the role of the Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria (MSSN) in curbing immorality among students of Bayero University, Kano (BUK). Using a mixed-methods approach archival review, document analysis, and semi-structured interviews with MSSN leaders and selected students, the study explores MSSN’s historical mission, programmes (religious instruction, counselling, outreach, peer regulation), and perceived impact on students’ moral behavior. Findings indicate that MSSN at BUK has sustained a visible presence through regular religious programmes, peer counselling, public campaigns, and inter-society collaborations that promote Islamic ethics and discipline. However, structural constraints (limited funding, varying student commitment, campus-wide social influences) moderate its effectiveness. The paper concludes with recommendations for strengthening MSSN’s preventive and rehabilitative strategies and for collaborative universitysociety partnerships to improve moral outcomes on campuses. Keywords: MSSN, Bayero University Kano, Immorality, Student Introduction Universities are formative environments where young adults consolidate values, form identities, and face moral choices. In Nigeria, faith-based student organizations have historically played a very significant role in providing spiritual guidance and moral formation. The Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria (MSSN), established in the mid-twentieth century, is among the most prominent of such organizations; it aims to consolidate Islamic identity among Muslim students, provide religious education, and promote ethical conduct. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 1 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano ُ ی یه ِع َّ َّإِن َّون َِّ ه ۡٱنفه ۡحش ۤها َِّء هو ۡٱن ُمى هك َِّش هو ۡٱنبه ۡغ َِّ ع َّٰ ً هویه ۡى هه َّٰ ه هوإِیخ ۤهايَّ رِی ۡٱنقُ ۡشبه َِّ س ٰـ َِّ له یه ۡأ ُم َُّش بِ ۡٲنعه ۡذಕٱ ظ ُك َّۡم نهعهه ُك َّۡم حهزهك ُش ه ً ه ٱۡل ۡح ه ِ ۡ ل هو [Surah An-Naḥl: 90] ―Indeed, Allah commands justice, the doing of good, and liberality to kith and kin, and He forbids all shameful deeds, injustice, and rebellion.‖ (Qur’an 16:90) The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said: ―I was sent only to perfect good character.‖ (Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith No. 273) This paper investigates how MSSN at Bayero University, Kano (BUK) works to curb immorality among students, what strategies it deploys, and how students and stakeholders perceive its effectiveness. The study addresses three research questions: what programmes and strategies does MSSN at BUK use to address immorality? How effective are these interventions from the perspectives of students and MSSN leaders? and what institutional and social factors strengthen or limit MSSN’s capacity to shape moral behavior? Background and Rationale MSSN was founded in the 1950s to respond to the religious and moral needs of Muslim students in colonial schools, and has since become a nationwide organization with branches in universities across Nigeria. Its historical mission combines religious education with social activities aimed at shaping Muslim identity and conduct. The Qur’an reminds the faithful of their duty in social reform: َِّ ع َّوف هویه ۡى هه ۡى ه َِّ ون ِب ۡٲن همعۡ ُش َّىن ِإنهً ۡٱنخ ۡهی َِّش هویه ۡأ ُم ُش ه َّع ه (ىن َّك ُه َُّم ۡٱن ُم ۡف ِه ُح ه َّه ۡٱن ُمى هك َِّش هوأ ُ ۟ونه ٰۤـى ه ُ ) هو ۡنخ ه ُكه ِ ّمى ُك َّۡم أُمتࣱ یه ۡذ ن ه [Surah Āli-ʿImrān: 104] ―Let there arise from you a group of people inviting to all that is good, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong; and it is they who are successful.‖(Qur’an 3:104) Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 2 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano The presence of MSSN at BUK is consistent with this national network and has included routine religious programmes, advocacy, and collaboration with university authorities. Contemporary concerns about student immorality on Nigerian campuses—often discussed in relation to sexual behaviour, substance misuse, dress codes, and academic misconduct—motivate the inquiry into the role of student religious bodies. Empirical studies report significant levels of sexual activity and risky sexual behaviour among Nigerian tertiary students, alongside other moral and social challenges; these findings underline the need for active moral education and prevention on campuses. Literature Review MSSN: Origins, Mission, and National Role Scholars such as Balogun (2019) document MSSN’s evolution from a small group of devout students into a nationwide Islamic reformist movement. Its objectives include promoting Islamic education, unity, and moral discipline. The Prophet (peace be upon him) emphasized brotherhood and moral support: ―Support your brother, whether he is an oppressor or oppressed.‖ (Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith No. 2443) This Hadith inspires MSSN’s approach of mutual correction and moral accountability within the student body. Scholars have documented MSSN’s evolution from a student organization in the 1950s into a broad movement with influence on religious life in Nigeria’s tertiary institutions. MSSN’s stated objectives emphasize the Qur’anic and Prophetic model of character, the provision of religious instruction, and the encouragement of moral conduct among Muslim students. Historical and ethnographic accounts highlight how MSSN adapted to regional variations and changing student demographics while maintaining a core focus on Islamic reform and identity formation. Faith-Based Student Organizations and Moral Formation The literature on religion and moral education in higher education suggests that faith organizations can affect behavior by offering: Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 3 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano (a) Religious instructions and normative frameworks; (b) Supportive peer networks that model desired conducts; (c) Counselling and pastoral care; and (d) structured programmes that provide alternative social outlets (seminars, study groups, volunteering). Effectiveness depends on organizational capacity, credibility among students, and alignment with broader campus policies. Empirical studies indicate that student religious groups often reduce engagement in certain risk behaviours but cannot fully counteract broader social and economic drivers. These align with Islamic teachings encouraging believers to guide one another: ىن ٱنصهه ٰىَّة ه َّه ۡٱن ُمى هك َِّش هویُ ِقی ُم ه َِّ ع َّوف هویه ۡى هه ۡى ه َِّ ون بِ ۡٲن همعۡ ُش َّض ُه َّۡم أ ه ۡو ِنیه ۤا َُّء بهعۡ ضࣱَّۚ یه ۡأ ُم ُش ه َُّ ىن هو ۡٱن ُم ۡؤ ِمىه ٰـ َّ) هو ۡٱن ُم ۡؤ ِمىُ ه ُ ۡج بهع ن ه َّ ىن َّىن ٱنض هك ٰىَّة ه هوی ُِطیعُ ه َّهوی ُۡؤح ُ ه َّ َّلُ ِإنಕٱ َّس هی ۡش هح ُم ُه َُّم ه َّسىنه ۤۥهَُّۚ أ ُ ۟ونه ٰۤـى ه (ࣱع ِضیضَّ هح ِكیم ُ له هو هسಕٱ له هಕٱ ك ه [Surah At-Tawbah: 71] ―The believers, men and women, are protectors one of another; they enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong.‖(Qur’an 9:71) Campus Immorality: Prevalence and Patterns in Nigeria Research into Nigerian university students’ reports varied prevalence of premarital sexual activity, multiple these behaviors have implications for students’ health, academic success, and campus climate. Factors influencing immorality include peer pressure, urbanization, media exposure, poverty, and lack of access to consistent moral education. Interventions by student religious bodies are, therefore, part of a multi-dimensional response. Studies highlight the prevalence of premarital sexual activity, drug use, and academic dishonesty (Yusuf, 2018). Such moral decay stems from peer pressure, social media influence, and inadequate religious instruction. The Qur’an condemns lewdness and indecency: ّ ِ ُىا ([Surah Al-Isrāʾ: 32]سبِیمࣱا َّٱنضو ٰۤهًَّۚ إِو ۥهُ هك ه َّ۟ ل ح ۡهق هشب َّ ) هو ه سَّۤا هءَّ ه ان فه ٰـ ِحشهتࣱ هو ه ―And do not approach unlawful sexual intercourse. Indeed, it is ever an immorality and is evil as a way.‖(Qur’an 17:32) Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 4 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano Therefore, religious societies like MSSN serve as moral shields for students navigating these challenges. Conceptual Framework The study adopts a socio-ecological framework that situates student behaviour within nested layers: individual (beliefs, knowledge), interpersonal (peer groups, MSSN networks), institutional (university policies and environment), and societal (media, culture). MSSN’s interventions operate primarily at the interpersonal and institutional levels—shaping peer norms, providing education, and engaging with university authorities. Methodology Research Design A mixed-methods approach was used these are; i. Document and archival analysis of MSSN publications, BUK bulletins and reports; ii. Semi-structured interviews with MSSN leaders and purposive interviews with twenty students (both MSSN members and non-members) to understand perceptions; and iii. Participant observation of MSSN public events where feasible (e.g., Jumu’ah programs, seminars). University bulletins and MSSN chapter announcements were reviewed to map activities over the last five years. (BUK bulletins and MSSN chapter posts were consulted for corroboration.) Sampling and Data Collection Interviews: Ten MSSN office bearers (current and recent past) and twenty students selected to include gender balance and both active and less active students. Documents: MSSN National History, MSSN BUK announcements and social media posts, BUK Student Affairs Bulletins. Ethical Considerations: Verbal informed consent was obtained; anonymity and confidentiality were preserved. Some MSSN Programmes at BUK There are numerous programmes attached to MSSN at BUK. The following are the most popular and commonly practiced; Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 5 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano Religious Instruction and Ta’lim: Weekly tafsir sessions, halaqas, and special Ramadan programmes are routinely organized by MSSN BUK. These sessions emphasize Qur’anic morals, prophetic ethics, and discussions on contemporary moral dilemmas. Peer Counselling and Pastoral Care: MSSN leaders provide peer counselling on personal, marital (for married students), and academic issues. The Shurah (advisory council) acts as a first-line intervention for behavioural complaints. Public Campaigns and Seminars: MSSN organizes seminars on topics such as chastity, modesty in dress, and the dangers of substance abuse. These events frequently coincide with orientation weeks and religious calendars. Social Activities and Alternatives: MSSN runs socially engaging events— academic competitions, debate clubs, and community service—that offer alternatives to less desirable social scenes. Perceptions of Effectiveness Positive Perceptions: MSSN members report that the society strengthens personal piety, increases religious knowledge, and offers a support network that deters risky behavior. Several interviewees credited MSSN with helping students avoid academic dishonesty and impure social engagements. Hence, proving as ambassadors of Islam and Bayero University Kano. Limitations Noted: Non-members and some MSSN alumni expressed that while MSSN influences those already inclined toward religious adherence, it has limited reach among students heavily influenced by peer groups, social media, or economic pressures. Resource constraints (small budgets for outreach), turnover of student leaders, and inconsistent engagement reduce long-term continuity. Impacts on Specific Forms of Immorality Sexual Misconduct: While MSSN promotes chastity and awareness of sexual consequences, broader studies indicate a persistent level of risky sexual behavior among Nigerian undergraduates; MSSN’s interventions are preventive for some but do not eliminate occurrences. MSSN’s emphasis on chastity influences members’ attitudes. Qur’an 24:30–31 instructs believers to lower their gaze and guard their modesty. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 6 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano ُ ص ٰـ ِشه َِّۡم هویه ۡحفه َّ۟ ظ َّۡ ُّىا ِم َّ۟ یه یهغُض َّ)قُم ِنّ ۡه ُم ۡؤ ِمىِ ه َّٰ ك أ ه ۡص هك َّۚ ِن ه َّٰ ىا فُ ُشو هج ُه َّۡم َّره َّ ًَّ نه ُه َّۡم ِإن (ىن َّیشَّ ِب هما یهصۡ ىهعُ ه ُ له هخ ِبಕٱ ه أ ه ۡب ه [Surah An-Nūr: 30] ِیه ِصیىهخ ه ُههَّ إِلَّ هما ه ۡ ظ هه هَّش ِم ۡى ههاَّ هو ۡنیه ۡ ض َّض ِش ۡب هه َّل ی ُۡبذ ه َّ ه فُ ُشو هج ُههَّ هو ه َّص ٰـ ِشهِهَّ هویه ۡحفه ۡظ ه َّۡ ه ِم َّض ه َِّ ) هوقُم ِنّ ۡه ُم ۡؤ ِمىه ٰـ ُ ج یه ۡغ ه أ ه ۡب ه َِّیه ِصیىهخ ه ُههَّ ِإلَّ ِنبُعُىنهخِ ِههَّ أهوَّۡ هءابه ۤاى ِههَّ أهوَّۡ هءابه ۤا َِّء بُعُىنهخِ ِههَّ أهوَّۡ أ ه ۡبى ۤهاى ِههَّ أهوَّۡ أ ه ۡبى ۤها َِّء بُعُىنهخِ ِهه َّل ی ُۡبذ ه َّ ً ُجیُى ِب ِههَّ هو ه َّٰ عهه ِب ُخ ُم ِشهِهَّ ه یه غ ۡهی َِّش أ ُ ۟و ِنی َّج أ ه ۡی هم ٰـىُ ُههَّ أ ه َِّو ٱنخ ٰـبِ ِع ه َّۡ س ۤاى ِههَّ أهوَّۡ هما همهه هك َّٰ هى َّی أهخ ه َّۤ ِۚ وِ ِههَّ أهوَّۡ بهى َّٰ ی إِ ۡخ هَّى َّۤ ِۚ وِ ِههَّ أهوَّۡ بهى َّٰ أهوَّۡ إِ ۡخ هَّى ۚ حِ ِههَّ أهوَّۡ وِ ه ّ ِ ل أ ه َِّو ۡ ل هی َّه ِبأ ه ۡس ُج ِه ِههَّ ِنیُعۡ هه هَّم هما ی ُۡخ ِف ه یه َّض ِش ۡب ه َّ س ۤا َِّء هو ه َِّ ۚ َّٰ ع ۡى هَّس َّٰ عهه َّ۟ ِیه نه َّۡم هی ۡظ هه ُش َّم ٱنز ه َِّ ٱنط ۡف َِّ ٱنش هجا َّٱۡل ۡس هب َِّت ِم ه ِّ ه ً ه وا ه ث ٱن ِىّ ه ِۡ (ىن َّىن نه هعه ُك َّۡم ح ُ ۡف ِه ُح ه َّلِ هج ِمیعًا أهیُّ َّهه ۡٱن ُم ۡؤ ِمىُ هಕٱ َّ ًِمه ِصیىهخِ ِههَّ هوحُىب ُۤىَّ۟ا ِإنه [Surah An-Nūr: 31] Academic Misconduct: MSSN’s emphasis on honesty and integrity has some influence on reducing examination misconduct among active members, and MSSN leaders sometimes liaise with faculty to mediate student issues. Members are often reminded that dishonesty violates the Prophet’s teaching: ―He who deceives us is not one of us.‖ (Sahih Muslim, Hadith No. 102) Indecent Dressing: Through lectures and posters, MSSN campaigns for modesty in line with Qur’an 33:59, which commands believing women to dress modestly for dignity and protection. َّٰۤ ك أ ه ۡدو َّۚ ِن ه َّٰ عهه ۡی ِههَّ ِمه هجهه ٰـ ِبی ِب ِههَّ َّره َّل ی ُۡؤره ۡی ههه َّ ه فه ه َّهً أهن یُعۡ هش ۡف ه َُّّ ) هی ٰۤـأهیُّ هها ٱنى ِب َّیه ی ُۡذ ِو ه َّس ۤا َِّء ۡٱن ُم ۡؤ ِم ِى ه َّك هوبهىها ِح ه َّۚ ِج ه َّٰ ی قُم ِّّل ه ۡص هَّو یه ه ك هو ِو ه لُ هಕٱ ( [Surah Al-Aḥzāb: 59]غفُىسࣱا س ِحیمࣱا َّ ان َّهو هك ه Strengths of MSSN at BUK It is argue that the positive impact of the activities of MSSN in BUK is one of the special features which make BUK popular in Nigeria and beyond Institutional Legacy and Moral Authority: MSSN draws on a long national history and is seen as an authoritative voice on Islamic ethics among many Muslim students. Its programming—ta’lim, counselling, public lectures—aligns with best practices for moral education (knowledge + social support). Peer Influence Mechanism: MSSN’s peer networks provide social reinforcement for ethical norms, a mechanism known to be effective in youth behavior change. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 7 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano Visibility and Collaboration: Regular interactions with faculty and student affairs offices (as documented in university bulletins) allow MSSN to influence policy discourse and participate in student welfare initiatives. Constraints and Areas for Improvement Limited Reach and Engagement: MSSN’s most intensive influence is on selfselecting members. Reaching unaffiliated students requires varied outreach approaches sensitive to modern communication channels. Resource and Capacity Limits: Financial and logistical limitations constrain programme scale and continuity. Leadership transition (as student leaders graduate) causes discontinuities. Broader Social Forces: Factors such as media exposure, economic need, and urban nightlife challenge MSSN’s moral messaging. Comprehensive strategies need to address structural drivers beyond religious instruction alone. Implications; the socio-ecological framing suggests that MSSN’s interpersonal and institutional efforts are necessary but not sufficient. Effective moral change on campuses requires multi-stakeholder collaboration: MSSN, university administration, counseling services, parents, and community partners. Conclusion The Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria at Bayero University, Kano plays a significant and positive role in promoting Islamic ethics, offering peer support, and organizing educational activities that deter immoral behaviors among participating students. However, its full potential is curtailed by constraints such as limited reach, resource shortages, and strong external social pressures. Strengthening MSSN’s institutional partnerships, expanding outreach, and implementing monitoring systems can enhance its impact. Ultimately, addressing immorality on campus requires combined efforts from student organisations, university systems, families, and society at large. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 8 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano Recommendations Based on the following the paper would like to offer the following recommendation i. Strengthen Collaboration with University Authorities: Formal partnership with BUK’s student affairs and counselling units to co-design programmes that target at-risk populations. ii. Expand Peer Education and Training: Train peer educators in counselling, referral procedures, and inclusive outreach to engage non-members. iii. Use Multimedia and Digital Outreach: Adopt social media campaigns and podcasts that speak to contemporary student concerns and counter harmful narratives. iv. Sustain Leadership through Institutional Memory: Establish handover protocols, documentation of programmes, and mentorship by alumni to reduce disruptions from leadership turnover. v. Monitoring and Evaluation: Implement simple M&E frameworks to track attendance, behavioural indicators, and referrals—build an evidence base for programme effectiveness. vi. Holistic Approach: Coordinate with health services and academic departments to address sexual health, mental health, and socioeconomic drivers of immoral behavior. Limitations of the Study This study relied on purposive sampling and qualitative interviews at a single university chapter, limiting generalizability. Quantitative prevalence estimates of immoral behaviors were not generated from primary survey work in this study; rather, the paper references existing empirical studies on student sexual behavior and related issues. Future research could include a campus-wide survey and longitudinal follow-up. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 9 Dr. Tijjani Alhaji Sani & Abubakar Muhammad Baba; The Role Of The Muslim Students’ Society Of Nigeria (MSSN) In Curbing Immorality Among Students of Bayero University Kano REFERENCES Al-bukhari, M.I. (1987). Aljami as-Sahih Al-Mukhtar. Vol. 8, Bairut, Dar Ibn Kaseer. Balogun, A. S. (2019). Being a Good Muslim: The Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria (MSSN) Islamic Reform and Religious Change in Yoruba land, 1954–2014. PhD Theses, University of Bayreuth. BUK. (2024-2025). History.‖ MSSN A-Zone / MSSN National History Pages. MSSN. Bayero University Kano Bulletins and Student Affairs Publications Bayero University, Official Bulletins. Sulaiman, A. A. & Aminu M. K. (2018). The Role of MSSN in Moral and Religious Development among Students. Journal of Islamic Studies and Education. Vol. 5, No. 2. Tijjani, A.S. (2017). An Analytical Study of the Islamic Culture in Zamfara StateNigeria: Milestone, Prominent Scholars and Institutions From 1960 – 2012. Unpublished PhD theses Submitted to the department of Islamic Studies and shari’ah, Bayero University, Kano. Yusuf, A. (2018) Faith-Based Student Movements and Moral Reform in Nigerian Universities. Nigerian Journal of Religious Studies. Vol. 12, No. 1. Muslim, A.H. Sahih Muslim. Dar - Al-jeeel, Bairut, Lebanun. MSSN, (2013) Muslim Students’ Society of Nigeria Bye-Law. National Secretariat Publication. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 10 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions DECOLONIZING AFRICAN ISLAMIC HISTORIOGRAPHY: ITS CHALLENGES, OPPORTUNITIES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS BY DR. IBRAHIM ALHAJI ISA ALHAJI BABA MUHAMMAD Department of Islamic Studies, Yusuf Maitama Sule Federal University of Education, Kano State-Nigeria
[email protected]/
[email protected]PhD Candidate, Bayero University, Kano, Faculty of Islamic Studies and Shari’ah, Department of Islamic Studies
[email protected]Abstract This paper attempts to highlight on the decolonization of African Historiography on Islamic perspective. It aimed to challenge the dominant Eurocentric western views and promote a more balanced understanding of African Islamic Historiography and culture. The study scrutinizes the historical context of African Islamic historiography and analyzes the European intrusion into Islamic Historiography. It also explores the roles of Muslim historians in developing and maintaining sound historical narratives written by native African scholars. The research adopted a qualitative method, which includes descriptive, historical and analytical approaches. It found out that, the Glorious Qur’an and Sunnah provide divine legitimacy for moral and historical truth in narrative construction. Therefore, Ajami literature mirrors original Islamic Historiographies, often ignored and misrepresented in the Western/colonial academic circles. Moreover, decolonizing African Historiography needs to adopt a multidisciplinary approach, this means to study African History, particularly Islamic History and its culture through the divine sources and literature interpreted by the indigenous works of Muslim scholars in the region. It also explores that Islamic Historiography in Africa preexisted colonialism and must be recognized as an authentic intellectual tradition. The paper concludes that decolonizing African historiography is a ladder towards promoting a more inclusive and equitable representations of African histories and culture. Finally, it recommends the integration of Afrocentric historical narratives into African History curricula and research as long as they met the criteria for Islamic principles, so that national, Ministries of education and universities can integrate African-centered material, oral sources and indigenous knowledge into history curricula. Keywords: Islam, Historiography, Africa, Decolonizing and Challenges Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 i Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions Introduction Historiography, the study of historical writing and methods, has long been shaped by dominant epistemological paradigms rooted in European Enlightenment thought. In the African context, the colonial enterprise significantly restructured knowledge systems by devaluing indigenous intellectual traditions, including Islamic historiography and privileging European archives and documentation methods. This epistemic reconfiguration marginalized not only oral traditions but also the rich corpus of Arabic and Ajami manuscripts produced by African Muslim scholars across centuries (Mazrui, 2005; Nobili, 2020). The colonial state, through educational and archival institutions, institutionalized a Eurocentric historical narrative that undermined the legitimacy of Islamic sources and methodologies. As a result, the historiography of Islam in Africa became filtered through foreign lenses, which often portrayed African Muslim societies as passive recipients of Islam, rather than dynamic agents in shaping Islamic thought and civilization. Islamic historiography in Africa has deep roots, particularly in West Africa, where cities like Timbuktu, Kano, Katsina, Agadez, and Sokoto served as intellectual hubs for centuries. Scholars in these centers produced thousands of manuscripts covering jurisprudence (fiqh), theology (ʿaqīdah), biography (sīrah), governance (siyāsah), astronomy and more (Hunwick, 1995; Robinson, 2004). The works of prominent scholars like Aḥmad Bābā al-Timbuktī, ʿUthmān dan Fodio and Sheikh Ibrāhīm Niasse represent a sophisticated intellectual tradition that predates and outlives colonial impositions. These works were not only religious treatises but also historical commentaries reflecting African agency, memory and identity. Despite this, they were systematically excluded from colonial archival projects and academic discourse, which privileged European documentary methods and often characterized Islam in Africa as peripheral or derivative (Loimeier, 2013). The call for decolonizing African Islamic historiography is part of a broader intellectual movement aimed at reclaiming African voices, epistemologies and historical narratives. Decolonization in this context entails challenging the epistemic dominance of Western methodologies, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 11 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions reintegrating indigenous Islamic sources into mainstream academic discourse and legitimizing oral traditions and manuscript cultures as valid sources of historical knowledge (Mudimbe, 1988; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2018). It also involves re-evaluating the disciplinary boundaries between history, religion and literature to better capture the complex interplay of belief, memory and identity in Islamic African societies. Furthermore, the contemporary landscape offers new opportunities for such a project. Advances in digital humanities, renewed interest in manuscript preservation, and the rise of indigenous academic movements create a conducive environment for challenging entrenched epistemic structures. However, the decolonization process is fraught with challenges, including lack of access to manuscripts, language barriers, limited institutional support and persistent academic gatekeeping that privileges Euro-American theoretical frameworks. This article aims to examine the historical development of African Islamic historiography, explore the impact of colonialism on its evolution and highlight both the challenges and opportunities of decolonizing the field today. It concludes with a roadmap for future directions, advocating for methodological pluralism, digital scholarship and the empowerment of African Muslim scholars in rearticulating their own histories. Background to the Study of African Islamic Historiography I. Concept of Islamic Historiography According to Hasan Mas‟ud, Islamic History is a record of the impact of Islam on Muslims and their environments. It seeks to study how Islam, through the course of history, has shaped the destiny of the people who believed in Islam. The history of Islam illustrates how Muslims were inspired to action, strengthened by Islamic teachings, and benefited from the exemplary lifestyles and lessons of earlier pious generations Hassan M. (1982). The relationship between history and historiography is both interconnected and interdependent. Although they are distinct concepts, history being the actual record of past events and historiography the writing and interpretation of history, they share key similarities that shape the way scholars understand and reconstruct the past. One essential similarity lies in Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 12 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions their mutual concern with understanding the past. Both history and historiography are rooted in the investigation of past human experiences. History provides raw material events, figures and developments while historiography offers the analytical framework through which these elements are interpreted and structured. As Georg G. Iggers (2005) notes, “Historiography is not merely a record of events, but an intellectual activity that shapes the way we perceive and remember the past”. Islamic historiography refers to the interpretation of history from an Islamic perspective. It places Almighty Allah at the center of history. In line with the above, Allah (SWT) says: ُ ٌْ ض فَ َي ً شدَّ ِه ٌْ ُه ْن قُ َّىة َ َ عاقِ َبتُ الَّذِييَ ِه ْي قَ ْب ِل ِه ْن َكاًُىا أ ُ أ َ َولَ ْن َيس ِ ِيزوا فِي ْاْل َ ْر َ َْف َكاى َ ظ ُزوا َكي َّ َث فَ َوا َكاى ِ سلُ ُه ْن بِ ْالبَيٌَِّا ُಕಒا ُ ع َو ُزوهَا َو َجا َءحْ ُه ْن ُر ُ َ َوأَث َ ع َو ُزوهَا أ َ ْكث َ َز ِه َّوا َ ض َو َ اروا ْاْل َ ْر ْ َس ُه ْن ي ْ َِلي )9( َظ ِل ُوىى َ ُظ ِل َو ُه ْن َولَ ِك ْي َكاًُىا أ َ ًْف Do they not travel in the land and see what the end of those before them was? They were superior to them in strength and they tilled the earth and populated it in greater numbers than these (pagans) have done and there came to them their Messengers with clear proofs. Surely, Allah wronged them not, but they used to wrong themselves (Surah Ar-Rum: 30:9). The above verse shows justice and the fair decision taken by Almighty Allah upon every community in accordance with their evils, since they were admonished to adhere with Allah's laws and they refused because of their disbelief and ignorance. He (SWT) also further says with regards to history as a means of moral instruction: صدِيقَ الَّذِي ْ َ ب َها َكاىَ َحدِيثًا يُ ْفخ ََزي َولَ ِك ْي ح ِ ص ِه ْن ِعب َْزة ٌ ِْلُو ِلي ْاْل َ ْلبَا ِ ص َ َلَقَ ْد َكاىَ فِي ق )111( ََيءٍ َو ُهدًي َو َرحْ َوتً ِلقَ ْى ٍم يُؤْ ِهٌُىى ِ بَيْيَ يَدَ ْي ِه َوح َ ْف ْ صي َل ُك ِّل ش Indeed, in their stories, there is a lesson for men of understanding. It (the Qur'an) is not a forged statement but a confirmation of the Allâh's existing Books [the Taurât (Torah), the Injeel (Gospel) and other Scriptures of Allâh] and a detailed explanation of everything and a guide and a Mercy for the people who believe. (SuratulYusuf :12: 11). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 13 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions However, Imam Al-Ghazali 2001) b.1058 AD d.1111 in Ihya’ Ulum ad-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) notes that history strengthens faith by showing how Allah‟s promises to the righteous are fulfilled, encouraging believers to remain steadfast in their trials. The above verse one may come to realizes that to uphold truth reflected in Islamic historiography integrates divine revelation, prophetic tradition and moral instruction “history as lesson” It emphasizes sacred meaning and ethical truth in narration. II. Decolonization in Islam This is the effort to clearing the Muslims‟ mind from colonial narratives and reconnecting them with divine sources of knowledge. Iqbal Muhammad (2013) asserted that” The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam” begins with reawakening the Muslim intellectual spirit. III. Pre- Colonial The Kanem Borno Empire and Sokoto Caliphate scholars have written and documented various books which includes comprehensive histories, biographies and Geographies that gave details on African Muslim societies. Meanwhile, non-African historians have made their contributions on the gesture such as, Abdullahi Smith, John Ellis Lavers, Murry Last and Hiskett Mervyn. Hiskett, M. (1984) in his book “The Development of Islam in West African” asserted that, Ajami writings in Hausa, Fulfulde and Kanuri languages reflects a mixture of Arabic- Islamic scholarship with African identity. IV. Colonial Despite the arrival of Islam into Africa in the seventh century Clarke, B. Peter: (1982) and the Savannah region of West Africa in the eighth century A.D., which was the date from which the written History of West Africa began, it has long been speculated by Europeans that Africa had no History due to the unavailability of European document evidence. According to Trevor- Roper (1965), „There is only the History of Europeans in Africa. The rest is darkness…. He later referred to Africa as “unscientific “or „unhistoric‟ .Therefore, George Hegel, (2001) in his book, titled: “Philosophy of History” uttered the following statement. “At this point we have to leave Africa … for it is no historical part of the world; it has no movement or development to exhibit. Historical movement in it, that is, in Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 14 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions its northern part, it belongs to the Asiatic or European world”. Various misconceptions and misinterpretations by Europeans on the concept of the Jihad, particularly the nineteenth century Jihad in West Africa and neglected its theme, were found through their writings. Similarly, the status of oral traditions as the source of History or otherwise became another problem, which led to European intrusion against African History. Nigeria was also among the target areas. Therefore, from the eighth up to the twentieth century, efforts were made on various responses by early and contemporary Muslim historians against European intrusion into Islamic History in Nigeria. This needs to be reviewed through the writings of contemporary Muslim European historians because of the gap and existing approaches used in the 21st century which will be crossexamined. European Intrusion in the Writings and Study of African Islamic Historiography: Post-Colonial I. Misrepresentation of Islamic Historical Facts Most of the Islamic intellectual legacies often ignored by modern academic historians. For instance, the Qur‟anic meanings Prophetic biographies and Islamic jurisprudence are rarely referenced in African historical studies. Thus, also often omit Islamic legal, spiritual and scholarly sources II. Language Barriers and Deficiency to Comprehend Concepts Secular terminology often fails to capture key Islamic concepts such as barakah (blessings) and niyyah (intention), because Western academic language lacks the spiritual and metaphysical dimensions found in Islamic historiography. This is because the mentioned concepts have no equivalents in secular terminology, which distorts Muslim Histories. III. Disintegration of Historical Memory of Muslim Lack of integration between Islamic education (madãris) and secular education has produced disjointed historical consciousness among African Muslims. Sheikh Uthman ibn Fodio (1984) warned, “A nation without history becomes a nation without direction. Therefore, Colonial curricula suppressed integration of Qur‟anic and secular education, weakening historical continuity. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 15 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions African Historiography Prior to the European Imperialism: Strengths and Weaknesses Recent scholarship has re-emphasized the sophistication of African historiography before European imperialism. Scholars highlight how oral traditions were not only mnemonic devices but also dynamic frameworks for collective memory and identity formation (Boahen, 2019). They functioned as community archives that encoded political legitimacy, cosmology, and social ethics (Osborn, 2020). Contemporary research also underscores the intellectual vibrancy of Islamic centers such as Timbuktu and Kano, where scholars engaged in jurisprudence, theology, and historiography (Brenner, 2016). The discovery and digitization of thousands of Ajami manuscripts has further revealed the depth of African written traditions, challenging colonial claims of a “preliterate” Africa (Bondarev, 2018). However, weaknesses remain evident in the pre-colonial historiographical framework. Oral traditions, while rich, were subject to contestation and fluidity, requiring critical methods of triangulation (Osborn, 2020). Similarly, manuscript cultures, although extensive, were often tied to elite scholars, limiting broader accessibility. These limitations underscore why a decolonial historiography must carefully balance oral, written and archaeological sources. Pioneers of Afrocentric Historians and their Roles in Debunking Eurocentric Views In the twenty-first century, Afrocentric historiography continues to expand its scope, building on the pioneering efforts of Sheikh Anta Diop, Jacob Ajayi, and others. Recent works argue that Afrocentric frameworks are not merely about correcting Eurocentric distortions but also about re-centering Africa in global intellectual history (Asante, 2017). Contemporary historians emphasize the global resonance of Afrocentric thought. Falola (2022) argues that Afrocentricity provides tools for reconstructing African agency in world history, while Ngugi wa Thiong‟o (2018) highlights the decolonization of knowledge through African languages. Modern Afrocentric historians have moved beyond nationalist narratives to embrace intersectional perspectives- Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 16 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions addressing issues of gender, class and diaspora within African historiography (Adi, 2018). Thus, the pioneering role of Afrocentric historians continued in contemporary debates, ensuring that Africa is understood as a subject of history rather than an object of colonial narratives. Contribution of Muslim Scholars to the Islamic Historiography in Africa The African Muslim historians play vital roles in developing and maintaining African heritage and Culture as Mazrui (2006) posit what implies a decolonization that “Islamization of knowledge is not merely Islamizing what others have said, but rethinking knowledge with the Qur‟an and Sunnah as paradigms.” I. Muslim Scholars Sheikh Uthman ibn Fodio is one of the African Muslim revivalists (1754–1817), who is seen as both a political and scholarly figure, produced historical, theological and legal texts, such as Bayan Wujub al-Hijra and Tazyin al-Waraqat, which have become foundational to the study of Islamic movements in West Africa, particularly in Northern Nigeria. These texts are frequently employed by historians, including those of his generation and contemporary, to trace the development of Islamic governance and reform. This study interrogates the historiographical use of Ibn Fodio's legacy and explore how his contributions are framed differently across various scholarly traditions. (Hiskett 1973). Another major figure in the modernization of Arabic and Islamic education in Nigeria, Sheikh Adam Abdullah al-Ilory emphasized historical consciousness alongside religious instruction. His legacy, particularly through his Markaz in Agege, demonstrates a Muslim scholarly tradition that actively engages in historical documentation and reform. Oloyede (2003). On the other hand, Sheikh Ibrahim Niasse (1900–1975), a Senegalese and a major leader of the Tijaniyyah sufi order, left behind a vast corpus of Arabic texts that offered a narrative to African Islamic historiography. His writings according to Ware (2014) he mentioned that, it reflected a Sufi intellectual tradition that has shaped Islamic identity in the region, providing a necessary balance to narratives that misrepresented Sufism in favor of reformist Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 17 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions movements. Furthermore, Muhammad Tukur Bature, a Sokoto-based Islamic historian, played an important role in preserving local Islamic manuscripts and offering indigenous perspectives on precolonial governance. His archival and historiographical efforts challenge dominant Eurocentric interpretations and support the research's objective of recovering misrepresented Muslim voices in historical writing, (Last 1992). Nevertheless, Muhammad al-Kanemi the scholar-ruler of Borno, engaged in extensive theological correspondence with the Sokoto leadership, particularly with Sheikh Uthman ibn Fodio and his successors. His writings offered insight into intra-Muslim debates on orthodoxy and political legitimacy, serving as primary sources that have been selectively interpreted by both Smith and Lavers (Last 1967). Collectively, these Muslim scholars provide diverse and original perspectives that expand the historiographical landscape. Their contributions are essential for a holistic understanding of Islamic History, particularly in Northern Nigeria and West Africa in general. II. The Glorious Qur’an as a Historical Source Recent scholarship emphasizes how African Muslim historians continue to use the Qur‟an as a hermeneutical tool for historical writing. (Abdallah, 2016) stressed that the Qur‟an‟s focus on memory and moral lessons remains central to framing African Muslim historiography in a way that integrates faith and history. III. The Influence of Indigenous Scholarship and Ajami Manuscripts Digitization projects such as the Mali Magic initiative by Google Arts & Culture and scholarly projects led by Bondarev (2018) and Kane (2019) are making Ajami manuscripts accessible to a global audience. These efforts show the enduring significance of African Muslim historians in preserving indigenous heritage. They also illustrate the adaptability of Ajami scholarship to modern archival and research methods. IV. Revisit and Revival of the Islamic Scholarly Tradition The revival of Islamic scholarly traditions is visible in both academic and community initiatives. Ware (2019) demonstrates how Qur‟anic schools continue to shape collective memory and historical consciousness in West Africa. Contemporary debates now emphasize not only preserving manuscripts but also revitalizing the pedagogy of Islamic knowledge in Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 18 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions African contexts (Ahmed, 2021). This revival ensures that African Muslim historiography remains a living tradition rather than a static relic of the past. Challenges in Decolonizing African Islamic Historiography Despite renewed efforts to reclaim African historical voices, significant challenges remain in the process of decolonizing African Islamic historiography that include, but are not limited to the following: First, archival accessibility is a major obstacle. Thousands of Ajami manuscripts and Islamic scholarly texts remain uncatalogued or inaccessible due to poor preservation, lack of funding and political instability in regions like Mali and northern Nigeria (Bondarev, 2018; Kane, 2019). Second, linguistic barriers complicate research. Many sources are written in Arabic or African Ajami scripts, requiring specialized training that few contemporary historians possess (Osborn, 2020). This limits broader engagement and perpetuates reliance on Eurocentric translations. Third, epistemological dominance of Eurocentric methods continues to marginalize African ways of knowing. Western historiography often prioritizes written archives over oral traditions, undervaluing the dynamic role of memory and performance in African Muslim historiography (Falola, 2022). Finally, the politicization of history in postcolonial African states adds complexity. According to (Adi, 2018), competing nationalist, ethnic and religious agendas sometimes distort historical narratives for political purposes. Going by this submission it makes it difficult to construct objective and inclusive decolonial frameworks. Hence, addressing these challenges requires investment in manuscript preservation, training in African Islamic scholarly traditions and methodological pluralism that values oral, written, and archaeological evidence. Opportunities in Decolonizing African Islamic Historiography Alongside the challenges, numerous opportunities exist for advancing the decolonization of African Islamic historiography which not limited to the following: First, digitization projects such as the Timbuktu Manuscripts Project and Mali Magic are making centuries-old Ajami and Arabic manuscripts globally accessible, ensuring preservation and wider scholarly engagement Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 19 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions (Jeppie & Diagne, 2008; Google Arts & Culture, 2022). Second, the growth of Afrocentric and decolonial scholarship provides theoretical tools to reinterpret Africa‟s Islamic intellectual heritage on its own terms. Scholars like Falola (2022) and Asante (2017) stress the importance of centering African voices in global historiography. Third, global collaboration and interdisciplinary research are creating new avenues for rediscovering African Muslim scholarly traditions. Partnerships between African universities, Western institutions and digital humanities initiatives are expanding research capacity and training (Ahmed, 2021). Finally, the rise of African Muslim intellectual revivalism-including renewed interest in Qur‟anic schools, Sufi orders (Turuq assufiyyah) and Ajami literatures highlights the resilience of Africa‟s Islamic heritage (Ware, 2019). This revival ensures that decolonization is not merely academic but also lived within African Muslim communities. Together, these opportunities provide a solid foundation for constructing a future-oriented, decolonized African Islamic historiography that is inclusive, global, and authentic. Future Directions in Decolonizing African Islamic Historiography The future of decolonizing African Islamic historiography depends on sustaining momentum in research, preservation and intellectual renewal. Several directions appear promising include not limited to the following: 1. Seeking Knowledge The first and foremost Future Directions for decolonizing African Islamic Historiography based on Islamic Principles is seeking knowledge, Allah says: اجدًا َوقَائِ ًوا يَحْ ذَ ُر ْاْل ِخ َزة َ َويَ ْز ُجى َرحْ َوتَ َر ِبّ ِه قُ ْل ه َْل يَ ْسخ َ ِىي َ أ َ َّه ْي ُه َى قَاًِجٌ آًَا َء اللَّ ْي ِل ِ س )9( ب ِ الَّذِييَ يَ ْعلَ ُوىىَ َوالَّذِييَ ََل يَ ْعلَ ُوىىَ إًَِّ َوا يَخَذَ َّك ُز أُولُى ْاْل َ ْلبَا Is one who is obedient to Allâh, prostrating himself or standing (in prayer) during the hours of the night, fearing the Hereafter and hoping for the Mercy of his Lord (like one who disbelieves)? Say: "Are those who know equal to those who know not?" It is only men of understanding who will remember (i.e., get a lesson from Allâh's Signs and Verses) (Suratul Zumar :9) 2. Integrating Oral and Written Traditions Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 20 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions Future historiography should harmonize Africa‟s oral traditions with manuscript sources, archaeological data and digital archives. This pluralist methodology will capture the full spectrum of African Muslim historical experiences (Osborn, 2020). 3. Expanding Digital Humanities Ongoing digitization projects must be scaled up, with African institutions taking leadership roles in preserving and curating their heritage. Advances in artificial intelligence and digital archiving can support translation and wider accessibility of Ajami and Arabic manuscripts (Google Arts & Culture, 2022). 4. Training a New Generation of Scholars Investment in language proficiency training (Arabic and Ajami literacy), Islamic studies, and interdisciplinary approaches is critical. Building research capacity within African universities will reduce dependency on Eurocentric scholarship, this is as (Ahmed, 2021) postulates. 5. Global and Interfaith Dialogue Decolonized African Islamic historiography should engage with global conversations on history, religion and identity. Collaboration with scholars across the Muslim world and beyond can strengthen Africa‟s intellectual visibility (Falola, 2022). 6. Community-Based Historiography Finally, the involvement of local Muslim communities-through Qur‟anic schools, mosques and cultural organizations-will ensure that historiography remains relevant, accessible and reflective of lived realities (Ware, 2019). In summary, the future lies in blending tradition with innovation: safeguarding Africa‟s Islamic past while empowering new generations to narrate history with authenticity and global relevance. Findings This research found out that Islamic historiography in Africa predates colonialism and must be recognized as an authentic intellectual tradition. The Qur‟an and Hadith provide divine legitimacy for moral and historical truth in narrative construction. Ajami literature reflects local Islamic historiographies, often ignored in Western colonialized academic circles. Islamic historical writing centers on tawḥīd (oneness of Allah), ʿilm, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 21 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions (knowledge/science) and ʿadl (Justice and fairness), presenting a distinct epistemological alternative to Eurocentrism. It found that colonial educational policies disrupted Islamic knowledge transmission, causing fragmentation in Muslim communities. Therefore, Islamic historiography in Africa is deeply rooted and predates colonial frameworks (illuminated in Timbuktu and Hausaland scholarship). Ajami literacies provide written Muslim traditions often ignored by Western colonialized historiography. Islamic epistemology centers tawḥīd, ʿilm, and ʿadl, offering moral coherence absent from colonial frameworks. Digitalization of manuscripts creates new opportunities for reclaiming Muslim historiographic agency. Pan‑Islamic networks (Sankoré, Sokoto, Traditional Qurʾānic schools) remain central in knowledge preservation. Conclusion Decolonizing African Islamic historiography is not simply an academic exercise; it is a political and epistemic imperative. Therefore, it is not merely a return to the past, but a spiritual and intellectual rebirth rooted in the principles of tauhid ilm and justice. It is not a chronicle of events, but a means of moral reflection and divine remembrance which, Islamic historiography offers African framework of history. The glorious Qur‟an enjoins believers to travel through the earth and observe the end of those before them, a directive for active historical consciousness. This decolonization needs to revive Ajami traditions, empowering Islamic institutions and re-centering the Muslim worldview in African historical narratives, laying the foundation for a perspective liberated African Islamic historiography and have spiritual consciousness of it. Therefore, decolonizing African Islamic historiography is both an intellectual necessity and a moral responsibility. Due to the fact that for too long, Eurocentric narratives dismissed Africa as a continent without history, erasing the contributions of its Muslim scholars and communities. Yet, as the evidence from oral traditions, Ajami manuscripts, and Islamic scholarly traditions demonstrates, Africa has long possessed vibrant systems of knowledge production, memory preservation and cultural continuity. Nevertheless, the challenges of decolonization remain significant-archival inaccessibility, linguistic barriers, Eurocentric epistemologies and politicized histories. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 22 Dr. Ibrahim Alhaji Isa & Alhaji Baba Muhammad: Decolonizing African Islamic historiography: its challenges, opportunities and future directions However, emerging opportunities such as digitization projects, Afrocentric scholarship, global collaborations and intellectual revival within African Muslim communities offer hope. Moreover, this study maintains that the future of African Islamic historiography lies in a pluralist approach that harmonizes oral and written traditions, invests in scholarly training and connects African voices with global discourses. By doing so, African Muslim historiography can reclaim its rightful place in world history-not as a peripheral appendage, but as a central, dynamic and enduring intellectual tradition. Ultimately, decolonizing African Islamic historiography is not merely about correcting distortions of the past. It is about affirming African agency, sustaining cultural heritage and charting new directions for future generations of scholars and communities alike. Recommendations 1. Invest in madāris and traditional learning circles, ensuring their alignment with formal academic systems to bridge Islamic and secular scholarship. 2. Call for the repatriation of Islamic manuscripts, particularly from Western archives, to their communities of origin in Africa especially African Muslim communities. 3. Curricular Reform: Integrate Islamic sources Tafsīr, Sīrah, historical chronicles into African historiography syllabi. 4. Digitize and Decentralize Manuscripts: Support initiatives preserving Ajami and Arabic manuscripts across African institutions. 5. Promote Ajami Literacy and Research: Encourage scholarship in indigenous languages written in Arabic script, bridging Qurʾānic learning and local historiography. 6. Institutional Collaboration: Strengthen networks among Islamic institutions (Az‑Zaytuna, Timbuktu institutes, local madāris etc). 7. Public History and Heritage Projects: Utilize mosques, khutbahs (sermons) focusing on local Muslim legacies and community storytelling to convey Muslim historical narratives. 8. 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Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 27 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum By: Yakubu Niimat Salman
[email protected]Abstract: This paper examined the ethical implication of integrating sustainable practices into Islamic Studies curricula. As societies face growing environmental challenges, the need to incorporate sustainability into educational frameworks becomes increasingly urgent. This study explored how Islamic teachings enhance ethical practices related to sustainability, ultimately guiding students towards responsible stewardship of the environment. This was done by analysing current curricula approaches and identifying gaps, this paper highlighted the importance of embedding ethical considerations rooted in Islamic values within sustainable practices. It also made suggestions that will foster ethical behavior in Muslim students such as curriculum development, teacher training, interdisciplinary and policy advocacy among others Keywords: Ethical implications, sustainable practices, Islamic Studies curriculum, environmental stewardship, education. Introduction In the face of accelerating environmental degradation, social inequity, and economic instability, sustainable development has emerged as an urgent global mandate. The urgency to address climate change, biodiversity loss, and ecological degradation calls for a holistic transformation across all sectors, including education. The United Nations‘ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 4 (Quality Education) and SDG 13 (Climate Action), highlight the importance of integrating sustainability into learning frameworks to prepare citizens for responsible global citizenship (UNESCO, 2023). Yet, much of the focus on sustainability education has remained within the domains of science and technology, often overlooking the vital role of the humanities, especially religious and ethical education—in shaping values, behavior, and worldviews. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 28 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum Defining sustainability as meeting present needs without jeopardizing future generations, the concept aligns with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, endorsed by all UN member states in 2015 (Labeeb et al., 2022). Emerging scholarship underscores that sustainability must permeate educational content and method — not remain a peripheral concern Within Islamic epistemology, revelation — manifest in the Qur‘an and Hadith — serves as the primary source of knowledge, offering comprehensive guidance on ethics, theology, and conduct. This epistemic foundation provides a powerful springboard for integrating sustainability into Islamic Studies. Contemporary research identifies key Qur‘anic and prophetic concepts — such as khilāfah (stewardship), mīzān (balance), and amānah (trust)— as foundational pillars of environmental ethics that can guide sustainable behaviour (Gada, 2024; Fadil, 2024) This paper explores the ethical implications of embedding sustainable practices into Islamic Studies curriculum. Islamic teachings offer a rich ethical foundation that emphasizes stewardship (khalifah), balance (mizan), and trust (amana) in the relationship between humans and the environment. These principles, deeply rooted in the Qur‘an and Hadith, have the potential to guide students toward ethical and sustainable lifestyles. However, in many educational settings, Islamic Studies curricula have yet to meaningfully engage with contemporary environmental issues or align their ethical teachings with sustainability goals. Against this backdrop, this study investigates how Islamic ethical teachings can inform and enhance sustainability education. It aims to identify existing curricular gaps and propose pathways for integrating ethical and environmental consciousness into Islamic Studies. This exploration is especially relevant in the context of creating a more equitable and sustainable world—one that recognizes the moral dimensions of environmental responsibility through the lens of religious education Literature Review Sustainability and Education Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has emerged as a critical strategy for addressing global challenges through transformative learning. According to UNESCO (2022), ESD empowers learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 29 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum society. While much emphasis has been placed on STEM education in promoting sustainability, recent scholarship underscores the need to engage the humanities and ethics in shaping a comprehensive response to the ecological crisis (Sterling, 2021). By engaging in a comprehensive educational curriculum, students acquire the skills to identify and address important matters such as social justice, environmental sustainability, and digital ethics (Napal et al., 2020). Education functions as a medium for introducing students to a wide range of viewpoints and promoting their participation in thoughtful discussions about moral and ethical challenges (Børsen et al., 2021) Religion, Ethics, and Environmental Sustainability An effective approach to ethical curriculum development involves integrating ethical principles across all academic disciplines, thereby embedding ethical considerations throughout the educational experience. By incorporating ethical content into subjects such as literature, science, history, and mathematics, educators enable students to engage with ethical dilemmas, examine diverse moral perspectives, and apply ethical reasoning to real-life situations. In the context of Islamic education, the integration of Islamic values into the curriculum is vital for nurturing ethical awareness and fostering moral development. Embedding Islamic values across subjects and grade levels supports the creation of a curriculum that embodies the comprehensive moral vision found in Islamic teachings. This integration can be implemented through various methods, such as including Quranic verses and Prophetic traditions that emphasize ethical principles, as well as examining Islamic ethics within relevant cultural and historical frameworks. However, religions, particularly Islam, play a significant role in shaping ethical orientations and public behavior. Scholars argue that religion can foster a sense of moral responsibility and collective action toward environmental stewardship (Foltz, 2022; Deane-Drummond, 2023). In Islam, the concept of khalifah (vicegerency) positions humans as stewards of the Earth, responsible for maintaining ecological balance and justice. The Qur‘an repeatedly emphasizes harmony with nature, condemning corruption and excess ۟ ٱش َشب ۟ ُٗا ِصیَْح َ ُن ٌۡ ِعْذَ ُم ِّو ٍَ ۡس ِجذࣲ َٗ ُمي ۟ ُیَ ٰـبَِْ ۤی َءادَ ًَ ُخز ۡ َٗ ٘ا ُ٘ا َٗ ََل ج ُ ۡس ِشفُ ۤ٘ ۟اۚ إَِّّ ۥُٔ ََل ی ُِحب َِۡٱى َُ ۡس ِشفِی ―O children of Adam, take your adornment at every masjid, and eat and drink, but be not excessive. Indeed, He likes not those who commit excess. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 30 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum ۟ ُع َِي َ ْ َسب َُُ٘٘ا ىَ َعيَّ ُٖ ٌْ یَ ْش ِجع ِ َّْ ٱىِٙث أ َ ْیذ َ ِٙض ٱىَّز َ َظ َٖ َش ْٱىف َ ْٱىبَ ِ ّش َٗ ْٱىبَحْ ِش ِب ََب َمِٚسبدُ ف َ بط ِىیُزِیقَ ٌُٖ بَ ْع Corruption has appeared throughout the land and sea by (reason of) what the hands of people have earned so He may let them taste part of (the consequence of) what they have done (Qur‘an 7:31, 30:41). These teachings, if integrated into educational frameworks, can cultivate a deep moral commitment to sustainability. Islamic Environmental Ethics in Education There is a growing body of literature on Islamic environmental ethics, but its integration into formal education, particularly at the curriculum level, remains limited. Özdemir (2020) and Nasr (2021) have emphasized the relevance of Islamic cosmology in addressing environmental degradation, while more recent works by Hossain et al. (2023) explore how Islamic perspectives can enrich environmental education in Muslim-majority societies. However, studies such as those by Abubakar and Sulaiman (2022) point out that Islamic Studies curricula in many regions, including Nigeria, rarely address ecological concerns explicitly. The absence of structured environmental content reflects a missed opportunity to connect religious ethics with contemporary sustainability challenges. Furthermore, students often receive moral instruction in abstract terms, disconnected from practical action or real-world environmental issues (Khan & Arshad, 2024). While policy frameworks such as the Nigerian National Policy on Environment (2021) encourage environmental education, they do not provide sufficient guidelines for faith-based or culturally contextualized approaches. As a result, Islamic educational institutions and curriculum developers often lack the resources or frameworks to implement sustainability from an ethical-religious perspective or sustainability challenges. For example, lessons on stewardship rarely reference ecological concerns, and topics such as pollution, climate change, and conservation are entirely absent from most syllabi. Against the backdrop of a global commitment to the Sustainable Development Goals, understanding how Islamic Studies curricula contribute to or diverge from these goals becomes imperative Methodology This study adopts a qualitative content analysis approach, focusing on the Islamic Studies curriculum used in selected secondary schools and Islamic educational institutions in Nigeria, particularly those affiliated with state education boards and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 31 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum Islamic organizations. The analysis is guided by the principles of thematic interpretation to identify the presence—or absence—of sustainability-related content, especially as it relates to ethical teachings on the environment. Curricular documents, textbooks, and syllabi were examined to determine how Islamic environmental ethics are currently represented. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with five Islamic Studies teachers and three curriculum developers to gain deeper insights into the challenges and opportunities of integrating sustainable practices into Islamic education. The analysis was structured around key themes derived from Islamic environmental ethics (khalifah, mizan, amana) and core components of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), such as environmental stewardship, intergenerational responsibility, and social justice. Analysis and Discussion Current Curriculum Gaps The content analysis revealed a significant gap in the integration of sustainability themes within Islamic Studies curricula. While moral and ethical teachings are present, they are often framed in abstract terms (e.g., honesty, piety, obedience) without explicit connection to environmental ethics Textbooks and teaching guides focus heavily on classical jurisprudence and spiritual development, with limited engagement with contemporary global issues. As a result, students are not encouraged to connect their religious identity with environmental responsibility. Sources of Knowledge in Islam Islamic epistemology serves as the cornerstone of knowledge acquisition within Islamic thought, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding the nature of knowledge, its sources, and its implications for human conduct. Rooted in the Quranic revelations, Prophetic traditions, and scholarly interpretations, Islamic epistemology offers profound insights into the nature of knowledge and its ethical dimensions. There are two main types of knowledge accepted by many Islamic scholars: revealed knowledge and derived knowledge. The first type of knowledge, also known as al-wahyu, can be further broken into two more types; instinctive knowledge and the knowledge revealed to us through the Prophet (pbuh).In Islamic epistemology, revelation occupies a central position as the primary source of knowledge. The Quran, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 32 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum considered the word of Allah revealed to Prophet Muhammad, serves as the ultimate guide for believers, offering divine guidance on matters of faith, morality, and conduct. Additionally, the Hadith, comprising the sayings and actions of the Prophet, provides supplementary guidance and elucidation of Quranic teachings. Together, the Quran and Hadith form the foundational sources of knowledge in Islamic epistemology, offering comprehensive guidance for believers seeking to navigate the complexities of life. Teachers' Perspective Interviews with teachers revealed that many educators recognize the relevance of sustainability to Islamic ethics but feel ill-equipped to teach it. Most have not received formal training on environmental issues from a religious perspective, and they rely solely on standard textbooks that do not address sustainability. One teacher remarked: "We teach about khalifah, but we don‘t relate it to things like climate change or waste. It‘s treated as a spiritual duty, not a practical one." This reflects a broader challenge: the disconnect between religious knowledge and applied ethics in the context of real-world crises. In teaching the topic Khalifa, this should entail Introduction of the Concept ―Khalifa”, as the Key idea: Meaning vicegerent or steward —humans are appointed by Allah to take care of the Earth. The teacher‘s approach can be starting with recitation of Qur‘anic evidence. For instance سبِّ ُح ِ ْٱْل َ ْسِٚ َجب ِع ٌۭو فِّّٚ َِٗإِ ْر قَب َه َسبلَ ِى ْي ََيَ ٰـٰٓئِ َن ِة إ َ ُّ ُِ ْض َخ ِيیفَ ٌۭة ۖ قَبىُ ٰٓ٘ ۟ا أَجَجْ عَ ُو فِی َٖب ٍَِ یُ ْف ِسذُ فِی َٖب َٗیَ ْس ِفلُ ٱى ِذّ ٍَب ٰٓ َء ََّٗح ُ٘ َٰٓ َُ َ أ َ ْعيَ ٌُ ٍَب ََل ج َ ْعيٰٚٓ ِّّ ِّط ىَلَ ۖ قَب َه ِإ ُ ― ِب َح َْذِكَ َُّٗقَذIndeed, I will place upon the earth a Khalifa.‖ (Qur‘an 2:30). The teacher can go on and explain that being a Khalifa means: I. Responsibility, not ownership II. Accountability to Allah III. Protecting and managing natural resources wisely Then the teacher can bring up Class activity: Ask students: ―If you are a caretaker of something that belongs to someone else, how will you treat it?‖, they should linking Khalifa to environmental responsibility, Khalifa and Climate Change. Then explanation to students: Climate change results from human actions such as: I. Deforestation II. Burning fossil fuels III. Excessive pollution Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 33 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum The student should be told that these actions go against the role of humans as responsible Khalifa. Islamic connection should be established that Allah forbids corruption on earth: ―Do not cause corruption on the earth after it has been set in order.‖ (Qur‘an 7:56). Climate change can be taught as a form of fasad (corruption) caused by neglect of stewardship. This should involve: Use real-life examples: Flooding, desertification, heat waves (relevant to Nigeria). Discussion should be on how poor environmental care worsens climate impacts. Khalifa and Waste Management: the Key message here should be proper waste management is part of fulfilling our duty as Khalifa. Islamic principles to highlight this should dwelled upon, such as avoiding waste (Israf): ۟ ٘ا َٗٱ ْش َشب ۟ ُٗا ِصیَْح َ ُن ٌْ ِعْذَ ُم ِّو ٍَس ِْج ٍذ َٗ ُمي ۟ ُ ٰادَ ًَ ُخزَِْٰٚیب ُِ٘ا َٗ ََل جُس ِْشفُ ٰٓ٘ ۟ا ِإَّّ ۥُٔ ََل ی ُِحب ْٱى َُس ِْشفِی ٰٓ " ―Indeed, Allah does not like the wasteful.‖ (Qur‘an 7:31), Cleanliness as part of faith (Hadith) Class discussion should include how littering, plastic pollution, and burning refuse harm: Land, Water, Human health? Practical examples: dumping waste in drainage → flooding Burning plastic air pollution and climate change. Practical Teaching Strategies should include Student-Centered Activities Group discussion: ―How can students act as Khalifa in their school and community?‖ Role-play, Students act as environmental stewards solving waste problems. Project work: Create posters on ―Khalifa and Protecting the Earth‖. Community and School-Based Learning Organising school clean-up exercises, tree planting activities encourage waste sorting and recycling in school Values and Attitudes to be emphasize: teaching Khalifa should help students develop: I. Sense of responsibility II. Respect for nature III. Environmental ethics IV. Awareness of climate change impacts Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 34 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum Conclusion for Students should entail Key takeaway should be that being a Khalifa means: I. Protecting the environment II. Reducing waste III. Taking action against climate change IV. Living sustainably according to Islamic teachings Potential of Islamic Ethical Frameworks Despite these challenges, the study found strong potential for Islamic environmental ethics to enrich sustainability education. Concepts like mizan (balance) and amana (trust) offer powerful lenses for promoting ecological justice, resource conservation, and responsible consumption. Integrating these values into the curriculum could foster not only ethical awareness, but also practical behaviors such as recycling, water conservation, tree planting, and community service -all framed within students' religious and moral worldview. Islamic teachings embrace a comprehensive approach to the advancement of individuals, incorporating the development of their spirituality, morality, and intellect (Brooks & Ezzani, 2022). These two concepts that is mizan and amana help to ensure that whatever resource used by man in his environment, is done with moderation or appropriate measure and he will be accountable for it before his creator. This therefore ensures sustainability. Environmental stewardship One of the most significant principles that guides Islamic perspectives on environmental sustainability is the concept of guardianship (khilāfah). This principle emphasizes that human beings are stewards, not masters, of the earth‘s resources. Muslims are entrusted with their care and must avoid overexploitation, honoring the rights of future generations (Gada, 2024; Fadil, 2024). This understanding resonates closely with the Brundtland Commission‘s conceptualization of sustainable development — meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own (World Commission on Environment and Development \[WCED], 1987).Therefore, sustainability is firmly anchored within Islam, and mankind bears a moral responsibility to maintain a state of balance and justice in its interaction with nature (Syukri et al., 2024). All human beings are expected to respect, care for, and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 35 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum protect the environment, honoring both its intrinsic value and its role in sustaining life for future generations (Ceesay & Sonko, 2024). Mismanagement of natural resources is frequently depicted in the Qur‘ān as an act of corruption. Those who exploit resources recklessly — causing industrial pollution, ecosystem destruction, or overconsumption — are rebuked by God: َّ َٗ س ٌۭبدا "ُِ ََل ی ُِحب ْٱى َُ ْف ِسذِیಕಒٱ ِ ْٱْل َ ْسِٚ― َٗ َی ْسعَ َُْ٘ فAnd they strive throughout the land َ َض ف [causing] corruption, and Allah does not like corrupters‖ (Qur‘ān 5:64). Furthermore: ۟ شعَیْبب ۗ قَب َه یَ ٰـقَ ْ٘ ًِ ٱ ْعبُذ ۟ ُغی ُْشٓۥُ ۖ قَ ْذ َجب ٰٓ َءجْ ُنٌ بَ ِیّْ ٌَۭة ِ ٍِّ َّس ِبّ ُن ٌْ ۖ فََ َ ْٗف ُ ٌْ ُٕ ٍَ ْذیََِ أَخَبٰٚ َ" َٗ ِإى َّ ُٗا َ ٍٔ َ ٍَب ىَ ُنٌ ِ ٍّ ِْ ِإىَ ٰـಕಒٱ ٘ا ْٱى َن ْی َو ۟ بط أ َ ْشیَب ٰٓ َء ُٕ ٌْ َٗ ََل ج ُ ْف ِسذ ۟ س " َِصيَ ٰـ ِح َٖب ٰرَ ِى ُن ٌْ َخی ٌْۭش ىَّ ُن ٌْ إُِ ُمْحٌُ ٍؤْ ٍِِْی ْ ِض بَ ْعذَ إ ُ َٗ ْٱى َِیضَ اَُ َٗ ََل ج َ ْب َخ ِ ْٱْل َ ْسُِٚٗا ف َ َّْ٘ا ٱى ―So give just measure and weight; do not defraud people of their property, nor spread corruption in the land after it has been set in order. This is for your own good, if you are [truly] believers‖ (Qur‘ān 7:85). َّ َُّ ِض ۖ إ " ََِ ََل ی ُِحب ْٱى َُ ْف ِسذِیಕಒٱ Do not seek to spread corruption in ِ ْٱْل َ ْسِٚسبدَ ف َ َٗ ََل جَبْغِ ْٱىف......." َ the land, for Allah certainly does not like the corruptors‖ (Qur‘ān 28:77). An essential characteristic of the Islamic approach to conserving the environment is its emphasis on moderation in consumption and lifestyle (Leal et al., 2021). The Qur‘ān guides us: ۟ ٘ا َٗٱ ْش َشب ۟ ُٗا ِصیَْح َ ُن ٌْ ِعْذَ ُم ِّو ٍَس ِْج ٍذ َٗ ُمي ۟ ُ ٰادَ ًَ ُخزَِْٰٚیب "ِْٱى َُس ِْشفِی "ُ٘ا َٗ ََل جُس ِْشفُ ٰٓ٘ ۟ا ِإَّّ ۥُٔ ََل ی ُِحب ٰٓ ―O children of Adam! Dress properly at every place of worship. Eat and drink, but do not waste; surely, He does not like the wasteful (Qur‘ān 7:31). Furthermore, ―He is the One Who produces gardens — cultivated and wild — with palm trees, various grains, olives, and pomegranates — similar in shape but dissimilar in taste. Eat from their produce and pay their dues at harvest, but do not waste. Surely, He does not like the wasteful (Qur‘ān 6:141). ْ َّ ِإرَآٰ أَقَيٰٚٓ ٰ َّ َسحْ ََحِ ِٔۦ ۖ َححٙ ٍ ًۢ ٍَّّ ِی ث فَََّضَ ْىَْب ِب ِٔ ْٱى ََب ٰٓ َء س ْقَْ ٰـُٔ ِىبَيَ ًٍۢذ ُ س َح ٌۭببب ثِقَبَل ّ ِ ی ُْش ِس ُوِٙ" َٗ ُٕ َ٘ٱىَّز َ ث ْ َٱىشیَ ٰـ َح بُ ْش ًۢشا بَیَِْ یَذ ٌْ ىَعَيَّ ُنَٰٚ ت َم ٰزَىِلَ ُْخ ِش ُج ْٱى ََ ْ٘ج " َُٗرَ َّم ُش ِ فََ َ ْخ َشجْ َْب بِِۦٔ ٍِِ ُم ِّو ٱىث َّ ََ ٰ َش Islam profoundly addresses the perils of wastefulness and irresponsible attitudes toward resources (Labeeb et al., 2022). Water, for instance — the essential substance for all life — is recognized in the Qur‘ān as a blessing and a medium for purification: Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 36 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum ٍ ًۢ ٍَّّ ِی ث فَََّضَ ْىَْب ِب ِٔ ْٱى ََب ٰٓ َء ْ َّ ِإرَآٰ أَقَيٰٚٓ ٰ َّ َسحْ ََحِ ِٔۦ ۖ َححٙ س ْقَْ ٰـُٔ ِىبَيَ ًٍۢذ ُ س َح ٌۭببب ثِقَبَل ّ ِ ی ُْش ِس ُوِٙ"ٗ ُٕ َ٘ٱىَّز َ ث ْ َٱىشیَ ٰـ َح بُ ْش ًۢشا بَیَِْ یَذ َ ٰ ْ َّ َّ َ َّ ٰ ُ ُ َ ْ َ " َُٗرم ُش ٌْ ىعَينَٰٚ ت َمزىِلَ ُخ ِش ُج ٱى ََ ْ٘ج ِ فََ َ ْخ َشجْ َْب بِِۦٔ ٍِِ م ِّو ٱىث ََ َش He is the One Who sends the winds as bringers of His mercy; We send down pure rain from the sky‖ (Qur‘ān 7:57). Furthermore, purity, both physical and moral, is a key Islamic value: ۟ ُ فَٲ ْعح َِضىٙیض ۖ قُ ْو ُٕ َ٘ أَر ْ َیٰٚ َّ یض ۖ َٗ ََل ج َ ْق َشبُ٘ ُٕ َِّ َحح َ َ ْط ُٖ ْشَُ ۖ فَئِرَا ج َُْط َّٖ ْش ِ ْٱى ََ ِحِٚسب ٰٓ َء ف ِ ع ِِ ْٱى ََ ِح َ ََٗ َیسْـَٔيَُّ٘ل َ ِّْ ٘ا ٱى ُ َحی َّ َّ ی ُِحب ب ُّ ِإ ٌُ أ َ ٍَ َش ُم ْث ِْ ٍِ َِّ ُٕ ُ٘فََْج َِٱىح َّ ٰ َّ٘بِی ُ َٗی ُِح ُಕಒٱ َಕಒٱ َ َ ْٱى َُح " َِْط ِ ّٖ ِشی ―Surely, Allah loves those who constantly turn to Him in repentance and those who purify themselves‖ (Qur‘ān 2:222). The word ―purify‖ and its derivatives appear more than 30 times in the Qur‘ān, reflecting its significance in Islamic thought extending from the purity of the body to the purity of the environment (Gada, 2024). Conclusion In the face of escalating global crises, education must move beyond technical knowledge and cultivate ethical responsibility. This paper has highlighted the ethical implications of sustainable practices within Islamic Studies curricula and demonstrated how Islamic teachings can provide a robust foundation for sustainability education. While current curricular approaches largely overlook environmental issues, there exists a clear opportunity to bridge this gap by aligning religious ethics with sustainability goals. Doing so can empower students to act as faith-informed stewards of the Earth, contributing to a more just, equitable, and sustainable world. Recommendations To strengthen the integration of sustainability into Islamic Studies, the following actions are recommended: Curriculum Development Revise existing Islamic Studies curricula to include modules on environmental ethics, drawing directly from Qur‘anic verses and Hadith related to nature, justice, and responsibility. Include real-world case studies and projects that link religious values with sustainable actions (e.g., clean-up campaigns, eco-mosques). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 37 Yakubu Niimat Salman; Exploring the Ethical Implications of Sustainable Practices in Islamic Studies Curriculum Teacher Training Organize professional development workshops for Islamic Studies teachers to equip them with knowledge and pedagogical tools for teaching sustainability through an Islamic lens. Interdisciplinary Collaboration Encourage collaboration between Islamic scholars, environmental educators, and curriculum developers to produce integrated educational materials that align with both Islamic principles and ESD goals. Policy Advocacy Advocate for national and regional education policies that promote the inclusion of faith-based environmental education as part of broader sustainability efforts. 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Reimagining education for sustainable futures. Paris: UNESCO. https://unesco.org/publications/2023-reimagining-education-forfutures World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. https://idl-bncidrc.dspacedirect.org/handle/10625/305 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 40 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance Exploring the Use of Crypto currency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance BY: Assoc. Professor abubakar abdulkadir Department Of Islamic Studies Umaru Musa 'Yar Adua University Katsina
[email protected]Aminu Salisu & Phd Student Department Of Islamic Studies Umaru Musa 'Yar Adua University Katsina
[email protected]Abstract The rapid emergence and adoption of crypto currency as a digital financial instrument has sparked significant debate among scholars, particularly within the context of Islamic finance. This paper provides an overview of the usage of crypto currency through the lens of Shari‘ah principles, examining its permissibility and alignment with core Islamic legal and ethical frameworks. This paper aims to analyze the currency in the Shari’ah because the protection of wealth is one of the objectives of Shari’ah, most important aspect related to crypto currency as well the divergent opinions surrounding the legitimacy and otherwise of transacting with crypto currency through the existing literatures and the fatawa of the Islamic scholars. It explored and as well shade light on the nature, advent, categories and peculiarities of the crypto currency. The findings of the study would benefit the Muslim investors and users of the crypto currency as well the Islamic banking and finance sector to either accept or reject it. The paper recommends that there is need for the Islamic institutions and scholars to come up with unanimous position on the crypto currency transactions basing their position on an in-depth analysis of Sharia injunctions over the subject matter. Keywords: Crypto currency, Usage and Shari’ah Introduction Money as a medium of exchange, has changed its form many times throughout the history, and has begun to turn into digital form as an alternative to the current situation. Money in Islam is limited to either precious metal such as gold or silver, or commodities such as wheat, barley, dates or salt, which have shelf-life and could be used as money in case of shortage in precious metals.1 The end goal of money in Islam is to sustain 1 Alam, I. (2020). Money inIslam.International Journal of Islamic Economics (IJIE), Vol.02 No.01, Jan-Jun 2020 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 41 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance one‘s worldly affairs with a view to facilitate focus on the Hereafter. The Glorious Qur‘an stated: ِ ِ ِ ك ِمن الدُّنْ يا وأ ِ ِ اد ِِف ْاْل َْر س َن ه آَت َك ه ض َ ُ إِل َْيಕಒا َ يما َس ْ َحس ْن َك َما أ ْ َ َ َ َ َس نَصيب َ ُ الدಕಒا َ َوابْ تَ ِغ ف َ َح َ ك َوََل تَ ْب ِغ الْ َف َ هار ْاْلخ َرةَ َوََل تَ ْن ِِ إِ هن ه ين ُّ َ ََل ُُِيಕಒا َ ب ال ُْم ْفسد But seek, with that (wealth) which Allah has bestowed on you, the home of the hereafter, and forget not your portion of lawful enjoyment in this world; and do good as Allah has been good to you, and seek not mischief in the land. Verily, Allah likes not the Mufsidun (those who commit great crimes and sins, oppression, tyrant, mischief-makers, corrupters.2 At the time of revelation, some of the types of currencies were in use. In fact, the two verses of the Quran show that the previous nations also used Dirhams or silver coins as quoted below: ِ وِمن أ َْى ِل ال ِ َْكت َ ََ َْي ِو ََاِِ ًما َ ك َوِم ْن ُه ْم َم ْن إِ ْن ََت َْم ْنوُ بِ ِدينَا ٍر ََل يُ َؤ ِّدهِ إِل َْي َ اب َم ْن إِ ْن ََت َْمنْوُ بِِق ْنطَا ٍر يُ َؤ ِّدهِ إِل َْي َ ك إِهَل َما ُد ْم ْ َ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ َ ِذَل يل َويَ ُقولُو َن ََ َى ه ب َو ُى ْم يَ ْع َ ُمو َن َ ّس ََ َْي نَا ِِف ْاْل ُّمي َ الْ َكذಕಒا ٌ ني َسب َ ك ِبَنه ُه ْم ََالُوا ل َْي Among the people of the scripture (Jews and Christians) is he who, if entrusted with a Qintar (a great amount of wealth), will readily pay it back to you and among them there is he who if entrusted with single Dinar (a Gold coin), will not repay it to you unless you come constantly stand demanding, because they say: there is no blame on us to betray and take the property of the illiterate (Arab). But they tell a lie against Allah while they know it.3 Similarly, another verse said: ِِِ ٍ س در ِاىم مع ُد ِِ ين َ ْ َ َ َ َ ٍ َْو َش َرْوهُ بِثَ َم ٍن ََب َ ودة َوَكانُوا فيو م َن ال هزاىد And they sold him for a low price, for a few dirham (that is for a few silver coins) and they were of those who regarded him insignificant.4 Imam Abd al-Barr states that Muslims of the prophetic era used the Roman Dinars and Persian Dirhams. Imam Ahmad also opined that currency and money can be identified by the agreement of the people. According to Fuqaha currency is defined as a medium of exchange that has four major Qur‘an, 28:77 Qur‘an 18:19. Khan, M.M. Interpretation of the meaning of the Noble Qur‘an in English language; 2007, Riyadh, Darussalam Publishers and distributers 3 Qur‘an 3:75 4 Qur‘an 12:20 2 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 42 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance characteristics which include Thamaniyya (value), Qabuliyyah (acceptability) and Tasarruf (transferability).5 The newest type of money form is a crypto currency. It has been developed independent of any central authority. The origin of crypto currency can be traced to Satoshi Nakamoto, a pseudonymous developer in 2009. The usage areas of cryptocurrencies are increasing day by day and they have become a phenomenon in recent days. Crypto currency is currently at the frontier of financial development. It provides both opportunities and risks in financial markets and has attracted significant attention in recent years.6 Muslim scholars provide detailed information about the Islamic legal position on the usage of crypto currency among Muslims. They explore the two major views that include the permissibility and prohibition of the usage of crypto currency among the Muslims. Shari’ah Definition of Currency/Money al-Qardawi, explains that mal according to the native speakers of Arabic, everything which is desirable for human beings and they want to store and possess it, is considered as mal.7 Ibn al-Athir stated that originally mal was limited to silver and gold, but its definition was gradually expanded to every physical thing which is desirable for humans to store and possess.8 Shaykh Wahbah al-Zuhayli, says that linguistically mal refers to everything which is possessed and stored by humans, whether it is a corporeal (ayn ) or ( manfaha ). For instance, gold, silver, animals, plants as well as riding a vehicle and living in a house are considered mal .But a thing which can neither be stored nor possessed cannot be considered as mal: a bird in the sky, a fish in the water, and unknown treasures inside the earth.9 The majority of jurists and scholars (including Maliki, Shafi, and Hanbali scholars) are of the view that mal is not limited to tangible things. The majority view is that mal also includes intangible things as well as benefits and rights with certain conditions. 10Shaykh Zuhayli11 explains the majority view of scholars is that mal refers to everything which has value and can be compensated if it is destroyed. Likewise, Al-Suyuti12 quotes the definition of mal from Imam Shafi that mal refers to something which: has value, is used 5 Ibn Qudamah, Abdullah Bin Ahamad, al-Mugni, Beirut Lebonan: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya, 2012; vol. 1 p. 123 Acho,Yunusa. Cryptocurrency and Nigerian Economic. 7 Al Qardawi, Yusuf. Fiqh al Zakah. King Abdulaziz University, (2000). 8 Abubakar, M. M (2018) 6 9 Abubakar, M. M (2018) Abubakar, 2021 11 Al-Zuhayli, Wahbah, and Abdul Hayyie Al-Kattani. Fiqih Islam waadillatuhu. GemaInsani, (2010). 12 Al-Suyuti, Jalal al-Din. "Al-Ashbahwa al-Naza‘ir." Beirut: Dâr al-Kutûb al-‗Ilmiyyah (1983). 10 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 43 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance as consideration in trade, must be compensated for if destroyed, and that people do not behave as if it is a valueless thing. Allah the Almighty created dinar and dirham for circulation and to be an equitable and just standard between different assets. They are the means to all other assets; they are precious in themselves but not desired for themselves. Whereas in Islam, money is ―like a mirror, which has no colour, but it reflects all colours…it is an instrument to lead to all objectives.13 Ibn Taymiyyah states that the Sharia has not defined any specific condition nor definition for currency and money, and has instead left it to the ‗Urf and understanding of the people. Hence, the Hanafī jurists state that assets or commodities become money and currency by Ta’āmul (common usage) and Iṣṭilāḥ (common agreement). Imam Ahmad also opined that currency and money can be identified by the agreement of the people.14 Characteristics/ Features of money in Islam The features of Money in Islam comprises the following:15 Money is just a medium of exchange. It is nothing but a medium of exchange. It is only that and serves nothing but that. It is not a commodity to trade or rent. It is not an asset like other assets, nor a service like other services. Never sought for itself; rather, it is used as a means to gain commodities.‖ Imam al-Ghazali (d.505 H) states: ―Money is like a mirror which reflects everything but is not reflected itself. Another wisdom behind the creation of money is to act as a medium to all other assets for exchange purposes.‖16 Imam Ibn al-Qayyim (d.751 H) states: ―When money begins to be treated as a commodity and becomes the objective of transactions, the entire (economic) system will become corrupted and in crisis.17 It should not be monopolized, as everyone is a stakeholder in money. No one party has a greater right over it than another; and no one party enjoys a privilege to control money at their own whims. This creates Al-Gazali, (2004). Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad. (2004), ‗Ihya‘ Ulum-Id-Din, trans. by Al-Haj MaulanaFazlul Karim, New Delhi: Islamic Book Service.4 Vols p. 90-91 14 Ibn Qudamah 15 Sarker, (2022), Major Difference between Islamic Banking and Conventional Bank. A paper presentation at central Shariah board Bangladash 16 Al-Gazali, (2004). Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad. (2004), ‗Ihya‘ Ulum-Id-Din, trans. by Al-Haj Maulana Fazlul Karim, New Delhi: Islamic Book Service. 4 Vols p. 90-91 17 Sarker, (2022), Major Difference between Islamic Banking and Conventional Bank. A paper presentation at central Shariah board Bangladash 13 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 44 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance an imbalance and an artificial imposition on money. The Qur‘an specifically discourages monopoly position ِ ُ ََ َى ر ُسولِ ِو ِم ْن أ َْى ِل الْ ُقرى فَََِه ِو ولَِ هر ُسಕಒا ِ ِول َولِ ِذي الْ ُق ْرََب َوالْيَ تَ َامى َوال َْمساك ِ ِسب اء ه يل َك ْي ََل ني َوابْ ِن ال ه َ َ َ َ َما أَف َ َ ِ َ إِ هن هಕಒا ول فَ ُخ ُذوهُ َوَما نَ َها ُك ْم ََ ْنوُ فَانْ تَ ُهوا َواته ُقوا ه َ َش ِدي ُدಕಒا ُ آَت ُك ُم ال هر ُس َ ني ْاْلَ ْغنِيَاء ِم ْن ُك ْم َوَما َْ َيَ ُكو َن ُدولَةً ب ِ الْعِ َق اب Whatever Allah has restored to His Apostle from the people of the towns, it is for Allah and for the Apostle, and for the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the wayfarer, so that it may not be a thing taken by turns among the rich of you, and whatever the Apostle gives you, accept it, and from whatever he forbids you, keep back, and be careful of (your duty to) Allah; surely Allah is severe in retributing (evil)18 Money needs governance. The Imam and government were custodians and given the responsibility for the minting of new coins as stated by Imam Ahmad and Nawai. The scholars emphatically state that the Shari’ah does not permit the Imam and the authorities to manipulate the monetary system through debasement, coin clipping and by artificially increasing the supply of money. Profit on exchange of goods & services is the basis for earning profit. Balanced budget is the outcome of no expansion of money. Expansion of money takes place and thus no inflation is created. Due to control over inflation, no extra price is charged by the entrepreneur Concepts of Crypto currency Currency has been defined by various researchers and scholars. One of the common definitions is that, currency is a medium of exchange and measurement of economic value.19The term crypto is a root of cryptography and the word cryptography is derived from Greek language which is translated as ‗hidden writing.20The word ―crypto‖ refers to the encryption or cryptography that the instrument is built on and then added to a block chain database. The ―currency‖ here refers to the recognition as medium of exchange amongst its users.21 Qur‘an, 59:17 Shami, M. (2016).Changes to financial transactions from shariah perspective.1st edition.Al-Da‘wa publishing and distribution house. Beirut 20 Rosen, K. H. et al.. (2018)Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, Second edition Boca Raton: CRC Press p199. 18 19 21 Onagun, A. I. (2014). The genesis of Cryptocurrency in Islamic economics: Shariah analysis of HLC tokens Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 45 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance Historical Development of Crypto currency The traditional practices of monetary and financial activities are changing rapidly due to the improvement in information technology as well as the information communication system. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) introduced by Davis in 1989 asserted the acceptance of advanced technology determined by the consumers based on the reliability, flexibility and the perceptions.22The idea of electronic money was started by Nick Sabo in 1990. He tried to introduce money on internet called ‗Bit Gold‘. However, his effort became fruitless. In 1998, ‗Liberty Dollars‘ was introduced by an American called Bernard von NotHaus who was jailed for putting government in frightening condition. Wei Dai from China invented ‗BMoney‘ also which was not accepted by both government and people. In 2007, security personnel from America introduced ‗E-Gold‘. Crypto currency is one sort of the electronic monies introduced.Its origin can be traced to Satoshi Nakamoto, a pseudonymous developer in 2009 when she created Bitcoin. This form of crypto currency uses SHA-256 a cryptographic function as its evidence of work scheme. Since then, different categories of cryptocurrencies have emerged.23 Features of Crypto currency Lawal (2019) considered the under listed items as the features of crypto currency24 Crypto currency is an electronic money: Crypto currency is a digital currency that does not have a physical presence just like the bank notes and coins. It is available in different forms such as Bitcoin, Litecoin, Ethereum and so forth. It cannot be damaged. It can be stored in hardware wallets, desktop wallet, fiat wallets, mobile wallets and online wallets. It serves as a medium of exchange and a store of value. It does not require a government or central planner: Crypto currency is not an official currency. For instance, it is not issued by an official body, such as: the central bank or a monetary authority within the state anyone can practice virtual currency mining, provided that he has the required technical skills for that. Echchabi, A. (2018). E-Banking Acceptance in Thailand : An Emphasis on Islamic Banks ‘ Customers. European Journal of Islamic Finance Privacy, 9, 1–5. 23 Lawal, 2019 24 Lawal, 2019 22 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 46 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance It does not require the activities of man as in the case of bank notes Its value is not stable Classification of Crypto currency As of January 2022, there are about fifteen thousand (15,000) types of Cryptocurrencies that are active and available over the internet.25 Bitcoin (BTC): Bitcoin is a digital currency with no central issuing authority or physical form. It is a crypto currency that uses cryptography techniques to guide encryption protocols which identify ownership and verify transactions details26 Lite-coin (LTC): Lite-coin (LTC) was launched by Charles Lie in 2011 and it is considered as silver to Bitcoin gold. This form of crypto currency makes use of script encryption algorithm which is contrary to SHA-256 adopted by Bitcoin.27 Ethereum (ETH): Ethereum is a virtual currency and a decentralized platform. It was introduced by Vitalik in 2015. It is a smart platform for concluding contracts; uses the Blockchain system; provides a high level of security and is used for concluding smart contracts.28 Ripples (XRP): This form of crypto currency was launched in 2012. It has a network that operates in real time world settlement which enables it to offer instant, certain and low cost international payments.29 Methods of Crypto currency Activation From a user perspective, crypto is nothing more than a mobile app or computer program that provides a personal Bitcoin wallet and allows a user to send and receive Bitcoins.30Silva (2016) explained that crypto currency is a system characterized by a computer program with three main axes: first, a public system of registration of transaction, called blockchain, serving as an accounting book of its entries and exits; second, an encryption algorithm called asymmetric encryption- associated with a proof-of-work which is used to validate operations with the currency; and the last one focused on a decentralized computer network according to the design of the users (also 25 www.statista.com retrieved on 15/08/2025 26 Abu-Bakar, 2017 https://empirica.io/blog/different-types-cryptocurrency retrieved on 06/8/2022 28 Khalaf, M. L. &Alnwairan, T. A., (2020).Virtual Currencies and Stand of Islam on the Use of Such Currencies.Journal of Critical Reviews ISSN- 2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 15, 2020 27 29 Empirica, 2018 Abu-Bakar, 2017 30 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 47 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance called miners), which verify and validate transactions with the currency and update the public registry system – that is blockchain.31 Regulation of Crypto currency internationally Bech and Garratt, mentioned that, Crypto currency is seriously gaining popularity in many countries all over the world which Nigeria is not an exception. Presently there is no international regulatory frame work for its operations as such each country is trying the best they can to regulate its activities. In USA for instance, crypto currency is being regulated by five different federal agencies with each agency having a different view points of perspectives. United Kingdom accepts the use of the currency but subject it to further security measures including anti-money laundering laws. Spain, on the other hand, acknowledged Bitcoin but under barter laws (Bech and Garratt, 2017).According to Scott (2016), Netherlands do not have regulation on the use of Cryptocurrencies 32 Demarcations between Crypto currency and Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) The demarcation between the crypto currency and Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC), is that Unlike crypto currency, Central Bank Digital Currency, being a virtual currency backed by the central bank or the monetary authority of a country serves all the functions of money, such as a store of value, a unit of account, and a medium of exchange, facilitates the attainment of macroeconomic goals and financial stability. To ensure the safeguarding of the interest of the people, business enterprises, and the financial system of a country from a broader perspective, adequate regulatory measures regarding crypto currency are a must. Crypto currency and Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) Security or legal Tender At the most basic level, crypto currency can be compared to other currencies. The main distinction is that they are not affiliated with a nation, a bank, or a central organization. The use of cryptocurrencies by criminals has significantly increased. Since their inception, cryptocurrencies have been used in ever-evolving ways to exploit needs and fill them. It is impossible to overstate the impact that cryptocurrencies have had on the growth of malware, black markets, and attacker behavior. Cybercriminals will undoubtedly respond in more ways as markets evolve and adopt 31 Silva, A. (2016) Cryptocurrencies: International regulation and uniformization of practices 32 Bech, M., and Garrant, R. (2017).Central Bank Crypto-currencies. BIS Quarterly Review. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 48 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance cryptocurrencies. Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Stated in Act number 20 stated that: The currency notes issued by the Bank shall be legal tender in Nigeria as their face value for the payment of any amount.33 Fiat and Crypto currency Regardless of the form, money must fulfil three main functions. Firstly, it has to be accepted as a medium of exchange for the trade of goods and services. Secondly, it must be suitable as a medium to store value for saving wealth. Thirdly, it must act as a unit of account, to measure and compare the value of goods.34 cryptocurrencies are compared with gold, the oldest form of money, and with central bank-issued fiat currencies with regard to different traits of money. It can be seen, that the traditional types of money, gold and fiat money, fulfil all traits of money to a high or medium level. The fact, that cryptocurrencies are highly divisible and globally transferable leads to the conclusion that cryptocurrencies are highly suitable for the role as a medium of exchange. Introduction of Crypto currency in Muslim Countries In the Gulf region, Saudi Arabia and the UAE have launched, recently, a joint crypto currency which will be limited to banks during its first stages. The currency operates on the use of a distributed database between the central banks and the participating banks from both sides, among which are several Shari’ah compliant banks that have to observe directions set by their Shari’ah boards in this respect.35 These Muslim countries employed the use of Islamic trading and businesses that fully guided and approved by Islamic law and principles. The following are the Principles of Islamic Transactions: Prohibition of interest: This implies that any return over and above the actual loan amount which is predetermined is prohibited. Practice of usury is forbidden in Islam because this practice causes oppression and inequality in society and the national economy itself. It would consequently cause the rich to get richer and the poor be poorer. The prohibition of interest derives its source from both the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW). The noble Quran states that ِه ِِ ِّ َ َوذَ ُروا َما بَِقي ِم َنಕಒا آمنُوا اته ُقوا ه ني َ الرََب إِ ْن ُك ْن تُ ْم ُم ْؤمن َ ين َ ََي أَيُّ َها الذ َ 33 CBN ACT 2007 Ammous, 2018 35 Billa, M. M. (2019). Modern Islamic Investment Management Principles and Practices. Islamic Economics Institute King Abdulaziz University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 34 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 49 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance O you who believe! Be afraid of Allah and give up the remains from Riba, if you are really believers.36 Profit and loss sharing: Islamic transaction is based on the principle of profit and loss sharing which depicts a divergence from the conventional form of banking and finance. Gambling (maysir), uncertainty/speculation (gharar) are prohibited: Islamic transaction prohibits transaction involving gambling. As it is clearly spelt out in the glorious Quran, in Surat al-Ma‘idah which states that:ِه ِ اْلَمر والْمي ِسر و ْاْلَنْصاب و ْاْلَ ْزََلم ِرجس ِمن ََم ِل ال ه اجتَنِبُوهُ ل ََعَه ُك ْم ْ َش ْيطَان ف َ ين َ ْ ٌ ْ ُ َ ُ َ َ ُ ْ َ َ ُ ْ ْ َّاಔآمنُوا إِ ه َ ََي أَيُّ َها الذ تُ ْفَِ ُحو َن O you who believe! Intoxicants (All kinds of alcoholic drinks) and gambling and Al-ansab and Al-Azlam (arrow for seeking luck of decision) are abomination of shaitan’s (Satan’s) handiwork. So avoid (strictly all) that abomination in order that you may be successful. 37 Unethical business or investment is prohibited: Islamic banking and finance is based on the principle which prohibits investments in unethical businesses or prohibited commodities. For example, trading in alcohol or pork is prohibited as stated in the Qur‘an: ِ ِ َِويل ل ِه ِ ين إِذَا ا ْكتَالُوا ََ َى الن وى ْم ُُيْ ِس ُرو َن ُ ُُوى ْم أ َْو َوَزن ُ ) َوإِذَا َكال2( هاس يَ ْستَ ْوفُو َن َ ْمطَّفف َ ) الذ1( ني ُ ٌ َْ Woe to those who cheat the people who, when they receive by measure from men, take full and otherwise when they measure or weigh for others they cut (the measurement or weight)38 al-'Adl (Justice)Ethical traders must perform al-Adl, or justice. This means that traders must be temperate in all things without being only the benefitting side;give equal treatment or be fair to all customers, and give the rights to the right. In other words, justice means putting things in the right place. Allah (SWT) says: ِ اْلحس ِ ِ إِ هن ه ش ِاء َوال ُْم ْن َك ِر َوالْبَ غْ ِي يَعِظُ ُك ْم ل ََعَه ُك ْم تَ َذ هك ُرو َن َ ان َوإِيتَ ِاء ِذي الْ ُق ْرََب َويَ ْن َهى ََ ِن الْ َف ْح َ ْ ِْ َ ََي ُْم ُر َبل َْع ْدل َوಕಒا 36 Qur 2:278 Qur, 5:90 37 38 Qur, 83: 1-3 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 50 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance Verily, Allah enjoins Al- Adl (justice) and Al- Ihsan (patient in performing duties) and giving help to the kin, and forbids Fahsha (evils) and Munkar, and Baghy (oppression). He admonishes you, that you may take heed.39 Shari’ah views on the Use of Crypto currency The permissibility of crypto currency under Islamic law is a subject of active scholarly debate, with contemporary Islamic jurists offering divergent opinions. As noted by Abubakar (2020), the discourse surrounding digital currencies such as Bitcoin has given rise to three general positions among scholars: 1. Prohibitionist View (Ḥarām) 2. Permissibility View (Ḥalāl) 3. Suspensive or Conditional View the examination of crypto currency can be evaluated by considering the principles of Fiqh. For this kind of evaluation, it is necessary to answer the questions such as the philosophy of Cryptocurrencies, how it is produced, how it is used, what type of functions it performs? what kind of results it may have in the current financial system? what are the benefits and problems for the Muslim society?. The first group, representing the prohibitionist stance, argues that cryptocurrencies are ḥarām (forbidden) due to multiple factors. This position is supported by numerous religious authorities and institutions across the Islamic world. One prominent example is the Darul Ihsan Centre based in Durban, South Africa, which, alongside various scholars from Turkey, India, the United Kingdom, and notably the Grand Mufti of Egypt, have issued formal rulings declaring crypto currency impermissible under Shariah law. Arguments for Prohibition In Egypt, Grand Mufti Shaykh Shawki Allam has categorically declared Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies as ḥarām. His position is grounded in several critical concerns: Use in unlawful activities: Cryptocurrencies can facilitate anonymous and untraceable transactions, making them appealing for illegal dealings such as drug trafficking, terrorism financing, and tax evasion. 39 Qur, 16: 90 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 51 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance Lack of physical form and central authority: These characteristics undermine state monetary sovereignty and obstruct governmental control over financial systems. Potential for money laundering and fraud: The anonymity associated with crypto-assets raises severe concerns regarding the enforcement of anti-money laundering (AML) and counter-terrorism financing (CTF) laws. Volatility and speculation: Cryptocurrencies are subject to extreme price fluctuations, rendering them unstable and encouraging speculative behavior, which Islam prohibits as maysir (gambling). In Turkey, the Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) issued a fatwa stating that Bitcoin is not accepted religiously due to similar concerns. Hayrettin Karaman, an eminent Turkish scholar of Islamic law, reinforced this position by asserting that cryptocurrencies result in unjust enrichment and harm Muslim societies. He classifies such transactions under maysir due to their speculative nature and high risk of financial loss. Similarly, the Palestinian Fatwa Center declared Bitcoin and its equivalents as ḥarām. The institution cited reasons such as: The anonymous identity of crypto currency issuers, The absence of governmental or central bank backing, High speculative risk due to lack of intrinsic value or controlling mechanisms, Classification of crypto trading as a form of gambling. Professor Monzer Kahf and Professor Ali Muhyealdin Al-Quradaghi, two internationally recognized scholars in Islamic economics, have also declared cryptocurrencies impermissible. They argue that cryptocurrencies: Are not issued by sovereign states as legal tender, Do not fulfill traditional monetary functions, particularly stability and widespread acceptability, Foster excessive uncertainty (gharar) and lack thamaniyyah (intrinsic value). In Saudi Arabia, senior religious figures have expressed similar reservations. For instance, in December 2017, Sheikh Assim Al-Hakeem described cryptocurrencies as ḥarām, calling them a gateway to money laundering, drug trading, and illicit smuggling activities. Common Grounds for Prohibition Across Jurisdictions: 1. Lack of broad public acceptance and recognition as legal tender. 2. Intentional avoidance of central authority, challenging governmental monetary oversight. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 52 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance 3. Absence of tangible presence, undermining trust and tangibility—a key requirement in traditional Islamic contracts. 4. Excessive volatility, exposing users to unjustifiable risk. 5. Concerns regarding ḥalāl/ḥarām ambiguity, warranting caution (iḥtiyāṭ) in financial dealings. 6. Lack of recognition by most nation-states, affecting legitimacy and value stability. In summary, scholars who prohibit crypto currency transactions often rely on analogical reasoning (qiyās) with banned economic practices like gambling (maysir), speculative trading, and the use of deceptive instruments. They advocate for a monetary system rooted in transparency, intrinsic value, and centralized governance—principles that they argue cryptocurrencies undermine. The second group is of the view that crypto currency is accepted based on Islamic principles and therefore to them it is halal (permissible). According to this view, crypto currency is permissible principally. Likewise, anything can be considered as money if it has these attributes: 1. treated as valuable thing among the people, 2. accepted as medium of exchange by all or substantial group of people, 3. it is a measure of value, 4. It serves as unit of accounts Therefore, any crypto currency which fulfills these conditions (such as Bitcoin) is acceptable as money. This means that the rules of origin are permitted in financial and business transactions40 In other words, everything is permitted unless a proposition is found that is contrary to Islamic principles. According to this principle, crypto currency is permitted. األصل في العقودرضاالعاقدین The basis of the contract is the pleasure of both parties. Moreover, they suggest that it is Halāl to use Crypto currency. The ones who issued such Fatwa based their opinions on the following reasons 1- Under the rules of Shari’ah, things should be considered Halal, unless one discovers information about them making them Harām. 2- Bitcoin carries out the functions of paper money. It serves as a medium of exchange and a standard for value. 40 -husaini, 2019 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 53 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance Thus, the Hukum (law) that applies to paper money applies to Bitcoin. 3- Bitcoin is considered a currency that enables one to purchase services, and commodities. It can be exchanged with any other currency. Bitcoin is a currency whose value is determined based on the market conditions. Thus, it is similar to gold and silver in this regard Although there are some scholars who kept silence on the issue, Islamic Approaches toward the Purification of Crypto currency Transaction Despite strong reservations, some scholars and institutions advocate for reformist approaches rather than outright rejection of cryptocurrencies. They propose mechanisms to ensure that digital currencies can operate in a Shari’ah-compliant framework by purifying their structures and usage. Key Shari’ah-Based Guidelines for Crypto Compliance: Design and Governance: All crypto currency products and services must be designed and managed in accordance with Islamic commercial law (fiqh al-muʿāmalāt), ensuring the avoidance of riba, gharar, and maysir. Shari’ah Oversight: Crypto currency operations must be continuously monitored and screened by qualified Islamic scholars and Shari’ah supervisory boards, ensuring compliance at every stage. Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah Alignment: All policies and technical mechanisms must align with the objectives of Islamic law, namely the preservation of religion, life, intellect, lineage, and property. Transparency and Traceability: Platforms must ensure the traceability of transactions, discourage anonymity, and maintain full disclosure to prevent misuse and fraud. These approaches are consistent with Islam's general stance on financial innovation: permissibility by default, provided no clear prohibition exists and ethical, moral, and legal safeguards are respected. These scholars emphasize that, while the current models of crypto currency may violate Islamic principles, Shari’ah-compliant digital currencies could be developed through rigorous ethical and legal scrutiny. Recommendation Recommendations for an Islamic Approach to Crypto currency In light of the divergent scholarly opinions and the rapid evolution of digital finance, this paper offers several key recommendations to guide the Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 54 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance development and regulation of cryptocurrencies in accordance with Islamic principles. Embrace Constructive Engagement Rather Than Rejection: Rather than categorically rejecting cryptocurrencies, Islamic scholars and institutions should explore ways to engage with the technology constructively. A ḥalālcompliant digital currency properly regulated and monitored could provide significant benefits to the global Muslim community. Develop Shari’ah-Based Regulatory Standards: There is an urgent need for Islamic financial institutions, scholars, and standard-setting bodies (such as AAOIFI and IFSB) to: Develop comprehensive Shariah-compliant frameworks for crypto currency operations. Establish criteria for permissibility, covering issuance, storage, exchange, and investment mechanisms. Create centralized Shariah boards to monitor and certify compliance across platforms. Encourage Research and Scholarly Consensus: Islamic scholars, economists, and technologists should collaborate to conduct in-depth studies on: The economic, ethical, and legal implications of crypto currency usage. The potential benefits and harms it poses to Muslim societies. The alignment of crypto currency mechanisms with maqāṣid alsharīʿah. A unified scholarly stance, backed by empirical research, will provide clarity and consistency to Muslim communities globally. Promote Technological Inclusion in Islamic Finance: Islam has historically embraced innovation that benefits humanity. Muslims must not lag behind in financial technology adoption. Embracing fintech and blockchain-based solutions could enhance transparency, reduce corruption, and improve financial inclusion—provided that these innovations are Islamically compliant. Establish Centralized Oversight Authorities: To address concerns of decentralization and lack of accountability, the paper recommends: The formation of Islamic digital currency authorities under national central banks or Islamic financial councils. Ensuring that crypto currency ecosystems include compliance mechanisms, dispute resolution structures, and data recovery protocols. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 55 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance This oversight can mitigate risks such as fraud, speculation, and misuse. Conclusion The debate over the permissibility of crypto currency in Islam reflects broader tensions between tradition and innovation. While several scholars and fatwa bodies categorically prohibit cryptocurrencies due to their speculative, anonymous, and decentralized nature, others argue that digital currencies if properly regulated and aligned with Islamic principles may be permissible. The central question is not whether crypto currency is inherently ḥarām or ḥalāl, but rather under what conditions and mechanisms it can be used ethically and lawfully in accordance with Shariah. Islamic finance must respond to technological advancements with well-informed, principled, and context-sensitive rulings. Therefore, the way forward lies in: Developing a clear Shariah framework for crypto currency use; Encouraging scholarly consensus; Ensuring regulatory oversight and ethical safeguards; And fostering financial innovation that advances the core objectives (maqāṣid) of Islamic law—justice, welfare, transparency, and economic balance. Ultimately, a balanced and principled approach will ensure that Muslim societies are not left behind in the digital economy while staying true to the values and obligations of their faith Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 56 Assoc. Professor Abubakar Abdulkadir & Aminu Salisu: Exploring the Use of Cryptocurrency in Light of Shari’ah Compliance References Abed Al-Hamid, Abed Al-Rahman (2017).Modern currencies and the stand on them. Number of edition isn‘t provided. Cairo publishing and distribution house. 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Dar al-Qalam Damascus (2015). www.statista.com retrieved on 29/10/2022 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 59 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF THE ALMAJIRI SYSTEM OF EDUCATION AMIDST RISING INSECURITY IN NORTHERN NIGERIA Ahmad Isah Masud Department of Islamic Studies Kaduna State University, Kaduna, Nigeria.
[email protected]Abstract The Almajiri system, a traditional Quranic education system in Northern Nigeria, faces significant challenges. Poverty, lack of basic facilities, and insecurity plague the system, making it vulnerable to exploitation by terrorist groups. This study examines the socio-economic challenges facing the Almajiri system and their contribution to insecurity in Northern Nigeria. Using a qualitative approach, the study conducted interviews and focus group discussions with Almajiri students, teachers, and community leaders. Existing literature on the Almajiri system of education was also reviewed. The research reveals that the Almajiri system of education faces numerous challenges, including poverty, inadequate facilities, and exploitation by terrorist groups who recruit young boys. The study's findings suggest that the government's efforts to address these challenges have been insufficient. To address this, the study recommends providing basic facilities, infrastructure, and economic support to the Almajiri system of education. Collaboration with stakeholders to address the root causes of insecurity is also necessary. Alternative education and vocational training programs should be established for Almajiri students. In conclusion, the Almajiri system of education requires comprehensive reform to address its socio-economic challenges and mitigate its contribution to insecurity in Northern Nigeria. The government and stakeholders must work together to provide support and resources to the system. By doing so, the welfare of Almajiri students can be improved, and the system can fulfill its purpose of providing Quranic education effectively. Keywords: Almajiri System of education, Socio-Economic Challenges, Insecurity, Northern Nigeria and Education Reform. 1.1Introduction The Almajiri system, a traditional Islamic education system in Northern Nigeria, has been a significant part of the region's cultural and religious heritage for centuries (Last 2008). However, in recent years, the system has faced numerous socio-economic challenges that have contributed to rising insecurity in the region (Ostien 2016). For instance, the lack of access to quality education, which focuses Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 60 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria on Quranic education, Islamic studies, and economic opportunities, has been a major issue leading many Almajiri students to resort to begging and other forms of menial jobs to survive, making them vulnerable to exploitation and radicalization (Hoechner 2015). Furthermore, the Almajiri system's failure to integrate modern education and vocational training has limited the economic prospects of its students, perpetuating poverty and inequality (Bano 2012). The rise of insecurity such as banditry, kidnapping, and armed robbery has further exacerbated the challenges facing the Almajiri system, creating a cycle of poverty, ignorance, and violence (Adibe 2016). Some states in northern Nigeria have made changes to their education systems to include both western and Islamic education, for example: Kano state has started a program called integrated Qur’anic education (IQC) that combines Islamic and secular education. Kaduna state has launched a program to reform education, which includes teaching both Islamic and western subjects. Zamfara state has set up a commission to oversee the teaching of Islamic and secular education together. Sokoto state has also started a program to reform education which includes teaching both Islamic and western subjects. Looking at specific states or town like Kaduna or Kano can help us understand the Almajiri system of education better and find solutions that work for each area. This study examines the socio-economic challenges facing the Almajiri system of education in certain states in northern Nigeria including Kano, Kaduna, Zamfara and Sokoto. 2.1 Literature Review General Overview of Almajiri Education The Almajiri system of education is a traditional way of educating boys in Northern Nigeria that focuses on Islamic teachings. This method has been used for many years, helping young boys learn about their faith under the guidance of teachers called "Mallams." However, this system is now facing many problems due to social and economic issues, especially because of increasing violence in the area. Originally, the Almajiri system of education was created to provide education for Muslim families, particularly in places where regular schools were not available. Teachers in this system often rely on support from the community for money and basic needs. Unfortunately, as Eze and Ajala point out, the Almajiri system of education does not have the resources or structure of formal schools, leading to Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 61 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria overcrowded classes and poor facilities, which results in low-quality education (Eze and Ajala 2021). This situation is worrying because many Almajiri children do not get the skills they need for modern life. Many families in Northern Nigeria live in extreme poverty, which affects the Almajiri system of education. Parents often see the Almajiri system of education as a way to survive and send their children for religious education instead of formal school. Ibrahim explains that this creates a cycle where families, struggling to make ends meet, cannot focus on their children's education (Ibrahim 2020). Without enough money, these children lack basic school supplies, which further harm their learning. The rise of violence in Northern Nigeria also threatens the Almajiri education system. Groups like Boko Haram have attacked schools, making them dangerous places for children. According to UNICEF, this violence has left over 10 million children without school, many of whom are Almajiri (UNICEF). Children not in school are more likely to be recruited by armed groups, continuing the cycle of violence and instability. Negative views of Almajiri children in society make their situation even harder. Studies by researchers such as Aliyu et al. show that these children are often seen negatively and associated with begging or crime, which reduces their chances of getting community support (Aliyu et al. 2020). This stigma harms their self-esteem and limits efforts to improve their education. Existing policies often do not effectively address the problems facing the Almajiri system of education. Maku et al. argue that government actions tend to be scattered and lack a clear plan to meet the needs of Almajiri children. Without a strong educational policy that includes the Almajiri system, it is difficult to improve the conditions of these children or help them access regular education (Maku et al. 2022). In conclusion, the literature shows that while the Almajiri system of education plays an important role in education in Northern Nigeria, it faces significant challenges, especially due to rising violence. Issues like poverty, poor school conditions, negative attitudes from society, and ineffective policies all make it hard for Almajiri children. Future research and programs should focus on finding Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 62 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria complete solutions that meet these children's needs, encourage community support, and address the larger economic problems they face. 3.1 Research Methodology This research uses a mixed-methods approach to examine the social and economic challenges faced by the Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria, especially with the rise in insecurity. By combining both quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (descriptive) research methods, we aim to get a complete picture of the issues at hand, including statistics and personal stories from people involved in the Almajiri education system. However, Qualitative involves conducting in-depth interviews with important people involved in the Almajiri education system, such as Islamic teachers (Mallams), school administrators, community leaders, and parents of Almajiri children. These interviews will help us understand personal experiences regarding the challenges these children face. We will conduct a structured survey to collect numerical data about the Almajiri system. The survey will target Almajiri students, their parents, and school officials in various regions of Northern Nigeria, particularly those affected by insecurity. 4.0 Socio-Economic Dimensions of the Almajiri System The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria is characterized by several socioeconomic dimensions that have contributed to its challenges and limitations. One of the primary concerns is the lack of access to quality education, which has resulted in limited economic opportunities for Almajiri students (Hoechner 2015). For instance, a study by Bano highlights that the traditional Islamic education system in Pakistan, which shares similarities with the Almajiri system, has failed to provide students with the necessary skills to compete in the modern job market (Bano 2012). Similarly, in Northern Nigeria, the Almajiri system's focus on religious education has left students ill-prepared to participate in the formal economy, perpetuating poverty and inequality (Adibe 2016). Furthermore, the Almajiri system's reliance on begging and charity has created a culture of dependency, rather than encouraging self-sufficiency and economic empowerment (Last 2008). As Ostien notes, the Almajiri system's failure to integrate modern education and vocational training has limited the economic prospects of its students, making them vulnerable to exploitation and radicalization (Ostien 2016). Moreover, the lack of economic support for Almajiri students and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 63 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria their caregivers has exacerbated poverty and inequality, creating a cycle of disadvantage that is difficult to break (Hoechner 2015). The socio-economic dimensions of the Almajiri system of education are further complicated by the region's security challenges. The rise of Boko Haram's insurgency has disrupted the traditional Islamic education system, forcing many Almajiri students to flee their homes and seek refuge in other parts of the country (Adibe 2016). This has created a humanitarian crisis, with many Almajiri students facing poverty, hunger, and displacement. 4.1 Poverty and Family Dimensions Poverty is a significant challenge facing the Almajiri system of education in Northern Nigeria, with many students coming from low-income households (Hoechner 2015). According to a study by Adibe, poverty is a major driver of the Almajiri system, as many parents are unable to afford formal education for their children, leading them to seek alternative forms of education (Adibe 2016). For instance, in a study on the Almajiri system in Kano, Nigeria, Hoechner found that many Almajiri students come from poor households and are forced to beg for food and money to survive (Hoechner 2015). This means that poverty is a big reason why the Almajiri system of education exist and it’s a problem that needs to be addressed. The poverty dimension of the Almajiri system of education is further complicated by family factors. Many Almajiri students come from large families with limited economic resources, making it difficult for parents to provide for their children's educational needs (Bano 2012). As Ostien notes, the Almajiri system of education’s failure to integrate modern education and vocational training has limited the economic prospects of its students, perpetuating poverty and inequality within families (Ostien 2016). Moreover, the lack of economic support for Almajiri students and their caregivers has exacerbated poverty, creating a cycle of disadvantage that is difficult to break (Last 2008). The family aspect of the Almajirieducation system significantly influences the experiences of Almajiri students. Many Almajiri students are sent to Islamic schools by their parents in search of better economic opportunities, but end up facing exploitation and abuse (Hoechner 2015). This means that parents want a better future for their kids, but the educational system can be harsh. We need to Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 64 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria understand why parents make this choice and work to make the system safer for these students. According to Adibe, the Almajiri system's lack of accountability and oversight has led to widespread abuse and exploitation of Almajiri students, further exacerbating poverty and vulnerability (Adibe 2016).Adibe’s statement highlights a critical issue with the Almajiri system of education where lack of accountability enables abuse and exploitation perpetuating cycles of poverty and vulnerability. 4.2 Child Labor and Street Begging Child labor and street begging are significant challenges associated with the Almajiri system of education in Northern Nigeria. Many Almajiri students are forced to engage in street begging to support themselves and their teachers, exposing them to exploitation and abuse (Hoechner 2015). According to Adibe, the Almajiri system's reliance on begging and charity has created a culture of dependency, rather than encouraging self-sufficiency and economic empowerment (Adibe 2016). For instance, a study by Okwori found that many Almajiri students in Nigeria's North-West region are forced to beg for food and money, often under harsh conditions (Okwori 2014). Child labor is also a major concern, as many Almajiri students are engaged in menial jobs to support themselves, often in hazardous conditions (Last 2008). As Ostien notes, the Almajiri system's failure to provide students with relevant skills and education has limited their economic prospects, forcing them into exploitative labor arrangements (Ostien 2016). Moreover, the lack of protection and oversight has led to widespread abuse and exploitation of Almajiri students, further exacerbating their vulnerability (Adibe 2016). The practice of street begging and child labor has significant implications for the well-being and development of Almajiri students. According to Hoechner, it can lead to physical and emotional abuse, as well as limit their access to education and economic opportunities (Hoechner 2015). Furthermore, it perpetuates a cycle of poverty and inequality, making it difficult for Almajiri students to break free from exploitative labor arrangements (Bano 2012). 4.3 Limited Access to Quality Islamic and Qur’anic Education The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria is characterized by a lack of access to quality education, which has significant implications for the development and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 65 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria future prospects of its students. Many Almajiri schools lack basic infrastructure, including classrooms, libraries, and qualified teachers, making it difficult for students to access quality education (Hoechner 2015). According to Adibe, the Almajiri system's focus on religious education has limited its ability to provide students with relevant skills and knowledge to compete in the modern economy (Adibe 2016). Limited access to quality Islamic and Qur’anic education is further exacerbated by the system's failure to integrate modern education and vocational training, leaving students ill-prepared to participate in the formal economy (Ostien 2016). For instance, a study by Bano found that traditional Islamic education systems in Pakistan, which share similarities with the Almajirisystem, often prioritize religious education over secular subjects, limiting students' economic prospects (Bano 2012). Moreover, the Almajiri system's lack of access to quality education has significant implications for the region's development and security. According to Last, the lack of education and economic opportunities has contributed to the rise of insecurity in Northern Nigeria, as young people become vulnerable to radicalization and extremist ideologies (Last 2008). Furthermore, the Almajiri system's failure to provide students with relevant skills and knowledge has limited its ability to contribute to the region's economic development, perpetuating poverty and inequality (Adibe 2016). 4.4 Health and Sanitation Challenges The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria faces significant health and sanitation challenges, which have serious implications for the well-being and development of its students. Many Almajiri schools lack basic amenities such as clean water, sanitation facilities, and healthcare services, exposing students to health risks (Hoechner 2015). According to Adibe, the Almajiri system's poor living conditions and lack of access to healthcare have contributed to the spread of diseases, including malaria, tuberculosis, and meningitis (Adibe 2016). The health challenges facing the Almajiri system are further exacerbated by the system's reliance on begging and street vending, which exposes students to environmental health hazards (Last 2008). For instance, a study by Okwori found that many Almajiri students in Nigeria's North-West region suffer from Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 66 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria malnutrition, diarrhea, and other health problems due to poor living conditions and lack of access to healthcare (Okwori 2014). Moreover, the Almajiri system's lack of attention to sanitation and hygiene has significant implications for students' health and well-being. According to Ostien, the system's poor sanitation facilities and lack of access to clean water have contributed to the spread of water-borne diseases, further exacerbating health challenges (Ostien 2016). Furthermore, the Almajiri system's failure to provide students with adequate healthcare and sanitation facilities has limited its ability to promote students' overall well-being and development (Bano 2012). 5.0 Insecurity and Its Linkages with the Almajiri System The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria has been linked to security problems. In states like Kano, Kaduna and Sokoto many students in this system don’t get good Islamic and Quranic education. This makes them vulnerable to extremist ideas. Without proper education they are more likely to be influenced by groups that promote violence and terrorism. According to Adibe, the Almajiri system's failure to provide students with relevant skills and knowledge has limited their economic prospects, making them susceptible to recruitment by extremist groups (Adibe 2016). For instance, Boko Haram's insurgency in Northern Nigeria has been linked to the Almajiri system, with many of its members reportedly recruited from Almajiri schools (Walker 2016). The insecurity challenges facing the Almajiri system are further exacerbated by the system's poor living conditions and lack of access to education and economic opportunities (Last 2008). According to Hoechner, the Almajiri system's reliance on begging and street vending has exposed students to exploitation and abuse, making them vulnerable to radicalization (Hoechner 2015). Moreover, the system's failure to promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills has limited its ability to promote peace and stability in the region (Bano 2012). The linkages between the Almajiri system and insecurity are complex and multifaceted. According to Okwori, the system's failure to provide students with relevant skills and knowledge has contributed to poverty and inequality, making it difficult for students to participate in the formal economy and increasing their vulnerability to extremist ideologies (Okwori 2014). Furthermore, the Almajiri Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 67 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria system's poor governance and lack of oversight have created an environment conducive to radicalization and extremism (Adibe 2016). 5.1 Vulnerability to Radicalization and Recruitment by Armed Groups The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria has been identified as a potential breeding ground for radicalization and recruitment by armed groups, particularly Boko Haram (Ostien 2016). According to Adibe, the system's failure to provide students with relevant skills and knowledge has limited their economic prospects, making them vulnerable to radicalization and recruitment by extremist groups (Adibe 2016). For instance, many Boko Haram fighters have been reported to have been recruited from Almajiri schools, where they were indoctrinated with extremist ideologies (Walker 2016). The vulnerability of Almajiri students to radicalization and recruitment by armed groups is further exacerbated by the system's poor living conditions and lack of access to education and economic opportunities (Last 2008). According to Hoechner, the Almajiri system's reliance on begging and street vending has exposed students to exploitation and abuse, making them more susceptible to radicalization (Hoechner 2015). Moreover, the system's failure to promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills has limited its ability to promote peace and stability in the region (Bano 2012). The Almajiri system's vulnerability to radicalization and recruitment by armed groups has significant implications for security and stability in Northern Nigeria. According to Okwori, the system's failure to provide students with relevant skills and knowledge has contributed to poverty and inequality, making it difficult for students to participate in the formal economy and increasing their vulnerability to extremist ideologies (Okwori 2014). Furthermore, the Almajiri system's poor governance and lack of oversight have created an environment conducive to radicalization and extremism (Adibe 2016). 5.2 Displacement and Internal Migration The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria has been affected by displacement and internal migration, particularly due to the Boko Haram insurgency (Adibe 2016). According to Ostien, many Almajiri students have been forced to flee their homes and schools, leading to a disruption in their education and livelihoods (Ostien 2016). For instance, the displacement of Almajiri students from Borno and Yobe Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 68 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria states has led to an influx of students in neighboring states, putting pressure on local resources and infrastructure (Okumoko 2018). The displacement and internal migration of Almajiri students have significant implications for their well-being and development. According to Hoechner, many Almajiri students who have been displaced face poverty, hunger, and exposure to exploitation and abuse (Hoechner 2015). Moreover, the disruption to their education and livelihoods has limited their ability to participate in the formal economy and increased their vulnerability to radicalization and extremist ideologies (Adibe 2016). The Almajiri system's response to displacement and internal migration has been inadequate, with many students lacking access to basic necessities such as food, shelter, and healthcare (Last 2008). According to Okwori, the system's failure to provide support to displaced Almajiri students has exacerbated their vulnerability and limited their ability to cope with the challenges of displacement (Okwori 2014). 5.3 Impact of Banditry and Kidnapping on Almajiri Schools The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria has been severely impacted by banditry and kidnapping, which have become increasingly prevalent in the region (Ostien 2016). According to Adibe, many Almajiri schools have been attacked, and students have been kidnapped, leading to a disruption in their education and livelihoods (Adibe 2016). For instance, the kidnapping of Almajiri students in Zamfara State has been linked to banditry groups, which demand ransom from families in exchange for the safe release of the students (Okumoko 2020). The impact of banditry and kidnapping on Almajiri schools has been devastating, with many students and teachers living in fear of attack (Hoechner 2015). According to Last, the insecurity in the region has led to the closure of many Almajiri schools, depriving students of their right to education (Last 55). Moreover, the trauma and psychological impact of banditry and kidnapping on Almajiri students have been significant, with many students experiencing anxiety, fear, and depression (Okwori 2014). The Almajiri system's vulnerability to banditry and kidnapping has been exacerbated by the lack of security and protection for students and teachers (Adibe 2016). According to Ostien, the system's failure to provide a safe learning environment has led to a decline in enrollment and a loss of trust in the system Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 69 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria (Ostien 2016). Furthermore, the impact of banditry and kidnapping on Almajiri schools has significant implications for the region's development and stability, as education is critical to promoting economic growth and social cohesion (Okumoko 2020). 6.0 Government and Stakeholders Responses The Nigerian government and stakeholders have implemented various initiatives to address the challenges facing the Almajiri system (Adibe 2016). According to Ostien, the Almajiri Education Program (AEP) was launched to provide Almajiri pupils with access to formal education and vocational training (Ostien 2016). For instance, the AEP has established Almajiri schools in several states, providing pupils with access to quality education and healthcare (Okumoko 2020). Stakeholders, including civil society organizations and international donors, have also played a significant role in supporting the reform of the Almajiri system (Hoechner 2015). According to Okwori, many organizations have implemented programs to provide Almajiri pupils with access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities (Okwori 2014). For example, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has funded programs to support the development of Almajiri schools and provide teachers with training and resources (USAID 2). Despite these efforts, challenges persist, and the Almajiri system remains a complex issue (Adibe 2016). According to Last, the lack of funding, infrastructure, and qualified teachers continues to hinder the development of Almajiri schools (Last 2008). Moreover, the Almajiri system's vulnerability to radicalization and extremism remains a significant concern, requiring sustained efforts from government and stakeholders to address (Ostien 2016). 6.1 Federal and State Government Policies on Almajiri Education The Nigerian government has implemented various policies to address the challenges facing Almajiri education (Adamu 2016). According to Shehu, the Federal Government's Almajiri Education Program aims to provide Almajiri pupils with access to formal education and vocational training (Shehu 2016). For instance, the program has established Almajiri schools in several states, providing pupils with access to quality education and healthcare (Okumoko 2020). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 70 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria At the state level, governments have also implemented policies to support Almajiri education. According to Suleiman, the Kano State government has established the Almajiri Education Board to oversee the development of Almajiri schools and provide teachers with training and resources (Suleiman 2018). Moreover, Katsina State has introduced the Almajiri Education Program to provide Almajiri pupils with access to formal education and skills training (Katsina State Government 2018). The federal and state government policies on Almajiri education have significant implications for the development of Almajiri schools and the well-being of Almajiri pupils. According to Adamu, the policies have led to an increase in enrollment and improvement in the quality of education in Almajiri schools (Adamu 2016). Moreover, the policies have promoted collaboration between government, stakeholders, and Islamic scholars to address the challenges facing Almajiri education (Shehu 2016). 6.2 Role of Religious and Traditional Leaders Religious and traditional leaders have played a significant role in promoting Almajiri education in Northern Nigeria (Gumi 2018). According to Imam AlGhazali, education is a fundamental right that can promote social cohesion and stability (Al-Ghazali 2010). For instance, the Sultan of Sokoto, Sa'adu Abubakar III, has emphasized the importance of integrating modern education with Islamic knowledge to promote holistic development (Abubakar 2015). Traditional leaders have also supported the development of Almajiri schools and provided resources to promote education (Shehu 2016). According to Lamido Sanusi, the Emir of Kano, the Almajiri system's reform requires a collaborative effort from government, stakeholders, and traditional leaders to provide pupils with access to quality education and economic opportunities (Sanusi 2017). Religious leaders have also played a crucial role in promoting peace and stability in the region (Ostien 2016). According to Sheikh Ahmad Gumi, Islamic scholars have a responsibility to promote peaceful coexistence and social cohesion through education and community engagement (Gumi 2018). Moreover, traditional leaders have used their influence to promote tolerance and understanding, reducing conflicts and promoting stability (Abubakar 2015). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 71 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria The role of religious and traditional leaders in promoting Almajiri education has been significant, and their influence has helped to promote development and stability in the region (Sanusi 2017). According to Imam Malik, the importance of education and community engagement cannot be overstated, and religious and traditional leaders have a critical role to play in promoting these values (Malik 2014). 6.3 Contributions of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have made significant contributions to promoting Almajiri education in Northern Nigeria (Okumoko 2020). According to Adamu, NGOs have provided Almajiri pupils with access to formal education, vocational training, and healthcare (Adamu 2016). For instance, the USAIDfunded Almajiri Education Program has supported the development of Almajiri schools and provided teachers with training and resources (USAID 2018). NGOs have also played a crucial role in promoting community engagement and social mobilization to support Almajiri education (Shehu 2016). According to Sadauki, NGOs have worked with local communities to promote awareness about the importance of education and encouraged parents to send their children to school (Sadauki 2018). For example, the Girls' Education Project has supported the education of girls in Almajiri schools, promoting gender equality and empowerment (Girls' Education Project 2020). The contributions of NGOs have had a significant impact on the development of Almajiri education, improving access to quality education and promoting the wellbeing of Almajiri pupils (Adamu 2016). According to Okwori, NGOs have also played a critical role in promoting innovation and best practices in Almajiri education, supporting the development of new curricula and teaching methods (Okwori 2014). 6.4 Challenges of Implementation and Sustainability The implementation of Almajiri education programs in Northern Nigeria has faced several challenges, including inadequate funding, infrastructure, and qualified teachers (Adamu 2016). According to Okumoko, the lack of adequate infrastructure and resources has hindered the development of Almajiri schools, making it difficult to provide quality education to pupils (Okumoko 2020). For instance, many Almajiri schools lack basic amenities such as classrooms, furniture, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 72 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria and teaching materials, which has negatively impacted the learning environment (Shehu 2016). Sustainability is also a major challenge facing Almajiri education programs, as many programs rely on donor funding and government support (USAID 2018). According to Sadauki, the lack of local ownership and capacity building has hindered the sustainability of Almajiri education programs, making it difficult to achieve long-term impact (Sadauki 2018). Moreover, the Almajiri system's vulnerability to radicalization and extremism remains a significant concern, requiring sustained efforts from government and stakeholders to address (Ostien 2016). The challenges of implementation and sustainability have significant implications for the development of Almajiri education, requiring government and stakeholders to develop innovative solutions and strategies to address these challenges (Adamu 2016). According to Okwori, community engagement and participation are critical to promoting sustainability and ensuring the long-term impact of Almajiri education programs (Okwori 2014). 7.0 Conclusion The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria has been a subject of concern for decades, with the socio-economic challenges it poses being further exacerbated by the rising insecurity in the region. This study aimed to explore the socio-economic challenges of the Almajiri system amidst rising insecurity in Northern Nigeria, with a focus on understanding the impact of banditry, kidnapping, and radicalization on Almajiri pupils and the system as a whole. The study employed a qualitative research methodology, utilizing a case study approach to gather data through interviews and focus group discussions with Almajiri pupils, teachers, and stakeholders. The findings of the study revealed that the Almajiri system is facing significant socio-economic challenges, including poverty, lack of access to quality education, and vulnerability to radicalization and extremism. The study also found that the rising insecurity in the region has further exacerbated these challenges, with many Almajiri pupils being forced to flee, and Almajiri schools being attacked or closed. The study's findings also highlighted the need for a more comprehensive approach to addressing the challenges facing the Almajiri Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 73 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria system, including increased funding, infrastructure development, and teacher training. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that the government and stakeholders prioritize the development of Almajiri education, including increasing funding, improving infrastructure, and providing teacher training. Additionally, community engagement and participation are critical to promoting sustainability and ensuring the long-term impact of Almajiri education programs. 8.0 Recommendations The following recommendations are made to address the socio-economic challenges of the Almajiri system amidst rising insecurity in Northern Nigeria: a. Increase Funding and Infrastructure: The government should prioritize the development of Almajiri education, including increasing funding and improving infrastructure to provide quality education and reduce vulnerability to radicalization. b. Promote Community Engagement: Community engagement and participation are critical to promoting sustainability and ensuring the longterm impact of Almajiri education programs. The government and stakeholders should work with local communities to promote awareness about the importance of education. c. Address Poverty and Unemployment: The government should implement policies to address the root causes of poverty and unemployment in Northern Nigeria, which are major drivers of the socio-economic challenges facing the Almajiri system. d. Promote Peace and Stability: The government and stakeholders should work together to develop and implement programs that promote peace and stability in Northern Nigeria, including initiatives to counter radicalization and extremism. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 74 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria Work Cited Abubakar III, S. (2015). “The role of traditional leaders in promoting education” Journal of Educational Studies, 10(1). Adamu, A. U. (2016). “The Almajiri system and the challenge of development in Northern Nigeria” Journal of African Studies, 15(1). Adibe, J. (2016). “The Almajiri system and the challenge of development in Northern Nigeria” Journal of African Studies, 15(1). Aliyu, A., Abubakar, I., and Musa, H. “The Perception of Almajiri Children in Northern Nigeria: A Socio-Study.” African Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 11, no. 4, 2020, pp. 270-280. Al-Ghazali, I. (2010). The book of knowledge (N. A. Faris, Trans.).Islamic Book Trust. Bano, M. (2012).“The rational believer: Choices and decisions in the madrasas of Pakistan” Cornell University Press. Eze, N., and Ajala, B. “The Role of Almajiri Education in Northern Nigeria: Issues and Prospects.” Journal of Northern Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, 2021, pp. 140-158. Girls' Education Project.(2020). “Girls' education project annual report” Girls' Education Project. Gumi, A. (2018). “The role of Islamic scholars in promoting peace and stability” Journal of Peace Studies, 15(1). Hoechner, H. (2015). Searching for a better life: Perceptions of the Almajiri system and alternative Islamic schools in Kano, Nigeria.Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 35(1). Ibrahim, M. (2020) “Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Almajiri Education in Northern Nigeria.” African Education Review, vol. 17, no. 3. Katsina State Government.(2018). “Almajiri education program”.Katsina State Government. Last, M. (2008). “The search for security in Muslim Northern Nigeria” Africa, 78(1). Malik, I. (2014). Al-Muwatta (A. A. Bewley, Trans.). Dar Al-Islam. Maku, J., Umar, A., and Salihu, U. (2022) “Policy Frameworks for the Almajiri Education System in Northern Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects.” International Journal of Educational Policy Research and Review, vol. 9. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 75 Ahmad Isah Masud: Socio-Economic Challenges Of The Almajiri System of Education Amidst Rising Insecurity In Northern Nigeria Okumoko, T. (2018).“The impact of Boko Haram insurgency on internally displaced persons in Nigeria” Journal of Conflict and Security Studies, 10(1). Okwori, J. (2014). “The Almajiri system in Northern Nigeria: A study of its impact on child development” Journal of Child Development, 80(3). Ostien, P. (2016). A study of the role of the Almajiri system in the spread of Boko Haram ideology in Northern Nigeria.Journal of Terrorism Research, 7(2). Sadauki, M. (2018).The role of NGOs in promoting community engagement for Almajiri education.Journal of Community Development, 10(1). Sanusi, L. (2017). “The role of traditional leaders in promoting development” Journal of Development Studies, 12(1). Shehu, A. (2016). “The role of government and stakeholders in promoting Almajiri education” Journal of Education and Human Development, 5(1). Suleiman, M. (2018).“The Almajiri education board: A study of its impact on Almajiri education in Kano State” Journal of Educational Management*, 10(1). USAID.(2018). “Nigeria education sector analysis” United States Agency for International Development. Walker, A. (2016). “Eat the heart of the infidel: The harrowing true story of the fight against Boko Haram” Profile Books. LIST OF RESPONDENTS DURING THE IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW (IDI) Hayatu Shuaibu, (Age 40) -Islamic scholar from Bauchi state. Interviewed on 04/09/2025 Aliyu Manu Esq, (Age 52) - An Islamic scholar and lawyer in Sokoto State. Interviewed on 04/09/2025 Ibrahim Isa Rufa’I (Age 43) - Chief Imam in Zaria. Interview on 04/9/2025 Muhammad Abubakar, (Age 56)- Chief Imam Shukura Road Rigasa Kaduna State. Interviewed on 03/09/2025 Muhammad Salisu (Age 40) - a class teacher from Tudunwada Kaduna. Interviewed on 01/09/2025 Amina Haruna Mashi, (Age 53) –a class teacher from Katsina State. Interviewed on 01/09/2025 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 76 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna By: Naeema Abdulazeez Department of Islamic Studies Kaduna State University, Kaduna, Nigeria
[email protected]Abstract The ḥijāb, an Islamic mode of modest dressing, remains a central element of Muslim women’s religious identity, self-expression and socio-cultural heritage in Nigeria. In Kaduna, Nigeria, a region with a significant Muslim population wearing the ḥijāb is both a personal choice rooted in faith and a public act shaped by cultural, political and economic dynamics. While the ḥijāb is widely practiced in Kaduna, Muslim women’s experiences differ across social classes, professions and levels of education. These differences influence how they navigate issues of religious expression, gender stereotypes, workplace policies and empowerment. This study investigates how the ḥijāb shapes Muslim women’s identities and empowerment in Kaduna. A qualitative approach was adopted, involving in-depth interviews with Muslim women from diverse age groups, supplemented by participant observation. The paper revealed that, for most respondents, the ḥijāb functions as both a spiritual obligation and a source of dignity, moral confidence and resistance to Westernized beauty norms. However, challenges include workplace discrimination, public harassment and misinterpretation of Islamic dress by non-Muslims and even some Muslims. The ḥijāb was also found to enhance solidarity among Muslim women. The paper recommends that public, private organizations, social activists including NGOs dress code in various workplace, conduct community-based sensitization programs to combat stereotypes, and encourage Muslim women to engage in public discourse to challenge misconceptions surrounding the hijab. Keywords: Hijab, Identity, Muslim Women and Kaduna. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 77 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna Introduction The ḥijāb, an Islamic mode of modest dressing, has evolved into more than a religious obligation for Muslim women; it is a symbol of identity, empowerment and resilience within diverse socio-political contexts. In Northern Nigeria, particularly in Kaduna State, the ḥijāb is not only a marker of faith but also a reflection of cultural expression, negotiation of power and assertion of women‟s agency. Kaduna, a region historically marked by its religious plurality and sociopolitical tensions, provides a unique setting to examine how Muslim women navigate the complexities of identity through the practice of ḥijāb (Mahmood 23). For many Muslim women, wearing the ḥijāb is both an act of devotion and a declaration of selfhood. Mahmood‟s ethnographic work demonstrates that women who adopt the veil in Muslim societies often do so as an embodiment of piety, agency and empowerment rather than subjugation (Mahmood 23). Similarly, in Kaduna, women frequently articulate that their choice of ḥijāb represents not only adherence to Islamic injunctions but also a form of self-respect, dignity and protection against societal pressures (Sadiq 58). For example, young women in Kaduna universities assert that donning the ḥijāb allows them to distinguish themselves in a secular educational environment while maintaining pride in their Islamic heritage (Yahya 94). At the same time, the ḥijāb has become a contested symbol in socio-political debates. In plural societies like Kaduna, where Muslim and Christian communities coexist, women who wear the ḥijāb often face stereotyping, discrimination, or exclusion from certain opportunities. According to Suleiman, this tension reflects broader struggles between religious freedom and secular state policies in Nigeria (Suleiman 87). Nonetheless, many Muslim women reinterpret such challenges as opportunities for empowerment, where the ḥijāb serves as a medium for negotiating visibility, rights and participation in public life.(Mahmood 198). The intersection of gender, religion and politics in Kaduna highlights the ḥijāb‟s role beyond personal faith. It is a sociological tool for collective identity and empowerment. In grassroots organizations and women‟s advocacy groups, Muslim women employ the ḥijāb as a unifying emblem for mobilizing around issues of education, employment and political participation. Thus, studying the ḥijāb within the context of Kaduna illuminates broader questions of identity formation, cultural Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 78 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna negotiation and women‟s empowerment in Muslim societies. Far from being a passive tradition, the ḥijāb emerges as an active, dynamic symbol that Muslim women in Kaduna mobilize to assert agency, resist marginalization and shape their place within the socio-political fabric of the state(Falda 221) 2.0 The Ḥijāb and Muslim Women in Kaduna The ḥijāb, as both a religious obligation and a cultural symbol, plays a central role in the lives of Muslim women in Kaduna. Kaduna State, located in Northern Nigeria, is a region where Islam constitutes a significant part of the population‟s identity and social fabric. For many Muslim women, the ḥijāb is not merely a dress code but a declaration of faith, dignity and empowerment in a society marked by cultural diversity and, at times, religious tensions (Oladapo 42). In Kaduna, the practice of wearing the ḥijāb extends beyond the private sphere into the public domain, shaping women‟s interaction with education, politics, employment and social life. For instance, young female students in both secondary schools and tertiary institutions often negotiate their religious identity in educational settings where the ḥijāb may be contested or restricted (Abubakar118). Despite these challenges, many Muslim women perceive the ḥijāb as a protective covering that enhances their self-worth and allows them to participate in social and economic activities without compromising their religious beliefs.(Adamu 49) At the same time, the ḥijāb fosters empowerment by creating a sense of belonging and solidarity within the Muslim community. Women‟s organizations and Islamic groups in Kaduna frequently mobilize around issues of modesty, education and rights, framing the ḥijāb as a tool for spiritual and social advancement. For example, the Federation of Muslim Women‟s Associations in Nigeria (FOMWAN) has been active in Kaduna in advocating for women‟s rights, often emphasizing that the ḥijāb is not a symbol of subjugation but of agency and participation in societal development (Sani 101). Thus, in Kaduna, the ḥijāb is more than a garment; it is a lived reality that reflects the intersection of faith, identity and empowerment. It embodies a negotiation between tradition and modernity, personal devotion and public engagement, as well as resilience in the face of social and institutional challenges. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 79 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna 2.1 Meaning and Symbolism of the Ḥijāb The ḥijāb, derived from the Arabic root ḥ-j-b meaning "to cover,""to conceal," or "to shield," is not merely a piece of cloth but a multidimensional concept embodying religious, cultural, spiritual and social symbolism in Islam(Esposito 95). At its core, the ḥijāb represents modesty, piety and obedience to divine injunctions as instructed in the Qur‟an and elaborated through prophetic traditions(Qur‟an 24:31, 33:59) For Muslim women, wearing the ḥijāb is a personal act of faith and devotion, a visible marker of Islamic identity and a form of empowerment within their social contexts(Mahmood 15). Moreover, the ḥijāb embodies multiple layers of meaning beyond modesty and identity. For instance, in certain Muslim-majority societies, the ḥijāb is seen as a symbol of women‟s empowerment, allowing women to participate in education, politics and the workforce while maintaining their religious and cultural commitments. In Kaduna, Northern Nigeria, many Muslim women describe the ḥijāb as granting them both respect and protection in public spaces, reinforcing their belonging in a community while simultaneously providing a sense of spiritual comfort (Adamu 56). On the other hand, the symbolism of the ḥijāb is not monolithic. While some women embrace it as a voluntary expression of faith, others experience it within structures of societal expectations or state-enforced dress codes, where the meaning of the ḥijāb shifts from empowerment to control (Mernissi 112). This complexity highlights that the ḥijāb is both a personal and communal marker, an evolving religious symbol shaped by local cultures, political contexts and individual choices. In essence, the ḥijāb represents more than clothing; it is a theological, cultural and sociopolitical symbol that communicates modesty, resistance, empowerment and belonging. Its meaning is continuously negotiated within the lived experiences of Muslim women, making it a profound and multifaceted emblem of identity in both local and global contexts. 2.2 Ḥijāb as a Marker of Identity The ḥijāb is not only a religious obligation but also a visible marker of identity that distinguishes Muslim women within diverse social contexts. Its presence in public life functions as a declaration of faith, cultural belonging and social affiliation. For many Muslim women, wearing the ḥijāb is a conscious act of self-identification Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 80 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna that conveys their commitment to Islam and situates them within the broader Muslim ummah (community of believers)(Mahmood 68). In contemporary societies, the ḥijāb also operates as a socio-political symbol of identity. Muslim women in minority settings, such as in Europe or America, often find the ḥijāb marking them out as representatives of their faith, sometimes leading to discrimination but also fostering solidarity within Muslim communities (Williams and Vashi 269). For example, the headscarf debates in France illustrate how the ḥijāb has become a contested marker of Muslim identity in secular spaces, embodying both resistance to assimilationist pressures and a reaffirmation of religious distinctiveness (Scott 41). In Nigeria, particularly in Kaduna, the ḥijāb similarly functions as a marker of Muslim identity in pluralistic and sometimes polarized settings. Kaduna‟s diverse religious demography makes the ḥijāb a visible signifier of belonging to the Muslim community. For Muslim women in schools and workplaces, the ḥijāb asserts both religious and cultural identity while navigating interfaith relations. Court cases where Muslim students challenged restrictions on wearing the ḥijāb in educational institutions further illustrate how the headscarf has become a focal point for identity politics and the assertion of constitutional rights in the Nigerian context (Suleiman 228). Furthermore, for many Muslim women, the ḥijāb serves as a shield against cultural homogenization. By wearing it, they express agency in defining their identities beyond Western-imposed categories of modernity, liberation, or beauty. This reclaiming of identity reflects the notion that Muslim women do not simply inherit the ḥijāb as tradition but actively negotiate its meaning as part of their selfrepresentation in contemporary society (Adamu 63). Thus, the ḥijāb is a profound marker of identity that transcends its material form. It affirms spiritual devotion, reinforces communal belonging and asserts sociopolitical visibility. While contested in certain contexts, it ultimately symbolizes a woman‟s autonomy in choosing how she wishes her faith and identity to be perceived in public spaces. 2.3 Research Methodology This study adopts a qualitative research methodology in order to explore the research methodology in order to explore the relationship between the hijab and its Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 81 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna identity in the lived experiences of muslim women in Kaduna state, Northern Nigeria. A qualitative approach is particularly suitable for this research because it allows for an in-depth understanding of meanings, perception and personal experiences that cannot be adequately captured through quantitative data alone. Since the concept of the identity is subjective and context dependent, qualitative methods enable the voices of muslim women to be foregrounded and interpreted within their socio-religious environments. The research employs a descriptive and interpretive design, combining textual analysis with field-based empirical data. Primary data were collected through semistructured interviews, which provided participants with the flexibility to articulate their experience of wearing the religious, educational, economic and social contexts. This method was chosen to encourage open dialogue while still maintaining focus on the core themes of study. Sampling Technique A purposive sampling technique was used to select participants. This approach ensured that respondents were muslim women who actively wear the hijab and are engaged in diverse social roles such as education, civil service, farming and religious scholarship. The diversity of occupations and locations within the Kaduna state enhances the credibility and richness of data by reflecting varied perspectives on the identity. Data collection The collected data were analyzed using thematic analysis interview response were transcribed, coded and organized into recurring themes such as spiritual empowerment, educational access, economic participation and social identity. These themes were then interpreted in relation to Quranic injunctions, prophetic tradition and relevant scholarly literature. This triangulation of primary interview data with Islamic texts and academic sources strengthens the analytical depth of the study. Interview participant(Field Data) S/N NAMES OCCUPATION LOCATION DATE OF INTERVIEW 1 Asiya Aliyu Teacher and Rigasa, 31/08/2025 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 82 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna 2 Fatima Shuaibu 3 Rahmatu Abdallah 4 Balkisu Bala 5 Safiya Kabiru farmer Islamic scholar Kaduna Tudun wada, 31/08/2025 Kaduna Mother and Mando, 01/09/2025 civil servant Kaduna Primary School Rigachikun, 01/09/2025 and Kaduna Headmaster LECTURER Makarfi, 02/09/2025 Kaduna 2.4 Social and Cultural Dimensions of the Ḥijāb Beyond its religious and identity-based significance, the ḥijāb occupies important social and cultural dimensions within Muslim societies and across global contexts. It is not merely an individual choice but also a symbol shaped by community expectations, cultural practices and socio-political realities. The ḥijāb often reflects the interplay between tradition and modernity, spirituality and culture, as well as personal agency and societal norms. Socially, the ḥijāb functions as a marker of respectability and moral integrity. In many Muslim-majority contexts, women who wear the ḥijāb are perceived as embodying virtue, humility and piety, which often accords them social capital and protection in public spaces (Mahmood 145). For example, in Northern Nigeria, including Kaduna, Muslim women often describe the ḥijāb as granting them a dignified presence that ensures recognition and respect within both family and community life (Adamu 72). This social role, however, can also place pressure on women, as the ḥijāb may be seen as compulsory for social acceptance rather than purely a personal religious choice. Culturally, the ḥijāb is not monolithic but takes diverse forms influenced by local traditions, styles and historical developments. In the Arab world, styles such as the khimar, abaya, or niqab are prevalent, while in South Asia, the dupatta and burqa reflect regional adaptations (Mernissi 99). In Nigeria, the ḥijāb varies in form: urban Muslim women often wear brightly colored and patterned scarves that blend Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 83 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna religious modesty with local aesthetics, while rural women may adopt simpler veils reflecting communal traditions (Suleiman 234). This cultural fluidity demonstrates that the ḥijāb is not only a religious obligation but also a medium of cultural expression that adapts to time and place. The social and cultural dimensions of the ḥijāb are also evident in its contested meanings. In secular states such as France or Turkey, the ḥijāb has been framed as a political challenge to secular identity, generating heated debates about citizenship, integration and multiculturalism (Scott 52). Conversely, in societies like Iran or Saudi Arabia, where the ḥijāb is legally enforced, its cultural dimension shifts into a symbol of state power and control, raising questions about women‟s freedom and agency (Esposito 119). These variations reveal how the ḥijāb is socially constructed and politically mobilized in ways that extend far beyond personal piety. In the Nigerian context, especially in Kaduna‟s multi-religious environment, the cultural visibility of the ḥijāb often intersects with interfaith relations. Muslim women wearing the ḥijāb in schools, markets and workplaces reinforce the cultural presence of Islam in a plural society. At the same time, controversies over whether students should be allowed to wear the ḥijāb in Christian-dominated schools highlight how the veil becomes a site of cultural negotiation and contestation (Suleiman 236). Therefore, the ḥijāb is not just a garment but a deeply embedded social and cultural phenomenon. It conveys respectability, shapes gender relations, reflects local traditions and operates as a contested symbol in political and interfaith spaces. These dimensions underscore its complexity as both a religious and cultural practice one that is continually redefined by the lived experiences of Muslim women across diverse societies. 3.0 Ḥijāb and Empowerment The discourse on the ḥijāb often oscillates between narratives of oppression and liberation. However, within Muslim women‟s lived experiences, the ḥijāb can be understood as a source of empowerment that transcends simplistic binaries. Far from restricting agency, many Muslim women articulate the ḥijāb as a means of reclaiming autonomy, negotiating gender roles and asserting control over their visibility in both private and public domains. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 84 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna Empowerment through the ḥijāb operates at several levels. Spiritually, it allows Muslim women to align with divine guidance, fulfilling a commandment that strengthens their sense of purpose, self-worth and closeness to Allah (Qur‟an 24:31). This spiritual empowerment translates into psychological strength, as women feel liberated from external pressures to conform to dominant beauty standards or objectifying cultural practices (Mahmood 152). For example, in Western societies where female appearance is often commodified, many Muslim women describe the ḥijāb as a conscious rejection of superficial valuations, thereby granting them agency to define their identity on their own terms (Williams and Vashi 272). Socially, the ḥijāb can empower women by granting them respectability and facilitating their participation in education, politics and employment while preserving cultural and religious commitments. In Northern Nigeria, including Kaduna, young Muslim women wearing the ḥijāb are increasingly active in universities, advocacy groups and professional settings. For these women, the ḥijāb functions as both a protective covering and a symbol of confidence that enables them to engage in public life without compromising their faith (Adamu 81). In this way, empowerment is not achieved despite the ḥijāb but through it. Politically, the ḥijāb can also act as a form of resistance and empowerment. In contexts where Muslim women‟s dress is stigmatized or legally restricted, wearing the ḥijāb becomes a statement of defiance against marginalization and a reassertion of identity. The headscarf debates in France and Germany illustrate how Muslim women have redefined empowerment by insisting on their right to public participation without abandoning their religious commitments (Scott 69). Similarly, in Nigeria, legal battles over the right to wear the ḥijāb in schools highlight how the veil serves as a rallying point for Muslim women‟s empowerment in the struggle for constitutional recognition of religious freedom (Suleiman 243). 3.1 Educational Empowerment Education has long been recognized as one of the most significant tools for women‟s empowerment and within Islamic contexts, the ḥijāb often plays a transformative role in enabling Muslim women to pursue education while maintaining their religious and cultural values. Far from being a barrier, the ḥijāb Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 85 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna can provide Muslim women with the confidence and social legitimacy to access schools, universities and professional spaces without fear of compromising their modesty or religious identity. Historically, Islam emphasizes the pursuit of knowledge for both men and women, as reflected in the Prophet Muhammad‟s teaching: “Seeking knowledge is obligatory upon every Muslim” (Ibn Mājah 224). Within this framework, the ḥijāb functions as a facilitator rather than an obstacle, allowing women to harmonize religious obligations with educational aspirations. By aligning their learning with the principles of modesty and piety, many Muslim women view the ḥijāb as a source of strength in navigating academic environments (Esposito 121). In contemporary settings, the ḥijāb provides Muslim women with a form of protection and respectability that eases their participation in education. For example, in Kaduna, Northern Nigeria, many Muslim girls report that wearing the ḥijāb reduces parental concerns about their safety and morality in co-educational institutions, thereby increasing family support for their schooling (Adamu 95). In this sense, the ḥijāb becomes a cultural bridge, reassuring families that their daughters can engage in formal education without violating religious or moral expectations. Moreover, the ḥijāb empowers women to challenge stereotypes and discrimination in educational institutions. In contexts where Muslim women face prejudice, wearing the ḥijāb in schools or universities becomes an act of resilience and identity assertion. Studies in Western societies reveal that veiled Muslim students often frame their academic success as a form of counter-narrative, proving that modest dress does not hinder intellectual achievement but rather enhances selfdiscipline and focus (Williams and Vashi 274). Legal and institutional debates around the ḥijāb in schools also highlight its educational significance. In Nigeria, several legal battles have emerged where Muslim students demanded the right to wear the ḥijāb in state schools, arguing that restrictions violated their constitutional freedom of religion (Balkisu in an interview). These struggles are not merely about dress codes but about empowering Muslim girls to access education on equal terms without being forced to choose between faith and learning. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 86 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna Therefore, the ḥijāb is deeply intertwined with educational empowerment. It facilitates access to learning, secures familial and social support, fosters resilience against stereotypes and ensures that Muslim women can thrive academically while remaining true to their values. Through this dynamic, the ḥijāb becomes not just a marker of modesty but a gateway to intellectual growth, professional development and broader participation in public life. 3.2 Economic Empowerment Economic empowerment is a critical dimension of women‟s overall liberation and development and for many Muslim women, the ḥijāb plays an important role in shaping their participation in economic life. Contrary to the stereotype that veiling restricts women to domestic spaces, the ḥijāb can serve as a means of facilitating entry into professional, entrepreneurial and market-oriented activities while preserving religious and cultural commitments. In Islamic history, women were actively involved in economic life while observing modesty. The Prophet Muhammad‟s first wife, Khadījah bint Khuwaylid, was a successful merchant whose career exemplified women‟s capacity to combine faith with commerce. This historical precedent demonstrates that modest dress, including veiling practices, was never intended to hinder women‟s economic participation but rather to safeguard dignity and integrity in public engagements (Esposito 135). In contemporary contexts, the ḥijāb often empowers women to participate confidently in the labor force. In Kaduna and other parts of Northern Nigeria, Muslim women in business, banking, teaching and civil service report that the ḥijāb enables them to interact with colleagues and clients without compromising their religious identity (Adamu 102). For many, the veil grants legitimacy in professional settings, as it communicates seriousness, moral responsibility and cultural pride. In this way, the ḥijāb functions as a symbolic passport to public engagement and economic advancement. The rise of female entrepreneurship in Muslim societies further illustrates the ḥijāb‟s role in economic empowerment. Many Muslim women entrepreneurs have successfully integrated the ḥijāb into their businesses, from modest fashion industries to local trade, where it has become a source of economic innovation and independence. For instance, the global modest fashion market, valued in billions of Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 87 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna dollars, is driven largely by Muslim women designers who wear and promote the ḥijāb as both a religious symbol and a commercial product (Lewis 232). In Kaduna‟s urban centers, small and medium-scale enterprises run by veiled women such as tailoring, food businesses and fashion outlets demonstrate how the ḥijāb complements women‟s agency in building livelihoods. At the same time, workplace challenges reveal the contested nature of the ḥijāb in economic spaces. In secular or non-Muslim-majority contexts, Muslim women may face discrimination when applying for jobs or while working in corporate environments, with the ḥijāb sometimes perceived as a barrier to professionalism (Williams and Vashi 276). Yet, many women resist such stereotypes, reframing their use of the ḥijāb as an assertion of self-determination and professional competence. In this regard, economic empowerment intersects with identity politics, as veiled women challenge exclusionary practices while carving spaces for inclusion and diversity. 3.3 Religious and Spiritual Empowerment For many Muslim women, the ḥijāb is more than a cultural practice or social marker; it is a profound expression of religious devotion and spiritual empowerment. Rooted in Qur‟anic injunctions and Prophetic traditions, the ḥijāb enables women to embody their faith outwardly while cultivating an inner sense of spiritual discipline and connection with Allah. In this regard, empowerment is not merely external but emerges from a deep alignment between personal identity and divine guidance. The Qur‟an emphasizes modesty as a virtue for both men and women, linking it to piety (taqwā) and self-restraint (Qur‟an 24:30–31; 33:59). By observing the ḥijāb, Muslim women perceive themselves as fulfilling these divine injunctions, which strengthens their spiritual agency. This act of obedience fosters a sense of empowerment because it transforms clothing into worship an everyday reminder of faith and submission to Allah (Esposito 142). Thus, empowerment is not defined in secular terms alone but grounded in spiritual autonomy and moral conviction. Many Muslim women describe the ḥijāb as a spiritual shield that fosters inner peace and dignity. It liberates them from external pressures of appearance and consumerist ideals, creating space to focus on intellectual, moral and religious growth (Safiya in an interview). For instance, in Kaduna, veiled Muslim students Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 88 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna in universities often articulate that their ḥijāb enhances their sense of purpose and reminds them to embody Islamic values in academic and social environments (Adamu 115). In this way, spiritual empowerment is translated into confidence and ethical self-regulation in everyday life. Furthermore, the ḥijāb serves as a constant spiritual discipline, reminding women of their responsibility to live by Islamic ethical standards such as honesty, humility and compassion. It becomes not only a marker of identity but also a tool for selfaccountability. This aligns with the Islamic notion of ʿibādah (worship), where even mundane actions such as dress are imbued with spiritual meaning when done in accordance with divine guidance (Balkisu in an interview). Religious empowerment through the ḥijāb also manifests in collective solidarity. In multi-religious societies like Nigeria, veiled women often report that the ḥijāb strengthens their sense of belonging to the Muslim ummah (community of believers), empowering them through shared values and mutual support networks (Suleiman 251). Globally, this solidarity is evident in how Muslim women defend their right to wear the ḥijāb in secular or hostile environments, reframing it as an act of spiritual resistance and resilience (Scott 74). However, as with other dimensions of empowerment, religious and spiritual empowerment through the ḥijāb is context-dependent. In societies where the ḥijāb is enforced by state law, women may feel disempowered if the practice is divorced from personal choice. In such cases, the meaning of the ḥijāb shifts from a spiritual commitment to a political obligation, underscoring the importance of autonomy in deriving true empowerment (Mernissi 129). In essence, the ḥijāb empowers Muslim women by reinforcing their spiritual identity, grounding them in divine purpose and nurturing a deep sense of moral agency. It represents both a personal journey of faith and a communal expression of solidarity, making it a central dimension of empowerment that transcends cultural and political contexts. 3.4 Religious and Social Participation The ḥijāb, beyond its religious symbolism, also plays a crucial role in enabling Muslim women to actively participate in both religious and social life. For many women, wearing the ḥijāb is not an act of withdrawal from public life but a means of engaging more confidently and legitimately in religious gatherings, community activities and social interactions. Within the religious sphere, the ḥijāb allows Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 89 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna women to attend mosques, Qur‟anic study circles and Islamic organizations while adhering to the values of modesty and piety. It becomes a facilitator of participation rather than a barrier, ensuring that women feel spiritually secure and socially accepted. In Kaduna, veiled Muslim women are highly visible in women‟s wings of Islamic associations, charity groups and daʿwah (religious outreach) initiatives, where the ḥijāb signals both devotion and authority in matters of faith (Adamu 124). Socially, the ḥijāb also enhances women‟s presence in communal events such as weddings, public lectures, or cultural gatherings. By embodying modesty, women are able to interact across gender and generational lines with dignity, thereby strengthening their communal ties. In many contexts, the ḥijāb communicates respectability, making women‟s contributions in leadership roles such as in women‟s cooperatives, local unions, or social activism more widely accepted (Rahmatu in an interview). Globally, the ḥijāb has also become a symbol of Muslim women‟s social participation in spaces where their religious identity is contested. For instance, Muslim women in the diaspora often use the ḥijāb to assert their presence in interfaith dialogues, academic conferences and humanitarian activities, reframing the veil as a bridge between faith and civic engagement (Williams and Vashi 279). Nevertheless, this empowerment is not without challenges. In some societies where the ḥijāb is politicized, women‟s religious and social participation may be scrutinized or restricted, especially when veiling is framed as a threat to secular values (Scott 83). Conversely, in contexts where the ḥijāb is legally enforced, women may feel constrained rather than empowered in social participation, highlighting that the meaning of the ḥijāb in public life is shaped by broader sociopolitical realities (Mernissi 133). Overall, the ḥijāb facilitates religious and social participation by granting Muslim women both legitimacy and confidence in public life. It enables them to balance spiritual obligations with active roles in their communities, demonstrating that modesty and public engagement are not mutually exclusive but complementary dimensions of Muslim women‟s lived experiences. 4.0 Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna The lived experiences of Muslim women in Kaduna reveal the multifaceted roles the ḥijāb plays in shaping identity, empowerment and participation within a plural Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 90 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna and sometimes contested environment. Kaduna, located in Northern Nigeria, is characterized by its diverse religious demography, with significant populations of both Muslims and Christians. This diversity has made the ḥijāb not only a marker of faith but also a visible signifier of social boundaries, interfaith interactions and women‟s struggles for recognition in public life. For many Muslim women in Kaduna, the ḥijāb is central to their religious identity, offering a sense of dignity, respect and belonging within their communities. It provides them with the confidence to engage in education, employment and public life while maintaining alignment with Islamic teachings (Adamu 132). Students in universities and secondary schools, for example, often report that the ḥijāb strengthens their sense of discipline and spirituality, serving as a reminder of their values in academic environments. At the same time, the ḥijāb carries social meanings within Kaduna‟s diverse society. In predominantly Muslim neighborhoods, veiled women are often seen as symbols of moral uprightness and are accorded respect in family and community life. Yet in mixed or Christian-dominated areas, the ḥijāb can sometimes expose women to stereotypes, discrimination, or suspicion, particularly when it is misperceived as a sign of extremism or resistance to modernity (Suleiman 261). These contrasting experiences highlight how the ḥijāb is situated at the intersection of faith, culture and interfaith politics. Importantly, the ḥijāb has also served as a tool for women‟s empowerment in Kaduna. Veiled women are active in civic spaces ranging from market associations and social cooperatives to women‟s NGOs and political movements. Many articulate that their use of the ḥijāb gives them a voice in public debates about morality, rights and cultural authenticity. For example, during legal disputes over the right to wear the ḥijāb in state schools, Muslim women leaders in Kaduna mobilized public opinion, framing the ḥijāb as both a constitutional right and a symbol of religious dignity (Fatima in an interview). Thus, the lived experiences of Muslim women in Kaduna demonstrate the complexity of the ḥijāb as both a personal and collective phenomenon. It provides spiritual assurance, social recognition and political visibility, while also placing women at the center of broader debates about religion, gender and identity in Nigeria. Their experiences underscore the ways in which global discourses on the Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 91 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna ḥijāb intersect with local realities, making it a lived practice that is continually negotiated in daily life. 4.1 Experiences and Opportunities For Muslim women in Kaduna, the ḥijāb is not merely a piece of clothing but a symbol that opens avenues for social mobility, religious affirmation and personal development. Many women articulate that wearing the ḥijāb empowers them to engage confidently in various spheres of life ranging from education and employment to civic participation. Far from restricting them, the ḥijāb often serves as a shield of dignity and a passport to inclusion within conservative communities, where women‟s public presence is sometimes questioned (Adamu 145). One of the positive experiences associated with the ḥijāb is its ability to facilitate women‟s access to education. In Kaduna, veiled students have reported feeling more comfortable in academic spaces, where the ḥijāb allows them to balance modern schooling with their religious obligations. This sense of comfort not only strengthens their confidence but also reinforces their determination to pursue careers in fields such as medicine, law and academia (Suleiman 270). By creating an environment where religious and cultural values are respected, the ḥijāb provides Muslim women the opportunity to fully participate in intellectual and professional life. In the workplace, the ḥijāb is also experienced positively by many women. Employers in Kaduna‟s public and private sectors increasingly recognize that the veil does not diminish competence but rather strengthens women‟s sense of responsibility and commitment. For instance, Muslim women entrepreneurs in Kaduna‟s markets describe the ḥijāb as an asset, noting that customers perceive them as trustworthy and morally upright (Esposito 183). Such perceptions create opportunities for women to build social capital and professional credibility. The ḥijāb also enhances women‟s participation in religious and community-based organizations. For many, wearing the veil enables involvement in charitable activities, women‟s rights movements and Islamic NGOs, which often use the ḥijāb as a unifying identity marker. Through such networks, women find opportunities to exercise leadership, voice concerns and shape community development initiatives (Mahmood 175). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 92 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna Importantly, the ḥijāb contributes to positive intergenerational experiences. Mothers in Kaduna report feeling proud when their daughters adopt the veil, viewing it as a continuation of family values and a symbol of discipline and virtue. This generational transmission provides young women with a sense of rootedness in tradition while also equipping them to navigate modern challenges. In this way, the ḥijāb creates a platform for Muslim women in Kaduna to transform their religious identity into opportunities for growth, education, leadership and economic advancement. While debates about its social meaning continue, the positive experiences of women who embrace the ḥijāb underscore its empowering potential within both private and public life. 4.2 Challenges and Misconceptions While the ḥijāb serves as a source of pride and empowerment for many Muslim women in Kaduna, it is also accompanied by challenges and widespread misconceptions that complicate women‟s daily lives. These challenges arise both within the Muslim community where social expectations sometimes restrict women‟s autonomy and outside it, where stereotypes about the ḥijāb influence interfaith relations, educational opportunities and workplace dynamics. One major challenge is the persistence of stereotypes that associate the ḥijāb with oppression or backwardness. In some Christian-majority neighborhoods of Kaduna, veiled women report being subjected to discriminatory remarks or treated with suspicion, particularly in the aftermath of interreligious tensions. Such stereotypes often depict the ḥijāb as incompatible with modern education or professional achievement, thereby marginalizing women in social and professional circles (Suleiman 273). These misconceptions ignore the testimonies of countless Muslim women who see the ḥijāb as a conscious expression of faith and personal agency (Mahmood 183). Another difficulty lies in the politicization of the ḥijāb. When interviewed, Asiya narrated that in Kaduna‟s public schools, for instance, legal disputes have arisen over whether female students should be permitted to wear the ḥijāb as part of their uniform. While Muslim women perceive this as a matter of religious freedom, opponents often misinterpret it as an imposition of religious identity in secular spaces (Adamu 149). Such conflicts intensify divisions and leave veiled women vulnerable to exclusion or harassment. Even within Muslim communities, the ḥijāb Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 93 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna can become a source of social pressure. For some women, the expectation to wear it is less about personal conviction and more about conformity to cultural norms or fear of being judged as less pious. In this context, the ḥijāb may feel burdensome, undermining women‟s autonomy and agency (Esposito 187). This dual character both empowering and restrictive creates tension for women negotiating personal choice in conservative settings. Workplace discrimination presents another challenge. Although many employers in Kaduna are supportive, some veiled women recount experiences where job opportunities were denied or promotions withheld on the assumption that their attire would limit their ability to perform in “modern” professional spaces (Suleiman 278). This misperception not only undermines their capabilities but also deepens economic inequality. Ultimately, these challenges and misconceptions reveal that the meaning of the ḥijāb in Kaduna is not fixed but contested. While it symbolizes faith and empowerment for Muslim women, it is also subjected to external misreadings that contribute to discrimination, exclusion and social tension. Addressing these misconceptions requires dialogue, awareness and recognition of the diverse lived experiences of veiled women in Kaduna. 4.3 Negotiating Modernity and Tradition Muslim women in Kaduna constantly navigate the delicate balance between modernity and tradition and the ḥijāb lies at the heart of this negotiation. Kaduna, as a diverse urban space, reflects both conservative Islamic values and modern influences shaped by globalization, education and technology. For many women, the ḥijāb is not an obstacle to engaging with modern life but rather a medium through which they reconcile faith with contemporary aspirations. In educational institutions, veiled women often stand at this intersection. While their attire signifies adherence to Islamic tradition, their pursuit of higher education, involvement in research and participation in debates affirm their commitment to modern intellectual life (Adamu 152). In this way, the ḥijāb allows women to redefine modernity on their own terms one that does not require abandoning religious identity but instead integrates it into academic and professional pursuits. The workplace further illustrates this negotiation. Many professional Muslim women in Kaduna teachers, doctors, bankers and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 94 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna entrepreneurs choose to wear the ḥijāb while performing roles in sectors often associated with Western or secular values. For them, the veil embodies the possibility of thriving in modern economic life without compromising religious principles (Suleiman 280). Their visibility challenges dominant narratives that frame tradition and modernity as mutually exclusive. At the cultural level, fashion has become a significant site for this negotiation. Younger Muslim women, influenced by social media and global Muslim fashion trends, adopt creative styles of ḥijāb that blend modesty with aesthetics. This adaptation reflects a dynamic understanding of tradition, anchored in Islamic teachings yet open to cultural creativity. Rather than rejecting modernity, these women use fashion to assert agency, showing that veiling can coexist with selfexpression and social mobility (Mahmood 190). Ultimately, the experiences of these women reveal that modernity and tradition are not fixed opposites but fluid categories negotiated in daily life. The ḥijāb becomes a powerful symbol through which Muslim women in Kaduna articulate hybrid identities rooted in faith yet responsive to the realities of a changing world. 5.0 Implications for Gender Relations in Kaduna The experiences of Muslim women who wear the ḥijāb in Kaduna have significant implications for gender relations within the region. The ḥijāb is not only a marker of faith but also a social tool that influences how men and women relate to one another in family, educational, economic and public spaces. By shaping expectations of modesty, morality and identity, the ḥijāb both reinforces and challenges traditional gender dynamics. In many communities within Kaduna, the presence of the ḥijāb affirms women‟s respectability and enhances their participation in public life. Men often view veiled women as embodying moral integrity, which in turn creates avenues for trust and collaboration in civic and economic activities (Adamu 154). For example, in local markets and community associations, women wearing the ḥijāb are often accorded respect and leadership roles because they are perceived as representing cultural and religious authenticity. At the same time, the practice of veiling reshapes domestic gender relations by allowing women to negotiate greater autonomy. Many women report that their families are more supportive of their pursuit of higher education and employment Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 95 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna precisely because the ḥijāb assures relatives that they are maintaining religious and cultural values (Mahmood 182). This demonstrates how the ḥijāb becomes a bridge between tradition and modern aspirations, enabling women to extend their roles beyond the household without being accused of neglecting moral expectations. However, gender relations are not without tension. In some contexts, the expectation to wear the ḥijāb reinforces patriarchal norms by placing responsibility for family honor and morality on women‟s bodies (Suleiman 270). This dynamic can sometimes limit personal choice and reinforce unequal power relations between men and women. Furthermore, in mixed-religious spaces of Kaduna, veiled women are occasionally subjected to gendered stereotypes that associate modesty with submissiveness, thus shaping how men both Muslim and nonMuslim interact with them (Esposito 215). Despite these challenges, the ḥijāb in Kaduna contributes to reconfiguring gender relations in ways that highlight women‟s resilience and agency. By using the ḥijāb as a platform to assert dignity and moral authority, Muslim women are increasingly able to engage in debates about rights, representation and social justice. This not only reshapes how women are perceived by men but also influences how they perceive themselves as active agents in society. 5.1 The Role of Ḥijāb in Shaping Women’s Voices The ḥijāb has become an important medium through which Muslim women in Kaduna articulate their voices in social, political and religious spaces. Far from being a mere garment of modesty, it is also a symbolic language that communicates identity, dignity and resistance to marginalization. The visibility of the ḥijāb enables women to assert themselves within discourses of morality, rights and cultural authenticity, shaping how their voices are heard and valued in society. In educational spaces, for example, veiled students have used their presence to challenge institutional rules that discriminate against Muslim women. Campaigns advocating for the right to wear the ḥijāb in schools and universities have amplified women‟s voices in public debates on constitutional rights and religious freedom (Suleiman 273). Such activism demonstrates how the ḥijāb empowers women to claim public recognition while framing their demands within both religious and civic rights. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 96 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna Moreover, the ḥijāb functions as a tool of credibility for women in religious and community leadership. Many women leaders in Kaduna‟s Islamic organizations note that wearing the ḥijāb enhances their moral authority and ensures their voices are taken seriously by both men and women (Adamu 161). In such contexts, the ḥijāb is not seen as silencing women but as enabling them to engage in dialogues about faith, justice and social reform from a position of legitimacy. At the same time, the ḥijāb is a medium of cultural negotiation. Women use it to challenge stereotypes that portray Muslim women as passive or voiceless. By publicly asserting their choice to veil, they counter external narratives of oppression and instead present themselves as active agents shaping their destinies (Mahmood 189). For instance, Muslim women journalists and activists in Kaduna often emphasize how the ḥijāb strengthens their sense of confidence when speaking on media platforms or during political campaigns. 5.2 Rethinking Empowerment in the Nigerian Context The discourse on women‟s empowerment in Nigeria is often framed within Western feminist paradigms that emphasize individual autonomy, economic independence and liberation from traditional norms. While these frameworks have value, they do not always capture the lived realities of Muslim women in Northern Nigeria, particularly in Kaduna, where empowerment is negotiated within religious, cultural and communal structures. The ḥijāb, as a visible and contested symbol, provides a lens through which empowerment must be rethought in the Nigerian context. For many Muslim women in Kaduna, empowerment is not necessarily about rejecting traditions but about engaging with them in ways that enhance dignity, agency and social participation. The ḥijāb, rather than being viewed as restrictive, often becomes a means of accessing educational and professional opportunities without compromising religious values (Adamu 177). Women articulate empowerment as the ability to succeed academically, participate in the workforce and contribute to society while maintaining their religious identity. 6.0 Conclusion The discourse on the ḥijāb among Muslim women in Kaduna reveals its role as a religious, cultural and political symbol. Far from being a passive garment, the ḥijāb operates as a site of negotiation where identity, empowerment and social belonging Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 97 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna are continuously redefined. For many women, it provides spiritual assurance, moral grounding and access to educational and professional opportunities while allowing them to remain anchored in Islamic values. At the same time, it exposes them to societal challenges, including misconceptions, discrimination and tensions between modernity and tradition. Ultimately, the ḥijāb illustrates the complexity of women‟s empowerment in plural societies like Kaduna. It shows that empowerment is not achieved through uniform models but through contextual frameworks that respect cultural and religious diversity. For Muslim women in Kaduna, the ḥijāb is both a shield and a voice: a shield that protects their dignity and values and a voice that asserts their presence, rights and contributions in the public sphere. In rethinking empowerment within the Nigerian setting, it becomes clear that the ḥijāb must be understood as a bridge between tradition and modernity, spirituality and social participation, personal choice and collective identity. 7.0 Recommendations Based on the findings and discussions on the meaning, symbolism and lived experiences of the ḥijāb among Muslim women in Kaduna, the following recommendations are suggested: 1. The government and educational institutions should ensure that the constitutional rights of Muslim women to wear the ḥijāb are protected. Clear policies should be implemented to prevent discrimination and harassment, particularly in schools and workplaces. 2. Civil society organizations, religious leaders and media outlets should promote awareness about the ḥijāb as a religious obligation and symbol of dignity. This would help reduce stereotypes, misconceptions and interfaith tensions within Kaduna‟s diverse population. 3. Schools and universities should incorporate intercultural and interfaith education that highlights the positive role of the ḥijāb and Muslim women‟s contributions to society. Such initiatives can foster tolerance, respect and mutual understanding among students of different backgrounds. 4. Women‟s organizations in Kaduna should create platforms where veiled women can actively participate in policy-making, advocacy and community leadership. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 98 Naeema Abdulazeez; Ḥijāb and Identity; Exploring the Lived Experiences of Muslim Women in Kaduna This ensures that the perspectives of Muslim women are not marginalized in critical debates about gender and social justice. REFERENCES Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. Yale UP, 1992. Badran, Margot. Feminism in Islam: Secular and Religious Convergences. Oneworld Publications, 2009. El Guindi, Fadwa. Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance. Berg Publishers, 1999. Esposito, John L. Women in Muslim Family Law. Syracuse UP, 2001. Joseph, Suad, editor. Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. Brill, 2003– 2020. Lazreg, Marnia. Questioning the Veil: Open Letters to Muslim Women. Princeton UP, 2009. Mahmood, Saba. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton UP, 2005. Metcalf, Barbara D. Perfecting Women: Maulana Ashraf „Ali Thanawi‟s Bihishti Zewar. University of California Press, 1992. Nadwi, Akram. Al-Muhaddithat: The Women Scholars in Islam. Interface Publications, 2007. Suleiman, Yasir. Islam in the Nigerian Public Sphere: Identity, Politics and Rights. Arewa Publications, 2017. Suleiman, Ismail. “Religious Identity, State Policy and Muslim Women in Northern Nigeria.” Journal of Islamic Studies in Africa, vol. 12, no. 2, 2018, pp. 215–238. Adamu, Fatima. Muslim Women and the Politics of Agency in Northern Nigeria. Ahmadu Bello University Press, 2019. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 99 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl The Portrayal of Hausa norms and Values in Kamal’s Hausa Girl By: The Portrayal of Hausa Norms and Values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl By: Anas Kabir Rasheed School of Continuing Education Department of Arts and Humanities Bayero University, Kano Abstract The paper examines the perception of Hausa values, norms, and culture as presented in Kamal’s Hausa Girl, in which the author distorts the nature and basic norms and values that extensively frame the socio-cultural and religious attributes of the Hausa community. This is aimed at achieving a predetermined resolution, using the actress as bait to blacken the image of the Hausa movie industry as culturally and religiously destructive. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how the actress becomes a dupe of textual deception, rather than being created by it. The paper deploys the ideas of Cultural Materialism in its analysis of the text. It concludes that Hausa Girl is replete with overrefinement, contradictions, and misrepresentations of the socio-cultural and religious norms of traditional Hausa society, which had a preconceived objective. It also manifests how historical factors, political dynamics, and power struggles between the religious class and the Hausa film industry shaped the form and content of the text. Keywords: culture, duping, misconception of Hausa norms and values 1.1 Introduction Authors with large corpora enjoy a certain privilege, whereby they are given a particular image developed from general perceptions of their work. Kamal, the author of fifteen novels, is not exception. He is known for his writing in which he showcases and critiques Hausa culture. Hausa Girl is a novel which, on the surface, showcases a high level of moral consciousness. It depicts the negative consequences of deviating from morality. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 100 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl Culture is a general term that refers to the totality of the values, beliefs, language, communication, and diverse practices shared by a particular community or society, which define it as a distinct collective. Culture is intertwined with the social structure and economic aspects of society, though distinct from them. Merriam-Webster (1999) defines culture as “the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group,” and further as “the characteristic features of everyday existence (such as diversions or a way of life) shared by people in a place or time.” In a similar vein, Tylor (1871) defines culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” Culture plays key roles in the social life of a people as it is crucial in molding social relationships, maintains social order, shaping worldviews, and influencing day-to-day actions and experiences of the members of society. According to Durkheim (cited in Alexander, 1992), culture has dual aspects: material and non-material. The material (tangible) aspects include cuisine, clothing, ornament, architecture, music and dance, tools and utensils, literature, etc. Non-material (intangible) aspects include rules, norms, laws, morals, speech, deportment, and expressions of class, race, gender, and sexuality, which govern how people interact depending on time, place, and audience. The material and non-material aspects are interdependent, as each can influence the other. For example, a compelling documentary film may influence people‟s attitudes, beliefs, values, and perceptions, can shape the content of films or works of art. Culture is invaluable in the establishment of social order, that is the stability of society based on collective rules, norms, morals, and expectations that enable a group to live peacefully together. Notwithstanding it is indispensability, culture is not without its downsides, as some practices can be stifling or oppressive to certain sections of society. As earlier stated, this paper critically examines the stark misrepresentations of Hausa culture in Kamal‟s novel, in which the author distorts the nature and reality of basic norms and values that profoundly shape the socio-cultural and religious ethos of the Hausa community. The novel uses the protagonist as a pawn to condemn the Hausa movie industry as culturally and religiously Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 101 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl destructive. The paper deploys the ideas of Cultural Materialism as its analytical framework. 1.2 The Author Aliyu Kamal is a professor of Applied Linguistics who hails from Kano (Saje, Mahmud and Bala, 2022). He has been teaching language and linguistics for the past 40 years at Bayero University Kano (BUK) where he was a former Head of the Department of English and Literary studies and Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Islamic Studies. Kamal has fifteen novels to his credit. His novel Fire in My Backyard won the ANA/Chevron Prize in 2005. In addition, his novel, Silence and a Smile was also shortlisted for the Spectrum Prize in 2005. 2.1 Theoretical Framework This paper deploys the ideas of Cultural-Materialism literary theory in the analysis of the text. The theory which emerged in the 1980s is a blend of leftist culturalism and Marxism popularized by Raymond Williams (1989), Dollimore and Sinfield (1985). Cultural Materialism seeks to expose the ways used by forces that control power, including the state, clergy and the academia in propagating a particular ideology or perception by exploring the historical context of the text and its political import. By close textual analysis, Cultural Materialism succeeds in exposing the preponderant hegemonic position of the text. The theory is put on the same pedestal as American New Historicism because both view texts as historical and cultural artefacts. Scrutinizing Hausa Girl from the lens of Cultural Materialism is informed by the resolve to show how the economic and material conditions that obtain in the society influence its production and how these factors influenced the author in the misrepresentation of Hausa culture to achieve a preconceived aim – the perpetuation of hegemony of the socio-religious status quo. 2.1 Review of Literature There has not been much critical writing on Aliyu Kamal‟s novels generally and Hausa Girl in particular. For Saje and Mahmud (2020), Kamal is among the many literary figures who has lent his pen through narrative to examine the extent to which certain cultural issues pervade social settings to the detriment of the society at large. In similar vein, Saje, Mahmud and Bala (2022) argue that Hausa Girl was informed by the long standing moral clashes between the Government and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 102 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl scholars of Kano on the one and the Kannywood movie industry on the other. They hold that the novel shows “in a satirical way, that the Hausa Girl who used to be morally sound, religiously submissive and culturally reticent is no longer that” (p.105). In essence then, their argument is that Kamal uses the protagonist and other characters in the novel, to showcase his argument about the moral decadence of the Kannywood movie industry and its consequent negative effects on lives of the people involved in it. This paper offers a contrary argument in that it suggests the author offers misconceived glimpses of the Hausa culture as a narrative tool to serve his purpose of proving his point on the negative effects of the Kannywood movie industry. 3.1 DATA ANALYSIS Hausa Girl, the 251- page novel divided into 42 chapters is replete with distortions of Hausa culture in which Kamal twists basic cultural norms of the Hausa society aimed at conferring on Hajjo notoriety and a bad reputation to justify the intrinsic „evil‟ of Kannywood is, echoing the virulent opposition of officials and the clerical establishment in Kano with which Kamal aligns. The distortions largely revolve around the protagonist Hajjo, a naive girl turned villain by the misrepresentations. By these distortions, Kamal joins the fray in the struggle for the soul of Kano society between the status quo and film makers, offering his intellectual tool as his contribution. In the first few chapters of the novel, at the exposition stage, particularly from chapters three to five, Kamal does justice to Hausa culture as it relates to parental guidance and control, child discipline and education like I said earlier marital life as regards to wife - husband relationship and bridal life, peer group and relationship between the opposite sexes like above, family life and courtship. In spite of the above, notwithstanding, these innocuous chapters are partly laced with monumental distortions of the Hausa culture as it relates to family, marriage, kinship and social relations. In a subtle way, the narrative begins by introducing the reader to the scandalous beginning of Hajjo as related to her by her wayward father Bala Gano as above: That was Grandfather. Hajjo could still remember the story as told by her father of the old man trying to dissuade his son from marrying a prostitute. Fed up by his friends' persistent teasing and being called squeamish, Bala Gano had given in and followed them Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 103 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl to the Sabongari red-light district...He had been titillated by the erotic scenes in Once Upon a Time in the West and the lascivious dancing and singing in Sanyast, which had fired hormonal urges that he agreed with his friends could best be blunted by way of illicit sex. The novel continues to narrate how Bala ended up having sex with Hajjo's mother, an innocent girl running away from a forced marriage, at a brothel where he and his friends ended up after the movies at the cinema. This is a huge misrepresentation of the Hausa culture of bashfulness and parental propriety. It is unthinkable that a Hausa father would give his daughter a vivid account of how he met and slept with her mother at a brothel at the dawn of their youth, no matter how debauch that father is. It would make sense if Grandfather regales Hajjo with the scandal in his usual hate-filled tirade against her. But for Bala to cross all boundaries of paternal propriety and decorum and tell Hajjo the darkest side of his life is too surreal and unimaginable. Despite the remorse shown by Bala and Hajjo's mother on their youthful adventure, which is their first sexual experience, Grandfather refused to bless their marriage even after Hajjo's mother confessed to her parents of all that had transpired between her and Bala and the consent to have them married after meeting Bala's family: “Grandfather was adamant in his refusal to let the erring lovers rectify their "misdeed" even by resorting to the dictates of the Shari'ah against whose reforming conditions the devout old man dared not stand”. Portraying Hajjo's Grandfather as an implacable puritan that refuses to listen to anyone in respect of his son's marriage to Hajjo's mother whom he slept with, despite her observing the Islamic ritual of Istibra'i and showing remorse, is a cultural anomaly. In traditional Hausa society, courtesy is part of being cultured. It is against Hausa cultural values for a Grandfather to balk at every advice and stick to his guns on an issue like this. In Hausa, the concept of 'Amini' or bosom friend is a strong pillar of social relations that has unfathomable impact on people. Traditional institutions - the village head, the district head, the emir, the Imam and religious scholars - have far-reaching influence on individual and community life. It is therefore against Hausa socio-cultural paradigm for a Grandfather to act in the manner he does in respect of his son's marriage. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 104 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl Hausa society is deeply patriarchal where the head of the family calls the shots and everyone must submit. However, in instances where he oversteps the bounds of fairness and consideration in his relation with his family, there are people who check his excesses, whose views, advice, admonitions and suggestions he respects and follows willingly or unwillingly as mentioned in the preceding paragraph. These people are the recourse of the household - wives, children - when the patriarch goes haywire, as in the case of Grandfather. Although Grandfather “had been the richest landowner in the hamlet” (p. 7) and “generous” (p. 8) that does not confer on him absolute incorrigibility, as there have to be people who can prevail on him to do what is right. Being a retired civil servant of respectful standing in the village who leads prayers whenever the Imam and his deputy are “out of town or happen to be indisposed” (p. 6), does not portray Grandfather as the highest authority in the community to the extent that he cannot be approached and asked to do the right thing. There is a contradiction and a disconnect between the persona of Grandfather and his adherence to the Shari'ah. Since what he is balking against is a religious issue for which Islam makes provision, Grandfather's adamant behaviour does not conform to his posture as the “devout old man” (p. 5) that the novel portrays him to be. If indeed he is the devout Muslim he is presented, then there is no way he will go against the dictates of the Shari'ah he so much respects. It is strange for a man presented as, puritanical and devout to wish ill for his son and daughter-in-law to the extent of hoping for her to give birth to his grandchild in less than six months after their wedding to prove that the child is a bastard. How can the same person who refuses to bless the marriage of his son to his daughter-in-law to preserve his honour in the eyes of the community now wish for a bastard to be born into this household? It is irrational for Grandfather to be disappointed when Hajjo was born four years into her parents' marriage to prove her being a legitimate child of a marital union the old man disapproves of. He should instead be elated that his lineage has remained untainted despite his son's earlier recklessness. For Grandfather to gloat and be joyful over the death of Hajjo's mother at childbirth (p.10) does not conform with his religious standing. It is evident that Grandfather's abhorrence toward the marriage between Bala and Hajjo's mother is not born out of piety but ego, which is explicit in Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 105 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl Grandfather's internal monologue thus, “Why should he be made the laughing stock of the community?” (p. 6). Indeed, it is not farfetched to suggest that these cultural distortions, religious contradictions and disconnect stem from the narrative‟s preconceived intent to make Hajjo the black sheep of the family from the outset. Perhaps realizing Grandfather‟s limited influence in the community is such unbendable and unapproachable, Kamal confers an underserved sense of power and importance on him early in the novel to make him the alpha and omega in the community by becoming the district head, circumventing all cultural norms and procedures for ascending traditional power: Did that give him the idea to try and secure traditional appointment as a District Head? Father knew that for a long time Grandfather had been acting as one. All that the role required for a rich landowner was simply to have a philanthropic turn of mind. That had attracted returns for Grandfather (p.8). Kamal turns away from basic procedure of becoming a District Head or any royal official with a portfolio in Hausa culture. Wealth can fetch a man a royal title but not a royal office which is hereditary. Being a rich landowner and a retired government worker is not an enough requirement for Grandfather to be turbaned District Head. He needs to be a royal blood, having been born in the royal family which the author fails to show anywhere in the text that Grandfather is from a royal background. It is a cultural oddity for Grandfather, a hamlet dweller and retired government worker (p. 7) to buy his way into the traditional position of District Head without coming from a royal family. And the way the text presents accession to the position of District Head as a matter of paying off those who matter makes the traditional chieftaincy appear not more than a political office, where candidates with enough money to throw around clinches as shown in the text: “As father speculated, the retainers might have hoped for a richer largesse from their patron such that they easily persuaded Grandfather to curry favour and be appointed a District Head” (p. 9). Maternal relatives are known for their love, compassion and care for the child of their relative, especially a deceased one, particularly a woman who dies at Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 106 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl childbirth. In Hausa kinship structure, maternal relations have precedence over paternal relations in the custody of a child, especially an infant, in the event of the death of its mother. It is questionable for the author not to make even a fleeting reference to the relatives of Hajjo's mother apart from her parents' consent to marry Bala and their being told about her bleeding and need of blood transfusion after childbirth. It is a cultural anomaly for Hajjo's maternal relations not to play any role in deciding her custody as a neonate, only for Uncle Ilu, Grandfather's younger brother, to give the new-born to his nursing wife to suckle along with her infant Gaji. Even at the naming ceremony, no mention is made of Hajjo's maternal relatives, which is unthinkable in Hausa cultural setting: The traditional naming ceremony at his house where only a handful of women dared to show up. They were afraid of turning Grandfather against them for helping to grace an occasion they knew "like hunger in their bellies" would make him feel very resentful (p. 10) Throughout the novel, not once is a reference made to Hajjo visiting her maternal relations or any member of her maternal family coming to see how the daughter of their deceased sister is faring. This is contrary to the culture of 'zumunci' (kinship), 'kula' (care and concern) and 'kara' (courtesy) that is deeply entrenched in the Hausa society. Making no mention of Hajjo's maternal relatives seems to be a deliberate ploy to make the plot fit into a pre-determined narrative without allowing a natural closure. It is intended to portray Hajjo as an outcast all along because succour and rescue should have come to Hajjo from her maternal side in her travails; they should have stepped in and shielded her from her predicaments and vicissitudes. When her paternal family is rash toward her after the scandal of playing husband and wife with her friend Fatahiyya (p. 95 – p. 98) the natural sanctuary for Hajjo is her maternal family. The fact that they live far away is an advantage to her since she will be away from the scandal and her hostile paternal family. Instead, she returns to the house of her widower father who has remained single since the passing of his wife, and whose lowly reputation only adds to Hajjo's opprobrium and sets the stage for the tragedy that the author plans for her - racy video of "6 dance sequences" SK made of her in the state of hypnosis and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 107 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl subsequently raping her. Even after being possessed by the spirit Sambuqa along with several of her colleagues during their get-together in the school dormitory on the eve of their departure after their final year examination and her subsequent exorcism by Mullah Amin, Hajjo returns to her father's house where she mostly lives alone because he mostly stays outdoors and returns home late. Furthermore, for her maternal family to agree to marry the widowed younger sister of Hajjo's late mother to her father with whom they have had no contact for almost two decades, while showing no concern for the condition of Hajjo all these years, flies in the face of reason: “Father had been offered a woman to marry... It was his late wife's sister whose husband's death made it possible for her to remarry” (p. 228). The reason for Hajjo's maternal family agreeing to marry her aunt to her father reveals a glaring contradiction: The widow's parents thought of making a favour to their former son-in-law and bowed to Hausa tradition by offering their daughter to him...People said the in-laws did so to encourage Bala Gano to turn a new leaf, but his daughter knew that the old people did so because they didn't want her to marry without married woman around to preside over the ceremony in Bala Gano's House (p229). Nothing stops Hajjo's maternal family from taking her into their fold since they also don't like her staying in her widower father's house all by herself. It is culturally illogical that they allow her to remain in her father's house without their intervention. Kamal seems to have realized this disconnect that he provides a flimsy excuse through Gaji when Hajjo pays her a visit while discussing about her father's impending marriage: "Our family disapproved of your mother's marriage; that is why you don't know her sister." "Have they approved this one?" "My father said they have. That means he and your father will be reconciled with their own parents” (p. 231). This turns logic on its head. All along, it is Grandfather that was against the marriage of Bala Gano and Hajjo's mother. Uncle Ilu and Grandmother used all Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 108 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl entreaties to make him bless the union but he remained unswayed. If there was any problem, it was with Grandfather. Uncle Ilu has never had problems with Hajjo's maternal family because from the beginning, he supported Bala Gano in his marriage to Hajjo's mother. For Uncle Ilu and his wife to donate blood in the failed attempt to save Hajjo's bleeding mother after childbirth shows they had no problem with her family. In fact, it is Uncle Ilu who has been in “bad terms” (p. 5) with Grandfather, his elder brother for fritting away his inheritance on “dissolute women and cheap beer” (p. 6) before his repentance. The fact that Uncle Ilu took in Hajjo as a neonate after the mother's death should not have prevented Hajjo's maternal family from visiting their sister's daughter or from Uncle Ilu arranging for Hajjo to visit them between holidays while she was growing up. Even if the whole family disapproved of the marriage, it makes no sense for the paternal family to hold on to a fruit of a union they did not approve. It makes more sense if the maternal side took custody of the infant. If Hajjo is as rebellious as Kamal projects her, nothing could have stopped her from visiting her maternal aunt since they live in the same town, allowing her father to be visiting her on courtship. Now that she is in her father's house, away from Grandfather's strict control, nothing stands between Hajjo and her maternal family. In whatever way one looks at it, the author of Hausa Girl commits a monumental cultural distortion with regards to Hajjo's relationship with her maternal family from the beginning, in suddenly, when it serves a narrative purpose. The author commits a monumental distortion of Hausa culture of courtship in respect of a widow which is tied to the Islamic prescription that a widow observes 128 days 'waiting period' to mourn her husband before she can remarry. A widow, by Hausa culture, is not permitted to engage in courtship until after her 'waiting period' of four months and 10 days after the death of her husband. But here, Bala Gano commits this cultural and religious sacrilege: “He began to spend more time at home and only left to go and pay court to his intended wife” (p. 228). It sounds innocuous on the face of it, but Kamal belies his distortion at the end of chapter 39 where Gaji responds to Hajjo's inquiry about her father's planned wedding to her widowed aunt: “In two weeks the widow will finish her idda mourning period and then the wedding will take place” (p. 231). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 109 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl This shows that Bala Gano has been courting a woman in her mourning period, a cultural and religious transgression. What is more obfuscating being that he receives the blessing of her family to be seeing her while observing her mourning period? “The widow's parents thought of making a favour to their former son-in-law and bowed to Hausa tradition by offering their daughter to him” (p. 229). Hajjo's married friend, Fatahiyya's, willingness to allow Hajjo to act out a matrimonial scene with her husband in her own house is a distortion of the cultural reality of the Hausa society (p. 95 – p. 98), which is highly implausible in the cultural reality of Hausa society. Women generally, and Hausa women in particular, jealously guard their men from other women, including female relations of their husbands to whom they are related by marriage. It is culturally unthinkable for a traditional Hausa woman to propose to a friend to play "bride" with her husband, leaving them all alone. Cultural propriety and the innate feminine jealousy do not make such a scenario highly improbable. Fatahiyya's hysteric reaction when she finds her husband and Hajjo in her bedroom demonstrate that no Hausa woman would make such a perilous proposition. Although Hausa society is generally polygamous, Hausa women‟s detestation of Kishiya (co-wife) is legendary. Hausa women go out of their way to ensure their husband does not bring in another wife through various means such as sheer chicanery, black magic, outright violence which includes physical assault and even murder. When the husband succeeds in having his way, the woman of the house or Uwargida (senior wife) employs various stratagems to retain control or terminate the co-wife‟s influence, ensuring she leaves the household. Rape is the worst nightmare any woman can experience. The way Kamal trivializes SK's rape of Hajjo particularly in how she reacts after discovering what has happened, defies human nature and specifically Hausa feminine cultural values: The moment she woke up, she understood that she had been sexually molested. But more strangely, she realized that SK was Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 110 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl washing her down...As she got up from the floor, SK picked up a towel and went out whistling one of the music tracks he had earlier recorded with her. She tidied herself up and tried to collect her wits together (p. 222). Hajjo may be adventurous, mischievous, rebellious and tomboyish, yet she preserves her chastity until violated by SK. But for Hajjo not to show emotional distress and trauma, which every violated woman would experience, and to continue having contact with the rapist, delves into the realm of the impossible. Apart from fleeting anger “at being used” (p. 222). Hajjo shows no significant emotion response. She even admits admiration for her rapist, more than KB, her level-headed and morally upright boyfriend. The least expected reaction from Hajjo in her situation would include emotional disturbance, shame, guilt and the fear of pregnancy or contracting a sexually-transmitted disease (STD), especially HIV. Even if Hajjo were promiscuous, rape is a redline no woman would ignore, regardless of her behaviour. It constitutes a severe violation of a woman‟s dignity, leading to psychological problems including shame, guilt, depression, anger, hate, trauma, isolation, as documented by Washington Coalition of Sexual Assault Programs (WCSAP). Even for a licentious woman, rape is the worst assault on her being, the violation of her sanctity that can lead to tragic consequences due to its gravity. It is more disturbing if perpetrated by someone the woman trusts. In Hajjo's case, it is compounded by the seductive music video created by her assaulter and circulated widely, destroying any vestiges of reputation she has left. Despite all these, Hajjo continues her relationship with SK, paying nocturnal visits to his house and even inviting him to her home for further hypnotized encounters, suggesting that the narrative deliberately demonise Hajjo‟s character, ultimately leading to the tragic death of her father while protecting her. The author of Hausa Girl misrepresents many Hausa cultural norms to suits the plot and the denouement, portraying Hajjo as a failure and the Hausa film industry as a cesspit of corruption. These cultural distortions unfairly confer notoriety on a naïve and deluded young girl. Conclusion Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 111 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl From the foregoing, it can be clearly seen that Hausa Girl is replete with distortions, contradictions and misrepresentation of the socio-cultural and religious norms of traditional Hausa society, used as a narrative strategy to achieve a preconceived objective. In other words, it was meant to serve the particular purpose of portraying the main character of the novel, Hajjo, as a failure, the direct consequence of her foray into the Hausa film industry. This narrative strategy ultimately frames the Hausa film industry as a corrupting force, detrimental to girls in particular Hausa society in general. It also highlights how historical factors, the politics and power struggles between the religious class and the Hausa film industry, shaped the form and content of the text. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 112 Anas Kabir Rasheed: The portrayal of Hausa norms and values in Kamal‟s Hausa Girl Bibliography: Alexander, J. C (1992) Durkheimian Sociology: Cultural Studies. Great Britain: Redwood Press. Dollimore, J & Sinfield A. (1985). Political Shakespeare: Essays in Cultural Materialism. Manchester University Press. Kamal, A. (2010). Hausa Girl. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press. Merriam-Webster‟s Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). (1999). Merriam-Webster Incorporated Saje and Mahmud (2020). “A Portrait of Acculturation in Postcolonial Writing: An Analysis of Aliyu Kamal‟s Silence and a Smile”. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, Vol. 9 (2), p. 113 – 123. Saje, U., Mahmud, I. and Bala, N. (2022) The Novels of Aliyu Kamal: A Critical Perspective. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press. Taylor, E. B (1871). Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art and Culture. London: Murray. Washington Coalition for Sexual Assault Programs (WCSAP). The Effects of Sexual Assault. https://www.wcsap.org/help/about-sexual-assault/effectssexual-assault Williams, R. (1989). Resources of Hope: Culture is Democracy, Socialism. London: Verso. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 113 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Analysis of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used in Boko Haram Discourse ALHAJI MODU TIJJANI Department of English and Literary Studies, Kashim Ibrahim University, Maiduguri, Borno State.
[email protected]IBRAHIM AWWAL Department of English and Literary Studies, Federal University of Lafia, Nassarawa State.
[email protected]ADAM AL-AMIN ABDULLAHI Department of English and Literary Studies Federal University of Lafia, Nassarawa State.
[email protected]ABSTRACT This study examines the most frequently used conceptual metaphors by Boko Haram in their discourse. The study employs Extended Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Kovecses, 2002) as its theoretical framework. The study finds that the insurgents frequently use metaphors that are related to selfdefence as well as metaphors that concealed their communication which help them recruit new members for indoctrination. The study concludes that the insurgents have explored language and create meaning from metaphor as a weapon for their attacks. The study highlights security relevance as it revealed how the insurgents manipulate language to perpetrate attacks and escape attacks. This serves as a veritable source of information on how to curb the menace. The study also highlights social relevance as it established a link to bridge the communication gap that exists between the insurgents and the people of the community. KEYWORDS: Insurgents, Metaphors, Discourse, Conversation, Conceal. Introduction This study examines the most frequently metaphors used by Boko Haram in their discourse and identifies the purpose for which they use them. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 114 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish-a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. This means metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language use, a matter of words rather than thought or action. For this reason, language users think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor. On the contrary, metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but in thought and action. Metaphor in cognitive linguistics is not only a rhetorical device but an important mental facility and cognitive instrument. A new view of metaphor that challenges the traditional theory in a coherent and systematic way was first developed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) in their seminal study: Metaphors We Live By. They challenged the deeply entrenched view of metaphor by claiming that metaphor is a property of concepts and not of words; the function of metaphor is to better understand certain concepts and not just for some artistic or aesthetic purpose; metaphor is often not based on similarity; metaphor is used effortlessly in everyday life by ordinary people; metaphor, far from being a superfluous though pleasing linguistic ornament, is an inevitable process of human thought and reasoning. Discourse analysis is a methodological approach that deals with the study of language and communication to uncover underlying social, cultural and power dynamics. It treats language as a social construct that reflects and shapes reality, emphasising the significance of context and power relationships. (Renkema;2009; Jorgensen & Phillips,2002). It is a social practice which involves a dialectical link between a discursive event and the situation, institution and social structure that framed it. Boko Haram, as a group, was established by Mohammed Yusuf in 2002 in the capital of Borno State, Maiduguri, in northeast Nigeria. However, recent debate on the emergence of this group also suggests that Boko Haram emerged as a small non-violent organisation (Muslim Youth Organisation) in 1995, founded by Abubakar Lawan (Nyadera and Bincof, 2020). However, similar to the mobilisation strategy adopted by Mohammed Marwa (founder of Mai Tatsine Sect), Mohammed Yusuf also sought to mobilise youths in northeast in Nigeria who are disenfranchised by very poor economic conditions and lack of access to basic social services. According to Walker (2017), Yusuf opposed any form of Western Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 115 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse democracy and education which he blamed for the social ills facing Borno State. As such, whereas it is commonly highlighted that religion is the primary driver for Boko Haram violence, the reality is that economic inequalities and disenfranchisement are the underlying causes of the violence experienced in northeast Nigeria. Boko Haram crisis began in 2009. At that time, according, to Tiffany (2023), there was a new government legislation requiring the wearing of helmet by motorcyclists in the State. The Borno State government had ordered the police to enforce the law on the use of helmet by all motorcyclists, a law which the members of the Sect refused to obey. They proceeded to a funeral rite on their motorcycles, without putting on helmets. As a result, the police at the Customs Bridge in Maiduguri stopped them. This resulted in a clash between the police and members of the sect; four members were killed; about eighteen members were injured. Murdtada (2017) explains that the Sect’s leader, Yusuf and his allies were enraged by the incident and wrote their famous tirade titled: ‘An Open Letter to the Federal Government’, in which they asked the Federal Government to take action on the police officers who killed their members or else they would take up arms in revenge. It was after this incident that the leader of the Sect continued preaching for Jihad and confronting the Nigerian security. After the 2009 uprising, the activities of the group appeared to have waned. However, they regrouped, re-strategized and re-emerged in 2010 under the new leadership of Abubakar Shakau. Since the re-emergence of the group under the new leadership, attacks have escalated in terms of frequency and intensity (Bartolotta,2020). Methodology and Theoretical Framework This study is an exploratory research and a content analysis of utterances of some repentant Boko Haram members of the five Local Government Areas of Borno State. The data for the study was gathered through interviews with the repentant Boko Haram members. Through purposive sampling, the researcher selected fifteen repentant Boko Haram members from the five local government areas under study (three each from local a government area) for the interview and considered three responses for the analysis, totalling fifteen (15) responses. The steps taken in carrying out the analysis of the data including presenting of the most frequently used metaphors by Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 116 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse the insurgents in their discourse; secondly, the presentation of the transcribed extracts from the interviews for translation, interpretation and analysis of each of the selected metaphor to determine the most frequently metaphors the insurgents use in their discourse. The study employs Extended Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Kovecses, 2002) as the theoretical framework. Data Presentation and Analysis The steps taken in carrying out the analysis of the data are as follows: first, presenting the most frequently used metaphors by the insurgents in their discourse, secondly, presenting of the transcribed extracts from the interviews for translation, interpretation and analysis of each of the selected metaphor to determine how frequently they are used in their discourse. The Most Frequently Used Metaphors by Boko Haram in their Discourse: The following are some of the most frequently used metaphors by Boko Haram insurgents in their discourse gathered from the interview, selected for the analysis: Conceptual Metaphor Sundok Suwuram Fatəla Tolo Halka Riwula Tarmuna Buta Leda Wake Zare Njitti Ngəri Jamage Hakori Literal Meaning Broom Key Lamp Mud Camp Needle Rabbit Kettle Polytene-bag Beans Thread Cricket Antelope Bat Teeth Metaphorical Meaning Unity Treasurer Commander Trap Cycle or group Suspect Escapee Female Suspect Suspect Retreat Whistle-blower Run/retreat Stranger (suspect) Traitor Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 117 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Analysis of the Most Frequently Used Metaphors by Boko-Haram The most frequently used metaphors by Boko-Haram in their discourse collected from the respondents (repentant insurgents) are transcribed, translated, interpreted and analysed as shown below: Extract One: This extract was taken from an interview with a repentant Boko Haram member in Guzamala: Sa bətərəm ya de waltaro manyen maa, daji kurandebe sundok shin. Daji samman deso citilo waro luwuye bəladə kolliyen. Translation: When we are done with our mission for attacking a town, our commander will ask us to retreat immediately saying broom, then we collectively leave the town. Interpretation and Analysis Sundok is a Kanuri word which literarily means a broom. However, the finding from the interview reveals that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to mean retreating or withdrawing forces in a fight. The finding shows that the insurgents use structural metaphor to signify broom as a symbol of unity, through which they conceal their conversation and retreat in a fight as a group. Extract Two: This extract was drawn from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram in Guzamala: Kazadala ləmande mukkon zən dəro suwuram nyen. Translation: We refer to the custodian of our property as a key. Interpretation and Analysis Suwuram is a kanuri word which means a key, but the findings from the interview reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to refer to a treasurer. The findings further uncover that the insurgents concealed their conversation through the lens of ontological metaphor, not only in attacking but also in their entire dealings as a group. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 118 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Extract Three: This extract was taken from an interview with one of the repentant Boko-Haram members in Gubio: Kazadala kəriu bedəro fatəla nyen Translation: We refer to our commander as a lamp. Interpretation and Analysis Fatəla is a kanuri word which refers to a lamp. The finding, however, reveals that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to refer to their commander. The finding also discovers that the insurgents utilise ontological metaphor by giving an attribute of human being to lamp, and considered their commander as a light that exposes darkness (enemies of attack). This demonstrates how cleverly the insurgents conceal their conversation to escape or perpetrate attacks. Extract Four: This extract was drawn from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram fighter in Magumeri: Sa nalaa mbərsan nyende ruiyaiya, daji amman dero tolo diya wande fattə yende nyen. Translation: When we are not too sure of the safety of a location or suspecting to be dangerous, we ask our compatriots to avoid it as it is a mud. Interpretation and Analysis Tolo is a kanuri word referring to a mud in English. The finding from the interview however reveals that the Boko-Haram fighters use the word metaphorically to refer to a deadly place suspected to be a trap. The finding further shows how effectively the insurgents applied structural metaphor to conceal their conversation in describing a deadly location for them to escape attack. Extract Five: This extract was taken from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram member in Magumeri: Nduwa nduwa naaso halkanzə ro lezə nyen sa kəriuwun walteiya. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 119 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Translation: We ask each and every member to go to his respective cycle as soon as we return from a fight. Interpretation and Analysis Halka is an Arabic word which stands for a domain, but the findings from the interview reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to mean a cycle or group. The finding also discovers that the insurgents employed orientational metaphor in asking their colleagues to disperse to their respective locations. This shows how Boko-Haram fighters were able to use common metaphorical source domains in concealing their conversation. Extract Six: This extract was taken from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram insurgent in Magumeri: Loktu kam kusoto mbərsan yende ruiyaiya, kamandeso ro hangal gənaza shi adə riwula diya nyen. Translation: When we see a stranger who we suspected to be a threat, we warn our members to be wary of him as he could be a needle. Interpretation and Analysis Riwula is a kanuri word referring to a needle. Findings from the interview reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to refer to a suspicious person. This shows how the insurgents cognitively assigned human attributes to an object through ontological metaphor to conceal their communication. Extract Seven: This extract was drawn from an interview with one of the repentant Boko-Haram members in Magumeri: Loktu kəriu banna tə kasoro ma nyen maa, tarmuna nyen daji samma kashiyen. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 120 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Translation: When we are losing a fight and want to retreat, we say rabbit for a collective withdrawal. Interpretation and Analysis The word tarmuna is referring to a rabbit in Kanuri. But the findings from the interview reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to collectively retreat from a fight they are losing. This shows how the insurgents have explored different source domains through structural metaphor in concealing their communication as a group. Extract Eight: This extract was taken from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram insurgent in Chibok: Idan mutanen mu suka fita yaki, zamu ce su zo da buta saboda akoi yan uwan mu da suke bukata. Translation When our men went for a fight, we ask them to bring kettle because there are some of our members required it. Interpretation and Analysis Buta is a Hausa word referring to a kettle. Findings from the interview reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to refer to a woman. The findings also uncover that the object ‘buta’, compared to ‘woman’, has no direct relationship, but the insurgents manipulate language using ontological and structural metaphors to conceal their conversation in order to kidnap a female victim. Extract Nine: This extract was taken from an interview with one of the insurgents in Chibok: Lokacin da muka ga mutumin da bamu yadda da shi ba, zamu ce ayi hankali da leda. Translation: When we see a suspicious person, we warn our colleagues to be careful of a nylon bag. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 121 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Interpretation and Analysis The word leda is referring to a nylon-bag both in Hausa and in Kanuri. Findings from the interview reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to mean a suspicious person. The findings also uncover that the insurgents employed structural metaphor in conceptualising the concept from one domain (source) to another domain (target) to conceal their conversation to escape attack. Extract Ten: This extract was taken from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram in Chibok: Mutumin da bamu sanshi ba kuma muna zarginshi zamu ce masa wake. Translation: The person whom we do not know and suspect, we refer to him as a bean. Interpretation and Analysis The word wake is a Hausa word referring to a bean in English. Findings from the interview reveals that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to conceal their communication to refer a suspicious person. This comparison between ‘bean’ and a ‘person’ demonstrates the use of ontological metaphor by the insurgents in coding their communication to escape or perpetrate attacks. Extract Eleven: This extract was taken from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram member in Chibok: Idan muka je yaki, amma ba tayi dadi ba, muna so mu gudu, sai commandan mu zai ce zare. Translation: When we go for a fight but is not successful, our commander will ask us to retreat by saying thread. Interpretation and Analysis Zare is a Hausa word referring to a thread; a long, thin and flexible material used in sewing, weaving or in the construction of string. Finding reveals that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to retreat from an unsuccessful fight. The finding discovers that the insurgents applied orientational metaphor to conceal their communication. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 122 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Extract Twelve: This extract was taken from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram fighter in Gwoza: Kazaa dala andero je gəndoma dəro njitti gulliyen. Translation We refer to the person in charge of whistle-blowing as a cricket. Interpretation and Analysis Njitti is a Kanuri word referring to a cricket in English. Findings reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to mean a whistle-blower. This demonstrates how Boko-Haram fighters relate ‘cricket’ and ‘whistleblower’ through structural metaphor, using the attributes of ‘cricket’ and whistle-blowing (making a sound) to conceal their conversation to escape or perpetrate attacks. Extract Thirteen: This extract was drawn from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram in Gwoza: Kashau suro kəriu belan kazaa dalan debe gulturo majinmaa, ngəri shin. Translation: When our commander wants us to retreat from a fight, he says antelope. Interpretation and Analysis Ngəri is a Kanuri word referring to an antelope, a legendary creature having long serrated horn and being hard to catch (a fast and agile animal). Finding reveals that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to retreat or run from a fight. This shows the use of structural metaphor, where the insurgents understand one concept (‘Ngəri’ stands for antelope and speed of an antelope) from another domain to conceal their communication and escape an imminent danger. Extract Fourteen: This extract was taken from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram Fighter in Gwoza: Idan muka ga mutumin da bamu yadda da shiba, cewa muke jamage ne ayi hankali da shi. Translation: Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 123 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse When we see a suspicious person, we ask our compatriots to be careful because he is a bat. Interpretation and Analysis The word jamage is a Hausa word referring to a bat in English. Findings reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to refer to a suspicious person. Metaphorical understanding of people through animals, a structural metaphor, is evident in the insurgents’ conversation to conceal their communication. Extract Fifteen: This extract was drawn from an interview with a repentant Boko-Haram member in Gwoza: Mutumin da acikin mu yake, amma yana cire sirrin mu muna ce masa hakori. Translation: Our member who lives with us but suspected to have been revealing our secrets is referred to as teeth. Interpretation and Analysis Hakori is a Hausa word referring to teeth in English. Findings from the reveal that the insurgents use the word metaphorically to mean a traitor. The comparison of the word ‘Hakori’ (teeth) to a person is a conceptualisation of metaphor that helps understand a target from a source domain through ontological means. Discussion This study examines the most frequently metaphors used by Boko-Haram in their discourse, using Kovecses (2002) Extended Conceptual Metaphor Model in analysing the fifteen selected extracts. Kovecses (2002) explains that, in conceptual metaphors, one domain of experience is used to understand another domain of experience. Understanding one domain in terms of another involves a set of fixed correspondences technically called mappings. As part of the research objectives, the manner and degree to which the insurgents use conceptual metaphors are examined. The study reveals that the most frequently metaphors used by the insurgent in their discourse are conceptual metaphors for perpetrating attacks, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 124 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse escaping attacks, recruiting new members as well as identifying targets of their terror. This is illustrated in extracts: 4, 8, 11, 12 and 13. The word ‘Tolo’ in extract 4 and the word ‘buta’ in extract 8 for example, are names of ‘mud’ and ‘kettle’ respectively. The insurgents however used the word ‘Tolo’ to mean a deadly place and the word ‘Buta’ to mean a woman. Metaphors in extracts 11, 12 and 13 are conceptual metaphors the insurgents use to escape attacks. Adam and Julia (2020) claim that metaphor is an excellent tool to disseminate ideology, express emotion and craft gender identities and escape danger. As the analysis reveals that the insurgents frequently use conceptual metaphors that are related to selfdefence to protect themselves from attack, escape an attack or strategizing to avoid attacks. This is evident as illustrated in extracts: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 of the analysis. Sukmi (2018) argues that metaphor is an effective ‘defence mechanism’ that often used in politics. The present study however reveals that metaphors are a tool in the hands of Boko-Haram fighters that are conveniently used to suit their daily attacks and escape attacks in their discourse. Francisco and Sue (2018) submit that metaphor provides conversational interaction that treats both literal and nonliteral comprehension in discourse, and Ida (2014) asserts that metaphors are used in discourse to help people understand complex ideas and shape how they perceive and act on social issues. The current study also reveals that that the insurgents use metaphors that provide the non-literal message in their discourse purposely to conceal their communication to recruit new members who are victims of their terror so as to indoctrinate them. This is evident as illustrated in extract 8. This study therefore finds that: iThe insurgents frequently use metaphors that are related to selfdefence. That is, metaphors for escaping attacks from the security or metaphors that help them strategize to avoid attacks from the security outfit or the resident members whom they perceived as threat to them. iiThe insurgents use metaphors that conceal their communication, which helps them recruit new members for indoctrination. Conclusion Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 125 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse This study examined the most frequently metaphors used by Boko-Haram in their discourse using Extended Conceptual Metaphor Theory for the analysis. The study showed how metaphors are explored and used by the insurgents, focusing on how they conceal their conversation as a group. The study highlighted security relevance, as it revealed how the insurgents manipulate language to perpetrate attacks and escape attacks. This served as a veritable source of information on how to curb the menace. The study also highlighted social relevance, as it established a link to bridge the communication gap that exists between the insurgents and the people of the community. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 126 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse REFERENCES Adam, L. & Julia, S. (2020). Linguistic Ethnographic of Classroom Dialogue. White Rose University Consortium. Universities of Lead, Sheffield and York. Bartolotta, C. (2020). Terrorism in Nigeria: The Rise of Boko Haram. Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations. 3 (2), 148-151 Fairclough, N. (2020). Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. http://journal.umsurabaya.ac.id/index.php/JKM/article/view/2203. Franscisco, J. E. & Sue, M. (2018). An Aesthetic Discourse Analysis of Self-transcendence in Values-motivated Altruism. University of Barcelona and Yale University. Ida, C. S. (2014). ScienText and Scientific Discourse Analysis. Silesian University of Technology. Jorgensen, M. & Phillips, L. J. (2002). Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method. SAGE Publications Ltd. Journal Article Reporting Standards. Vol. 8 (3), pp. 48-56. Journal Bahasa Sastra Dan Pengajarannya. 16 (2),1-17. Kovecses, Z. (2002). Extended Conceptual Metaphor Theory. Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphor We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Murtada, A. (2017). Boko Haram in Nigeria: its Beginning Principles and Activities. Salafimanhaj.http://download.salafimanhaj.com/pdfsalafimanhaj_Bok oHaram.pdf Nyadera, I. N. & Bincof, M. O. (2020). Human Security, Terrorism, And Counterterrorism: Boko Haram and The Taliban. International Journal on World Peace, 36(1),4-15. Price, S. (1998). Critical Discourse Analysis: Discourse Acquisition and Discourse Practices Journal of English and Social Sciences. 3 (2), 581595. Renkema, J. (2009). Discourse, of course: An Overview of Research in Discourse Studies. In John Benjamins. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 127 Alhaji Modu Tijjani, Ibrahim Awwal & Adam Al-Amin Abdullahi: Analysis Of Most Common Conceptual Metaphors Used In Boko Haram Discourse Roberts, C. & James, F. (2015). Exploring the Role of Discourse in Marketing and Consumer Research. Journal of Consumer Behaviour. 8 (2), 1-27. Simmons, C. & Hawkins, C. (2014). Teaching Language Through ICT. Oxford University Press. Sukmi, A. K. (2018). A Socio-Pragmatic Analysis of Metaphor. Faculty of Education, Department of English, Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta. Tahir, A., Mahmood, R. & Afzal, H. (2021). Portrayal of Islamic Ideology: Modality Analysis of PTB English Language Textbooks. International Journal of Linguistics and Culture. 2 (1), 1-17. Tan, S. & Marissa. (2022). Discourses, Modes, Media and Meaning in an Era of Pandemic. Indonesia. Tenbrink, T. (2020). Cognitive Discourse Analysis. Textbooks: Reader’s Perceptions. Journal of Procedia -Social and Behavioural Sciences. 2 (1), 23-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.521 Tiffany, D. P. (2023). A Study on Metaphor as Part of Critical Discourse Analysis. Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, University of Lancang Kuning, Indonesia. Walker, A. (2017). What is Boko Haram. Institute of Peace, Washington, DC. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 128 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency Artificial Intelligence and Digital Transformation in ESL Situations: Implications for Pedagogy, Learner Engagement and Instructional Efficiency By: Abdussalam Sani Aliko Dangote University of Science and Technology, Wudil, Kano-Nigeria
[email protected]ABSTRACT The integration of technology and artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized various sectors, including education, particularly in English as a Second Language (ESL) learning. In Nigeria, where English is the official language for education and commerce, proficiency in English is crucial for academic and professional success. However, traditional ESL teaching methods often fail to meet the diverse linguistic and cultural needs of Nigerian learners, resulting in varying proficiency levels. This paper explores the potential of digital transformation and AI to enhance ESL teaching and learning in Nigeria. AIdriven tools offer personalized learning experiences, adaptive assessments, and interactive content, while digital transformation facilitates access to quality educational resources and inclusive learning environments. The study highlights key opportunities, such as personalized learning, increased engagement, and improved assessment, while also addressing challenges like technological barriers, teacher training, and cultural diversity. Recommendations include investing in digital infrastructure, developing teacher-training programs, and ensuring ethical data practices. Future research should evaluate AI's long-term impact on ESL education in Nigeria and refine technologies to meet diverse student needs. This study contributes to the discourse on innovative language teaching approaches in the digital age, offering insights that extend beyond Nigeria's borders. KEYWORDS: Artificial Intelligence, English as a Second Language, Digital transformation. 1.0 INTRODUCTION In the contemporary digital age, the integration of technology and artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized various sectors, including education. The advent of digital transformation has opened new avenues for enhancing teaching Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 129 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency and learning processes, particularly in the context of English as a Second Language (ESL) education. In Nigeria, where English is widely used as the official language for education, governance, and commerce, proficiency in English is crucial for academic success and professional advancement. However, traditional methods of ESL teaching often fall short in addressing the diverse linguistic and cultural needs of Nigerian learners, leading to varied levels of proficiency and engagement (Oladejo, 2018). The rapid advancements in AI and digital technologies offer promising solutions to these challenges. AI-driven tools and platforms can provide personalized learning experiences, adaptive assessments, and interactive content that cater to individual learning styles and needs (Holmes, Bialik, & Fadel, 2019). Furthermore, digital transformation can facilitate access to high-quality educational resources, bridge geographical barriers, and promote inclusive learning environments (Selwyn, 2016). Despite these potential benefits, the effective harnessing of AI and digital technologies in ESL education in Nigeria remains largely unexplored. This paper aims to investigate the potential of digital transformation and AI in improving the teaching and learning of English as a second language in Nigeria. By examining the current state of ESL education, exploring the applications of AI in language learning, and assessing the impact of digital technologies on teaching and learning outcomes, this study seeks to provide empirical evidence and practical insights. The findings will contribute to the development of more effective and inclusive ESL teaching practices, inform policy and curriculum design, and ultimately enhance the English language proficiency of Nigerian learners. Through a comprehensive literature review, conceptual framework, and discussions on AI Applications in ESL Teaching and Learning, this paper will address the research objectives and questions, offering a nuanced understanding of how AI and digital transformation can be explored to improve ESL education in Nigeria. The implications of this study extend beyond the Nigerian context, contributing to the broader discourse on innovative language teaching approaches in the digital age. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW The integration of digital transformation and artificial intelligence (AI) in education has gained significant attention in recent years, particularly in the context of English as a Second Language (ESL) teaching and learning. This Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 130 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency literature review explores the current state of ESL education in Nigeria, the role of digital transformation in education, the applications of AI in language learning, and the theoretical frameworks underpinning these innovations. English language education in Nigeria faces numerous challenges, including large class sizes, limited resources, and a diverse linguistic landscape (Okebukola, 2014; Banjo, 2017). Traditional teaching methods, often characterized by rote memorization and grammar-translation approaches, have shown limited effectiveness in fostering communicative competence and critical thinking skills (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). The need for innovative and context-specific teaching methods is evident to address these challenges effectively. Digital transformation in education refers to the integration of digital technologies to enhance teaching and learning processes (Selwyn, 2016). The use of digital tools and platforms has been shown to improve student engagement, personalize learning experiences, and facilitate access to educational resources (Picciano, 2017). In the context of ESL education, digital transformation can provide interactive and multimedia content, adaptive assessments, and collaborative learning environments that cater to diverse learning needs (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). AI has emerged as a powerful tool in language education, offering a range of applications that can enhance teaching and learning outcomes. Natural Language Processing (NLP) technologies, for instance, can provide automated feedback on writing and speaking tasks, helping students to improve their language skills (Dzikovska et al., 2012). Intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) use AI algorithms to deliver personalized instruction and adaptive assessments, tailoring learning experiences to individual needs (Graesser et al., 2001). Additionally, AI-driven chatbots and virtual assistants can facilitate conversational practice and provide immediate feedback, promoting interactive and engaging learning experiences (Winkler et al., 2018). While the potential benefits of AI and digital transformation in ESL education are well documented, there is a dearth of research specifically focused on the Nigerian context. The unique linguistic and cultural dynamics of Nigeria necessitate context-specific investigations to inform effective teaching practices. Moreover, the practical implications of integrating AI and digital technologies in ESL classrooms, including teacher training, resource availability, and infrastructure, remain under-explored. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 131 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency 3.0 Theoretical Framework Several theoretical frameworks underpin the integration of AI and digital transformation in language education. The framework that suits the study is triangulated. The Digital Transformation Theory and the Artificial Intelligence in education (AIED) theories serve as foundational lens, emphasizing the integration of digital technologies into educational practices to fundamentally change how teaching and learning occur (Westerman et al., 2014). The Digital Transformation Theory came into limelight in 1996 with no single founder shaped by interdisciplinary scholars and practitioners but was popularised by the works of Manuel Castells. The theory argues that Digital technologies create a network society. In the context of English as a Second Language (ESL) education in Nigeria, digital transformation involves the use of online platforms, multimedia resources, and digital intelligence. This theory highlights the importance of access and equity, ensuring that digital transformation addresses technological disparities across different regions in Nigeria. Furthermore, it underscores the necessity of infrastructure and resources, such as reliable internet access and digital devices, to support effective implementation (Selwyn, 2016). Additionally, teacher training is crucial, as educators need the skills to effectively integrate digital technologies into their teaching practices (Picciano, 2017). Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED) theory on the other hand, explains how AI technologies are designed and applied to enhance teaching, learning, assessment and educational management by adapting instruction to learners’ needs, automating routine tasks and generating datadriven insights tools to facilitate language learning. Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED) offers a framework for understanding how AI technologies can enhance educational outcomes (Holmes et al., 2019). In ESL education, AI can provide personalized learning experiences, automate administrative tasks, and offer data- driven insights into student performance. Adaptive learning platforms powered by AI can tailor content and instruction to individual learner needs, allowing students to progress at their own pace (Graesser et al., 2001). Natural Language Processing (NLP) technologies enable real-time feedback and conversation practice, facilitating language acquisition (Dzikovska et al., 2012). Moreover, AI-driven data analytics can identify areas for improvement and tailor instructional strategies, providing a customized learning experience that increases student engagement and motivation (Winkler et al., 2018). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 132 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency 4.0 AI Applications in the Academia and Analysis 4.1 AI Applications in ESL Teaching and Learning The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in English as a Second Language (ESL) education offers numerous opportunities to enhance teaching and learning processes. AI-driven tools and platforms can provide personalized learning experiences, automate administrative tasks, and offer data-driven insights into student performance. This section highlights key AI applications in ESL teaching and learning, focusing on AI-powered language learning platforms and apps, AI-driven assessment and feedback systems, intelligent tutoring systems, AI for enhancing teacher professional development, and AI for language practice and fluency development. 4.2 AI-Powered Language Learning Platforms and Apps AI-powered language learning platforms and apps are revolutionizing how students learn English. These platforms use AI algorithms to tailor content to individual learner needs, providing adaptive and personalized learning experiences. For instance, platforms like Duolingo and Babbel use AI to create customized learning paths based on a student's proficiency level and learning pace. These platforms offer interactive exercises, gamified learning experiences, and real-time feedback, making language learning more engaging and effective (Von Ahn, 2013; Winkler et al., 2018). In the Nigerian context, such platforms can address the diverse linguistic and cultural needs of learners, offering a range of multimedia resources, including videos, audio recordings, and interactive quizzes. By providing rich and varied language input, these platforms can enhance language acquisition and promote communicative competence (Krashen, 1985). 4.3 AI-Driven Assessment and Feedback Systems AI-driven assessment and feedback systems are transforming how student performance is evaluated and how feedback is provided. Natural Language Processing (NLP) technologies enable automated scoring and feedback on written and spoken tasks. For example, tools like Grammarly and Turnitin use AI to provide instant feedback on grammar, punctuation, and style, helping students to improve their writing skills (Dzikovska et al., 2012). In ESL classrooms, AI-driven assessment systems can offer immediate and personalized feedback, allowing students to identify areas for improvement and track their progress over time. These systems can also provide teachers with Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 133 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency valuable insights into student performance, enabling them to tailor instructional strategies to meet individual learner needs (Graesser et al., 2001). 4.4 Intelligent Tutoring Systems for ESL Intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) use AI algorithms to deliver personalized instruction and adaptive assessments. These systems can simulate one-on-one tutoring sessions, providing students with immediate feedback and guidance. For instance, Carnegie Learning's MATHia and Pearson's ALEKS use AI to adapt to a student's learning pace and style, offering customized learning experiences (VanLehn, 2011). In the context of ESL education, ITS can tailor content and instruction to individual learner needs, allowing students to progress at their own pace. These systems can also provide scaffolded support, breaking down complex tasks into manageable components and offering immediate feedback. By reducing cognitive overload, ITS can enhance language acquisition and improve learning outcomes (Sweller, 1988). 4.5 AI for Enhancing Teacher Professional Development AI can also play a crucial role in enhancing teacher professional development. AI-driven tools can provide teachers with personalized training and support, helping them develop the skills needed to effectively integrate digital technologies into their teaching practices. For example, platforms like Coursera and edX use AI to offer personalized learning paths and adaptive assessments, enabling teachers to upgrade their skills and knowledge (Koller & Ng, 2013). In Nigeria, AI-driven professional development programs can address the unique challenges faced by educators, offering tailored training and support. These programs can also provide teachers with access to a wide range of educational resources, including online courses, webinars, and virtual communities of practice, promoting continuous learning and professional growth (Picciano, 2017). 4.6 AI for Language Practice and Fluency Development AI-driven tools can facilitate language practice and fluency development by providing real-time feedback and conversation practice. For instance, AIpowered chatbots and virtual assistants can simulate conversational exchanges, allowing students to practice speaking and listening skills. Tools like Replika Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 134 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency and Cleverbot use AI to engage users in natural conversations, providing immediate feedback and guidance (Winkler et al., 2018). In ESL classrooms, AI-driven language practice tools can offer authentic communication opportunities, enabling students to develop their fluency and confidence in speaking English. These tools can also provide teachers with insights into student performance, allowing them to tailor instructional strategies to meet individual learner needs (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). 4.7 Speech Recognition and Natural Language Processing Speech recognition and Natural Language Processing (NLP) are pivotal AI technologies for improving pronunciation and conversational skills among ESL learners in Nigeria. These tools analyse spoken language, providing real-time feedback on pronunciation, stress, intonation, and rhythm. For example, ELSA (English Language Speech Assistant) is an AI-powered app that uses speech recognition to help users improve their English pronunciation. ELSA listens to users' speech, identifies pronunciation mistakes, and provides instant feedback, enabling users to practice and improve. Similarly, NLP-driven chatbots like Replika and Cleverbot simulate real-life conversations, helping users develop their conversational skills. Successful implementations of these technologies, such as the integration of ELSA in Nigerian classrooms, have resulted in significant improvements in students' pronunciation and speaking confidence, demonstrating the potential of AI in transforming ESL teaching and learning in Nigeria. 4.8 Opportunities and Benefits of AI in ESL Education AI offers a transformative potential to reshape ESL education in Nigeria, as discussed below: Personalized Learning Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers significant opportunities for personalized learning in English as a Second Language (ESL) education. AI can tailor educational content to meet individual student needs by analysing students' learning patterns and language proficiency. This customization enables students to learn at their own pace, focusing on areas where they need the most improvement. Personalized learning pathways ensure that students receive the appropriate level of challenge and support, which can lead to more effective learning outcomes. AI-powered tools can provide instant feedback and adjust lesson plans based on the student’s progress, making the learning experience Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 135 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency more responsive and adaptive. This approach not only enhances students' engagement but also boosts their confidence as they experience continuous progress. Increased Engagement AI-driven interactive and gamified learning environments significantly increase student engagement in ESL education. These environments incorporate elements of play and interactivity, transforming traditional language learning into a more dynamic experience. By integrating AI into educational games, students are motivated to participate actively and enjoyably. These platforms can simulate real-life scenarios and conversations, allowing students to practice language skills in a fun and immersive way. Gamification not only makes learning more appealing but also encourages students to spend more time practicing their language skills, thereby enhancing retention and fluency. AI's ability to adapt to students' interests and proficiency levels ensures that the content remains relevant and challenging, further maintaining student interest and motivation. Improved Assessment and Feedback AI can revolutionize the assessment and feedback processes in ESL education through automated feedback systems and progress tracking. Traditional assessment methods can be time-consuming and subjective, but AI tools can provide instant and objective feedback on various language skills, such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and comprehension. These tools can analyse student performance data and generate detailed reports that highlight strengths and areas for improvement. Automated systems also allow for continuous assessment, enabling students to receive immediate insights into their learning progress. This timely feedback is crucial for language learners, as it allows them to make necessary adjustments to their learning strategies. Furthermore, AI-powered assessment tools can save free educators from repetitive grading tasks, allowing them to focus more on personalized instruction and support. Access and Equity AI has the potential to make language learning resources more accessible to diverse populations, promoting access and equity in ESL education. AI-driven platforms can overcome geographical and economic barriers by providing Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 136 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency affordable and scalable language learning solutions. With AI, high-quality educational resources can be distributed to remote and underserved communities, ensuring that all students have the opportunity to learn English regardless of their location or socioeconomic status. Additionally, AI can offer multilingual support and translation features, making it easier for students from different linguistic backgrounds to access educational content. This democratization of education through AI technology ensures that more students can benefit from language learning opportunities, ultimately contributing to greater social and educational equity. 4.9 Challenges and Limitations of AI in ESL Education in Nigeria While AI presents numerous opportunities for enhancing ESL education in Nigeria, several challenges and limitations must be addressed to ensure its effective implementation. 4.10 Technological Barriers One of the primary challenges to harnessing AI for ESL education in Nigeria is the technological barriers posed by infrastructure and internet access issues. Despite recent improvements, internet penetration remains low in many parts of the country, with significant disparities between urban and rural areas. Additionally, the high cost of data and the lack of reliable electricity can hinder students' ability to access and utilize AI-powered learning platforms consistently. Furthermore, the absence of adequate technological infrastructure in many Nigerian schools, such as access to computers and stable internet connectivity, can impede the integration of AI tools into classroom settings. Addressing these technological barriers is crucial for the successful implementation of AI in ESL education across Nigeria. Training and Professional Development Another significant challenge is the need for adequate teacher training in AI tools and digital literacy. Many educators in Nigeria may lack the necessary skills and knowledge to effectively incorporate AI-driven resources into their teaching practices. To maximize the potential of AI in ESL education, teachers need to receive training and professional development opportunities focused on AI tools and digital pedagogies. This training should include practical guidance on selecting and utilizing AI-powered platforms, designing AI-enhanced lessons, and interpreting student data generated by AI systems. By empowering teachers with the required digital competencies, Nigeria can ensure that AI is Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 137 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency effectively integrated into ESL classrooms, enhancing teaching and learning outcomes. Cultural and Language Diversity Nigeria's diverse linguistic landscape, with over 500 indigenous languages, spoken across the country, presents unique challenges for AI-driven ESL education. Many AI language learning tools are designed primarily for speakers of widely-spoken languages, which may not cater to the specific linguistic needs and backgrounds of Nigerian students. Additionally, cultural nuances can impact the effectiveness of AI tools, as they may not fully capture or accurately represent the cultural contexts of Nigerian learners. To address these issues, it is essential to develop, adapt and localize AI tools that consider Nigeria's linguistic diversity and cultural specificities. Collaboration with local educators, linguists, and communities can help create more inclusive and relevant AIdriven ESL resources. Ethical Considerations The use of AI in ESL education also raises ethical considerations, particularly regarding privacy and data protection. AI systems often collect and process large amounts of student data, including sensitive information such as learning patterns, assessments, and personal details. Ensuring the privacy and security of this data is paramount to protect students from potential misuse or unauthorized access. Nigeria must therefore establish robust data protection policies regulatory framework to guide the use of AI applications in education. Moreover, transparency in AI algorithms and decision-making processes is crucial to prevent biases and ensure fairness in assessment and feedback systems. Addressing these ethical considerations will foster trust among stakeholders and create a safe and secure learning environment for Nigerian ESL students. By acknowledging and addressing these challenges and limitations, Nigeria can effectively harness the power of AI to transform ESL education, ensuring that students across the country have access to innovative and inclusive learning opportunities. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 138 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency 5.0 CONCLUSION: This article has explored the potential of harnessing digital transformation with AI to improve the teaching and learning of English as a Second Language (ESL) in Nigeria. The integration of AI into the teaching and learning of English as a Second Language (ESL) in Nigeria offers a significant transformative opportunity, alongside notable challenges. AI has the potential to revolutionize ESL education by personalizing learning experiences, increasing student engagement through interactive and gamified environments, improving assessment and feedback mechanisms, and promoting access and equity by making language learning resources widely available. However, these benefits can only be realized by addressing several key challenges, including technological barriers related to infrastructure and internet accessibility, the need for comprehensive teacher training and professional development, and the complexities of Nigeria’s cultural and linguistic diversity. In addition, ethical concern related to privacy, data protection and responsible AI use must be carefully managed. To effectively integrate AI into ESL education in Nigeria, several recommendations are proposed: First, there is a need for strategic investments in digital infrastructure to ensure reliable electricity and internet connectivity, particularly in rural and underserved areas. This infrastructure is foundational for the deployment of AI technologies in schools. Second, structured teacher training programmes should be implemented to enhance digital literacy and familiarize educators with AI tools, enabling them to effectively enabling them to integrate these technologies effectively into classroom instruction. Furthermore, AI applications should be designed to accommodate Nigeria’s diverse linguistic landscape, ensuring that language learning resources are culturally relevant and accessible to all students. Finally, clear policies and regulations should be established to address ethical concerns and protect student data, fostering a safe and trustworthy environment for AI-based learning. Future research should focus on evaluating the long-term impact of AI on ESL education in Nigeria, exploring how AI technologies can be further refined to meet the specific needs of diverse student populations. Studies could investigate the effectiveness of AI-driven learning tools in different educational settings, identifying best practices for their implementation. Additionally, research could explore innovative approaches to teacher training and professional development, examining how educators can be better supported in adopting AI technologies. Finally, further inquiry into the ethical implications of AI in Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 139 Abdussalam Sani: Artificial Intelligence And Digital Transformation In Esl Situations: Implications For Pedagogy, Learner Engagement And Instructional Efficiency education, particularly concerning data privacy and protection, will be essential to ensure responsible and sustainable use of AI in ESL learning. 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An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria By Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD. Department of Information and Media Studies Bayero University Kano
[email protected]Abstract The incorporation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in communication and media research and its implication of these developments on Communication Education has precipitated a paradigm shift that continually engender opportunities and challenges for researchers, educators, professionals and students in the discipline in Nigeria. Existing literature has highlighted the limitations of research on AI adoption in Communication Education particularly in tertiary institutions. The main issues identified include limited infrastructure and accessibility, non-functional curricula on AI in research, ethical considerations, and inadequate capacity building in AI adoption in Communication Education research in Nigeria. This paper examines the influence of AI on Communication and Media Education research in key areas: topic development, problem articulation, literature review, data generation, and data analysis. AI-powered tools such as (Mendeley, EndNote, SciSummary, ResearchRabbit and SurveyMonkey) are recalibrating research methodologies, pedagogies, and practices, facilitating more functional and precise analysis, at the same time raising concerns associated with originality of ideas, ethical bias, and personal interpretability competence. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze literature on AI in Communication Education research. Data was collected from online academic journals using keyword such as “AI in communication research, AI in Communication Education and AI powered Communication Research. Data were analyzed using Thematic Analysis adopting an Inferential Analysis Approach”. Purposive sampling was used to select relevant literature on AI in communication research education. The findings indicate that AI is transforming communication and media research education by expanding the traditional research education skills and approaches in topic sourcing and articulation, literature review and documentation as well as data collection and analysis. This enables more efficient and accurate analysis leading to more valid significant and findings. The paper concludes that ethical and responsible adoption of AI in Communication Education research is imperative for efficient utilization of AI tools in research as well as for the transformations and cultivation of new skills to prepare both researchers and students for a rapidly evolving communication landscape. Ultimately, this paper recommends that communication researchers and educators should harness AI's potential while addressing its limitations to advance the field forward. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 142 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria Introduction Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a computer system that integrates human-like processes: learning, adaptation, synthesis, self-correction, and use of data for complex processing tasks. The rapid integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in communication research and education has transformed the ways we understand and practice communication as a profession and Communication Education research as a process of scientific inquiry in media and communication studies (Guzman, 2018; Fuchs, 2017). AI-powered tools are reshaping research methodologies, pedagogies, and practices, enabling more efficient and accurate analysis, while also raising concerns about originality, bias, and interpretability (Fuchs, 2017; Gandomi & Haider, 2015). Communication Education research is an academic field that focuses on the systematic and organized inquiry into the communication processes, methods and theories. It essentially examines how people create, share and interpret communication experiences and how these processes influence individuals and groups. Consequently, Kaplan & Haenlein, 2019 observed that the impact of AI on communication research and education is multifaceted; therefore, it is essential to explore its effects on the field. Communication research and education have traditionally relied on human researchers to physically and manually generate, process, analyze, and interpret primary data. However, with the advancement and democratization in ICT and the subsequent emergence of AI, Chen et al., 2018; Kobayashi et al., 2018 have argued that researchers can now leverage Machine Learning Algorithms (MLA) and Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques to analyze large datasets and identify patterns. AI-powered tools can help researchers generate topic ideas, identify research gaps, and suggest potential topics based on keyword analysis and semantic search. In communication Education research, AI is being used to develop personalized learning plans, improve students’ outcomes, and enhance their learning experiences (Raj & Kumar, 2018). Despite the benefits of AI in communication research and education, Fuchs, 2017; Gandomi & Haider, 2015 noted that there are concerns about its impact on originality of research ideas, ethical bias, and nonRumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 143 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria contextual interpretability. Thus, AI-powered analysis can lead to homogenization of research methods and findings which raises concerns about authorship and ownership (Guzman, 2018; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2019). Hence it is essential to address these concerns and develop strategies to harness AI's potential while ensuring transparency and accountability in AI-driven research outcomes. In Nigeria, existing literature in the area of AI and Communication Research Education has highlighted the limitation of researches on AI adoption in Communication Education Research particularly in tertiary institutions. As evident from the literature, few studies conducted with a focus on the adoption and integration of AI in communication and media research education in Nigeria. Moreover, there is a limited availability and accessibility to AI infrastructure among students, educators, researchers and scholars in the area. The literature also exposes the non-integration of a functional curriculum on AI in communication research education. Similarly, it highlights concerns about ethical considerations on ethical guidelines on AI and communication research as well as poor capacity building in AI adoption in communication research education in Nigeria which would equip educators, researchers and students with the needed skills to facilitate effective integration and adoption of AI (Ya’u, H. A. and Ismail, H. 2025). This paper explores the imperatives of AI tools on Communication Education Research, highlighting opportunities, challenges, and future directions. It discusses the implications of AI on communication research, including topic sourcing and development, problem articulation and objectification, literature review and documentation, data collection and synthesis as well as data analysis and inferences. The paper also examines the implications of AI on communication education, including the development of personalized learning plans and the enhancement of student outcomes. Artificial Intelligence in Academic engagements Academic writings including research require unique methods and techniques to make the product original, interesting, significant and valid in the arrangement process. Educators and students must do research, observe, analyze and use many Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 144 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria references. Academic writings should be taught to solve problems using presented data and facts. Hence, the objective should be adequately achieved (Fang, 2021). Miller & Wu, 2021; UNESCO IITE, 2020 observed that integrating AI into research and education activities is a critical paradigm that substantially affects teaching and learning processes. The integration engenders new patterns; AI helps create a learning environment that is consistent with cognitive existential development, intensifying involvement, and showcasing flexibility in learning. In research and education, AI is deployed through the use of different apps, such as AI Kaku, ChatGPT, Eskritor, Grammarly, Plot Generator, Poem Generator, Speech-to-Text, Text-to-Speech, Smodin, Mendeley, EndNote, SciSummary, ResearchRabbit and SurveyMonkey and other apps (Fitria, 2021; Gayed et al., 2022). Garrel and Mayer (2023) conducted a study on the use of AI-based tools in research among students in Germany. The results from the study showed that almost two-thirds of the students surveyed use or have used AI-based tools as part of their research and studies engagements. In this context, almost half of the students explicitly mentioned ChatGPT or GPT-4 as a tool they use. The authors further explained that Students of engineering sciences, mathematics and natural sciences use AI-based tools most frequently. A differentiated examination of usage behaviour makes it clear that students use AI-based tools in a variety of ways. Clarifying questions for understanding and explaining subject-specific concepts are the most relevant reasons for use. Moreover, Gayed, J. M, Carlon, M. K. J., Oriola, A. M., & Cross, J. S. (2022) demonstrated the positive impact of AI writing tools on students’ writing proficiency and self-efficacy. Such tools have proven to be valuable aids for educators, researchers and learners, especially in providing timely feedback and improving writing skills especially during literature search and review. However, Makarius et al. (2020) highlighted the need for further improvements in AI tools to enhance their contextual understanding and effectiveness across diverse subject areas. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 145 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria Similarly, Su, R. S., Andayani, W., Sari, W. S., & Lubis, F. K. (2022) explored the impact of AI on the teaching process and concluded that while AI tools can be valuable in providing feedback, the guidance of teachers remains essential in fostering critical thinking and creativity. On the ethical front, Chaudhry et al. (2023) examined the implications of AI in plagiarism detection, stressing the need for clear guidelines and educating students about AI’s limitations and proper use. Looking ahead, the researchers further identified several challenges and potential areas for future research. The interpretability of AI-generated writing remains an ongoing concern, with Theodosiou and Read (2023) proposing methods to enhance transparency and comprehension. Furthermore, Miranty and Widiati (2021) & Almusharraf and Alotaibi (2023) investigated the impact of Grammarly, an AI-based grammar and style checker, on undergraduate students’ writing skills. The study found that students who used Grammarly demonstrated improvements in grammar accuracy and writing quality compared to the control group. AI language models, like ChatGPT, have been investigated for their potential in assisting students with content generation. In a study by Farrokhnia et al. (2023) & Rospigliosi (2023), it was found that ChatGPT was utilized to aid graduate students in generating research proposals. The results indicated that the AI-generated content was valuable in providing initial ideas and structuring the proposals, though students still needed to refine and expand on the generated content. Ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI writing tools in higher education have been explored. Moreover, Lameras & Arnab, (2022) investigated the use of Zotero, an AIpowered reference management tool, among postgraduate researchers. The study found that Zotero significantly improved the organization and citation process, streamlining students’ research workflow. Specifically, Malik et al, (2023) conducted a study on students’ perceptions of AI usage in academic essay writing using a case study design. The findings indicated a positive reception of AIpowered writing tools, with students acknowledging their benefits in grammar checks, plagiarism detection, language translation, and essay outlines. The authors also found out that artificial intelligence enhances students’ writing abilities, selfefficacy, and understanding of academic integrity. However, some students Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 146 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria expressed concerns about potential impacts on creativity, critical thinking, and ethical writing practices. QuillBot, another AI tool, specializes in paraphrasing, helping students avoid plagiarism while maintaining the original meaning of their content. Kurniati and Fithriani (2021) found that QuillBot aided students in developing better paraphrasing skills, which is a critical competence in academic writing. WordTune, on the other hand, focuses on refining and improving the tone and style of the text. A study by Lam and Moorhouse (2022) found that WordTune effectively helped students identify their writing weaknesses, thereby promoting self-assessment and learning. This tool goes beyond simple grammar correction and delves into the stylistic elements of writing. Furthermore, as illustrated in Bhutoria’s (2022) work, AI-driven platforms and applications offer personalized learning opportunities for students, identifying their writing strengths and weaknesses. This empowers educators to tailor their teaching strategies to each student’s unique needs and preferences, leading to more effective learning outcomes (Dogan et al., 2023). Cahyono et al. (2023) explored a workable approach mediated by mobile technology in teaching writing, which uncovers another layer of tech-enabled pedagogical innovation. Students are emboldened to publish their work in public forums, nurturing their confidence and writing abilities. Such platforms also promote peer review and feedback mechanisms, fostering a sense of community and collaborative learning. However, as the literature acknowledges, the digitization of writing instruction is not without its challenges. Duncan and Joyner (2022), opine that educators must grapple with issues related to digital equity, privacy, and the potential for distraction. These issues underscore the necessity for an ongoing dialogue and proactive approaches in crafting pedagogical policies and strategies as we continue to navigate the teaching of writing in this artificial intelligence era. Marzuki et al., (2023), conducted a study to examine the range of available Artificial Intelligence (AI) writing tools and assess their influence on student writing, the study gathered data from four teachers across three distinct universities in Indonesia, shedding light on the variety of AI writing tools used in their Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 147 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria classrooms. These included applications like Quillbot, WordTune, Jenni, ChatGPT, Paperpal, Copy.ai, and Essay Writer. However, Iskender (2023) provided a critical perspective on this matter, arguing that the use of AI writing tools could lead to diminished critical thinking skills if students become overly dependent on them. The author expressed concern that students might prioritize quick fixes from AI tools over deep understanding and learning from their mistakes, which would essentially negate the process of learning, growth, and development in writing. Potentials of Artificial Intelligence in Communication Research Kaplan & Haenlein, (2019) argued that AI is impacting and affecting communication research education in various ways, including topic sourcing and development, problem identification and articulation, literature review and documentation, data collection and synthesis, as well as data analysis and interpretation. Research Topic sourcing and Development: AI-powered tools can help researchers generate topic ideas, identify research gaps, and suggest potential topics based on keyword analysis and semantic search (Chen et al., 2018; Kobayashi et al., 2018). For instance, AI-powered topic modeling can help researchers identify emerging trends and topics in communication and media research thereby simplifying the complex and rigid process of sourcing research ideas and topics from libraries, journals, conference proceedings and other offline and none digital platforms. Notable of these tools for this purpose include Sourcely, ResearchRabbit and perplexity. Research problem identification and articulation: AI-driven tools can help researchers and educators review literature, identify and articulate research gaps. This is achieved by analyzing large datasets, identifying patterns, and detecting anomalies. Thus, AI-powered data analysis can help researchers identify complex patterns and relationships in communication or media data. Typical examples of AI tools used for these engagements include Textify Analytics Research Gaps Suggester, AnswerThis, RefHunters, ConnectedPapers and Scholarly Gap Finder. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 148 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria Literature Review and documentation: in communication research this connotes an organize efforts to synthesize and document the extent of existing knowledge in an area of interest. It culminates by identifying patterns and establishing the literature gaps and directions. AI-powered literature search can assist in searching and retrieving relevant literature, reducing the time and effort required for literature review. Moreover, AI-powered citation analysis can help researchers identify influential authors and detect emerging trends in communication research (Chen & Song, 2017). Some of the AI tools use for this purpose are Insight7, Coral AI, VOSviewer, Litmaps and Aveksana Data Collection and synthesis: AI-powered data scraping can assist researchers and scholars in collecting both qualitative and quantitative data from various sources, including social media, online libraries and archives, and databases (Gandomi & Haider, 2015; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2019). For instance, AI-powered data collection can help researchers collect large datasets and reduce collection time. Some of the notable AI tools for this engagement are; Monkey Survey and Qualtrics. Data Analysis and interpretation: Machine learning algorithms can assist in analyzing large quantitative or qualitative datasets, identifying patterns, contextualizing the data to the context and providing the implications as well as predicting outcomes (Chen et al., 2018; Kobayashi et al., 2018). Also, AI-powered data analysis tools can help researchers, students and scholars to identify complex patterns and relationships in communication data (Park & Lee, 2019). Some of the popular AI tools used for data presentation, analysis and interpretation in communication and media studies are SPSS, Insight7, Nvivo, Microsoft Power BI, Julius AI, and Tableau AI. Artificial Intelligence and Originality of Communication and Media Research Originality is a fundamental attribute apparent or inherent in all serious, significant and interesting theses and dissertations. It essentially provides design and outline magnitude and directions through which authors, candidates and researchers can identify, formulate and articulate their individual contribution to knowledge in a specific area of interest. However irrespective of institutional, disciplinary and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 149 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria ideological orientations, variation exists regarding what can constitute or establish originality in thesis, dissertations and all non- certificate researches and how the contribution to knowledge can be clearly demonstrated and recognized. In communication and media studies, the substance of theses and dissertations is fundamentally determined and acknowledged to be an independent and autonomous document that makes an original contribution to knowledge by providing solutions to an existing or potential communication problems or improving the understanding or application of specific communication theory or model. Original work is therefore significant substantially, because it results in the production of new knowledge which addresses the topic area or discipline. Conceptualizing and operationalizing originality poses significant challenge and dilemma to most candidates and empirical researchers; consequently, it becomes a crucial source of uncertainty and anxiety or depression. Constituents of Originality in Communication and Media Research Originality is frequently associated with an idea, concept or event that is truly novel or unique. In relation to doctoral engagements, many studies have explored what doctoral examiners from various academic disciplines look for in a PhD and how they recognize originality. Gill and Dolan (2015) observed that these studies have highlighted some commonalities in most disciplines regarding what constitutes originality. For example, a PhD can be original in a number of areas, including the approach, topic area, hypotheses, method, data, findings or theories (Phillips 1994, Winter et al 2000, Mullins and Kiley 2002, Delamont et al 2004, Crier 2006, Phillips and Pugh 2010, Wisker 2012). Variations in the definition of originality exist and persist but Phillips and Pugh (2010 cited in Gill and Dolan 2015) designed and outlined 15 fundamental areas that they believe can constitute originality in communication and media research. They include: 1. Setting down a major piece of new information in writing for the first time. 2. Continuing a previously original piece of work. 3. Providing single original technique, observation or result in otherwise unoriginal but competent piece of research. 4. Carrying out original work design by supervisor 5. Having many original ideas, methods and interpretations all performed by others under direction of postgraduate. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 150 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria 6. Showing originality in testing somebody else’s idea/theory. 7. Carrying out empirical work that has not been done before. 8. Making a synthesis of things that have not been put together before. 9. Using already known material but with new interpretation. 10.Trying out something in this country that has previously been done only elsewhere. 11.Taking a particular technique and applying it in a new area. 12.Bringing new evidence to bear on an old issue. 13.Being cross-disciplinary and using different methodologies. 14.Looking at areas not previously explored in a particular discipline. 15.Addition to knowledge in a way that has not been done before. These elements of originality can be contextualized or domesticated to all forms and types of communication and media research assess and determine the originality of the research idea, approach, method, theory or findings. AI's impact on the originality of communication research is multifaceted. AI can bring new perspectives to research by identifying patterns and relationships that human researchers might miss (Fuchs, 2017; Guzman, 2018). Also, AI-powered analysis can also lead to homogenization of research methods and findings, thereby reducing the diversity of research approaches and perspectives (Guzman, 2018; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2019). However, AI-powered analysis can help researchers identify new research questions and hypotheses by analyzing large datasets and identifying patterns (Chen et al., 2018; Kobayashi et al., 2018). Similarly, in the area of authorship and ownership, AI-powered research raises concern about authorship and ownership, highlighting the need for clear guidelines and standards for AI-driven research (Fuchs, 2017; Guzman, 2018). Bias and Interpretability are another area of interest because AI-powered analysis can perpetuate biases and stereotypes, highlighting the need for critical evaluation and transparency in AI-driven research outcomes. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 151 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria Implications for Communication Education The integration of AI in communication education requires adapting to AI-driven transformations and developing new skills to prepare students for a rapidly evolving media landscape (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2019; Marshall & Shipman, 2015). Communication educators must harness AI's potential while addressing its limitations to advance the field (Guzman, 2018; Fuchs, 2017). The following are some of the implications of the integration of AI in communication research education in Nigeria. 1) Personalized Learning: AI-powered tools can help educators, students and researchers to develop personalized learning plans, improving students’ outcomes and enhancing their learning experiences in all areas of research engagements. 2) New Skills: Communication educators should develop new skills to work effectively with AI tools, including problem articulation, data sourcing, data analysis, data interpretation, and critical evaluation. 3) Curriculum Development: Communication and media programs curricula should be revised to incorporate AI-driven topics, including AI-powered communication research, data analysis, and interpretation as well as ethical and responsible use of AI in communication research. 4) Ethics and Accountability: Communication educators must address AI-related ethics and accountability issues, including bias, interpretability, and authorship (Fuchs, 2017; Guzman, 2018). Methodology This paper adopts a qualitative approach to explore the imperative of AI in communication research and education. The methodology involves a comprehensive review of existing literature on AI in communication research and education. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze the literature on AI in communication research and education in Nigeria. Data were collected from various sources, including academic journals, conference papers, and books, using keywords; AI in communication research, AI in communication education, and AIpowered communication research. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 152 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria A purposive sampling approach was used to select relevant literature on AI in communication research and education. The population for this consists of all online published journal and book articles on AI in communication research and education. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis, identifying themes and patterns related to AI in communication research and education. Results The results of this study indicate that AI is transforming communication research education in Nigeria, bringing both opportunities and challenges. AI-powered tools are reshaping research methodologies, pedagogies, and practices, enabling more efficient and accurate analysis, but also raising concerns about originality, bias, and interpretability. However, the state of AI adoption in communication and media research education in Nigeria is still in its early stages this is because there are not many onlinepublished empirical, conceptual or theoretical studies on the adoption of AI in communication and media research education in the country. Nevertheless, as revealed in the literature AI tools are being introduced into the Nigerian educational system to enhance learning outcomes, improve effectiveness in teaching and learning as well as advance access to quality education at all levels. The Nigerian Artificial Intelligence Strategy also recognizes the need for local talent development through effective and diligent identification and engagement with Nigerian researchers, scholars, educators and experts in AI available at universities and other institutions of higher learning. This policy aims to position Nigeria as a potential hub for AI in West Africa and a model for Africa’s socioeconomic and political development while ensuring ethical and responsible AI development and deployment. From the preceding, it can be deduced that AI tools have enormous prospects, potentials and challenges which should be harnessed by researchers and educators with a focus on communication and media research education in Nigeria. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 153 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria AI-powered tools can help researchers analyze large datasets; research topic sourcing, identify and articulate problems, conduct literature review and documentation, generate and analyze data, provide critical and contextual interpretation, identify patterns, and predict outcomes; this enables more efficient and accurate analysis. Researchers must develop new skills to work effectively with AI tools and interpret results. AI tools can also help educators develop comprehensive curricular and module for personalized learning plans and improve student outcomes but also require educators to adapt to AI-driven transformations and develop new skills. AI-powered analysis can lead to homogenization of research methods and findings, raising concerns about originality and authorship. AI can also perpetuate biases and stereotypes, highlighting the need for critical evaluation and transparency. The integration of AI in communication research and education requires adapting to AI-driven transformations and developing new skills to prepare students for a rapidly evolving media landscape (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2019; Marshall & Shipman, 2015). Communication educators must harness AI's potential while addressing its limitations to advance the field (Guzman, 2018; Fuchs, 2017). Conclusion Artificial Intelligence tools are transforming communication research education, bringing both opportunities and challenges. By understanding AI's impact on communication research education, stakeholders can harness its potential to advance the field and prepare educators, researchers, scholars and students for a dynamic and functional communication and media research education in Nigeria. Transparency and accountability are essential in AI-driven research outcomes. This is achieved through adherence to ethical guidelines and principles governing social science and communication researches, peer review assessment mechanisms and easy access to materials used and publications online. AI tools offer unprecedented opportunities for enhancing research efficiency, expanding access to communication education, personalized learning experiences but they pose obstacles related to infrastructure, digital literacy, originality of ideas and ethical considerations. In Nigeria, Communication Education research institutions should invest in AI infrastructure development, AI training and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 154 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? An Analysis of the Prospects and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Tools (AI) in Communication Education Research in Nigeria capacity building programmes, interdisciplinary collaboration and AI sensitive curricula development. Recommendations 1. Communication researchers and educators in Nigeria should develop new skills to work effectively with AI tools to detect potential research ideas, review and document literature, collect, analyze and interpret results. 2. AI-powered tools should be used in communication research education in Nigeria to complement human research efforts, initiatives and engagements so as to promote originality of research ideas and functional research findings. 3. Transparency and accountability are essential in AI-driven research outcomes. This is achieved through adherence to ethical guidelines and principles governing social science and communication researches, peer review assessment mechanisms and easy access to materials used and publications online. 4) It is important to develop, adopt and integrate a functional curriculum and modules on AI into the communication and media research courses in all tertiary institutions, universities and journalism training institutions in Nigeria. 5) There should be an increased availability and accessibility to AI infrastructure to communication students, researchers and educators so as to facilitate ethical and responsible utilization of the tools in communication research, teaching and learning. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 155 Hassan Alhaji Ya’u, PhD, Auspiciousness or Dysfunctionality? 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(2025) Perception and Utilization of Artificial Intelligence Tools in Academic Engagements: A Study of Tertiary Institutions Students in Kano State. Tambari Journal of Media, Theatre and Communication Studies, Volume 4. Number 1, PP. 51-70. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 159 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims By: Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu Federal Ministry of Education Federal Government Girls’ College, Omu-Aran, Kwara State
[email protected]Abstract This article explores the interaction between cultural universals and Islamic rites among the Yoruba of Nigeria and the Akan of Ghana. Both groups are historically rich in cultural practices such as kingship, kinship, marriage, naming, funerals, and inheritance—traditions that predate Islam but continue to shape the lives of Muslims today. Using a comparative and interdisciplinary approach, the study analyzes how these cultural universals are accommodated, reinterpreted, or contested within Islamic frameworks. The concept of ʿurf (custom) in Islamic jurisprudence provides a legal and theological lens for assessing the legitimacy of cultural adaptation. The analysis distinguishes between inculturation, in which culture enriches Islamic rites without doctrinal compromise, and syncretism, in which cultural practices undermine orthodoxy. The findings reveal that Yoruba Muslims more easily integrate their patrilineal and hierarchical systems into Islamic law, while Akan Muslims face sharper tensions due to matrilineal inheritance and strong traditions of ancestor veneration. Reformist movements critique many cultural practices as bid’ah (innovation), whereas Sufi traditions accommodate cultural forms within Islamic spirituality. The article concludes that Islam in West Africa demonstrates remarkable flexibility, as it not only adeptly integrates indigenous cultural universals into the faith, but also uphold universal norms. The Yoruba and Akan experiences prove that Islam in Africa is not a foreign transplant but a living faith deeply intertwined with cultural identity, a conclusion consistent with recent studies on lived Islam and cultural contextualization in West Africa (Busari, 2024a; Nolte, 2022). Keywords Yoruba Muslim; Akan Islam, Cultural universals, inculturation, Islamic Rites Introduction The encounter between Islam and African indigenous cultures has produced some of the most dynamic forms of religious expression on the continent. In West Africa, particularly among the Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria and the Akan of the Ashanti Region in Ghana, the fusion of Islamic rites with pre-existing cultural Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 160 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims universals has resulted in a religious experience that is both uniquely African and authentically Islamic. The challenge, however, lies in determining how far cultural forms can be accommodated within the Islamic framework without compromising orthodoxy. This tension between culture and religion has been the subject of theological, anthropological, and sociological debates for decades (Sanneh 1997; Brenner 2001; Halidu, 2024). The Yoruba and Akan peoples are among the most culturally influential groups in West Africa. The Yoruba are known for their elaborate social institutions, such as kingship, chieftaincy, and age-grade associations, while the Akan maintain strong traditions of matrilineal inheritance, elaborate funerary rites, and communal forms of marriage and child-naming. Many of these practices predate the coming of Islam but continue to shape the lived religious experience of Muslims within these societies (Peel 2016; Sarbah 2010). Recent scholarship confirms that these inherited practices are not merely survivals but are actively reinterpreted by contemporary Muslim communities in response to reformist and global Islamic discourses (Busari, 2024b; Arikewuyo & Abubakar, 2025). Thus, an exploration of cultural universals among the Yoruba and Akan provides an important entry point for understanding the ways in which Islamic rites are contextualized, contested, and reshaped in Africa. From an Islamic perspective, the incorporation of cultural forms is not inherently problematic. Classical jurists have long recognized ʿurf (custom) as a legitimate source of law, provided that it does not contradict the Qur’an or Sunnah. Ibn alQayyim, for example, argued that local customs could inform legal rulings when the revealed texts are silent, so long as the customs do not lead to sin or innovation (bidʿah) (Kamali 1991). This principle allowed Islam to adapt to diverse cultural environments as it spread across Asia, Africa, and beyond. Yet, the flexibility of ʿurf is balanced by Islam’s claim to universal norms that transcend cultural boundaries, especially in matters of worship (ʿibādāt) and core rituals such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, marriage contracts, inheritance, and funeral rites (Esposito 2018). Therefore, the problem is not whether Yoruba and Akan Muslims possess cultural universals –every society does – but whether those universals align with or distort Islamic rites. For instance, the Yoruba emphasis on elaborate kingship rituals has sometimes clashed with Islamic notions of egalitarian leadership, while the Akan Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 161 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims practice of grand funerals raises questions about ostentation, extravagance, and theological propriety in Islam (Adu-Gyamfi et al. 2013; Loimeier 2013). At the same time, both societies have successfully Islamized elements of their cultural traditions, such as naming ceremonies, circumcision, and community solidarity, in ways that enrich their religious identity without violating Islamic principles. This study is significant for three reasons. First, it contributes to the growing literature on Islam in Africa by highlighting the comparative dimensions of Yoruba and Akan Muslim experiences. Much scholarship has focused on either the Yoruba or the Akan in isolation, but few works bring them into dialogue (Peel 2000; Sarbah 2010). While recent studies increasingly examine Yoruba Muslim practices in contemporary Nigeria, comparative analyses that place Yoruba and Akan Muslim experiences in direct dialogue remain limited (Nolte, 2022; Busari, 2024a). Second, it advances the theoretical debate on culture and religion by applying the anthropological concept of cultural universals to an Islamic context. This approach allows for a systematic analysis of how cultural constants—such as language, kinship, marriage, and funerals—are interpreted within Islamic frameworks. Third, it engages the theological discourse on inculturation versus syncretism. While inculturation refers to the contextual adaptation of Islam to local cultures, syncretism suggests a blending that dilutes or compromises Islamic orthodoxy. The distinction is critical for evaluating the legitimacy of cultural practices among Yoruba and Akan Muslims (Trimingham 1962; Hunwick 1997). Methodologically, this study employs a comparative approach, drawing on ethnographic accounts, historical records, and Islamic jurisprudential sources. It relies on both secondary literature and primary fieldwork findings from existing studies on Yoruba and Akan Muslims. The analysis is interdisciplinary, bridging anthropology, history, and Islamic studies to provide a holistic understanding of the subject. The argument is that cultural universals among the Yoruba and Akan not only persist under Islam but also shape the distinct character of Islamic rites in West Africa. At the same time, Islamic jurisprudence provides criteria for assessing which cultural elements may be accommodated and which must be reformed or rejected. In summary, Yoruba and Akan cultural universals – ranging from kingship and chieftaincy to marriage, funerals, and naming ceremonies – intersect with Islamic rites in ways that demonstrate both harmony and tension. By situating these Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 162 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims practices within the framework of ʿurf and the broader debates on inculturation, this study contributes to both the anthropology of religion and the theology of Islamic adaptation in Africa. Conceptual Framework Islam and Culture Islam presents itself as a universal religion with timeless principles, yet it has historically accommodated cultural expressions in diverse societies. The Qur’an acknowledges cultural diversity as part of divine design: ُ اس ِإوَّا َخلَ ْقىَا ُك ْم ِم ْه ذَ َك ٍر َوأ ُ ْوثَى َو َج َع ْلىَا ُك ْم َّ ََارفُىا ِإ َّن أ َ ْك َر َم ُُ ْم ِِ ْى َّ ِّ أَْْقَا ُك ْم ِإ َّنಒا ِ ِلمم ُ َّيَا أَيُّ َها الى َ َّಒا َ شعُىبًا َوقَبَائِ َل ِلت َ َع َخبِمر O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another (Q. 49:13). Anthropologists define cultural universals as elements common to all societies— language, kinship, rituals, art (Brown 1991). Recent theorists of lived religion argue that cultural universals are not static traits but are continuously re-enacted through ritual practice and social negotiation (Shaikh, 2021; Moosa, 2020). For Yoruba and Akan Muslims, these universals remain embedded in Islamic life, raising the question of how Islam negotiates them without losing its identity. ʿUrf in Islamic Jurisprudence In Islamic law, ʿurf is recognized as a source of consideration, provided it does not contradict the Qur’an, Sunnah, or consensus (ijmāʿ). Maliki jurists, dominant in West Africa, emphasize that customs could be incorporated into rulings where scriptural sources are silent (Kamali 1991). According to Al-Qarafi, who noted that rulings may change with changing times, places, and customs, a principle that allowed Islam to adapt globally (Hallaq 2009). Inculturation versus Syncretism Inculturation refers to contextual adaptation that enriches Islam without compromising doctrine, while syncretism suggests blending that undermines Islam (Sanneh 1997; Hunwick 1997). Yoruba drumming at festivals may be seen as inculturation, while invoking deities in prayer constitutes syncretism. Akan dual naming ceremonies illustrate inculturation, but ancestral libations at funerals risk syncretism. Contemporary discussions of lived Islam emphasize this distinction as Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 163 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims a dynamic process rather than a fixed boundary, especially in African Muslim contexts (Shaikh, 2021) Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites Islam provides its own rituals for life stages: ʿaqīqah for naming, nikāh for marriage, janāzah for funerals. Yoruba and Akan societies had equivalents long before Islam. Some overlap easily, such as naming, while others, like funerals or kingship, pose challenges. The framework thus requires assessing cultural universals through the lens of ʿurf and distinguishing inculturation from syncretism. Yoruba Cultural Universals in Islamic Context Language and Identity Yoruba Muslims indigenize Islam by using Yoruba for sermons, hymns, and Sufi poetry, fulfilling Qur’anic principles of da’wah in local tongues ّಒَّ ِسى ٍل إ ُ س ْلىَا ِم ْه َر َ َو َما أ َ ْر ان قَ ْى ِم ِه ِلمُبَمِّهَ لَ ُه ْم َ ِب ِل ِ س We sent not a messenger except (to teach) in the language of his (own) people, in order to make (things) clear to them. (Q. 14:4) (Peel 2016). Kingship and Chieftaincy The Yoruba Oba is traditionally sacred, ―second to the gods.‖ Islam desacralizes the role but preserves cultural prestige. Muslim Obas incorporate Islamic prayers, though reformists condemn divination and ritual seclusion (Loimeier 2013). Marriage and Family Yoruba marriage customs, bride prize, negotiations are preserved, while Islamic nikāh ensures witnesses and mahr (Ogunba 2012). Recent analyses show that Yoruba Muslim families increasingly negotiate these marital customs in light of Islamic legal consciousness and modern social pressures (Busari, 2024a). Polygyny exists in both systems, though Islam moderates cultural excess by requiring justice ْ َُ َاحََة ً أ َ ْو َما َمل ّ َْعُىلُىಒَّ َ ت أ َ ْي َماوُ ُُ ْم ذَلِكَ أ َ ْدوَى أ ِ ّ ْ َ ْع َِلُىا فَ َىಒَّ َ فَإ ِ ْن ِخ ْفت ُ ْم أ …but if you fear that you will not do justice (between them), then (marry) only one or what your right hands possess; that is more proper, that you may not deviate from the right course. (Q4:3) Naming and Birth Rituals Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 164 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims Traditional naming with divination is replaced by Qur’anic recitations, while feasting and praise-poetry remain. This blend exemplifies inculturation, aligning with the ʿaqīqah (Ikotun 2014). Funeral and Burial Rites Traditional funerals are elaborate, but Islam prescribes simplicity. Yoruba Muslims combine Islamic burial with fidāu prayers and family feasts. Reformists condemn extravagance (Q. 17:27). Similar tensions between religious reform and cultural obligation continue to shape contemporary Yoruba Muslim funerals, particularly in urban settings (Busari, 2024a) Inheritance and Property Patrilineal Yoruba inheritance aligns more closely with Islam; though Islamic law expands women’s rights (Fadipe 1970; Q. 4:11–12). Ritual Universals Pre-Islamic rituals center on Ifa and òrìṣà. Yoruba Muslims reframe them with Qur’anic healing and reliance on God’s decree. Sufi orders adapted these practices, while reformists reject them (Brenner 2001). Akan Cultural Universals in Islamic Context Belief in the Supreme Deity Nyame as Supreme Deity is reinterpreted as Allah, resonating with Qur’anic attributes (Sarbah 2010). Unlike traditional worship, Islam rejects intermediaries (Q. 39:3). Marriage and Kinship Akan marriage emphasizes family alliances. Akan Muslims integrate nikāh requirements but navigate matrilineal kinship structures that complicate paternal guardianship (Owurasah 2015). Childbirth and Naming Akan abadinto (eighth-day naming) overlaps with Islamic ʿaqīqah. Dual naming (Akan day names + Islamic names) illustrates inculturation. Reformists oppose ancestral invocations (Sarbah 2010). Funeral and Ancestors Elaborate Akan funerals conflict with Islamic simplicity. Akan Muslims substitute libations with Qur’anic prayers but retain communal feasts. Reformists condemn extravagance (Adu-Gyamfi et al. 2013). Recent scholarship indicates that Akan Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 165 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims Muslim communities are among the most contested arenas of reformist critique due to the persistence of ancestor-centered funeral expectations (Halidu, 2024) Inheritance Matrilineal inheritance contradicts Qur’anic prescriptions (Busia 1951). Contemporary studies suggest that legal pluralism and selective compliance with Islamic inheritance law remain common among Akan Muslims (Nolte, 2022). Some Akan Muslims fully adopt Islamic law; others maintain hybrid systems. Social Cohesion Communalism aligns with Islamic Ummah (Q. 49:10). Akan Muslims reframe communal solidarity through mosque networks and Sufi orders. Ritual Universals Traditional deities and libations are replaced with Qur’anic supplications and Eid festivals. Sufi tolerance and reformist critique shape contemporary practice (Hunwick 1997; Brenner 2001). Comparative Analysis Yoruba and Akan Muslims converge in naming, marriage, and language adaptation. Both contextualize Islam through ʿurf, balancing orthodoxy and culture. Divergences lie in kingship (Yoruba patrilineal vs. Akan matrilineal), inheritance (Yoruba aligns more easily with the Qur’an), and funerals (Akan practices are more elaborate and ancestor-centered). Reformist critiques are strong in both contexts, but cultural resilience ensures continuity (Loimeier 2013; Sarbah 2010). These patterns align with recent comparative research showing that patrilineal societies tend to integrate Islamic legal norms more seamlessly than matrilineal systems (Busari, 2024a); Nolte, 2022) Theological and Legal Debates Maliki jurisprudence legitimizes ʿurf but warns against bid’ah. Yoruba fidāu prayers and Akan funeral feasts are contested: defenders view them as cultural solidarity, while critics view them as innovations. Sufi leaders historically accommodated cultural practices, indigenizing Islam through poetry, drumming, and communal rituals (Brenner 2001). Reformist movements such as Izala, or the Salafiyyah Movement in Nigeria and Wahhabi-inspired groups in Ghana condemn these as deviations (Loimeier 2013). Recent studies demonstrate that ReformistSufi tensions continue to shape Muslim ritual life in West Africa, particularly Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 166 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims around funerals, festivals, and healing practices (Journal of Religion in Africa Editorial Collective, 2024). The divide reflects competing visions of Islam: contextual vs. purified. Ancestor veneration is particularly contested. Yoruba Muslims largely replace it with Qur’anic prayers, while Akan Muslims negotiate stronger ancestral traditions. Reformists label all ancestral invocations shirk, while others distinguish cultural remembrance from worship. Inheritance debates are sharper among Akan Muslims due to matrilineal systems conflicting with explicit Qur’anic law (Q. 4:11–12). Yoruba reforms primarily expanded women’s rights within patrilineal systems. The inculturation–syncretism distinction remains central. Where practices enrich Islamic life without doctrinal compromise, they are inculturation. Where they undermine monotheism or divine law, they are syncretism. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 167 Kamarudeen A. Tiamiyu: Cultural Universals and Islamic Rites: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Akan Muslims Conclusion The Yoruba and Akan illustrate how Islam engages cultural universals with both flexibility and boundaries. Cultural forms are not inherently opposed to Islam; many are sanctified under ʿurf. Yet where they conflict with the Qur’an and Sunnah—such as sacral kingship, matrilineal inheritance, or ancestor worship— Islam requires reform. Recent scholarship on lived Islam in Africa confirms that the negotiation between cultural universals and Islamic orthodoxy is ongoing rather than settled (Busari, 2024a; Shaikh, 2021. The Yoruba and Akan cases therefore speak not only to historical adaptation but also to contemporary debates on contextualization, reform, and religious authenticity (Nolte, 2022; Halidu, 2024). This study highlights three key insights. First, Islam permits cultural plurality as part of divine design (Q. 49:13), and Yoruba and Akan Muslims have enriched Islamic practice through contextual adaptation. Second, cultural practices that contradict explicit Islamic injunctions must be reformed, as seen in Akan inheritance and Yoruba funerals. Third, the line between inculturation and syncretism is negotiated differently across contexts, producing diverse expressions of African Islam. Theologically, Islam’s universality does not demand cultural uniformity. The Yoruba and Akan experiences demonstrate that Islam in Africa is authentically Islamic yet distinctly African. Practically, this calls for a balanced theology of contextualization: affirming cultural forms where they enrich faith, while rejecting those that compromise doctrine. In conclusion, Yoruba and Akan Muslims embody the creative tension between faith and culture. Their practices reveal Islam not as a foreign transplant but as a living religion deeply intertwined with African universals. This synthesis, while contested, shows that Islam’s encounter with culture need not be a zero-sum game; rather, it can produce a faith both faithful to its sources and vibrantly rooted in its local soil. 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Usman, A., & Falola, T. (2019). Geography and society in the Yoruba from prehistory to the present. Cambridge University Press. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 170 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D Sashen Koyar da Harsunan Nijeriya, Jami’ar Bayero, Kano +2348069441480
[email protected]Tsakure Wannan takarda ta qunshi bayanin yadda Malam Sa’du Zungur ya sarrafa nassi a cikin Waqar Bidi’a. Manufar takardar ita ce qara bibiyar nassi da fito da shi a cikin Waqar Bidi’a biyo bayan binciken Mainasara (2018). A wajen gudanar wannan takarda an qara nazartar Waqar Bidi’a kamar yadda ta zo a cikin Abdulqadir (1974) da kuma Yakubu (1999). Haka nan an xora wannan takarda a kan hanyar nazarin nassi kamar yadda masana suka kawo. Wannan takarda ta yi nasarar gano qarin wasu nassoshi da aka yi amfani da su a cikin Waqar Bidi’a qari ga waxanda Mainasara (2018) ya gano. Dangane da tsakuren nassi guda uku (3) da aka gano a binciken Mainasara (2018), wannan takarda ta kuma gano qarin baitoci uku masu qunshe da tsakuren nassi. Dangane da fassarar nassi guda huxu (4) da Mainasara (2018) ya gano, wannan takarda ta kuma gano qarin guda uku (3). Game da abin da ya shafi ishara zuwa ga nassi, wannan takarda ta kuma gano qarin misali xaya qari ga na Mainasara (2018) guda uku (3). Muhimman kalmomi: Sa’adu Zungur, Waqar Bidi’a, Nassi, Tsakuren Nassi, Fassarar Nassi, Ishara ga Nassi. 1.0 Gabatarwa Malam Sa’adu Zungur, wato Ahmed Mahmud Sa’adu Zungur ya kasance malamin addinin Musulunci, xan boko, xan kishin qasa, xan siyasa kuma marubucin waqoqi wanda ya rayu a cikin qarni na ashirin kuma ya bayar da gagarumar gudummuwa wajen cigaban qasar Nijeriya. Malam Sa’adu Zungur ya rubuta waqoqi da dama, Waqar Bidi’a xaya ce daga cikin waqoqinsa wanda niyyar wannan takarda shi ne ta yi nazarinta. Masana da manazarta sun gudanar da ayyuka da dama a kan rayuwa da ayyukan Malam Sa’adu Zungur. Wasu ayyukan kamar su Kano (1973) da Yakubu (1999) duk sun kawo tarihin Sa’adu Zungur a yalwace. Haka nan ayyuka irin su Zungur (1968) da Abdulqadir (1974) sun kawo wasu waqoqin Sa’adu Zungur, domin Abdulqadir (1974) ma har nazarin wasu muhimman waqoqin Zungur ya yi guda huxu, ciki kuwa har da wannan waqa da wannan takarda ta mayar da hankali a kanta, wato Waqar Bidi’a. Kazalika Murtala (2013) ya yi nazarin Waqar Bidi’a ta mahangar addinin Musulunci, a yayin da Mainasara (2018) ya yi nazarin amfani da salon Iqtibasi, wato amfani nassoshin Alqur’ani da Hadisai a Waqar Bidi’a’. Laila Usman Shehu (2019) ta yi nazarin aruli ne na waqar Arewa Jamhuriya ko Mulukiya ta hanyar amfani da Ra’i mai nasaba da Tsarin Sauti. Adamu (2025) kuwa ya yi nazarin kayan yaqin Hausawa ne na gargajiya a cikin Waqar Yaqi da Shaixani da Sa’adu Zungur. Feiyang da Nura (2025) sun yi nazarin Waqar Arewa, Jamhuriya ko Mulukiya?.Yakubu (2026) kuwa nazarin waqar Sa’adu Zungur ne ta qarshe ya yi, wato Waqar Jihadin Neman Sawaba. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 171 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Bisa la’akari da waxannan ayyuka da aka yi a kan rayuwa da waqoqin Malam Sa’adu Zungur kamar yadda aka kawo wasu a sama, za a ga masana da manazarta sun yi bincike da nazarce-nazarce a kan waqoqin Sa’adu Zungur, musamman ma Waqar Bidi’a wadda Murtala (2013) da Mainasara (2018) suka gudanar da nazari a kanta. Duk da cewa binciken Mainsara (2018) yana da nasaba kai tsaye da wannan takarda, kasancewar shi ma ya yi nazarin iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a, sai dai ba duka nassoshi aka fito da su aka yi bayaninsu a cikin nazarin ba. Saboda haka manufar wanann takarda ita ce qara bibiyar Waqar Bidi’a domin fito da nassoshin da Mainasara (2018) bai yi bayaninsu a nazarin waqar ba. An samo matanin Waqar Bidi’a a Abdulqadir (1974) da kuma Yakubu (1999). Haka kuma an yi amfani da Alƙur’ani, mai girma da kuma littattafan Hadisai domin gano da qara fito da nassoshin da aka kawo a cikin wannan waƙa. 2.0 Wane ne Sa’adu Zungur? Sa’adu Zungur kamar yadda aka bayyana a baya, ya kasance malamin addinin Musulunci xan boko, xan siyasa xan kishin qasa kuma marubucin waqoqi. An haife shi a shekarar 1915 a Gundumar Galadima, wani gari mai kimanin nisan mil ashirin da biyar (25) daga garin Bauchi (Abdulqadir, 1974:9)1. Kasancewar Sa’adu Zungur an haife shi a gidan malamai, wannan ya ba shi damar karatun addinin Muslunci a wajen mahaifinsa Malam Muhammadu Bello. Zungur ya karanci fiqihu da tauhidi da nahawun Larabci da Alqur’ani da kuma tafsirin Alqur’ani a wajen mahaifinsa. Bayan nan mahaifin Sa’adu ya saka shi a Makarantar Lardi ta Bauchi a shekarar 1922, sannan daga nan a shekarar 1926 Sa’adu ya halarci Kwalejin Katsina. Daga shekarar 1929 zuwa 1934 ya halarci Kwalejin Yaba da ke Ikko2. Bayan kammala karatu ne a Kwalejin Yaba Zungur ya sa sami aikin koyarwa a Makarantar Malaman Tsafta ta Zariya a shekarar 1936 inda a wannan makaranta ne ya kafa wata qungiya mai suna Zaria Literary Society a shekarar 1939. Kazalika ya sake kafa wata qungiya mai suna Zaria Improvement Union a shekarar 1941. A shekarar 1947 ne ya kafa qungiyar The Youth Social Circle. Haka kuma a shekarar 1951 ne ya shiga jam’iyyar Northern Peoples Congress (NPC) da kuma National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons (NCNC) a shekarar 1948. A shekarar 1950 ya shiga Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU) ya kuma fice daga NCNC a shekarar 1952. Haka nan ya jagoranci reshen NEPU na Jihar Bauchi bayan shekarar 1953 (Abdulqadir, 1974, sh. 9)3. Dangane da rubuta waqa kuwa, WaqarYaqi da Shaixani ita ce waqar Malam Sa’adu Zungur ta farko da ya rubuta yana xan shekara ashirin (20) kafin ko jim kaxan bayan ya bar Kwalejin Yaba da ke Ikko (Yakubu, 1999, sh. 25). Amma zuwa tsakiyar qarni na goma sha tara, Malam Sa’adu Zungur ya zamanto shi ne ja-gaban marubuta waqoqi a Arewacin Nijeriya a zamaninsu. Kuma waqoqinsa sun yi matuqar tasiri a wajen al’umma kasancewar jigoginsu a kan batutuwa ne da suke faruwa a wannan lokaci. Ta kai saboda matuqar shaharar waqoqinsa yara ‘yan makaranta suna hardace da rera waqoqinsa (Abdulqadir, 1974, sh. 8). Wasu daga cikin shahararrun waqoqin da Malam Sa’adu Zungur ya rubuta sun haxa da Waqar Bidi’a (wadda aka nazarta a cikin wannan takarda) da Waqar Maraba da Soja da Waqar ‘Yan Baka da Waqar Arewa Jumhuriya ko Mulukiya? daWaqar Mulkin Nasara da Waqar Yaqi da Shaixani da kuma Waqar Jihadin Neman Sawaba (Abdulqadir, 1974, sh. 5 da Yakubu, 1999, sh. 292-397). 1 Yakubu (1999, sh. 8) cewa ya yi a shekarar 1914 aka haifi Malam Sa’adu Zungur a Mazavar Ganjuwa ta Qwaryar Birnin Bauchi. 2 Abdulqadir (1974, sh. 10) ya bayyana cewa Malam Sa’adu Zungur ne mutum xan Arewacin Nijeriya na farko da ya fara samun gurbin karatu a Kwalejin Yaba da ke Ikko. 3 Domin qarin bayani dangane da tarihi da gwagwarmayar rayuwar Malam Sa’adu Zungur a duba Kano (1973) da Abdulqadir (1974) da kuma Yakubu (1999). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 172 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Allahu Akbar! Allah ya xauki rayuwar Malam Sa’adu Zungur bayan doguwar jinya da ya sha fama da ita a shekarar 1958 yana xan shekara arba’in da biyar. 3.0 Salsalar Waqar Bidi’a An samo wannan Waqar Bidi’a ne a cikin Zungur (1968, sh. 1-6), da Abdulqadir (1974, sh. 16-30), da kuma Yakubu (1999, sh. 320-335), kuma wannan waqa tana da baitoci tamanin da biyar (84) kamar yadda aka kawo ta a cikin waxannan ayyuka da aka ambata a baya. Jigon wannan waqa shi ne yaqi da bidi’a4, wato abin da aka qirqiro rana tsaka a cikin addinin (CNHN, 2006, sh.45). Haka zalika, ita wannan waqa an tsara ta ne cikin xango bibbiyu, wato waqar qwar biyu ce, sannan kuma babban amsa-amonta, wato qafiya shi ne ‘a’ inda kowane baiti na waqar yake qarewa da shi. Dangane da aruli kuwa, an tsara wannan waqa ne a kan Karin Basit (Abdulqadir, 1974: sh. 35). 4.0 Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a Iqtibasi, kalma ce ta Larabci da take xaukar ma’anar kafa hujja daga Alqur’ani mai girma da kuma Hadisi, musamman a cikin rubutu. Wannan salo shi ne manazarta adabin Hausa suke kira da Salon Sarrafa Nassi (Birnin-Tudu, 2013), ko Luguden Nassi (Bunza, 2009) ko Sarrafa Nassin Alqur’ani (Omar Sa’adiya, 2013). A qarqashin wannan galibi akan duba abubuwan irin su: (i) Gundarin Nassi, wato inda aka ambaci nassin Larabci kai tsaye a cikin rubutu, da (ii) Fassarar Nassi, wato inda ake kawo fassarar nassin Larabci cikin harshen Hausa, da kuma (iii) Ishara Zuwa ga Nassi, wato a nan nuni ake yi zuwa ga nassi. Ga bayanansu kamar yadda aka qara fito da su a cikin Waqar Bidi’a kamar haka: 4.1 Qara Bibiyar Tsakuren (Gundarin) Nassi a Waqar Bidi’a Tsakuren nassi yana nufin a xauko wani sashe na nassi don kafa hujja, wato a xebo wani yanki na ayar Alqur’ani mai girma ko Hadisi (Birnin-Tudu, 2013:166). Idan aka duba Mainasara (2018) an ga inda ya fito da baitoci kimanin guda uku (3) waxanda suke qunshe da gundarin nassi cikin harshen Larabci. Wani abin da ya kamata a lura da shi a wannan takarda shi ne, ba za a sake bibiyar sharhin baitocin da Mainasara (2018) ya kawo ba, sai dai kawai a kawo baitocin. Ga gundarin nassin Larabci da ya kawo a cikin Waqar Bidi’a kamar haka: 1. Ka xaura aniya a kan waqa kana addu’a, A’uzu Billah daga Shaixani a kan bidi’a. 7. Manzo ya ce la tazalu tutur akwai jama’a, Da za ta dage a kan sunna da qin bidi’a. 78. Subhana Rabbika Rabbil’izzati amma, Yasifuna, domin rashin ilimi ga ‘yan bidi’a. (Mainasara, 2018, sh. 148). Idan aka kalli waxannan baitoci kamar yadda suka gabata, kamar yadda aka kaurara su da kuma yi musu alamar tafiyar-tsutsa, za a ga baitoci ne da suke xauke da abin da ake kira 4 Don qarin bayani a kan Kalmar bidi’a, a duba Murtala (2013). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 173 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur gundarin nassin Larabci da suka zo a Alqur’ani mai tsarki, da kuma Hadisan Manzon Allah mai tsira da aminci. Domin qrin bayani sai a duba Mainasara (2018, sh. 148). Wasu tsakuren gundarin nassin Larabci da wannan takarda ta qara fito da su a cikin wannan waqa mai suna Waqar Bidi’a su ne kamar haka: Misali na 1: 41. Fa’in tawallau, idan suka soma bauxewa, Suka juya baya ga ma’anar kamilar xa’a. Idan aka kalli wannan misali na 1 da ya zo a baiti na 41 na Waqar Bidi’a, za a ga yana qunshe da tsakuren nassin Larabci, wato Fa’in tawallau wanda yake tsakure ne daga farkon Ayar Alqur’ani mai girma da ta zo a cikin Sura ta Tara (9), wato Surah At-tawbah [Surar Tuba], Aya ta 129. Ga cikakkiyar Ayar kamar yadda ta zo a cikin Suratu At-Tauba kamar haka: َّ َّ ي ﴾ُ َ َٓل ِإ َٰنَهَ ِإ ََّل ه َۖ َُى َعهَ ۡي ِه ت ََى َّك ۡه َۖتُ َوه َُى َربُّ ۡٱن َع ۡز ِش ۡٱن َع ِظ ِيمಕಒٱ َ ﴿فَإِن ت َ َىن ۡىاْ فَقُ ۡم َح ۡس ِب Idan aka duba duba farkon Ayar inda ka ja wa layi a qarqashi, za a ga gundarin tsakuren nassin kamar yadda Malam Sa’adu Zungur ya kawo shi a cikin baiti na 41 a waqarsa mai suna Waqar Bidi’a kamar yadda aka gani a baya. Ga kuma fassarar Ayar cikin harshen Hausa kamar haka: ‚To idan sun ba da baya sai ka ce ‚Allah Ya ishe ni, babu wani abin bautawa da gaskiya sai Shi, a gare Shi kaxai na dogara; kuma Shi ne Ubangijin Al’arshi mai girma.‛ (Rijiyar Lemo, 2021, Mujalladi na Biyu (1), sh. 608). Wani misali na tsakuren nassin Alqur’ani da aka qara bibiya da kuma fito da shi a cikin Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur an gano su ne a baitoci na 42 da kuma na 43. Ga baitocin tafe kamar haka: Misali na 2: 42. Su je da niyyarsu mu dai hasbunal-lahu, Wani’ima, madalla mai tanyon dukkan jama’a. 43. Ni’imal Wakilu mu dogara gunsa ba tsaro, Ni’iman Nasiru bisa kan taimakon jama’a. Idan aka duba misali na 2 da ya gabata mai xauke da baiti na 42, a nan ma an ga a xango na farko da kuma na biyu, mawallafin Waqar Bidi’a, wato Malam Sa’adu Zungur, ya kawo tsakuren gundarin nassin Alqur’ani mai tsarki, wato hasbunal-lahu, da kuma wani’ma waxannda duka ya tsakuro su ne daga a Aya ta 173, Suratu Ali Imran. Haka nan idan aka duba baiti na 43 na Waqar Bidi’a, za a ga mawallafin ya kawo tsakuren qarshen Aya ta 173 ta Suratu Ali Imran. Ga gundarin Ayar kamar yadda ya zo a surar kamar haka: Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 174 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur َّ اس قَ ۡد َج َمعُىاْ نَ ُك ۡم فَ ۡٱخش َۡىه ُۡم فَزَ ادَه ُۡم إِي َٰ َم ٗىا َوقَانُىاْ َح ۡسبُىَا ُ ُ َووِعۡ َم ۡٱن َى ِكيಕಒٱ ﴾م ُ َّ﴿ٱنَّذِيهَ قَا َل نَ ُه ُم ٱنى َ َّاس إِ َّن ٱنى Ga fassarar Aya ta 173 da aka yiwo tsakaurenta a cikin a Suratu Ali Imran kamar haka cikin harshen Hausa: ‚Su ne waxanda mutane suka ce da su : ‚Lalle mutanen (Makka) fa sun tara muku runduna, to sai ku tsorace su. ‚Amma sai hakan ya qara musu imani, sai suka riqa cewa : ‚Allah Ya wadace mu, kuma madalla da abin dogaro (idan har Shi ne Allah).‛, (Rijiyar Lemo, 2021, Mujalladi na Xaya (1), sh. 493). Kazalika, idan aka duba xango na biyu na baiti na 43 da Malam Sa’adu Zungur ya kawo a Waqar Bidi’a, za a tarar tsakuren qarshen Aya ta 40 ne cikin Suratu Anfal. Ga gundarin Ayar kamar yadda ya zo a cikin Surar kamar haka: ﴾يز ُ ص ِ ََّ َم ۡىنَ َٰى ُك ۡۚۡم وِعۡ َم ۡٱن َم ۡىنَى َٰٰ َووِعۡ َم ٱنىಕಒ﴿ َوإِن ت ََىنَّ ۡىاْ فَ ۡٱعهَ ُم ٓىاْ أ َ َّن َّٱ Ga fassarar Ayar ta 80 da aka yiwo tsakurenta a cikin a Suratu Anfal kamar haka cikin harshen Hausa: ‚Idan kuma suka ba da baya, to ka sani cewa, Allah (Shi ne) Majivici, kuma madalla da wannan Mai taimako‛ (Rijiyar Lemo, 2021, Majalladi na Biyu (2), sh. 444). Har wa yau, a ci gaba da qara bibiyar nassi a cikin Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur, an kuma cin karo da wani baiti wanda yake xauke da tsakuren nassin Alqur’ani mai girma wanda ba a ambace shi a cikin Mainasara (2018) ba. Ga tsakuren nassin Alqur’anin kamar yadda ya bayyan a baiti na 44 na waqar kamar haka: Misali na 3: 44. Iyyaka na’abudu bauta wada ba shirka, Iyyaka kuma nasta’inu a kan gudun bidi’a. A wannan misali da ya gabata, Zungur ya kawo tsakuren Aya ta 5 cikin Suratul Fatiha, wato Sura ta farko a cikin Alqur’ani mai girma, wato ‚Iyyaka na’abudu‛ a cikin xango na farko da kuma ‘iyyaka nas’tainu a xango na biyun baitin. An yi tsakuren ne da fassara daga Ayar da take cewa watau Allah kaxai muka yarda mu bauta wa; dukkan nau’o’in ibada gare shi ake ba da su. Ibada kuwa ita ce, duk wani abu da Allah yake son sa kuma ya yarda da shi, na quduri ne a zuciya ko magana ta baka ko kuma aiki na gavovi. Sannan mun tabbata ba za mu iya bauta masa yadda ya dace ba sai da taimakonsa. Don haka a wajensa kaxai muke neman taimako a cikin lamurranmu gaba xaya. Wannan yana nuna ba a neman taimakon wani wanda ba Allah ba a duk wani abu da Allah ne kaxai zai iya yin sa, kamar bayar da arziki ko neman lafiya, ko neman ’ya’ya da makamantansu. Bai halatta wani ya kira wani annabi ko wani waliyyi ko wani salihin bawa ba yayin da yake cikin wata musiba don ya taimake shi, idan har ya yi haka to ya bayar da Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 175 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur haqqin Allah ga wani, watau ya yi shirka da Allah (Rijiyar Lemo, 2020, 7). Ga gundarin Ayar da aka yo tsakuren nata kamar haka: ﴾٥ ُ﴿إِيَّاكَ وَ ْعبُد ُ َوإِيَّاكَ وَ ْست َِعيه Ga fassarar Ayar cikin harshen Hausa kamar haka: Kai kaxai muke bauta wa, kuma Kai kaxai muke neman taimakonka. (Rijiyar Lemo, 2021, Mujalladi na Xaya (1), sh. 34). 4.2 Qara Fito da Fassarar Nassi a Waqar Bidi’a A misalan da suka gabata, an qara fito da gundarin nassi ne a cikin Waqar Bidi’a. Misalan da suke tafe a nan kuwa, sun shafi fassarar nassi ne, wanda yake nufin ciro fassarar wata aya ta Alqur’ani, mai girma ko Hadisi (Birnin-Tudu, 2013:164). Mainasara (2018) ya kawo fassarar nassi kamar yadda suka zo a cikin baitoci huxu (4) na Waqar Bidi’a, wato baiti na uku (3) da na tara (9) da na goma (10) da na arba’in da shida (46). Gai baitocin nan tafe kamar yadda suka zo a cikin Waqar Bidi’a. 3. Daxa kawo salsala don kammalar xa’a, Ga wanda aikensa rahama ce wajen jama’a. 9. Allah ya yi umarni duk ga al’umma, A kan riqon igiyarsa da tattalin jama’a. 10. Kuma kar a rarraba don koyi da al’ummai, Da sunka saba umarni suka bar xa’a. 46. Hanyar waxannan da kai ni’ima gare su duka, Ai banda hanyar miyagu tarkacen bidi’a. (Mainasara, 2018, sh. 148-150) A wannan takarda an qara bibiya da kuma fito da wasu wurare da aka sami fassarar nassi na Hadisai da kuma na Alqur’ani a cikin Waqar Bidi’a. Baitocin da aka qara ganowa suna xauke da nassi su ne baiti na 12 da baiti na 13 da kuma baiti na 47 kamar yadda za a ga bayaninsu tafe: A baiti na 12 da na 13 na Waqar Bidi’a, wannan takarda ta gano Malam Sa’adu Zungur ya kawo fassarar wani Hadisi ne da yake maganar al’ummar Ma’aiki za ta rabu zuwa gida har saba’in da uku, wadda a cikin wannan kashi xaya ne zai tsira. Ga baitin kamar haka kamar yadda ya zo a cikin Waqar Bidi’a: Misali na 4: 12. Da ya ce a kwana a tashi sannu za mu rabu, Saba’in da ukku tafirka duk muna bidi’a. 13. Face guda xaya ita ce za ta san tsira, Sauran a tura Jahannama don rashin xa’a. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 176 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Idan aka duba waxannan baitoci guda biyu, wato baiti na 12 da na 13 kamar yadda suka zo a Waqar Bidi’a, za a ga ci gaba da fassarar Hadisi ne mai lamba 3992 wanda ya zo a cikin Sunan Ibn Majah. Ga fassarar Hadisin a taqaice kamar haka: ‚Yahudawa sun rabu gida 71, Nasara sun rabu gida 72, kuma al’ummata za ta rabu gida 73; dukansu a Wuta sai guda ɗaya.‛ Sai aka tambaye shi: ‚Wace ce wannan guda ɗaya, Ya Manzon Allah?‛ Sai ya ce: ‚Wadda take kan abin da ni da Sahabbaina muke a kai (Sunan Ibn Majah, #3992, Sunan at-Tirmidhi, # 2641). Kazalika, a cikin Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur, an kuma bibiya da gano baiti na 47 na waqar wanda yake xauke da fassarar Aya ta 7 ce ta Suratu Fatiha kamar haka: Misali na 5: 47. Bayin da ka yi hushi bisa kansu don savo, Da waxanda sunka vace don shirku kan xa’a. Ga Ayar da aka fassara ta cikin wannan baiti kamar haka: َ ص َٰ َز ﴾ َضآنِّيه َّ ب َعهَ ۡي ِه ۡم َو ََل ٱن ِ ط ٱنَّذِيهَ أَ ۡوعَمۡ تَ َعهَ ۡي ِه ۡم غ َۡي ِز ۡٱن َم ۡغضُى ِ ﴿ Ga fassarar Ayar cikin harshen Hausa kamar haka: ‚Tafarkin waxanda Ka yi wa ni’ima, ba waxanda ka yi fushi da su ba, ba kuma vatattu ba‛ (Rijiyar Lemo, 2021, Mujalladi na Xaya (1), sh. 36). 4.3 Qara Fito da Ishara Zuwa ga Nassi a Waqar Bidi’a Baya ga fassarar nassi kamar yadda aka gani a misalan da suka gabata, a nan za a mayar da hankali ne a kan ishara zuwa ga nassi, wanda yake nufin nuni ga nassi ba kai tsaye ba. A nan za a yi bayani ne wanda zai nuna wata aya ce aka tavo. Mainsara (2018, sh. 150-151) ya kawo misali na baitocin Waqar Bidi’a da suke nuni ko ishara zuwa ga nassi. Baitocin da ya nazarta sun haxa da baiti na talatin da biyar (35) da na talatin da takwas (38) da kuma na hamsin da xaya (51) kamar haka : 35. Su ce dukan iliminka na za shi kai ushirin, Na ubanka ko malaminka, a zamanin bidi’a. 38. To, xan’uwa sai ka jure kuma ka xau haquri, Bisa gargaxin jama’ammu su daina yin bidi’a. 51. In taimako ne ka ke nema a kan lamari, Sai dai ka tsarkake niyyar ka ta yin addu’a. (Mainasara, 2018, sh. 150-151) Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 177 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Baya ga waxannan misalai na ishara zuwa ga nassi da Mainasara (2018) ya kawo a cikin takardarsa, wannan takarda ta sake gano baiti na 65 a cikin Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur, wanda yake ishara ga Hadisin Ma’aiki wanda yake hana rantsuwa da wanin Allah. Ga baitin kamar yadda ya zo a cikin waqar: Misali na 6: 65. Daxai ba ka ji shi ya rantse da Allah ba, Don qarfafawar batunsa don yana bidi’a. Kamar yadda aka ambata a baya, wannan ishara da Hadisi wanda ya zo a cikin Sunan Abi Dauda, Hadisi na 3242. Ga fassarar Hadisin a taqaice kamar haka: Manzon Allah ya ce: ‚Kada ku yi rantsuwa da sunayen iyayenku (maza), ko iyayenku (mata), ko waɗanda ake ɗauka tamkar kishiyoyin Allah; ku yi rantsuwa da Allah kaɗai, kuma ku yi rantsuwa da Allah ne kawai idan kuna faɗin gaskiya.‛ (Sunan Abi Dawud 3248).5 Baya ga wannan Hadisi, akwai Hadisai da dama da suke hani da rantsuwa da wanin Allah waxanda za a iya cewa baiti na 65 na Waqar Bidi’a yana nuni gare su. 6. Kammalawa Alhamdulillahi, a nan ne aka kawo qarshen wannan takarda wadda tun daga farkonta aka buxe ta da kawo taqaitaccen tarihin Malam Sa’adu Zungur wanda shi ya wallafa Waqar Bidi’a. Haka nan an kawo taqaitaccen bayani game da salsalar waqar. Har ila yau, an xan bibiyi ma’anar salon amfani da nassi. Bayan kammala wannan takarda, an gano Waqar Bidi’a tana xauke wasu nassoshi qari ga waxanda Mainasara (2018) ya gano. Dangane da tsakuren gundarin nassi, wannan takarda ta kuma fito qarin misalai a baitoci na 41, da na 42, da na 43 da kuma na 44, wato qari ga baitoci na 1 da na 2 da kuma na 78 da Mainsara (2028) ya gano. Haka nan dangane da abin da ya shafi fassarar nassi, wannan takarda ta qara gano misali a baiti na 12 da na 13 da kuma na 47, waxanda suke qari ne ga baitoci na 3 da 9 da na 10 da kuma na 46 da Mainasara (2018) ya gano. Daga qarshe wannan takarda ta kuma gano wani qarin misali da yake ishara da Hadisi, wato baiti na 65, wanda yake qari ne ga baitoci na 35 da na 38 da kuma na 51 da Mainsara (2018) ya gano. Wani muhimmin abin da ya kamata a lura da shi, shi ne wannan bincike ba shi ne qarshe ba dangane da Waqar Bidi’a, ta yiwu idan aka qara zurfafa bincike a kuma gano wasu nassoshi da Malam Sa’adu Zungur a cikin waqar qari ga waxannan da aka riga aka fito da su. Manazarta Abdulqadir, X. (1974). The Poetry, Life and Opinion of Sa’adu Zungur. Zaria: NNPC. Adamu, J. S. (2019). ‘Amfani da Nassi a Wasu Waƙoƙin (Dr.) Mamman Shata Katsina’. in Aliyu Mu’azu, Isa Mukhtar, Hafizu Miko Yakasai, Tijjani Shehu Almajir, Muhammad Sulaiman 5 Wannan fassarar mawallafin wannan takarda ne. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 178 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Abdullahi & Nura Lawal (Eds.) Conference Proceedings on Alhaji (Dr.) Mamman Shata in Honour Dr. Aliyu Modibbo Umar [Danmburan Gombe], pp. 799-806. Adamu, J. S. (2023). ‘Sarrafa Nassi a Wasu Waqoqin Narambaxa’ in Aliyu Mu’azu, Isa Mukhtar, Tijjani Shehu Almajir, Muhammad Sulaiman Abdullahi & Nura Lawal (Eds.) International Conference on Ibrahim Narambaɗa Tubali in Honour of His Excellency, General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (rtd), GCFR, pp.105-112. Adamu, J. S. (2023). Ɗanƙwairo da Addini: Bibiyar Nassi a Wasu Waƙoƙin Musa Ɗanƙwairo’, in Sa’idu Muhammad Gusau, Ahmad Magaji, Ibrahim Garba Satatima, Isa Yusuf Chamo & Muhammad Ammani (Eds.), Studies on the Poetic Dynasty of Musa Ɗanƙwairo Mai Turu Ƙaen Makaɗa Kurna Maradun: Proceedings of the 30th Years of Commemorative Conference on Musa Ɗanƙwairo Maradun, pp.501-510. Adamu, J. S. (2025). ‘Bibiyar Wasu Kayan Yaqin Hausawa na Gargajiya a Waqar Yaqi da Shaixani ta Sa’adu Zungur’. in Rumfa: Journal of Arts, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp.135-147. Adamu, J.S. (2017). Traces of the Arabic Literary Traditions in Modern Hausa Ajami Poetry Birnin-Tudu, S. Y. (2013). Jigo da Salon Rubutattun Waqoqin Furu’a na Qarni na Ashirin. Iqra’a Publishing House. Birniwa, H.A (1987) ‚Conservatism and Dissent: A Comparative Study of NPC/NPN and NEPU/PRP Hausa Political Verse from Circa 1946 to 1983‛. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Department of Nigerian Languages, University of Sokoto, Sokoto. Bunza, A. M. (2009). Narambaxa. Ibrish Islamic Publication Centre Limited. CNHN (2006) Qamusun Hausa. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press. Discourse.Vol.5. No.4. Pp.176-183. Feiyang, L. da Lawal, N. (2025). ‘Tunanin Siyasa a Waqar Arewa, Jamhuriya ko Mulukiya’. in Algaita: Journal of Current Research in Hausa Studies, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp.230-244. Gaya, A. S. (1972) ‚Comparison Between Mu’azu Haxeja and Sa’adu Zungur‛. B. A. Dissertation, A.B.U/B.U.K. Hiskett, M. (1075). The Development of Sa’adu Zungur’s Political Thought from Maraba da Sooja, through Arewa Jumhuuriyya Koo Muluukiyaa, to Wakar Yancii. African Language Studies.XVI, pp.1-23. Ingawa, S. Y. (2014) ‚Concluding Marvyn Hiskett’s Thesis on Sa’adu Zungur’s Waqar ‘Yanci‛. Muqalar da aka samu a shafin Sa’adu Zungur na yanar gizo. https://www.academia.edu/24471231/CONCLUDING_MERVYN_HISKETTS_THESIS_O N_SAADU_ZUNGURS_WAKAR_YANCI. Jabbi, U. and Yahaya I. (2018). Is Democracy Liberationist? The Gospel According to Late Malam Saʼadu Zungur. Scholars Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol.6. No.12. Pp. 2256-2262. Kano, A. (1973) Rayuwar Ahmad Mahmud Sa’adu Zungur. Zaria. Liberation of Northern Political System. International Journal of Intellectual Mainasara, A. (2018). ‘Nazarin Salon Iqtibasi a Cikin ‚Waqar Bidi’a‛ Ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur’. In ALSUN Journal of Humanities, Maiden Edition, Al-qalam University, Katsina, pp.146-151. Malumfashi, I. A. M. (2012) ‚Who was Sa’adu Zungur? A Literary Historian’s Glimpse‛. Takardar da aka gabatar a taron qara wa juna ilimi karo na bakwai kan matsayin adabi a Arewacin Nijeriya, wanda Jami’ar Bayero, Kano tare da haxin guiwar Jami’ar Jihar Kwara, Malete suka shirya. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 179 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Muhammad, I. S. (2018). Nigeria’s Uncelebrated Hero, Poet, Progressive Politician, Intellectual and Nationalist: Ahmad Mahmud Sa’adu Zungur’ in Journal of humanities and Cultures Studies R&D, Vol.3, No.3, pp. Murtala, A. (2013). ‘The Illusion of Innovators: An Appraisal of Malam Sa’adu Zungur’s Poem Against Bid’ah. In Algaita: Journal of Current Research in Hausa Studies, Vol. 1, No. 7, pp. 85-115. Omar, Sa’adiya (2013). Fasahar Mazan Jiya: Nazari a kan Rayuwa da Waqoqin Malam Mu’azu Haxeja. Garkuwa Media Services Limited. Rijiyar Lemo, S. U. (2020). Fayyataccen Bayani na Ma’anoni da Shiriyar Alqur’ani (1-6). Bayyinat Centre for Qur’anic Studies. Shehu, U. L. (2019). ‘Prosodic Analysis of Sa’adu Zungur’s Poem Arewa Jamhuriya ko Mulukiya Using Phonological Approach’. Unpublished B.A. Dissertation, Department of Nigerian Languages, Bayero University, Kano. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Warsaw, Poland. Usman, U. L. (2024). Sa’adu Zungur: Taqaitaccen Tarihin Haxuwarmu da shi da kuma Gwagwarmayar Siyasar NEPU a Bauchi. Bauchi: Family of Alhaji Launi. Yahaya, M. and Musa A. (2022). Analysis of Malam Saʼadu Zungur Political Thoughts on Yakubu, A. M. (1999). Sa’adu Zungur: A Anthology of the Social and Political Writings of a Nigerian Nationalist. Nigerian Defense Academy Press. Yakubu, A. M. (2026). Sa’adu Zungur’s Last Verse. Arewa House: Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Yusuf, J. (2016). ‘Alqalami Ya Fi Takobi: Nazarin Kaifin Alqalamin Malam Sa’adu Zungur a Fagen Dagar Siyasar Nijeriya’. Maqalar da aka gabatar a taron qara wa juna sani na Qasa da Qasa na Biyu Kan ‘Heroes and Heroines of Hausaland’ da Sashen Koyar Da Harsunan Nijeriya da Ilimin Kimiyyar Harsuna, Jami’ar Jihar Kaduna ta shirya, a ranakun 3-5 ga watan Yuni, 2016. Zungur, S. (1968) Waqoqin Sa’adu Zungur. N.N.P.C Zaria. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 180 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Rataye: Matanin Waqar Bidi’a6 ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur 1. Ka xaura aniya a kan waqa kana addu’a, A’uzu Billah daga Shaixani a kan bidi’a. 2. San nan kawo Bamala bisa kan riqon sunna, Ka biya da yin Hamdala ita ce uwar sa’a. 3. Daxa kawo salsala don kammalar xa’a, Ga wanda aikensa rahama ce wajen jama’a. 4. Ka iyar da kalar Salatu zuwa ga Alaye, Da sallama ga Sahabbai masu kyan xa’a. 5. Da tabi’ina da Tabi’ihim sa ihsani, A kan tafarki na sunna wanda ba bidi’a. 6. Da malaman gaskiya fitilu na zamani, Don haskakawar duhun fitinu na mai bidi’a. 7. Manzo ya ce la tazalu tutur akwai jama’a, Da za ta dage a kan sunna da qin bidi’a. 8. Da waxanda kuma za su juya kan dugagensu, Domin su koma ga arnanci na son bidi’a. 9. Allah ya yi umarni duk ga al’umma, A kan riqon igiyarsa da tattalin jama’a. 10. Kuma kar a rarraba don koyi da al’ummai, Da sunka saba umarni suka bar xa’a. 11. Yau ga shi mun sava juna mun zamo bamban, Bisa kan Hadisi na Manzo Annabin sa’a. 12. Da yace a kwana a tashi sannu za mu rabu, Saba’in da ukku tafirka duk muna bidi’a. 13. Face guda xaya ita ce za ta san tsira, Sauran a tura Jahannama don rashin xa’a. 14. Allah Ta’ala muna roqonka taufiqi, Ka fid da mu rundunar jama’a ta ‘yan bidi’a. 15. Ya xan’uwana da ke fatawa a kan zancen, Tawakkali da du’a’i wadda ba bidi’a. 16. Da fassarar qaddara wadda ba bidi’a, Cikin kitabu da sunna inda ba bidi’a. 17. A kan bayani na malamai da sunka faxi, Domin ka gane tafarki wanda ba bidi’a. 18. Ai ka yi fatawarka gun wannan da bai da sani, Kuma bai da hikima ta rarrabe mas’alar bidi’a. 19. Sai rungume ni mu faxi, ko kuwa ta Sakwaf, Da Lakwaf ya ce ya yi sai ka daina ba’a. 6 An samo matanin wannan waqar ne a cikin Abdulqadir (1974) da kuma Yakubu (1999). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 181 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur 20. Sakwaf ya ce bai sakewa don gazawarsa, In ya sake ya faxi, abin kamar da ba’a. 21. Ko kumburin wani ciwo xan’uwa ya gani, A gare mu yai tuhuma ta qiba da kyan dara’a. 22. Kuma dai ala kulli halin na ji fatawarka, Bisa tsarkakarka ga niyya kan gudun bidi’a. 23. Saura ka saurari amsa wadda za ta fito, Daga gun faqihai na malaman cikin jama’a. 24. Amma abokin jawabin naka bai da batu, Na kansa sai wasixanci kam batum jama’a. 25. Allah ya shirye mu mu duka mui riqon sunna, Mu kama igiya ta taufiqi a kan xa’a. 26. Idan jawabinmu ya dace da fatawarka, Kai Hamdala kuma ka zage tattalin jama’a. 27. Ka jure suka ta kibiyoyi na jahilai, Don za su harbe ka, ka zarge su a kan bidi’a. 28. Ina sunka cije a kan zarginka ce, ‚Allah‛, San nan kabar su cikin ruxinsu ‘yan bidi’a. 29. Farko sukan ce karambaninka zai ja ka, Zuwa ga halakarka don ka zargi ‘yan bidi’a. 30. San nan su juya tambayoyi na vata mutum, Har ma su kafirta al’amarinka kan bidi’a. 31. Su ce da kai zindiqi don rashin taqawa, Don ka yi suka ga al’ada ta ‘yan bidi’a. 32. Ko ko su far ma da sunaye na malammai, Gagga da sunka qi yin wa’azi a bar bidi’a. 33. Ko kuma a ce garin nan xan su wane ne, Ya ke shigam manahanci kan batun bidi’a. 34. Ai ko ubansa a zamanin da ya yi, Yana ganinmu da girma kan batun bidi’a. 35. Su ce dukan iliminka na za shi kai ushirin, Na ubanka ko malaminka, a zamanin bidi’a. 36. Su ce dukkan lamarin nan nasu yai asali, Tun kan iyaye da kakanni a ke bidi’a. 37. Saura ku bar shi cikin haukansa har ya gama, Samartaka da rashin kunya ta ‘yan sa’a. 38. To, xan’uwa sai ka jure kuma ka xau haquri, Bisa gargaxin jama’ammu su daina yin bidi’a. 39. Dukan masibar da ta auku wa addini, Tushenta koyi da kakannin mutan bidi’a. 40. Duba ga nassi kan zan koyi da Manzanni, A kan jidali da al’adu na ‘yan bidi’a. 41. Fa’in tawallau, idan suka soma bauxewa, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 182 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur Suka juya baya ga ma’anar kamilar xa’a. 42. Su je da niyyarsu mu dai hasbunal-lahu, Wani’ima, madalla mai tanyon dukkan jama’a. 43. Ni’imal Wakilu mu dogara gunsa ba tsaro, Ni’iman Nasiru bisa kan taimakon jama’a. 44. Iyyaka na’abudu bauta wada ba shirka, Iyyaka kuma nasta’inu a kan gudun bidi’a. 45. Ya Rabbi shirye mu hanya wadda babu kwana, Hanya ta bayin da suka san kamilar xa’a. 46. Hanyar waxannan da kai ni’ima gare su duka, Ai banda hanyar miyagu tarkacen bidi’a. 47. Bayin da ka yi hushi bisa kansu don savo, Da waxanda sunka vace don shirku kan xa’a. 48. Amina, ya Rabbi amsawarka mun ka bixa, Domin mu san ni’ima bisa dawwamar sa’a. 49. Ya xan’uwa mai bixar tanyo wurin Allah, Don tattalin gaskiya haqqin dubun jama’a. 50. Zamma nasiyya ka daina zuwa wurin tsafi, Da Majalisar malaman duba da mai quri’a. 51. In taimako ne ka ke nema a kan lamari, Sai dai ka tsarkake niyyar ka ta yin addu’a. 52. Ai babul ale da Arabiyya wurin Allah, Im babu ilmi na nahawu gare ka ko raf’a. 53. Ka wo kirari da harshen nan da kai ka iya, Matuqar akwai ihlasi babu ko bidi’a. 54. Sharaxin du’a’I da Arabiyya yana da wuya, Lallai ka san fassara tasa gwargwadon wus’a. 55. Im ba sanin fassara zancenka duk sururu, Ya zam hululun da ba roqo ba, ba addu’a. 56. Im ba sanin ma’ana kuma babu ihlasi, Kuma ya zamo ba huluri ya zamo bidi’a. 57. Labudda ko wace doka ai ta kan togas, A nan fa sai Alqur’ani wanda bai da sa’a. 58. Sharaxinsa ai xaya ne in dai akwai lafazi, Mai kyau akwai li’irabi sai ya zam addu’a. 59. Sai dai gal ada qira’a ai da fifiko, Ga mai sanin ma’ana don kammalar addu’a. 60. Amma fa sauran du’a’i ko na wane ne, Tilas a san ma’anarsa a kauce yin bidi’a. 61. Ai hasali kai du’a’i duk da hausarka, Im ba sanin Arabiyya gwargwadon wus’a. 62. Shi dai du’a’i sharuxxan nasa na da wuya, Tilas mu yarfar da al’adun mutan bidi’a. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 183 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur 63. Da sannu dai za mu komo kan batun sharaxi, Na yin du’a’I bisa zancen da babu ba’a. 64. Ga wani jawabi da yai suka ga al’ada, Ta rantsuwar jahili don qarfafar bidi’a. 65. Daxai ba ka ji shi ya rantse da Allah ba, Don qarfafawar batunsa don yana bidi’a. 66. Sai dai ya rantse da hubbare na kakansa, Ko ko da tsohon ubansa a Majalisar bidi’a. 67. Kamar ya rantse da Ahmadu Shehu Tijjani, Ko Shehu Jailani, wai a zatonsa yai xa’a. 68. Ko ko aradu kwarankwatsa tabbatar tsafi, Bisa rantsuwarsu ta Arna zamanin bidi’a. 69. Kuma Shehu xan Hodiyonmu da shi da Hubbare, Suna cikin rantsuwar magana ta ‘yan bidi’a. 70. In ko abin ya yi zurfi har ya je matuqa, Domin a qarfada zancen Majalisar bidi’a. 71. Sai kuma a rantse da Annabi ko da Alqur’ani, Da Mala’ikun Rahamanu a Majalisar bidi’a. 72. Kai hasali duk Bahaushe jahili tsantsa, Da furfurarsa ya kan rantse a kan bidi’a. 73. In ka ji ya ce da kai Wallahi qarya ce, Ya xungumata yana tuhumarka ko da ba’a. 74. Ko ko yana dariya zance na wargi ne, Ko kuma ya gunce Billahil-lazi da ba’a. 75. Wai don akwai rangwame bisa rantsuwar wargi, Allahu ba ya riqo bisa rantsuwar dafa’a. 76. Da dai a ce da Bahaushe in ya je shari’a, Ya yi rantsuwarsa da Shehunnai a kan bidi’a. 77. Zai gwammace iqirari ko mukulli don, A zuciyarsa da can gun Majalisar bidi’a. 78. Subhana Rabbika Rabbil’izzati amma, Yasifuna, domin rashin ilimi ga ‘yan bidi’a. 79. Kar duba nassin Risala qirawaniyya, A kan batun rantsuwa domin ka bar bidi’a. 80. Mai son ya rantse idan dais hi Musulmi ne, Kuma mumuni mai basira mai yawan xa’a. 81. Sai dai ya rantse da Allah ko ya daina duk, Bisa qa’idar Musulunci wadda ba bidi’a. 82. Na san akwai wasu turaye na jihilai, Da za su dage ga al’adu ta bin bidi’a. 83. Su dinga yawon farauta inda malamai, Suna bixar ta’awulin rantsuwar bidi’a. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 184 Jibril Shu’aibu Adamu, Ph.D, Qara Bibiyar Salon Iqtibasi a Waqar Bidi’a ta Malam Sa’adu Zungur 84. Allah Ta’ala muna roqo ka shirye su, Su kama igiya ta Allah duk su bar bidi’a. (Abdulqadir, 1974, sh. 16-30) Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 185 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) NAZARIN JIGOGI DA SALON WASU MARUBUTA QAGAGGUN LABARAI NA KARNI NA ASHIRIN DA XAYA (21) Lawal Adams
[email protected]Da Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi Kano State College of Education And Preliminary Studies
[email protected]Da Bashir Shehu Ibrahim
[email protected]Tsakure An yi wannan nazari ne a kan yadda tunanin marubuta qagaggun labarai a qarni na 21 ya canza salo yadda ya sha bamban da na qarni na 19 da kuma qarni na 20. Marubuta qagaggun labarai a qarni na 19 sun fi mayar da hankali ne wajen yin rubuce-rubuce a kan abubuwan da suka shafi addini da nasiha da jan hankali da bin dokokin ibada da sauransu. A qarni na 20 kuwa marubuta da yawa sun qaru kuma suka zo da sabon salon rubutu wanda ya bambanta da qarni na 19. A wannan qarni na 20 marubuta qagaggun labarai sun fi mayar da salon rubutunsu a kan abubuwan da suka shafi tarbiyya da tsafta da koya magana da mu’amala da auren dole da saka yara a makaranta, da sauransu. A wannan qarni aka samu jigon da ake kira ‚Baduniyen Jigo‛. A qarni na 21 rubuce-rubucen qagaggun labarai ya sake canza salo wanda ya zarta na qarni na 20. Wannan takarda za ta yi nazari ne kan yadda jigon ya canza salo tare da kawo misalai daga labaran litattafai da kuma labaran ake sanyawa ta gasa da kuma litattafan Adabin Kasuwar Kano. An kuma kawo wasu labaran da suka yi nasara a gasar gidauniyar Arc.Ahmed Musa Xangiwa 2022. An yi qoqarin yin bitar ayyukan da suka gabata wanda suka haxa da ma’anar jigo salo. An yi amfani da hanyoyin da suka haxa da karance-karance da sauraren da ziyartar xakuna karatu wanda suka ba da ikon tattara bayanai. An xora wannan nazari kan Ra’in Mukhtar (2004). An yi qoqarin kawo sakamakon nazarin da kammalawa. Fitilun Kalmomi: Salo; Jigogi; Marubuta; Qagaggun Labarai; Karni; Ashirin Da Xaya Gabatarwa Tunanin marubuta qagaggun labarai a qarni na 21 ya canza salo ta yadda ya sha bamban da na qarni na 19 da kuma qarni na 20. Tun kafin zuwan Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 186 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Addinin Musulunci qasar Hausa ne Hausawa suke da labarai waɗannda ake yi da ka ba a rubuce ba. Bayan zuwan addinin Muslunci qasar Hausa an yi rubuce-rubuce a cikin Ajami. Bayan zuwan Turawa qasar Hausa sai aka ci gaba da yin rubuce-rubuce da salon rubutun mutanen Romawa, wanda ake kira da rubutun boko. Marubuta qagaggun labarai a qarni na 19 sun fi mayar da hankali ne wajen yin rubuce-rubuce a kan abubuwan da suka shafi addini da nasiha da jan hankali da bin dokokin ibada da sauransu. A qarni na 20 kuwa marubuta da yawa sun qaru kuma suka zo da sabon salon rubutu wanda ya bambanta da na qarni na 19. A wannan qarni na 20 marubuta qagaggun labarai sun fi mayar da salon rubutunsu a kan abubuwan da suka shafi tarbiyya ko tsafta da koya magana da mu’amala da auren dole a saka yara a makaranta da sauransu. A wannan qarni aka samu jigon da ake kira ‚Baduniyen Jigo‛. A qarni na 21 rubuce-rubucen qagaggun labarai ya sake canza salo wanda ya zarta na qarni na 20. Manufar Bincike Manufar wannan binciken ita ce fito da nau’o’in wasu salailai waɗanda suka shafi jigogin labarai na qarni na ashirin da xaya (21) waxanda suka haxa da yadda salonsu yake wanda ya shafi jigo kaitsaye. Wata manufar ita ce yadda marubutan suke amfani da jigo duniya ko fafutuka ko yadda ake sanya masu gasa domin ƙara musu qaimi domin su bayyana wata gudunmuwa a fagen labari Hanyoyin Gudanar da Bincike An yi amfani da littattafai inda aka ciro wasu maganganu da suka shafi jigo na rubutu, sannan aka mayar da su a rubuce don a nazarce su. Haka kuma, an ziyarci xakunan karatu nan ma an yi bitar wasu kundaye da muqalu masu alaqa da qagaggun labarai an kuma ziyarci wurin tarukan marubuta da ake gayyatar marubuta. An yi kuma amfani da na'urorin zamani domin ziyartar yanar-gizo don samun damar aiwatar da wannan binciken. Ma’anar Salo Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 187 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Masana da manazarta da dama sun yi nazari sosai, musamman a vangaren adabi ta hanyoyi daban-daban inda suka bayar da ma’anar salo tare da misalai kamar haka: Xangambo (1981:12-13) yana ganin, salo shi ne hanyoyi ko dabarun isar da saqo, saboda ya qunshi zabi cikin rubutu ko furuci kuma wani qari ne na daraja a cikinsu, wanda ba lalle ba ne a same shi cikin kowane rubutu ko furuci ba, wato ana iya samun lamin rubutu, maras salo. Haka kuma, ya qara da cewa, salo harshen wani mutum ne, wato mai bambanta na wani da wani. Sai dai Yahya (2001:1). A fahimtarsa, yana ganin salo dabara ce ko hanyar yin kwalliya ga abu domin inganta shi ko bayyana shi. Ya bayyana cewa salo qwalliyar magana ce mai tasiri kan mai saurarenta. Amma Gusau (2003:54) yana kallon salo da cewa hanya ce ta nuna qwarewa domin nuna qaqale ko wata zalaqa wacce take xauke da yanga ko jan aji. Xangambo (2007:38) ya qara bayyana salo da hanyar da ake gane dabaru ko hikimar da marubuci ya bi domin isar da saqonsa. Sai dai wannan nazari ya kalli salo a hanyar da marubuta qarni na 21 suke bi tare da dabara ko hikima ko fasaha domin su gina jigo labari da zai jawo hankalin mai karatu ko mai sauraro, ta yadda za a isar da saqo cikin sauqi da azanci ko hikima. Ire-Iren Salo A bayanan da suka gabata, an kawo bayani a kan salo tare da tsokacin manazarta adabi a kansa, ta yadda suka ba da irin ra’ayoyinsu game da salo. Ire-iren salon sun kasu gida biyar, kamar yadda Xangambo, (2007:38) ya bayyana su: Miqaqqen Salo : wanda shi ne na kai tsaye mai sauqin ganewa. Wannan salo yana iya zama mai taushi ko sauqi ta hanyar isar da saqo ba tare da wata ‘qawa’ ko ‘ado’ ko ‘qaqale’ ba. A irin wannan salo ba a faye amfani da baqin kalmomi ba, ko wani karin harshe ko wasu kalmomi na dauri ko sababbi masu wuyar ganewa ko fahimta. Salo Mai Armashi ko Mai Karsashi: wanda yake xauke da gamsarwa ta hanyar yin qaqale wanda yake xauke da karsashi da burgewa ko qayatarwa. Ragon Salo: wanda ke gundura da kashe jiki kuma ba ya da tsarin gamsarwa. Salo ne da yake tattare da sarqarqiya da wahalar fahimta. A wannan salo, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 188 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) marubuci ko mai magana yakan yi amfani da karin harshe barkatai da kalmomin aro masu wuyar fahimta. Akan samu dawayya ko kwan-gaba kwan-baya ta yadda mai nazari ko mai saurare sai ya yi tunani mai zurfin gaske kafin ya fahimci saqon da ke cikinshi. Tsohon Salo da Sabon Salo: wanda kan iya kasancewa an yi amfani da tsofaffin hanyoyi ko sababbi wurin isar da saqon. Yana iya zama gamsasshe ko akasin haka. Salo Mai Sarqaqiya ko Mai Tsauri: shi ne mai wahalarwa, kuma ba a faye saurin gane shi ba saboda tsaurinsa ga saqar manufofin ko tsauraran kalmomin da aka yi amfani da su a cikin shi. A wannan matakin na raberaben salo suna matuqar taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen gano yadda marubuci ya yi qoqarin rubutunsa ta yadda yake magana don ya siffanta abu ko ya bayyana ko tallata abin da yake zuciyarsa Xangambo (2007:38). Qagaggun Labarai Mukhtar (2004,shf,11) Zube yana nufin rubutun da ba waqa ba kuma ba wasan kwaikwayo ba wato tsagoran rubutu wanda zai iya zama magana ko wata hanyar magana. Ke nan labari da akai domin bayyana wata manfa zata iya zama cikin vangaren zube Asalin da Tarihin Ƙagaggun Labarai a Hausa Mukhtar (2004,shf, 16-17) labarai sun fara suma ne bayan zuwan turawan mishan masu yaxa addinin kiristanci a qasashen afrika ta yamma. A rubucerubucen da turawan sukai akwai J.F Schonda. Ke nan labarai ne da aka samo asalin su daga turawan yamma dake zuwa don yaxa addini. Rubutattun ƙagaggun labarai sun samo asali ne vangare biyu na farko rubutun ajami na biyu rubutun boko, inda aka baddala su zuwa rubutattun hiƙayoyi na labarai wanda aka sanya wasu cikin gasa (Yahaya1988 ,shf, 77) a lokutan da ake ba da labarai na gaske ko na almara. Tun kafin zuwan Turawan mulkin mallaka, Hausawa sun kasance suna ba da labarai waɗann da suka qunshi ba da labari na tatsuniya hikaya da almara tarihi da tarihihi zuwan rubutu ya sa aka mayar da wasu a rubuce wasu kuma aka baddaala su. A shekara ta 1920, Hukumar Fassara (Translation Bureau) ta shirya wallafewallafen littattafan Hausa, kamar ‚Alfu Laila Wa Laila‛, wato Dare Dubu Da Ɗaya, wanda ya ƙunshi hiƙayoyi Larabawa. Daga baya, a 1933, Daraktan Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 189 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Ilmi na Jihar Arewa, Hanns Vischer (Ɗan Hausa), ya ƙaddamar da gasa ta rubuta ƙagaggun labarai don ƙara haɓaka rubutun zube na Hausa. Malumfashi (2019,shf ,76,77) qugiyar CMS ta taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen samar da wani rukun a cikin adabin Hausa inda ta raba su daban-daban zuwa mai suna Littafi Na Karantawa Da Fari a shekarar 1932. Bayan wannan ta samar da littafi mai suna Fatima a 1933. Baya da wannan an samu wasu litattafan na rubutun zube na Hausa. A ƙarni na 21, ƙagaggun labarai a cikin adabin Hausa sun ci gaba da bunƙasa, saboda tasirin al'adu da fasaha, da gasanni irin su ‚Hikayata ta BBC Hausa‛ da a gasar gidauniyar Arc.Ahmed Musa Xangiwa duk waxan nan suna qara fito da iririn jigogin kuma irin labarai sun kasu kashi daban-daban dangane da salo da kuma maƙasudan yin su. Airin waxanan maqasudansun haxa da yadda qarnin yake tafiya tare da tunanin mutane Ire-iren Jigogin Ƙagaggun Labarai A Karni Na 21 Nasiha Soyayya Zamantakewa Siyasa Fafutuka (‘Yancin mata) da sauran su Ire-iren Ƙagaggun Labarai da Suka Fi Shahara A Qarni Na 21 Waɗannan labarai suna mai da hankali ne a kan rayuwar yau da kullum da matsalolin al'umma da al'adun Hausa. Suna nuna yadda mutane suke fuskantar ƙalubale kamar talaucida rashin adalci, ko sauye-sauyen zamani. Sara suka na Fatima Bello (a gasar gidauniyar Arc.Ahmed Musa Xangiwa, 2022 littafin Xaukar Jinka) yana nuna matsalolin da ke cikin al’umma, kamar rashin jituwa ko tasirin zamani. Salo: Yawanci marubutan suna amfani da harshe mai sauƙin fahimta da kuma misalai na yau da kullum don sa ma mai karatu ya ji kamar yana cikin labarin da suke bayarwa. Muhimmanci: Suna taimakawa wajen fahimtar matsalolin zamantakewa kamar auren dole, shaye-shaye, ko rashin ilimi. Qagaggun Labarai na Soyayya Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 190 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Waɗannan labarai sun fi shahara a tsakanin matasa, kuma suna magana game da soyayya ko alaƙa da rikice-rikice masu nasaba da ita. A ƙarni na 21, sun ƙara nuna tasirin fasaha kamar wayar salula da shafukan sada zumunta. Misali: A gasar Hikayata, labarai kamar Gudun Gara na Amira Souley sun nuna yadda soyayya ke tasowa a cikin al'adun Hausawa na zamani, kamar ta hanyar WhatsApp ko Instagram. Salo. Suna da ban dariya, ban tausayi, ko kuma juyi a ƙarshe wanda ke sa mai karatu ya ji daɗi. Muhimmanci: Suna ƙarfafa matasa su rubuta labarai masu alaƙa da rayuwarsu, kuma suna taimakawa wajen nuna sauye-sauyen al'adun soyayya. Qagaggun Labarai na Ilimi da Koyo Waɗannan labarai suna da maƙasudin koyar da darasi ko ilimantarwa game da muhimman abubuwa kamar lafiya da ilimi ko ƙa’idodin rayuwa. A ƙarni na 21, suna magana game da batutuwa kamar HIV/AIDS ko sauyin yanayi, ko tasirin fasaha. Misali. Wasu labarai a gasar Hikayata sun taɓa batun yadda yara suke fama da rashin ilimi ko kuma yadda cututtuka ke shafar al’umma. Salo: Yawanci suna da harshe mai sauƙi da kuma darasi a ƙarshe wanda ke sa mai karatu ya ji an ƙarfafa shi. Muhimmanci: Marubutan suna taimakawa wajen wayar da kan jama’a game da batutuwa masu muhimmanci a cikin al’umma kamar neman ilmi da haquri riqon amana da tsafta da sana’a da sauransu. Nazarin Wasu Littatafai na Qarni na Ashirin da Xaya (21) Kamar yadda binciken ya bayyana a sama, ya kawo wasu daga cikin jigogin qagaggun labarai na qarni na 21. A nan za a yi nazarin wasu daga cikin littattafan qarnin ne domin a bayyana yadda aka samu sauyawar salon rubutun qagaggun labarai daga salon qarni na 20 zuwa salon qarni na 21. Hakan ya biyo bayan halin da marubutan suke ciki, domin shi salo yana tafiya ne da zamani da kuma halin da zamanin yake ciki. Wato in kixa ya canza, rawa ma sai ta canza. Bayan qoqarin da marubuta qarni na 19 da na 20 suka yi, sai ya kasance al’ummar Hausawa sun sami kansu a cikin rayuwa ta daban wanda hakan ya janyo su ma marubuta a wannan qarni suka canza salo zuwa kan abubuwan da mutane suka fi buqata. Ga wasu daga cikin ire-iren jigon da littattafan qarnin na 21 suka qunsa. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 191 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Fafutuka: Marubuta da yawa sun yi rubuce-rubuce a kan fafutukar neman ‘yancin mata, don ganin su wayar wa da mata kai a kan abun da suka kira ‚Bauta ko take haqqi‛. Daga cikin ire-iren wannan salo akwai: Littafi: Wa Zai Auri Jahila Wannan littafi ya bayyana ire-iren faxi tashi da gwagwarmayar da mata suke sha a rayuwa da ire-iren tsangwama da tauye haqqin da ake yi musu tun daga haihuwa har zuwa aure da neman ilmi. Marubucin ba iya haka ta tsaya ba har sai da ya nuna yadda wasu suke lalata mata tare quntata masu. Akwai inda marubucin yake cewa: ‚Ilimi shi ne hasken da ke fitar da mace daga duhun raini da bautar da al’umma ta jima tana yi mata‛……( Ado Ahmad Gidan Dabino: shf. 21) Wannan batun yana wakiltar fafutukar mata wajen neman ilimi, da kuma ƙin yarda da tsarin da ke tauye musu haƙƙinsu. Littafin ya mayar da hankali kan wayar da kai game da muhimmancin ilimin ’ya’ya mata a cikin al’ummar Hausawa da mutane arewa. Zamantakewa: Shi ma wannan salo ne da marubuta da yawa suke rubucrrubuce a kansa. A mafi yawa na ire-iren wannan salo ko jigo ana samun yadda marubutan ke nuna daxin zama ga ma’aurata da ‘yanuwa da dangi ko kuma akasin haka a cikin rubece-rubucensu. Daga cikinsu akwai; Littafi: Xaukar jinka Marubuciyar ta yi qoqarin nuna yadda halaye na tsakanin namiji da mace ke wakana da zaman haquri musamman mata yadda suke fuskantar qalubale. A labarin marubuciyar ta nuna yadda take shan wahala a gidan aure da kuma yadda ta riqe ta aman da haquri,. Mu duba wannan matanin daga cikin littafin: ‚……..Tun a farkon aurenmu na fara fuskantar matsala, duka da rashin yadda, ban isa in yi huldxa da mutane ba. Haka haqura na zauna tunda yana xaukar xawainiyata kuma ba ni da matsalar kuxi har ina taimakawa ‘yan’uwana, a haka har muka haifi Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 192 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) ‘ya’yanmu uku da shi maza biyu mace xaya itace qarama……..‛(Maraici ko son zuciya?: sh. 105) Lallai wannan labarin ya bayyana yadda wata mata take haquri a zamantakewar zaman aure wanda yake xauke da qalubale musamman yadda take shan wahala na rashin yarda da kuma dukanta da yake yi. Wannan yake bayyana cewa akwai masu irin wannan rayuwar a cikin wannan zamanin Faxakarwa: Na xaya daga cikin jigogin da marubuta qarni na 21 da xaya suka mayar da salon rubuce-rubucensu a kansu. Faxakarwa na karkata ne a kan yadda ake nuna wasu xabi’u da halaye waxanda ba su da kyau ga jama’a. Littafi: Ummalkhairi A littafin marubucin ya nuna yadda wasu xalibai suke rayuwar shiririta ta lalacewa a lokacin da suka je jami’a. Ya nuna iren-iren qalubalen da waxannan xalibai suke fuskanta a rayuwarsu da kuma yadda karshensu yake kasancewa. Ga matanin kamar haka: ‚Na ji daxin jami’a, na kece raini na burge na kuma sheqe ayata yadda nake so, amma bayan lokaci ya qure mani na gane cewa tsawon lokaci da na xauka ina savon Allah, lokaci ne wanda na yi asarar sa na cuci kaina. Duk ta qare ga inda na samu kaina. Wallahi gaskiyar Jamila da take cewa ‚kyakkyawan qarshe yana ga masu tsoron Allah‛………..‛(Ummalkhairi: sh.65). Wannan labarin ya yi faxakarwa ne ga wasu mutane masu irin rayuwar alfahari da xaukar duniaya da faxi inda daga qarshe rayuwar ta koma ta qasqanci da kuma nadama kamar yadda wannan matar take faxa. Labarin yana xauke da qalubale wan ake son mutum ya koyi wani darasi musamman yadda ya faxakar tin farkon samun dama kafin ta kufce. Nasiha: ta xaya daga cikin jigogin da marubuta qarni na 21 da xaya suka mayar da salon rubucerubucensu a kansu. Nasiha na jingina ne a kan yadda ake nuna wasu xabi’u da halaye waxanda ba su da kyau ga jama’a da kuma yadda za a maganace wata matsala. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 193 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Littafi: Xaukar Jinka A labarin marubucin ya nuna yadda wasu xalibai suke rayuwar shiririta ta lalacewa a lokacin da suka je jami’a. Ya nuna iren-iren qalubalen da waxannan matasa suke fuskanta a rayuwarsu da kuma yadda qarshensu yake kasancewa. Ga abin da aka tsakuro daga littafin kamar haka: ‚na ya da tsarin gidan gyaran hali sosai, tabbas sunan nasa ya dace da shi, musamman bisa tasirinsa na sauya mummunar xabi’a zuwa kyakkyawa‛………..‛(Sara Suka: sh. 49) Labarin ya yi nasiha ne musamman wanda suke shaye-shaye da safarar kayan maye. Labarin yana nasiha ne ga matasa masu irin rayuwa wacce take barazana ga al’umma kuma an fito da yadda gidan gyaran hali yake wanke tunaninsu da taimakon su zu ga rayuwa mai kyau Soyayya: Ita ce yarda dabin da ake so a zuciya domin samun natsuwa ko hanyar da mutum yake yin wasu dabaru don samun farin ciki, a rayuwar yau da kullum, ko zata iya zama neman abu don a same shi wanda zata iya gushewa da zarar an samu abin da ake so ko ta qara bijirowa ta wata sigar wacce ba a kanta aka gina rayuwar baya ba. Ita ma tana xaya daga cikin jigogin da marubuta qarni na 21 da xaya suka mayar da salon rubucerubucensu a kansu musamman matasa. Soyayya na inganta ne a kan yadda ake nuna wasu xabi’u da halaye tsakanin taurari maza da mata musamman matasa. Littafi: Goran Duma A labarin marubuciyar ta nuna yadda wasu taurari suke rayuwar soyayya a lokacin da suke kan ganiyar samartaka. Ya nuna iren-iren qalubalen da waxannan matasa suka fuskanta a rayuwarsu kan soyayya. ‚haka ne, motar haya na hawo.Ya xan yi dariyar da yake tunanin za ta sami matsuguni a zuciyarta. Ya ce…..‛(Goran Duma: sh.46) A cikin labarin marubuciyar ta yi qoqarin bayyana wasu taurari yadda suke rayuwar soyayya a lokacin da suke kan ganiyar samartaka. Wannan ya Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 194 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) bayyana jigon soyayya waxannan matasa suke yi a rayuwarsu cikin wannan qarnin na ashirin da xaya. Siyasa: Lallai jigon siyasa yana ya xaya daga cikin jigogin da marubuta qarni na 21 da xaya suka mayar da salon rubuce-rubucensu a kansu. Siyasa na jingina ne a kan yadda ake nuna wasu xabi’u da halaye waxanda ba su da kyau ga jama’a da kuma yadda za a maganace wata matsalolin rayuwa. Littafi: Dimokuraxiyya A labarin marubucin ya nuna yadda wasu yadda masu mulki ke yin yadda suka ga dama ba tare da duba raywar mutanen baya ba. Ya bayyana iren-iren qalubalen da ke sanya matasa rashin neman ilmi da kuma yadda suke fuskantar rashin tabbas a rayuwarsu da karshensu yake kasancewa kan bin ‘iyan siyasa da maqalema uban gida. ‚Dimokuraxiyya ta zama suna kawai; aiki kuwa na hannun ’yan tsiraru.‛ .………..‛( Kabiru Gwangwazo shf 21) A cikin wannan batun an nuna yadda marubucin ya fallasa dambarwar siyasa, inda shugabanci ke tafiya bisa son rai da kariyar masu laifi, abin da ake kira siyasar uban gida ko ta ‘yan’uwa da abokai da kuma yadda masu mulkin kesamun kariya ga manyansu. Kammalawa Wannan nazarin ya yi qoqarin bayyana wasu muhimman salo da jigogi na qarnin 21 tare da kawo misalai daga wasu labarai da aka sanya su cikin gasa da kuma wasu litattafai inda aka bayar da misalan tare da kawo lambobin shafikan da batun ya faru. A wannan qarni na ashirin da xaya (21) marubuta qagaggun labarai sun fi mayar da salon rubutunsu a kan abubuwan da suka shafi tarbiyya ko tsafta, koya Magana, mu’amala, auren dole, saka yara makaranta, da sauran su. A wannan qarni aka samu jigon da ake kira ‚Baduniyen Jigo‛. A qarni na 21 rubuce-rubucen qagaggun labarai ya sake canza salo wanda ya zarta na qarni na 20 da na 19 inda aka samu jigogi da kuma kafafen sadarwar zamani. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 195 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Manazarta Adams, L. (2025). ‚Nazarin Salon Labartawa A Wasu Waqoqin Baka Na Hausa‛. Kundin Digiri na Biyu, Jami’ar Umaru Musa Yar’adua, Katsina Abdulrahman, A. J. Y (2022). Xaukar Jinka Labaran Da Suka Samu Nasara A Gasar Arc. Ahmaed Musa Xangiwa 2022; Xangiwa Literary Foundation. Bbc Hausa gasar Hikayata 2022 da 2023 da 2024/facebook.com Bbchausa.com Bal, M. (1985).The Theorie Van Vertellen en Verhalen. Muiderberg: Coutinho. Xangambo, A. (2007). Xaurayar Gadon Fexe Waqa. Amana Published. Xangambo, A (1981). ‘Daurayar Gadon Fexe Waqa’, Takardar da Aka Gabatar a Taron Kara wa Juna Sani: Ƙungiyar Harshen Hausa,Kwalejin Ilmi. Gidan Dabino, A. A. (2004). Wa Zai Auri Jahila? Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd, Gusau, S. M. (2003). Jagoran Nazarin Waqar Baka, Benchmark Publishers Limited. Gusau S. M. (2008). Dabarun Nazarin Adabin Hausa, Benchmark Publishers Limited, Genette, G. (1972). Narrative Discourse. Trans. Jane E. Lewin Ithaka: Cornell. Blackwell Basil. Oxford University Press. Gwangwazo, K. (2011). Dimokuraɗiyya. Kano: Kano State Publishers. Maimunatu, I. S. B (2014) Goran Duma 1. Iyaruwa Publishers, Kano. Malumfashi, I. A. Ed. (2019). Labarin Hausa A Rubuce (1927-2018). A Festschrift in Honour of Dalhatu Muhammad. Department of African Languages and cultures, Zaria Ahmadu Bello University. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 196 Lawal Adams, Hauwa Muhammad Maikudi, Bashir Shehu Ibrahim; Nazarin Jigogi Da Salon Wasu Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Na Karni Na Ashirin Da Xaya (21) Mukhtar, I. (2004). Introduction To Stylistic Theorics Practice And Criticisms. Country Side Publishers. Rasheed, U. A. (2017). ‚Nazarin Salon Labartawa daga Wasu Wa’azozin Sheikh Kabir Haruna Gombe‛. Kundin Digiri na Xaya, Jami’ar Umaru Musa Yar’adua Katsina. Yahya, A. B.(2001). Salo Asirin Waqa, Fisbas Media Services Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 197 Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa NAZARIN YADDA MARUBUTA QAGAGGUN LABARAI SUKE AMFANI DA ALJANU DOMIN CIM MA MANUFOFINSU NA WALLAFA Mustapha Kallamu School of Continuing Education Bayero University, Kano Dept. of Arts and Humanities Tsakure Wannan bincike ya yi nazarin yadda marubutan ƙagaggun labaran Hausa suke amfani da aljanu a matsayin dabarar adabi domin cim ma manufofinsu na wallafa. An duba yadda ake amfani da aljanu wajen gwada jarumai da isar da saƙo cikin sauri da taƙaita ko tsawaita labari da taimakon taurari da gina salo da tsoratarwa da kuma bayyana siffofi da halayen aljanu. An gudanar da binciken ne ta hanyar nazarin wasu zaɓaɓɓun ƙagaggun labarai kamar Ruwan Bagaja da Magana Jari Ce da Ganɗoki da Aljani Ya Taka Wuta, tare da amfani da ra’in qyallaro al’ada (Referential Theory of Culture). Sakamakon binciken ya nuna cewa amfani da aljanu wata dabara ce ta fasaha da marubuta suke amfani da ita domin sauƙaƙa warware matsalolin labari da gina salo da kuma jan hankalin masu karatu. Binciken ya kuma tabbatar da cewa aljanu sun kasance muhimmin ginshiƙi a adabin Hausa tun daga tatsuniyoyi har zuwa ƙagaggun labarai na zamani. 1.0 Gabatarwa Hausawa sun daxe tare da aljanu waxanda suke kira da iskoki ko mutanen voye. Sun yi imani da cewa aljanu wasu halittu ne masu halaye da xabi’u waxanda suke na daban da na xan’adam. Mutanen voye su ne, Hausawa ‘yan bori suke kira aljanu waxanda suna da iko na musamman na rikixa zuwa siffofi da kamanni da halaye iri-iri. A wasu lokuta sukan fito a sifar mutane ko dabbobi ko macizai ko qwari ko iska irin ta guguwa. Sannan Hausawa sun yi imani da cewa, aljanu suna da wata mallaka ko wani iko a kan mutane. Sani (1982) ya yi bayanin yadda aljanu suke ya ce, ‚Aljanu sun kasu kashi biyu, akwai fararen iskoki su ne masu taimakon mutane. Kana su ne iskoki da suke kawo arziki ko wani alheri. Daga cikin su akwai Malam Alhaji da Bafillatana da Xangaladima da Uban dawaki da Sarkin rafi. A vangare na biyu akwai baqaqen iskoki, su ne masu kawo sharri da Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 198 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa hauka da talauci. Daga cikin baqaqen iskoki akwai Duna da Uwar Gona da Baqo da Kure da Danko da Nakada da Gajimare da Bakangizo‛. Haka nan, Bunza (1995) ya ce ‚Ana samun iskoki a ko’ina a sararin samaniya a jeji a tsaunuka da kuma a jikin xan’aam da kuma garuruwan da mutane ke zaune a ciki‛. Wannan ya nuna cewa ana samun aljanu a ko’ina a cikin Duniya. Bayan wanzuwar Musulunci sai Qur’ani ya yi bayanin ko su wane ne aljanu inda Allah (S.W.A) yake cewa ‚Ban halicci mutum ba da aljanu sai domin su bauta mani‛.(Suratul Jinn). Haka nan wannan Aya tana cewa ‚Kuma ya halitta aljani daga bira, daga wuta (Suratul Rahman 15) Wannan bayani da Allah ya yi game da aljanu sai aka gane cewa, su aljanu ba abin bauta ba ne, su ma halittu ne da aka halicce su da wuta. Amma domin su bauta wa Allah. Ashour (1983) ya yi bayani a kan Aljanu inda yace, ‚su Aljanu an halicce su daga bira ta wuta wato wuta mai kama da wutar lantarki. Haka nan ya yi bayanin cewa, ‚Aljanu sun kasu kashi uku. Na xaya su ne nau’in aljanu da suke tafiya cikin iska wato su ba su zaune wuri xaya. Sai kashi na biyu su ne aljanu mazauna gidaje wato waxanda suke zaune a qauyuka da garuruwa da birane kuma suna zaune da sarakunansu. Sannan kashi na uku su ne aljanu mazauna gidaje, wato suna zaune ne tare da mutane a xakuna da masallatai da ramuka da cikin soraye. Tasirin aljanu a kan al’adun Hausawa ya samo asali ne tun farkon lokacin da Hausawa suke bauta wa dodanni da duwatsu da aljanu Kallamu (1996). Domin a ciki tatsunyoyi da almara da labarai aljanu na taka muhimmiyar rawa. Amfani da aljanu a cikin matani na adabi, wata tsohuwar hanya ce da sabuwa a wajen gina qagaggun labarai. Domin akwai wasu ayyuka da xan’adam ba zai iya gudanarwa ko aiwatar da su a cikin labari ba, sai dole an yi amfani da aljanu domin labarin hankali ya yadda da shi. Misali mutum ya je bangon duniya cikin qanqanen lokaci ko shiga qarqashin qasa da zama wata halitta, wato rikixa. Waxannan halayya ce ta aljanu, kuma ko mutum ya yi bajinta irin wannan za a ce yana hulxa da aljanu. Haka nan idan an yi maganar wallafa, ana magana ne a kan qagaggun labarai. 1.1 Ma’anar Qagaggen Labari Labarai ne waxanda ake qirqirawa domin ilimintarwa da faxakarwaa da nishaxantarwa a rubuce ko a maganance. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 199 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa Ibrahim (1992) ya ce ‚Qagaggen labari shi ne shiryayye kuma a cikin hikima da fasaha wanda ta bayyana ma’anoni na rayuwa‛. Wannan ma’ana ce da take nuna cewa qagaggun labarai su ne masu bayyana wasu al’amura da suke faruwa a cikin al’umma na sharri ko na alheri. Sannan Yusuf (2002) ya ce ‚ma’anar qagaggun labarai su ne labarai da mawallafi ya shirya da ka, sannan ya rattava shi a zube‛ Haka nan Mukhtar (2002) ya ce ‚rubutun zube ana nufin rubutun da ba waqa ba, kuma ba wasan kwaikwayo ba. Zube ana nufin tsagwaron rubutu wanda aka yi shi a cikin shafuka da layuka‛.Saboda haka qagaggun labarai kamar hoto suke xauka na wasu al’amura da suke faruwa a cikin al’umma, su rubuta su.Haka nan wannan bincike ya ta’allaqa ne a kan hanyoyin da marubuta suke bi su yi amfani da aljanu qagaggun labarai domin cim ma manufofinsu na wallafa. 1.2 Tarihin Samuwar Qagaggun Labarai A qasar Hausa an fara samun nau’in rubutu na Yunananci a qasar Kano sai dai wannan nau’in rubutu ba shi da inganci. A farkon qarni na bakwai Larabawa suka fara shigowa qasar Hausa domin yin kasuwanci da yaxa addinin Musulunci, sun koya karatu da rubutu da kuma koya nazarin litattafai. Daga nan ne aka fara koyon rubutun wasiqa. Manyan malamai da dama sun shigo qasar Hausa irin su Al-maghili da Al-suyixi da Wali xan marna da Wali xan masani. A shekara ta 1890 Turawan bincike suka fara shigowa qasar Hausa daga nan sai Turawan mishan sai na mulkin mallaka daga nan suka kakkafa makaranttun boko. Sai buqatar litattafai na karantarwa suka taso. Turawa suka fara rubuta litattafai irin su ka koyi karatu na Rimmer R. East. Sai The Six Hausa Plays na R.M East. Sai The Hausa Dramatic Literature na Mr. Adolf Rudiuf. Daga nan sai ‘yan qasa suka xauka irin su Magana Jari Ce da Qaramin Sani Ququmi na Abubakar Imam. Sai Ganxoki na Bello Kagara da sauran ximbin littattafai. Sannu a hankali rubuce-rubuce suka yi yawa waxanda ake rubutawa domin samar da nishaxi da karantarwa a manyan makarantu da qanana. A shekara ta 1980 aka fara samun litattafai na Adabin Kasuwar Kano (AKK) waxanda suka qunshi jigogin soyayya da kasada da jarumtaka da kasuwanci da nisiha da gargaxi. Da tafiya ta yi nisa aka fara mayar da labaran finafinai. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 200 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa 2.0 Yadda Mawallafa Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu na Wallafa: 2.1 GwadaTaurarin Littafi da Aljanu Taurarin labari su ne waxanda ake amfani da su wajen isar da saqonni a labari. Babban taurraro ba zai cika jarumi ba sai an yi masa gwaji ko jarabawa da aljanu. Ma fi qololuwar gwajin tauraro ita ce, a yi amfani da aljanu. Misali a Magana Jari Ce na II, a labarin Yusha’u na Rimi ba ka Fargaba. An gwada shi da aljanu a matsafar garin. Inda Sarki ya sanya aka kai shi xakin gumaka ya kwana tun da farko ya yi iqirarin babu abin da zai razana shi a duniya. Misali, ‚Yana zaune sai ya ga cinya ta faxo, sai kuma can xaya ta qara faxowa, sai kai ya faxo. Sai ya tashi ya xauki cinya guda ya jinjina ya ji babu nauyi. Ya ce, ashe ma wannan huhun ma’ahu ne ba shi da nauyi‛(Sh. 50). Haka dai aka yi ta gwada shi har gari yawaye babuabin da ya razana shi. Sai misali na biyu a littafin Aljani ya Taka Wuta. An gwada babban tauroron Naziru da wata aljana da ta tare hanya inda yake wucewa sai ya ga itaciyar tsamiya ta yi girgiza ta tumvuko duk da jijiyoyinta ta nufo shi. Sai ya yi tsaye qyam yana kallonta. Sai ya ji murya ta ce ‚Kai jarumi ko to! Za ka gaya masu‛(Sh. 101). Haka dai aka yi ta ba shi tsoro da siffofi iri-iri. Amma bai razana ba. Waxannan hanyoyi ne da marubuta suke amfani da aljaniu domin jaraba manyan taurarin littafi. 2.2 Isar da Saqonni Cikin Sauri Kamin Qyaftawar Ido Marubuta qagaggen labara sukan yi amfani da aljanu domin isar da saqonni cikin sauri waxanda xan’adam bai iya wa idan ma xa’adam ya yi wannan aiki za a ce, anya wane ba ya aiki da aljanu?. Wani abun idan an ce xan’adam ya yi su. Hankali ba zai yarda da hakan ba. Misali a labarin Ruwan Bagaja, aljanu sun xauki Alhaji babban tauraron cikin qanqanen lokaci da wani kogi kafin qyaftawa da bisimilla sun kai shi qasar da zai xebo ruwan bagaja. Asali tafiyar shekaru zai yi, kafin ya je wannan qasa da ruwan bagaja yake. Misali, daga kogi zuwa qasar da ruwan bagaja yake tafiya ce ta shekaru amma aljanu sun xauke shi cikin qanqanen lokaci sun kai shi wajen da zai samu ruwan bagaja (Sh. 45). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 201 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa 2.3 Taqaita Lokaci da Tsawon Labari ta Hanyar Amfani da Aljanu Mawallafa sukan taqaita lokaci da tsawon labari ta hanyar amfani da aljanu. Misali a littafin Ruwan Bagaja, mai ba da labarin ya ce, tafiyar da Alhaji zai yi ita ce ta shekaru, amma an yi ta cikin qyaftawar ido, wato xan qanqanen lokaci. Abun lura da la’akari, idan da marubucin bai kawo aljanu ba tsakanin wannan kogi da Alhaji sai ya yi tafiyar shekaru kafin Alhaji ya je qasar da ruwan bagaja yake kuma labarin zai yi tsawo sosai kuma zai xau lokaci, amma sai ya taqaita shi ta hanyar amfani da aljanu. 2.4 Taimakon Taurarin Labari Cikin Gaggawa Mawallafa da dama suna amfani da aljanu wajen taimakon taurari cikin gaggawa. Misali a littafin Maganar Jari ta uku da ta biyu. A labarin Qamarzaman da labarin Amjadu da Ansadu an yi amfani da aljanu wajen taimakon taurarin. Sannan a littafin Aljani ya Taka Wuta daga qarshe aljanar tana taimakon babban tauraron Naziru. Sannan akan yi amfani da aljanu wajen fiddo da wasu matsaloli da kuma magani da kariya ta aljanu. 2.5 Alqinta Salon Labari ta Hanyar Amfani da Aljanu Salo dabaru ne na gina labari domin jawo hankalin masu karatu. Misali a littafin Ruwan Bagaja an yi amfani da aljanu wajen gina salo misali ‚Babu mai iya xaukar wannan ruwa sai Sarkin Aljanu‛. A nan abin da marubucin yake ya yi dabaru ne na marubuta. Domin da ruwan bagaja a hannun mutum yake da bai yi wuyar samu ba kuma labarin ba zai yi tsawo ba. Haka ma a littafin Jiki Magayi inda marubucin ya yi amfani da qaron kalgo kuma wajen samo shi ana cin karo da aljanu kuma ya nuna sai a qungurmin daji ake samun qaron kalgo. Wannan shi ne ya sanya labarin ya yi tsawo. 2.6 Amfani da Aljanu a Matsayin Taurarin Labari Mukhtar (2002), ya ce taurari su ne mutanen da mawallafi yakan saqo a cikin labarinsa. Kuma suna da yawa maza da mata da yara da dabbobi da tsofaffi a labarinsa. Amfani da aljanu a matsayin taurari, wata tsohuwa da sabuwar hanya ce da marubuta sukan yi amfani da ita domin qulla labari. Misali a littafin Magana Jari Ce akwai taurari irin su Kashikashi da Sarkin Aljanu da Doguwa da Zairaqanu da Marqayanatu da Kolin-koliya. Sannan aljanu suna fitowa a matsayin dabbobi ko wasu halittu irin su barewa da doki da zaki da kura (Sani 1982). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 202 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa 2.7 Tsoratarwa da Hora Taurari Masu Laifi Marubuta qagaggun labarai sukan yi amfani da aljanu domin tsoratarwa. Misali a littafin Ganxoki an tsoratar da Garba Gajere xan Ganxoki da aljanu kuma daga qarshe an horas da shi da aljanu. A littafin Jiki Magayi (Sh. 25) mawallafin ya yi amfani da baqin aljani a wajen koya wa wasu taurari darussa na rayuwa, wato babban tauraro Abubakar. 2.8 Mawallafi Kan yi Hikima Wajen Sanya Aljanu a Matsayin Masu Bayar da Labari a Cikin Fage Mukhtar (2000), ya ce, shi mai bayar da labari daga cikin fage shi ne wanda mawallafin littafi yake sakar wa bayar da labari(Mukhtar 1999). Amma kuma ya sanya ido. A littafin Magana Jarii Ce ta biyu, a labarin Qamaruzzaman xan Sarkin Shaharzaman mai bayar da labari a bayan fage ya sakar wa wata aljana bayar da labarin mai suna Maimunatu inda take bayar da labarin ta gano wani xan sarki wanda duk duniya ba ta ga mai kyawunsa ba. Daga nan suka shiga gardama da wani bayan gidan su. Har daga qarshe aka xauko tashi wadda ya gano Badura aka kwatanta su wannan wata hikima ce ta mawallafa. 2.9 Fito da Tarihin Yaqe-Yaqe da Suka Faru ta Hanyar Amfani da Aljanu Mawallafa sukan fito da tarihin yaqe-yaqe da aka yi a shekarun baya ta hanyar amfani da aljanu. Misali a littafin Ganxoki, mawalalfin ya ui amfani da salon amfani da aljanu wajen ba da tarihin yaqe-yaqen da Umarun Nagwamutse Sarkin Kwantagora ya yi. 2.10 Fito da Dangantakar Mutane da Aljanu Mawallafa sukan yi amfani da aljanu domin fito da dangataka da take tsakanin mutane da aljanu. A littafin Ganxoki an fito da dangantaka ta sarauta da addinin da auratayya. Haka nan a littafin Aljani ya Taka Wuta an fito da dangantaka ta soyayya da zumunci. Sannan a So Aljanar Duniya, an fito da kishi tsakanin aljana Mugayya da babbar tauraruwar littafin Boxaxo. 2.11 Bayyana Siffofi da Xabi’un Aljanu Mawallafa sukan yi amfani da aljanu wajen fito da siffofi da xabi’un aljanu. Yadda suke rikixa kamanni iri-iri kamar dabbobi kunami da macizai da zaki da kyanwa. Sannan ana fito da yadda suke rikixa itatuwa da siffar mutane. Misali a littafin Aljani ya Taka Wuta, aljanar da ta ba Naziru tsoro ta rikixa ta zama itaciya. A Magana Jari Ce ta biyu Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 203 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa labarin Yusha’u aljanu sun riqa ba shi tsoro da sassan jikin mutum a matsafar da aka kai shi ya kwana. 2.12 Amfani da Aljanu Domin Tsawaita Labari Mawallafa suna amfani da aljanu domin tsawaita labari. Misali a littafin Ruwan Bagaja marubucin ya yi amfani da salon a faxaxa labari ta hanyar amfani da aljanu. A inda ya kawo Ruwan Bagaja kuma babu inda ake samun shi sai qasar aljanu kuma qasar tafiya ce ta shekaru masu ximbin yawa. Sai kuma ya sake wata dabarar aljanu suka xauki babban tauraron a bakin kogi suka yanke masa wannan doguwar tafiya cikin qanqanen lokaci suka kai shi qasar da ruwan bagaja yake. 2.13 Taqaita Labari ta Hanyar Amfani da Aljanu. Mawallafa sukan yi amfani da aljanu domin taqaita labari ta hanyar xaukar taurari a kai su wata qasa cikin qanqanen lokaci kuma kawo wani abu cikin sauri. Sannan aljanu sukan kawo wani taimako cikin gaggawa kafin qyaftawar ido. Misali a labarin Qamaruzzaman, a inda aljanu suka xauke Badaru da Qamarazzaman cikin qanqanen lokaci kuma kowannensu yana wata duniya suka haxa su domin a kwatanta a ga wanda ya fi kyawo. 2.14 Bayyana Qarfin Aljanu da Gajiyawarsu A al’adar Hausawa kafin zuwan addinin Musulunci sun xauki aljanu ababen bauta ne, da Musulunci ya zo sai ya warware komai cewa aljanu su ma halittu ne da ake halitta domin su bauta wa Allah. A littafinGanxoki da Magana Jari ce ta biyu da So Aljannar Duniya da Jiki Magayiduk an bayyana qarfin aljanu amma daga qarshe an nuna gajiyawarsu. Misali, a littafin Ganxokiya yi yaqi da aljanu ya ci nasara a kan su. Haka ma a littafin Aljani ya Taka Wuta Naziru ya yi jan hali ya nuna bai jin tsoron aljanu da sauran ximbin littattafai da suka yi amfani da aljanu. Domin nuna gajiyawar su da kuma nuna rashin qarfin su 2.15 Fiddo da Wasu Magunguna a Labarai ta Hanyar Amfani da Aljanu Mawallafa sukan yi amfani da aljanu wajen fiddo da wasu magunguna. Misali a littafi Jiki Magayi an fiddo da qaron kalgo. A littafin Ruwan Bagaja an fiddo da Ruwan Bagaja da sauran litattafai kwatankwacin waxannan. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 204 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa Ra’in Bincike An yi amfani da Ra’in Qyallaro Al’ada, wato Referencial Theory of Culture domin zaqulo wasu xabi’u da al’adu na aljanu da marubuta qagaggun labarai suke amfani da su domin cim ma manufofinsu na wallafa. 4. Hanyoyin da aka bi Wajen Gudanar da Bincike An yi amfani da hanyoyi da dama wajen gudanar da wannan bincike daga cikin manya da qananan hanyoyin da aka yi amfani da su, sun haxa da: i. Ziyartar masana rayuwar aljanu ii. Amfani da littattafai da suka qunshi rayuwar aljanu iii. Amfani da qagaggun labarai da suka qunshi salon a amfani da aljanu domin su cimma manufofinsu na wallafa. iv. Hira da masana rayuwar xan’adam da biladama. 5. Sakamakon Bincike Dukkan bincike yana da manufa da dalilin da suka sanya aka gudanar da shi da kuma ire-iren fa’idojin da qudurori da ake so a cim ma wa. Sakamakon wannan bincike ya gano muhimman abubuwa da dama daga cikinsu akwai yadda marubuta suke amfani da hikimomi da aikinta labaransu ta hanyar amfani da aljanu. Domin akwai ayyuka da dama waxanda dan’adam bai iya yin su sai dole. An yi amfani da xan’adam wajen gudanar da su. Misali kamar gwada ko jarraba taurari da aljanu da isar da saqo cikin sauri da taqaita lokaci a wajen ba da labari da tsawaita labari ta hanyar kawo wani aiki mai wahala domin labari ya yi tsawo da taimakon taurarin labari cikin gaggawa da alkinta salo da sauran ximbin hanyoyi da ake amfani da su domin gina labari. Babban sakamakon binciken shi ne, an gwada wannan sakamakon bincike a fagage dabandaban ya zama wani sabon babi da aka fiddo ga manazarta da marubuta. 6. Kammalawa Amfani da aljanu ba a littattafai kawai ya tsaya ba kuma salon ya daxe tun a labarai da tatsuniyoyi da almara da qissa da hikayoyi da waqoqi na gargajiya da wasanni irin su dambe da kokowa da bauta ta gargajiya da bukukuwa da adabi na zamani a wasanni na dandali da talabijin da finafinai na Hausa. Saboda haka wannan tsoho da sabon salon a amfani da aljanu, sabon fage ne da ya kamata a assasa shi ya zama wani kwas da za a rinqa karantar da shi a makarantu. 3. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 205 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa MANAZARTA Abdullahi, I. H. (1972), ‚Traditional Healers in the Kano City‛ a Discussion Paper Read at the Department of Islamic Studies, Bayero University, Kano Abdullahi I.H (1977), Islama Medicine and Practitioners in Northern Nigeria: London: Edqin Mellen Press. Abdullahi, A. (1980), Camfi a Qasar Hausa, B.A Project, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Ashour Mustapha, (1980), The Jinn in the Qur’an and Sunnah Dar Altaqwa Street,London. Abubakar S.Y (1997), Bori a Zariya, M.A Dessertation, Bayero University Kano. Adamu, T.A (1983), ‚Asalin Tsibbu Yaxuwarsa da Tasirinsa ga Al’ummar Hausawa‛. Semina Paper, CSNL, Bayero University, Kano. Alti, S.B (1989), ‚Maita a qasar Hausa‛, B.A project Bayero University, Kano. Baba, A.T (1977), ‚Camfe-Camfe da magungunan Hausawa kan Tama‛, in HausaLanguage Literature and Culture, CNL, Bayero University Kano. Bunza, A.M (1992), Magani Cikin Musulunci, Sidi Umar Press, Sakkwato. Bunza A.M (1995), ‚Magungunan Hausa a rubuce: (Nazarin Ayyukan MalamanTsibbu)‛ Ph.D Thesis Vol. 1 – 3, Bayero University Kano. Greenberg J. (1941), The influence of Islam on a Sudenege Religion J.J Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 206 , Mustapha Kallamu: Nazarin Yadda Marubuta Qagaggun Labarai Suke Amfani Da Aljanu Domin Cim ma Manufofinsu Na Wallafa Augustin Publishers, New York. Hambali, M.J (1990), Maganin gargajiya na Afirka, Gaskiya Cooperation Zaria, Nijeriya Madauci, 1 et al, (1968), Hausa publishing com. customs, Zaria: Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 1, July 2025, ISSN: 2992-4251 Nothern Nigeria 207 , Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” A SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF WOLE SOYINKA’S “THE LION AND THE JEWEL” BY Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD Anna Dauda Bwala, Department of English and Literary Studies, University of Maiduguri, E-mail:
[email protected]Department of Language, Federal Government College, E-mail:
[email protected]Abstract The paper carried out Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel. Halliday’s (1994) Meta functions of language are used as bases for the analysis of the data. The data are the dialogues selected from the play. The data is presented and analyzed according to the three Meta functions. It reveals how Lakunle’s use of register portrays him as a voice of modernity and his alienation from the community. It also reveals that Baroka is the custodian of tradition and a master of manipulation. Furthermore, it reveals that Sidi’s role in the play shifts. Additionally, it reveals how language shapes social reality, reflects power dynamics and negotiates meaning in a postcolonial context. It concludes that the analysis deepens our understanding of Soyinka’s play. It also concludes that Meta functions remain a powerful analytic model indicating how language encodes social, cultural and ideological meanings in literary texts. Introduction This study carries out a Systematic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel. It is prompted by the need to analyze the play, which is thought provoking that explores the intersection of modernization and traditional ways of life. It is a comedy that captures the cultural encounter between indigenous values and Western influences through the characters of Baroka (the Lion), Sidi (the Jewel) and Lakunle (the school teacher). Soyinka’s language in the play is not only artistic but functional. It encodes social roles, cultural ideologies and interpersonal relationships. It is stylistically rich, combing songs, dance, mime and dialogue to explore identity, power and resilience of tradition. It is a commentary on cultural values and ideologies embedded in characters’ speech with implications for both linguistic and socio-cultural understanding. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 208 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” SFL developed by M.A.K Halliday provides a useful framework for analyzing Soyinka’s play. SFL explains how every linguistic choice performs three Meta functions, simultaneously. The ideational function represents experience and reality, the interpersonal expresses attitudes and builds relationship and the textual function is for organizing discourse. Applying these Meta functions to analysis of the play makes it possible to uncover how Soyinka constructs meaning, encodes power dynamics and conveys cultural ideologies through dialogue, imagery and structure. Also, by applying SFL to the analysis of the play, this study seeks to demonstrate that Soyinka’s dramatic language is purposeful, functional and has cultural significance. Theoretical Framework This study is based on Halliday’s SFL which sees language as a resource for creating meaning through choices that serve multiple purposes. These purposes are categorized into Meta functions highlighting the dynamic and functional nature of language. Thus, the framework demonstrates how meaning is constructed across the three Meta functions-the ideational, interpersonal and textual Meta functions. The ideational Meta function represents experience and reality through structures, enabling speakers to view their world and to express thoughts (Halliday, 1994). The interpersonal Meta function explores how language shapes social roles and relationships with mood, modernity and evaluative expressions influencing interactions and power dynamics (Eggins, 2004). The textual Meta function illustrates how language is organized to produce cohesion and emphasis in dialogue. This approach highlights the dynamic interplay between language meaning and society, central to Soyinka’s work and literary analysis. It is used for analyzing drama as it describes how language functions contextually, conveying meaning, building relationships and driving performance. Literature Review Halliday’s 1994 model, Halliday and Mattiessen, 2004) offers a framework for analyzing how characters use language to enact relationships, negotiate power and present cultural realities. Halliday and Mattiessen (2014) believe that SFL is a meaning-based language as the realization of meaning in context. It is a discourse analytical approach to language teaching and a framework for implementing Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 209 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” pedagogy in the classroom. SFL is distinctive from other linguistic theories because Halliday and other SFL theorists worked in response to issues in applied context. Ansary and Babail (2004) opine that SFL does not only provide a detailed description of the rhetorical functions and linguistic structures of English but goes further to elate the contextual dimension of register/genre to the semantic and grammatical organization of language itself. It has the potential to develop detailed specifications of the staging structures and realization features of difficult genres. One of the key scholars who expanded the practical applicability of Halliday’s model is Eggins (2004). In An Introduction to Systematic Functional Linguistics, Eggins provides detailed analytical tools for applying SFL to real text, showing how features such as transitivity, mood and theme reveal underlying communicative intentions and ideological positions. She demonstrates that meaning is always situated and therefore textual choices cannot be divorced from context. For this reason, SFL has become widely used in stylistics, discourse analysis and pedagogy. In literary texts, for example, analyzing how author’s manipulation of process types, participant roles or thematic progression can uncover hidden power structures, cultural assumptions and character dynamics. Bloor and Bloor (2013) further reinforce the application of SFL by demonstrating how it can be used for functional analysis of a wide range of texts. They stress that SFL is concerned with the meaning potential of language. Grammar is seen not as a set of rules to be memorized but as a resource for making choices in the construction of meaning. This conceptual shift is critical because it highlights the interpretative potential of SFL. Analysis is not about whether a text is grammatically “correct” but about what choices reveal meaning. Moreover, Bloor and Bloor observe that, SFL provides tool for analyzing texts of all kinds, enabling us to see how language is structured to achieve different contexts. For a play like Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel, this implies that transitivity patterns, mood structures and thematic organization can be studied to reveal how characters express authority, resistance or complicity. In the Nigerian context, Adejere (1992) demonstrates the relevance of functional linguistic approaches to the study of African Literary and Cultural texts. He argues that African writers often manipulate English stylistically to capture indigenous world views and oral aesthetics and that functional grammar offers a framework Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 210 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” for analyzing such stylistic innovation. Similarly, Olateju (2006) applies functional analysis to literary discourse showing how Halliday’s Meta functions illuminate character dynamics, thematic development and ideological framing in African literature. SFL is particularly well-suited for analyzing African literature where meaning is intricately linked to societal relations, making it an effective framework for unpacking the complexities of language use in texts. Applied to Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel, SFL offers a way of linking language choices to the cultural and ideological conflicts dramatized in the play. The ideational Meta function can be applied through transitivity analysis to examine how characters like Baroka and Lakunle are constructed in terms of agency and action. The interpersonal Meta function highlights how power and authority are enacted through mood, modality and speech role, while the textual Meta function explains how thematic choices foreground tradition versus modernity. On the whole, the literatures confirms that SFL is a versatile framework for text analysis, with foundational theory by Halliday (1994), analytical tools operationalized by Eggins (2004) and critical applications emphasized by Bloor and Bloor (2013). Nigerians scholars like Adejare (1992) and Olateju (2006) demonstrate its value in African literary contexts. This study establishes that applying SFL to Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel offers valuable insights into stylistic, pedagogy and critical discourse analysis. Methodology This study uses SFL to analyze Wole Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel, showing that the playwright deliberately choices language, constructs meaning, negotiates relationships and organizes the narrative through a qualitative textual analysis approach. The data are the dialogues selected from the play. Passages were selected to reflect communicative events in the text, such as negotiations of tradition versus modernity, gender relations and power struggles. Data Presentation and Analysis The data is presented and analyzed according to the three Meta functions. The study analyzes how Halliday’s three Meta functions-ideational, interpersonal and Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 211 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” textual shape Soyinka’s presentation of cultural conflict, power relation and identify negotiation. Ideational Meta function The ideational Meta function refers to how language represents reality through process, participants and circumstances (Halliday and Matthiessen, 2014). In The Lion and the Jewel, Soyinka uses this Meta function to dramatize the cultural conflict between African literature and Western modernity, giving each character a distinct way of representing experience. For instance, Lakunle, the school teacher, encodes tradition as backward through material and relational processes. This is seen when he talks on the subject of payment of bride price where he asserts: To pay the price would be to buy a heifer off the market Stall (Act one, p. 8) The material process “to buy” reduces marriage to crude transaction, while the metaphor “a heifer” making women objects, presenting tradition as oppressive. Lakunle also declares: I read and write and speak and think like a man of books. I am a symbol of progress. (Act one, p.9) The relational process, “I am” links his identity to “progress” constructing him ideationally as representative of modernity. Sidi, by contrast, encodes cultural pride through affirmative relational processes. When mocked for carrying water on her head. She insists: It is what a grown girl does. It is how she shows she is fit to be a wife”. (Act one, p.12) The relational clause “It is” validates the action, while the material process “she shows” positions her as a demonstration of maturity. Unlike Lakunle who disparages custom, Sidi reframes tradition as honorable. Baroka, the Bale of Ilujinle, asserts himself ideationally as protector of culture through material processes of resistance. This is seen where he boasts: I stopped the Government Public Works. I sabotaged their surveyors. There will be no railway through Ilujinle (Act Two, p. 25) The verbs “stopped” and “sabotaged” foreground his agency in blocking colonial intrusion, while the circumstance “through Ilujimle” underscores territorial control. In his seduction of Sidi, Baroka redefines himself as an agent of density: I will make you immortal, more famous than the lorry that passes Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 212 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” through the village. (Act Two, p.27) The material process “I will make”, projects his power to shape Sidi’s future, blending traditional authority with modern imagery. Through his varied uses of the ideational Meta function, Soyinka dramatizes how grammar encodes conflicting world views. The ideational analysis shows how Soyinka encodes competing worldviews into character’s language such as Lakunle’s modernist disdain for tradition, Sidi’s negotiation of cultural pride and Baroka’s self-styled heroism. Interpersonal Meta function The interpersonal Meta function explores language, enacts social relationships, attitudes and power through moods, modality and functions (Halliday and Matthiessen, 2014). The play, The Lion and the Jewel, reveals how authority is negotiated, challenged and reasserted. Lakunle, Baroka and Sidi assume authority through declaratives, especially when the three voices are set side by side, the tugof-war of persuasion comes alive. Lakunle, Baroka and Sidi represent three distinct interpersonal strategies that reflect the play’s larger tension. Lakunle speaks from a position of didactic authority. His declaratives and high morality project certainty, yet his rigidity often alienate his audience. Lakunle’s speech is characterized by declaratives and high modality, which project certainty and position him as a self-appointed reformer. He frames his ideas as unquestionable truths, often by judging tradition as “backward” while presenting himself as the voice of progress. His interpersonal stance is didactic and authoritative, reducing his interlocutors, especially women like Sidi and Sadiku to passive listeners. However, this rigid posture undermines his persuasive power as it alienates rather than convinces his audience, exposing the gap between his modern ideals and his social reality. Similarly, Baroka’s interpersonal stance relies on tact, charm and rhetorical subtlety. Unlike Lakunle, he cloaks authority in humanity, softening commands into suggestions like, “I hope you will not think it too great of a burden...” (p.51). This allows him to appear considerate while maintaining control. His language appeals to emotion, comfort and continuity, persuading not by confrontation but by seduction. This manipulative diplomacy reveals tradition’s adaptive resilience, as Baroka wins influence not by declaring change but by skillfully disguising his dominance within seemingly modest speech as seen in Act Three. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 213 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” Sidi, the center of attraction in this play, displays her resistance and playful irony. In her reply to Lakunle, she says “Now there you go again. And you must chirrup like a cocktail” (p.7). She trivializes his lofty profession of love by likening it to meaningless bird chatter. This ironic evaluation strips his words of seriousness and repositions her as the one in control of the exchange. His interpersonal style is neither didactic nor seductively manipulative like Baroka’s. It is witty, mocking and deflective. Through humor and dismissal, she asserts her independence, resisting attempts at domination while enjoying the power of her own beauty and voice. In The Lion and the Jewel, the interpersonal strategies of Lakunle, Baroka and Sidi thematically dramatize the clash between morality and tradition and youthful agency. Lakunle’s declarative certainty reflects modernity’s promise of change but also its alienating rigidity, as he imposes progress without regard for communal identity. Baroka’s persuasive humility embodies traditions, resilience, using charm and subtle manipulation to outmaneuver modern ideals while maintaining dominance. Sidi, through playful irony and mockery asserts a youthful independence that resists both men, symbolizing the emergence of female agency within the cultural struggle. Together, their contrasting stances reveal that the contest between modernity and tradition is not only ideological but also interpersonal, negotiating through language, wit and power. Here, Soyinka suggests that questions of progress, ability and gender are inseparable from the communicative strategies through which they are performed and contested. Textual Meta function The textual Meta function concerns how meaning is organized through thematic structure and cohesion (Eggins, 2004). In Soyinka’s The Lion and the Jewel, thematic progression reflects ego, irony and character transformation. In The Lion and the Jewel, the statement: A prophet has honor except in his own home. Wise men have been called mad before me and after... (Act One. p.5). The clauses are arranged proverbially, using parallelism-A prophet has.../Wise men have... (Act One, p.5) to give rhythm and balance, which makes the utterance memorable and authoritative. The use of Theme-Rhyme progression ensures clarity. “A prophet” and “Wise man” serve as themes (what the clause is all about), Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 214 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” while the rest of each clause provides the Rheme (the new, important information). Additionally, the connective phrase “before me and after” provides cohesion, linking the present situation with past and future contexts. The proverbial and biblical tone also reinforces textual unity, making the statement resonate both in the play and in broader cultural discourse. The textual Meta function here, organizes the speech into a coherent, rhythmical and culturally weighted proverb, ensuring that the message is stylistically powerful and contextually meaningful. The message is structured and organized to create coherence and emphasis. Similarly, in Act One, p.10, Sidi asks one of the girls if they had seen the book, “The book. Did you see the book...” is an utterance with the initial thematic element, “The book”? It foregrounds the objects of discourse, setting it up as the key point of attention in the interaction. The repetition, “Did you see the book...” provides cohesion and emphasis, ensuring that the discourse revolves around the symbolic importance of literacy. This organization of theme and rheme structures the utterance as both a question and subtle assertion of value. The book symbolizes knowledge and modernity and through this line, Soyinka encodes a layered discourse of a cultural tension, social power and identity. Sidi mistakenly refers to the magazine as a book because of her lack of formal education and limited exposure to print culture. This mislabeling is significant because it reveals how the limits of her literacy shape her perception of modern print culture. Furthermore, in Act Three, p.64, Sidi begs Sadiku to bless her using the following phrase, “Now bless my worldly goods. Come sing of seeds...” as a sign of respect since, Sadiku is Baroka’s first wife. The discourse is cohesively structured through parallel imperatives, “bless” and “sing” foregrounding ritualistic rhythm. The initial adverb “Now” serves as a thematic marker, signaling immediacy and urgency, while “worldly goods” and seeds are the thematic focal points that tie wealth to continuity. The textual organization reflects Soyinka’s blending of material concerns with symbolic-cultural significance. This fuses ritual, authority and symbolism. Worldly possessions are sanctified and agricultural fertility is celebrated revealing Soyinka’s dramatization of power continuity and cultural identity. Beyond the Meta functional analysis, it is also necessary to acknowledge the pragmatic and multimodal implications of meaning-making in The Lion and the Jewel. Pragmatically, Soyinka’s characters rely on implied meanings, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 215 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” presuppositions and culturally grounded inferences that demand and shape how audience interpret character’s motives and cultural values. For instance, Sidi’s rhetorical question to Lakunle- “Why should that worry me? Haven’t you sworn that my books do not affect your love?” (p.2). This is a rhetorical question not seeking for an answer; it is an indirect assertion, which she frames as a challenge to Lakunle, implying, “You must stand by your words”. Pragmatically, the statement means “I do not need to worry about my beauty fading because your love is supposed to be deeper than appearances and I am reminding you of that”. Likewise, Baroka’s seductive assurance that the making of the stamp, “The one redeeming grace on any paper-tax, shall be your face and mine”. Baroka’s utterances to Sidi are not merely interpersonal exchanges but pragmatic strategies of persuasion and manipulation, relying on context for their full force. In addition, Soyinka displays multimodal resources gesture, costume, mime music and props that complement and enrich the verbal text. Lakunle’s ill-fitting European suit visually encodes like awkward imitation of modernity while Sidi’s public exhibition of her photographs dramatizes her vanity and foreshadows her seduction. Similarly, Baroka’s palace adored with traditional symbols, establishes him as custodian of heritage even before he speaks. These multimodal cues construct layers of meanings that cannot be derived from a dialogue alone, making the play a semiotic ensemble where language, performance and visual codes interact to dramatize cultural conflicts. Conclusion Firstly, the study concludes that the analysis not only deepens our understanding of Soyinka’s play but also highlights the broader relevance of SFL for analyzing how literature reflects and shapes cultural values, identity and power relation. Secondly, it concludes that Halliday’s Meta functions remain a powerful analytic model indicating that language encodes social, cultural and ideological meanings in literary texts. Thirdly, it concludes that pragmatic insights and multimodal perspective extend the reach of SFL thereby accounting for contextual and performative dimension of drama. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 216 Abba Terab Mustapha, PhD & Anna Dauda Bwala, A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Wole Soyinka’s “The Lion And The Jewel” REFERENCES Adejare, O. (1992). Language and style in Nigeria English Literature. Lagos: Heinemann. Ansary, H. and Babaii, E. (2004). “The Generic Integrity of Newspaper Editorials: A Systemic Functional Perspective.” In Asian EFL Journal Vol.1-1-28. Bloor, T. and Bloor, M. (2013). The Functional Analysis of English. London: Routledge. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nded).London: Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen, C. (2004). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd ed.) London: Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen, C. (2014). Introduction to Functional Grammar (4th ed). Oxon: Routledge. Eggins, S. (2004). An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London: London Pinter Publishers. Olateju, M.A. (2006). “A Systemic Functional analysis of some selected poems songs in Osundare’s Songs of the Marketplace”. In Nordic Journal of African Studies, 15(1), 30-46. Soyinka, W. (1963). The Lion and the Jewel. London: Oxford University Press. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 217 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems The Future of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction of the Major World Legal Systems By: Nura Sani Abdullahi
[email protected]Faculty of Humanities, Department of Islamic Studies Sule Lamido University Kafin Hausa, Jigawa State, Nigeria 1.1 Abstract Comparative law is an alternative way to harmonize the interaction between different legal systems. The future of comparative law can be determined by its ability to function as a connecting method between those legal systems. This research focuses on the interaction between three major world legal systems; civil law, Islamic law and common law. It critically provides illustrations on the influence of these three major systems on each other. The research, however, briefly discusses different methods used by the comparative law to interconnect between those major systems, which are: legal transplant, harmonization of law, convergence and unification of law. Lastly, the research finds that the interaction among the major world legal systemss is best understood through the concept of globalization which functions as a reality, a theory, and an ideology. Keywords: Comparative law, major world legal systems, interaction, legal transplant, harmonization, convergence, unification and globalization. 1.2 Introduction The history of the major world legal system has left a large gap of unwritten past development of those systems. Thus, looking back to the history it can be found that there were abundance of evidences which prove the interaction between the major world legal systems. The interaction is a necessity for the development of laws. However, comparative Law’s methods are used as a means to develop laws. Montesquieu can be regarded as an early founding figure of comparative law in the 18th century. This research aims to find the future of comparative law: towards a sustainable interaction among the Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 218 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems major world legal systems, in order to see how these different systems can work together within the same jurisdiction without contradiction or conflict. 1.3 Legal System The word legal system has been defined by the different scholars and it interpreted in the various approaches. However, John Henry Merryman has defined a legal system as: “An operating set of legal institutions, procedures and rules.”1 Merry man definition clearly suggested that the legal system is more concerned with lawmakers and law interpreters. Indeed, the meaning of the legal system can be wider than that, it may be referred to the nature and content of the law generally, its structures and methods whereby it is legislated upon, adjudicated upon and administered, within a given jurisdiction.2 Why is it regarded as a major world legal system? According to Gamal Moursi Badr, those systems are considered as major world legal systems because “its application extended far beyond the confines of their original birth places and whose influence, through the reception of their principles, techniques or specific provisions has been both widespread in space and enduring in time.”3 Looking to the Gamal’s definition of major world legal systems we can say the only legal systems which can be categorized as major are: Civil law, Islamic law and common law. The concepts of those three legal traditions will be elaborated below. 1.4 Brief History of the major World Legal System 1.4.1 Civil Law System The civil law system can be defined as a traditional of legal concepts, principles, the role of law, and methods which has its origin in Roman law and applied by the judicial authorities.4 The civil law tradition is the oldest and most widely spread legal system, dating back to 450 B.C. in its origins. The history of the development of the civil law can be traced back to two periods. 1 Merryman, John Henry, and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo. The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America, (Stanford University Press, 2007), p. 1 2 Tetley, William. “Mixed Jurisdictions: Common Law v. Civil Law (Codified and Uncodified).” La. L. Rev. 60 (1999), p. 595 3 Badr, Gamal Moursi. “Islamic law: Its Relation to other Legal Systems.” The American Journal of Comparative Law (1978), p. 187 4 Barham, Mack E. “Renaissance of the Civilian Tradition in Louisiana, A.” La. L. Rev. 33 (1972), p.357. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 219 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems The first period was 450 B.C., which is designated as the beginning of the development of the civil law because this is the year of the Twelve Tablets, the first written law and rudimentary system of dispute resolution in Ancient Rome. The second period was 6th century A.D., when the Emperor Justinian of Constantinople commissioned the Corpus Juris Civilis to be written, which would codify the Roman law on family, inheritance, property, and contracts, among other areas of law.5 1.4.2 Expansion of Civil Law The application of the civil law extended to the world beyond its original place of birth in the Continental Latin America (except Guyana and Belize), Quebec, all of East Asia (except Hong Kong), Congo, Azerbaijan, Kuwait, Iraq, Russia, Turkey, Egypt, Madagascar, Lebanon, Switzerland, Indonesia and Vietnam. 1.4.3 Source of Civil Law Generally, in civil law jurisdictions the main source or basis of the law is legislation and large areas are codified in a systematic manner. These codes constitute a very distinctive feature of a Roman legal system, or the so-called civil law. Although in the form of statutes duly enacted by the proper legislative procedure, these codes are quite different from ordinary statutes.6 1.4.4 Islamic Law System Islamic law can be defined as the rules and principles revealed by Allah to be applied to mankind concerning worship, dealings and other aspects of life. The Islamic law system is the second oldest system in the world. Islam arose in the 7th century A.D. in the Arabian Peninsula and in the lower part of Mesopotamia.7 Indeed, someone can argue that Islamic law is the first law in human life. It can partially be true if it is discussed on the first religion come into the world, but the discussion here is on the comprehensive and perfect law which, considered in the modern world as codified Islamic law, O'Connor, Vivienne. “Common Law and Civil Law Traditions.” Available at SSRN 2665675, (2012), p. 9 Joseph, Dainow. “The Civil Law and the Common Law: Some Points of Comparison‖.” AM. J. Comp. L 15: (1966 - 1967), p. 424 7 Badr, Gamal Moursi. (1978), p. 187 5 6 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 220 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems so this is the law which has been revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century A.D.8 Historically, Islamic law can be considered as unwritten law, because there are a number of unwritten records of judicial proceedings or decisions in Islamic law; Islamic judges are not required to justify their decisions in writing. 1.4.5 Expansion of Islamic Law The application of Islamic law spread far beyond its original place of birth, it extends to Egypt, Mauritania, Sudan, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, the Maldives, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and certain regions in Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, and UAE. 1.4.6 Source of Islamic Law The primary sources of Islamic law are: The Qur’an, the Sunnah of the Prophet, judicial consensus, and analogical reasoning. However, only 190 of the 6,237 verses in the Qur’an contain legal provisions which are only 3 per cent of the Qur’an verses,9 most of the legal rules derived from the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad and judicial consensus, and most of the contemporary issues to be solved by analogical reasoning of modern Muslim scholars. 1.4.7 Common Law System The common law can be defined as a legal tradition which developed in England from the 11th century onwards. Its principles appear for the most part in reported judgments, usually of the higher courts, in relation to specific fact situations arising in disputes which courts have adjudicated.10 The common law is considered as a third legal system to have existed in the world after civil law and Islamic law. Common law system arose 11 th century following the military conquest of England in 1066. Mitchell, Sara McLaughlin, Jonathan J. Ring, and Mary K. Spellman. “Domestic Legal Traditions and States’ Human Rights Practices.” Journal of Peace Research 50, No. 2 (2013), p. 5-6 9 Ibid, p. 5-6 10 Tetley, William, (1999), p. 597 8 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 221 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems 1.4.8 Expansion of Common Law The application of common law system has expanded beyond the borders of England, where about 24 percent of countries in the world today have applied common law systems, because the majority of former British colonies countries currently practice common law, which include Guyana, the Panama Canal Zone, Florida, California, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Australia, UK (except Scotland), India, Nigeria, Ireland, Singapore, Hong Kong, USA (except Louisiana), Canada (except Quebec), New Zealand, Pakistan, Malaysia and Bangladesh. 1.4.9 Source of Common Law The common law developed historically on a case-by-case basis, it relied on oral argumentation and less on writing procedural rules English judges came to be bound by the judicial precedents. 2.1 Historical Background of the Interaction between Major World Legal Systems 2.1.1 Islamic Law’s influence on Common Law Makdisi suggests that the origins of the common law may be found in Islamic law. He argues that the institutions that together helped to form a common law by introducing the concepts of contract law, property rights and trial by jury may have their origins in three analogous institutions in Islamic law, the ᶜaqd, the istihqāq and the lafīf. 2.1.1.1 The Islamic ᶜAqd Under the Islamic principle of ownership in the property, whether it was movable or immovable can be established at the time of concluding an agreement, even though the goods yet to be physically transferred to the buyer. This idea was unknown to western legal systems in the 12th century, but it was known in Islam,11 however, this principle now practices under the common law system. 2.1.1.2 The Islamic Istihqāq The Islamic principle of istihqāq was known as an action of land upon usurpation. It is an action to be taken against a party who unlawfully acquired the property. The plaintiff may ask the judge to return back the 11 Makdisi, John A. “Islamic Origins of the Common Law, The.” NCL Rev. 77 (1999), p. 1651-1652 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 222 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems property to him as long as he can prove that he has better right over the property, but the action by the plaintiff will fail if he cannot prove it, and the law will presume that the property belonging to the one who has possession over the property. This principle of presumption of ownership based on possession appeared later in both common law and civil law systems.12 2.1.1.3 The Islamic Lafīf The Islamic lafīf means the witnesses of good behavior and condition of the disputing parties in the society. The lafīf witnesses were giving from the community of the area where the party lives and the number required generally was twelve. The witnesses were permitted to give testimony in their place. Since the lafīf witnesses replaced the ᶜudūl witnesses, their testimony also was binding on the judge the royal courts instituted a rational procedure for settling disputes through trial by jury. This has been the practice of the Maliki School since 14th century A.D. The practice is quite similar to a jury in a judicial write under the common law system. 13 It can be concluded from those three elements that on a more global plane the common law could be the true offspring of Islamic law. Therefore, it is appropriate at this point to expand this comparative study from an analysis of particular institutions to a discussion of the major characteristics that define a legal system.14 In Burhan Uddin’s case,15 we can see the influence of the Islamic law on the common law system, the case was decided by the Central London County Court. In this case there was a dispute between the couple; bride and groom both parties were Muslims and their marriage was solemnized under Islamic law. The bride filed an application to dissolve the marriage under Islamic law. The Islamic Shari’a Council issued a decree of Islamic divorce, so the marriage was dissolved. The groom filed an application to the court after the dissolution took place, but seeking to get back to what he had been spent to the bride and her family for the purpose of their marriage. The judge in this case had the benefit from expert evidence on Shari’a law. The trial judge held the case in favor of the bride; he further mentioned that the gifts that were made were absolute and groom could not get them back. They 12 Ibid, p. 1665 Ibid, p. 2687-1695 14 Ibid, p. 1696 15 Mohammed Burhan Uddin and Choudhury & Ors [2009] EWCA Civ 1205 13 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 223 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems were not returnable if the marriage failed and they were not made conditional on the marriage because they were not part of the dowry. There are also other areas which show the influence of the Islamic law on common law, such as Islamic arbitration system and Islamic financial system, where the England common law system recognized those in their law. 2.1.2 Civil Law’s Influence on Common Law There is alsoan influence of common law on civil law, thus, it is commonly believed that Canadian common law drew very little from civil law. Yet, in the Supreme Court of Canada case law prior to repatriation of the appellate jurisdiction, there are cases in which civil law rules had an influence on common law rules. But, as H. Patrick Glenn noted, this influence generally expressed itself indirectly through the citation of English decisions that cited French civilian sources.16 Civil Law’s Influence on Islamic Law In some way, the Islamic written document on the Hanafi school of law; alMajallah al-Ahkam al-Adaliyyah (The Majelle) the civil code of the Ottoman Empire, can prove the influence of civil law system on the Islamic law system, where the arrangement of the articles in this code is likely similar to the Code of Hammurabi Civil Code, which has been written 18 th century B.C. 3.1 Methods of Comparative Law The methods of the comparative law aimed at achieving sustainable interaction among the major world legal systems include narrowing their differences and applying the most effective approaches to interaction between those major systems, such as: i. ii. iii. iv. 16 Legal transplant Harmonization Convergence Unification The Supreme Court of Canada and its impact on the expression of bijuralism. (Department of Justice Canada, 2001), p. 5. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 224 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems 3.1.1 Legal Transplant Alan Watson, the legal historian comparativist, and founder of legal transplant defined Legal transplant as “moving of a rule or a system of law from one country to another, or from one people to another.”17 In Alan Watson’s definition there should be movement of legal system from one society to another. However, some socialists believe that legal transplant can be seen as legal acculturation, and transplants are not only legal, but also appearing in other consequence of this cultural interaction. According to Jean Carrbonier “acculturation occurs only when one legal institution or only one law is transferred from one legal system to another, whereas reception refers to adopting one entire legal system en bloc.”18 3.1.2 History of Legal Transplant The term Legal Transplant coined in 1974 by Alan Watson, a Scottish American legal scholar, he maintains that the first recorded legal transplant was the code of Hammurabi in the 17th century B.C., and it occurred in most of the countries in the world during the 19th and early 20th century.19 3.1.3 Example for Legal Transplant Imposition of Common Law in Malaysia through colonization, where the English law was being adopted among the Malaysian society, even though the Malay people were ruled by the Islamic law before the arrival of British colonies. 3.1.4 Harmonization of Laws W. J. Kamba: “Effect an approximation or coordination of different legal provisions or systems by eliminating major differences by creating minimum requirement or standard.”20 17 Watson, Alan. Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law. University of Georgia Press, (1974), p. 21 18 Batrićević, Ana. “Legal transplants and the code of Serbian Tsar Stephan Dushan.” University of Belgrade, Belgrade, (2007), p. 5 19 Berkowitz, Daniel, Katharina Pistor, and Jean-Francois Richard. “Economic development, legality, and the transplant effect.” European Economic Review 47, no. 1 (2003), p. 2 20 Kamba, Walter Joseph. “Comparative law: A theoretical framework.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 23, no. 03, (1974), p. 501 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 225 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems Based on Kamba’s definition, it can be said that harmonization of laws can be done by the removal of discord and disagreement implying balanced attention to bringing coordination between two or more divergent principles, rules, provisions, regulations or legal systems in order to reduce and balance the major differences between them. 3.1.5 History of Harmonization of Laws The origins of the legal harmonization process can be traced back to the second half of the 19th century. The establishment, in 1926, of the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) came at a time when the ideal of legal unification seemed unquestionable.21 3.1.6 Example for Harmonization of Laws Malaysian Islamic Financial Law Harmonization Committee can be highlighted as a good example for harmonization of laws. The body aims to promote Malaysia as reference to the International Islamic Finance Centre, and to provide the sufficient laws in Islamic financial industries in Malaysia and the forum for dispute settlement in Islamic financial transactions across the world.22 3.1.7 Convergence of Laws According to Peter De Cruz: “Convergence constitutes the evolution of legal institutions within different legal systems where the institution of one system resembles the other; and, the legal norms, principles, and scholarly comments of both are used in equal measure, even regarded as authoritative as each other.”23 Cruz’s definition of convergence focused on the development of the legal system of the place to another by looking to their problems and to arrive at similar legal ways of perceiving and dealing with them, so the development of legal institutions can be seen through mutual interest. Faria, José Angelo Estrella. “Future Directions of Legal Harmonisation and Law Reform: Stormy Seas or Prosperous Voyage.” Unif. L. Rev. 14 (2009), p. 6-7 22 Bank Negara Malaysia. The Law Harmonisation Committee Report 2013. 23 Hermida, Dr. “Convergence of Civil Law and Common Law in the Criminal Theory Realm.” University of Miami International & Comparative Law Review 13 (2005), p. 164 21 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 226 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems 3.1.8 Example for Convergence of Laws A good illustration of convergence of laws between common law and civil law can be found in cases where the common law has begun to make more active use of the legislative process while the civil law system has begun to rely increasingly on case law. These two laws converged because of mutual interest. Moreover, in Burhan Uddin’s case,24 the English Court gave legal effect to Islamic law when Court of Appeal upholds the County Court verdict concerned gifts that accompanied an Islamic marriage. The implications of this legal recognition of Islamic law in the English court support this argument that there is a need for convergence of laws through the legal institutions. 3.1.9 Unification of Laws Unification of law is a process by which conflicting rules of two or more legal systems of national laws applicable to same legal transaction are replaced by a single rule, because of the legal and economic reasons. 3.1.10Example for Unification of Laws The best example of unification of laws is the European Union (EU). It was established that different legal regulations become obstacles in the usefulness of the European Union. Thus, it is an attempt to replace two or more legal systems with one single system in which European Court of Justice takes an approach of mixing civil law which is based on treaty and case law. 4.1 The Future of Comparative Law towards a Sustainable Interaction between Major World Legal Systems The future of comparative law can be determined by its ability to function as a connecting field between law and other social sciences. However, our discussion here will focus on the concepts of globalization, globalization against nation state and the usage of comparative law as a solution. 24 Mohammed Burhan Uddin and Choudhury & Ors [2009] EWCA Civ 1205 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 227 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems 4.1.1 Concepts of Globalization There is no universally accepted definition of globalization, but that does not mean no clarity can be achieved. Closer analysis of the debates suggests that three different types of concepts of globalization must be distinguished, which are; globalization as reality, globalization as theory and globalization as ideology.25 4.1.1.1 Globalization as Reality Globalization refers to developments in the real world which concern the relations between states. In particular the growing interdependence, the increase in global trade, communication, travel, migration, networks, environmental destruction, climate change, increased hybridity of cultures and societies, influence of US values and culture on the rest of the world, all of these developments are undoubtedly real, and this what we mean by globalization reality.26 4.1.1.2 Globalization as Theory Several theories of globalization exist in some empires, especially as related to law. What they have in common is a shift away from the paradigm that has dominated both social and legal thought over the last two hundred years. Methodological nationalism describes an approach in social theory that takes the nation state as an assumption.27 4.1.1.3 Globalization as Ideology Globalization as ideology comes in a number of related variants. One variant is that of a world community in which everyone is connected with everyone. Another variant of globalization as an ideology is the idea that markets should emancipate from the states and their regulation, thereby leading to more freedom and more prosperity.28 4.1.2 Globalization against Nation State Normally, to establish state the three elements must be constituted: A territory, a population, and an administrative structure. Indeed, the Michaels, Ralf. “Globalization and law: Law Beyond the State.” Law and Social Theory (Banakar & Travers eds., Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2013), Forthcoming (2013), p. 2 26 Ibid, p.3 27 Ibid, p. 4-5 28 Ibid, p. 6 25 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 228 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems transformation of the sovereign state under conditions of globalization can most productively be described as a transformation of these three elements.29 4.1.2.1 Territory The general practice, laws of a state apply within the borders of that state, and the laws of that state will not be applied in another state, each state applies its laws within its own borders, this is the general application. However, the idea of territorial jurisdiction has some exceptions in the case of public and private international law. Now the practice, it is universally accepted, that in case of antitrust violation a state has jurisdiction over the issue despite the commission of the offense occurred elsewhere.30 4.1.2.2 Population The designation of citizenship or the population of a state, in the traditional international community, each sovereign state has discretionary power to determine its own population, by guarantee citizenship to an individual, however, the rights and duties can be established upon the people.31 Administrative Structure Administrative structure means, the state through its government, has the power to lay down binding rules as laws that do not require the specific consent of the governed. It also means, that the state is entitled to enforce its laws it has the monopoly of violence.32 4.1.3 Usage of Comparative Law as Solution According to Halliday and Osinsky the usage of comparative law as a solution to the sustainable interaction between major world legal systems is “the closer that globalizing legal norms and institutions are to transformations in core local values and practices at the local level, the more likely that contestation will occur around those norms.”33 29 Ibid, p. 8 Ibid, p. 9 31 Ibid, p. 11 32 Ibid, p. 12 33 Weiner, Elaine. “Morality, biology and the free market: (De) Naturalizing the EU’s gender equality agenda in the Czech Republic.” In Women's Studies International Forum, vol. 33, no. 1, (2010), p.14 30 Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 229 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems 5.1 Conclusion The reality suggested that, it is not easy to standardize one legal system globally, because of the religious and cultural differences, the spirit of nationalism and historical background of colonization. However, there is evidences in the foreseeable future towards the sustainable interaction of the major world legal systems. The comparative law will continue to become a relevant method in harmonizing and uniting those legal systems. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 230 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems 6.1 References Badr, Gamal Moursi. “Islamic Law: Its Relation to other Legal Systems.” The American Journal of Comparative Law (1978). Bank Negara Malaysia. The Law Harmonisation Committee Report 2013. Barham, Mack E. “Renaissance of the Civilian Tradition in Louisiana, A.” La. L. Rev. 33 (1972). Batrićević, Ana. “Legal transplants and the code of Serbian Tsar Stephan Dushan.” University of Belgrade, Belgrade, (2007). Berkowitz, Daniel, Katharina Pistor, and Jean-Francois Richard. “Economic development, legality, and the transplant effect.” European Economic Review 47, no. 1 (2003). Córdoba, Federico Escobar. “Watson, Alan. Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law. Athens (Georgia) Y Londres: The University of Georgia Press (1993), 121 pp.” Criterio Jurídico 9, no. 1 (2011). Faria, José Angelo Estrella. “Future Directions of Legal Harmonisation and Law Reform: Stormy Seas or Prosperous Voyage.” Unif. L. Rev. 14 (2009). Glenn, Patrick, H. Legal Traditions of the World: Sustainable Diversity in Law. Oxford University Press, (2000). Hermida, Dr. “Convergence of Civil Law and Common Law in the Criminal Theory Realm.” University of Miami International & Comparative Law Review 13 (2005). Joseph, Dainow. “The Civil Law and the Common Law: Some Points of Comparison‖.” AM. J. Comp. L 15: (1966 - 1967). Kamba, Walter Joseph. “Comparative law: A theoretical framework.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 23, no. 03, (1974). Makdisi, John A. “Islamic Origins of the Common Law, The.” NCL Rev. 77 (1999). Merryman, John Henry, and Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo. The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America. Stanford University Press, (2007). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 231 Nura Sani Abdullahi; The Future Of Comparative Law: Towards A Sustainable Interaction Of The Major World Legal Systems Michaels, Ralf. “Globalization and law: Law Beyond the State.” Law and Social Theory (Banakar & Travers eds., Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2013), Forthcoming (2013). Mitchell, Sara McLaughlin, Jonathan J. Ring, and Mary K. Spellman. “Domestic Legal Traditions and States’ Human Rights Practices.” Journal of Peace Research 50, no. 2 (2013). O'Connor, Vivienne. “Common Law and Civil Law Traditions.” Available at SSRN 2665675 (2012). Tetley, William. “Mixed Jurisdictions: Common Law v. Civil Law (Codified and Uncodified).” La. L. Rev. 60 (1999). The Supreme Court of Canada and its impact on the expression of bijuralism. Department of Justice Canada, (2001). Watson, Alan. Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law. University of Georgia Press, (1974). Weiner, Elaine. “Morality, biology and the free market: (De) Naturalizing the EU’s gender equality agenda in the Czech Republic.” In Women's Studies International Forum, vol. 33, no. 1, (2010). Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 232 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays AN APPRAISAL OF THE Dibia INSTITUTION ANDTRADITIONAL MEDICINE AS A STYLE IN GODDY ONYEAKAỌNWỤ’S PLAYS BY Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere Department of Nigerian Languages, Lagos State University of EducationOto/Ijanikikin, Lagos. Email:
[email protected]Abstract This paper examines the traditional medicine institution as a style in Goddy Onyekaonwu’s plays focusing on their roles within Igbo culture. Qualitative research design focusing on textual analysis of the selected Igbo literary texts was adopted. Through an analysis of Nwata Rie Awọ, Ọkụ Ghara Ite, Ọkụ Ụzụ Daa Ibube and Eriri Mara Ngwugwu, this study aims at uncovering the wisdom and knowledge embedded in these plays. Onyekaonwu manipulated this aspect of culture and unveils the secret behind the interpretation and use of these wisdom and knowledge. The theoretical frameworks guiding this analysis are ecocriticism developed in the late 20th century influenced by the environmental movement led by Cheryll Glotfelty and and his team. The second is the theory of indigenous knowledge. This theory is as old as human being. It originates from the daily experiences of indigenous communities. This study therefore seeks to examine how Onyekaonwu incorporates elements of traditional healing within his plays and the symbolic role of traditional medicine in the plays and its impact on the style and choice of themes in the works. The findings suggest that while these dibia types are closely connected in their practices, they differ in their underlying philosophies. The paper concludes that traditional medicine institution provides services that are as effective as those of their orthodox counterparts, emphasizing their ongoing importance in Igbo culture. Keywords: Traditional medicine, institutions, Igbo culture, ecocriticism, Onyekaonwu, orthodox. 1.0 Introduction Many literary scholars have written on the area of literature – both written and oral – in society and its value to life. Akporobaro (2012:33) refers to literature as the heritage of imaginative verbal creations, stories, folk beliefs and songs belonging to a group of people. Obi (2016:185) views it as the way, manner or method in which something is said or written to express issues of life. To Ọnụnkwọ (2009:173), literature is a reflection of people‟s ways of life. It is the way of life; a reflection of a people‟s manner and methods of carrying out their day to day activities, their ceremonies, festivities, belief system, and social institutions. There are three genres of literature which are prose, drama and poetry. However, the focus of this paper is drama. This paper makes an appraisal of the traditional medicine institution in four of Goddy Onyekaọnwụ‟s plays: Nwata Rie Awọ, Ọkụ GharaIte, Ọkụ Ụzụ Daa Ibube and Eriri Mara Ngwugwu. The playwright is chosen because he emphasises one aspect of dibia institution or the other in his plays. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 233 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays 2.1 Literature Review Aristotle as cited by Butcher (2008) states that human beings are mimetic in nature and the instinct for imitation is implanted in man right from birth. Olajumoke (2018:8) views literary works as portraying human experiences through oral and written expressions while IwuIkwubuzo (2004:160) describes these „human experiences‟ as the culture of the people which literary writers can draw inspirations from the cultural and traditional backgrounds of the society in which they belong. More so, Africa is a multi-cultural entity (Nnanna, 2004:193). Based on these multi-cultural characteristics, most literary works try to express one aspect of the culture or the other as the theme of their works. Ogunbiyi (1981:25) has it that some sets of Igbo drama emanated from 1940s, among which is the drama of the Onitsha market literature. These literatures are in the form of pamphlets, novelettes, playlets and stories compiled by literate traders and some American trained Igbo graduates like Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and Cyprian Ekwensi who set up popular mass media of information. Interestingly, Cyprian Ekwensi‟s Ikolo, the wrestler (1947) captures the first pamphlet of the Onitsha market literature. Then, Obiechina singles out didactic love, marriage and family, religion and moral as his themes –all structured in the drama form. This continued until 1960 when John Ekwere and his Ogui players emerged and later changed its name to “Eastern Nigerian Theatre Group”. Within all these movements, many Igbo writers emerged, expressing one form of Igbo cultures or the other as the theme of their texts, through the medium of English language. Consequently, they were not counted as Igbo plays. Therefore, it is claimed that the first Igbo written drama text started with the Chukwuezi‟s Udo ka Mma published in 1974,(Nwadike 1998:1). From 1974 to date, there have been several written Igbo drama texts in circulation all over Nigeria and beyond. Dibia institution isa prominent themes Igbo.Playwrights use to influence Igbo literature and arts which Ofomata(2013:425) describesdibia institution as group of traditional medicine practice endowment with the ability to identify and take care of human health conditions with the use of herbs. Ofomata states that this provides alternative healing options and supports community cohesion,which started when the world (life) started. The dibịaappears in four aspects according to their duties - the dibịa afa - the diviner, the dibia aja – the sacrifice priest, the dibia mgbogwu na mkpaakwụkwọthe herbalist and the dibia ọgwụ the occult. The most important thing in all these aspects of traditional medicine institution is the indigenous knowledge and wisdom acquired traditionally from their forefathers orally and practically passed down from generation to generation. Ubesie (2004:187) explains extensively,dibịa afa and dibịaaja as the beginning and the most important healing process in the sense that dibịa afa will first of all diagnose the situation then sacrifice will be made by dibịaaja to appease the gods and deities so that the administration of any drug gives the expected results. On the other hand, Ogbalu (1981:225) recognizes dibịa afa the diviner and the dibịa ọgwụ the occult, claiming it is peculiar to some communities and towns within Igbo land which Uchendu(1966:105) indirectly supports by saying that people select those cultural traits which can be easily reconciled with their own existing cultural pattern. One thing is paramount in traditional medicine institution, their duties and goal are channeled towards health care management either for diagnosis, healing or prevention which they say is better than cure. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 234 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays 2.2 Theoretical Framework Literary criticism in its broadest perspective is devoted to comparison and analysis that enhance understanding and appreciation of literary works (Dobie, 2009). This also paves way for a critical thinking, interpretation and evaluation of all the works of literature. On the other hand, literary theories are frameworks used to analyse and interpret literary works for better understanding. Based on this, two literary theories are considered for this study, ecocriticism and the theory of indigenous knowledge. The first ecocriticism takes care of nature, the later takes care of the tradition that is involved in this research. Ecocriticism started in the later part of 20th century all through the early part of the 21st century. It goes by many names – literary ecology, a term which Joseph Meeker in 1972 used to analyse the relationship of living creatures to one another and their environment. In 1978, William Rueckert called it literature ecology which looks into the application of ecological concepts to the study of literature and Lawrence Buell said that it is the study of the relationship between literature and the environment while Cheryll Glotfelty defined ecocriticism as the study of the relationship between literature and physical environment. To bring all these ideas together, Lawrence Buelle and Cheryll Glotfelty concludesthat ecocrticism is the study of the relationship and interaction between nature and the physical environment as represented in all literary works. The main concerns of the ecocriticism is to examine the impact of human activities on the natural world with the aim of creating awareness about environmental issues and usage. It goes further to explore how human being interact with, represent and understand the environment for equitable co-existence especially as represented in literary works. The second theory deemed fit for this study is the theory of indigenous knowledge which refers to the unique, traditional knowledge and perspectives of indigenous cultures and traditions. The theory incorporates traditional myths, legends and stories; exploring themes relevant to indigenous cultures and experiences by using indigenous language likes idioms, proverbs and other cultural expressions. The theory of indigenous knowledge opens a window into indigenous cultures, challenges dominant narratives, promote greater understanding and appreciation of indigenous lifestyle. Key proponents of this theory are Vandana Shiva, Gregory Cajet, Linda Tuhiwai, George Dei and Enrique Dussel all known and addressed as „indigenous scholars‟ according to the report of the international conference on indigenous knowledge and development in 2017 and 2023 respectively. 2.3 Dibia Institution and Traditional Medicines The Dibiainstitution is a group of traditional medicine practitioners that have indigenous knowledge to manipulate nature and the spiritual world. They are said to have acquired knowledge of medicinal plants and their effects on the human body from their forefathers, as it is passed through unconscious imitation. However, some people learned the trade through personal experience while being treated as patients, others through spiritual calling. In the Igbo culture, the Dibiainstitution plays so much roles in the existence and activities of the divinities which come according to seasons, situations and circumstances. Some of these divinities include „Agwu‟ which is the spirit of purity and love; Chi – personal consciousness that directs one on what to do at any given time. „Ikenga‟ – the spirit of prosperity; Arụsị – the spirit of glory and protection; Ọfọ – the staff of equity and justice. All these divinities have their various responsibilities, each of them performs in the traditional medicine institution. So, Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 235 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays whenever any situation arises, the Igbo man knows which of the divinities to consult through the services of a dibịa. On the other hand, when a traditional Igbo man is faced with fear and doubts about what future will be, he goes to seek the aids of the gods, patrons, ancestors and divinities. as pointed out by Nwaozuzu (1980). The existence and activities of these divinities are made known through the services of the traditional medicineinstitution which rely on spiritual acts, often based on the belief of psycho-spiritualism. Ajetunmobi (2010:94) mentions witches and wizards who use their crafts more to plead for good health, security and prosperity in every area of life. The four sub-sections of the dibịa institution are interwoven in such a way that a process may not be completed without the services of the others. The four sections are dibịa afa – the diviners, dibịa aja – the sacrifice priest, dibịa mgbọrọgwu na mkpaakwụkwọ - the herbalist and dibịa ọgwụ – who is regarded as comprising ocults and wizards which are often diabolical. 2.3.1 Dibịa Afa – The Diviners The process of Afa, according to Ubesie (2004:186) is the act of identifying the mystic events or occurrences among the living and the dead. From this, Dibia Afa is described according to the function and responsibility he performs. In the Igbo context,Dibịa Afa relates and interacts with the supernatural world through incantations, chants and evocations to clarify certain unpleasant situations or circumstances. Ajetunmobi (2010:95) describes it as „magic‟ through which access to an external mystic forces beyond the ordinary human spheres are manipulated. This means that Dibịa Afa looks into the past happenings and events; examines the present to determine what the future will look like. To support Ubesie (2004), Ezikeojiaku (2000:69) says that Afa divination is a method of looking into the future in order to correct life‟s anomalies and better a person‟s life. From the above, it is obvious that the reason for consulting Dibịa Afais to find solutions to causes of a client‟s problem. The dibia casts cowry seeds (okwe) on the ground within a circle he marks with kaolin (nzu) and makes some chants and invocations. He repeats that as many times as possible then, he carefully and intelligently reads and interprets whatever appears there in a plain language the client will understand. That is why the concerns of the indigenous knowledge theory is to revitalize the Igbo cultural practices and knowledge, as they appear in literary works. In addition, Okeogu (2017:144) views the language of the Dibịa Afa as bilingual in the sense that, a Dibịa Afa has one language with which he communes with the spirit world and another for ordinary human beings (the physical). The acquisition and use of this language is purely indigenous, transmitted from generation to generation according to experiences and practices, a language that may not be familiar to the client, as the theory of the indigenous knowledge points out the use of African languages, idioms, proverbs and cultural expressions. There are some apparatus and materials Dibia Afa uses for his day to day business of divination. These are carved wood known as Ọfọ which is claimed to be the staff of equity and justice among the Igbo people. The Dibia Afa holds this staff and makes some chants,ịgọ ọfọ to prove justice to his client of justice in their transaction. During the process of ịgọ the ancestors and deities are invited into their midst so as to get favor and answers to the problem(s). He also uses a metal gong (Ogene)to create awareness/attention of the spirit world. Ashes – (Ntụ) used to drive away any unwanted response to his evocation by blowing it into the air.Cowry seeds– (okwe) which are believed by Dibia Afa to have a head, a tail and a back; it is from the positions of all these parts that he interprets the situations for which he is being consulted. The number of Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 236 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays cowry seeds – (okwe) is always four representing the four market days of the Igbo which they regard as deities and must be beckoned upon during such services. Nzu – Kaolin is used to mark a circle on the ground where he casts the Okwe and if any of the Okwe seeds falls outside the circle, that‟s another case altogether. Close to Nzu is edo – yellow chalk used to make a circle round about his two eyes, meaning that his eyes are changed to that of the spirits and therefore can see what an ordinary person cannot see. 2.3.2 Dibịa Aja – The Sacrifice Priest Dibịa Aja is the traditional medicine man whose duty is to perform sacrifice and worship to appease the gods, deities and dead ancestors. The services of the dibịa institution may intersect – the Dibịa Aja finds out what to do (diagnoses); Dibịa Aja makes the sacrifice which is one of the remedies to the problems. Obviously, when a traditional Igbo man is in doubt of the future concerning a journey to embark upon, an adventure to go into or is faced with an ugly situation, he goes to Dibịa Aja to find out what to do. It could be that the client needs to appease his god (chi), agwụ, ikenga or arusị harvests, blessing of children, or how to prevent one calamity or the other that wants to befall the individual or community. The Dibịa Aja may refer the client to Dibịa Aja who does the actual sacrifice. Okunade (2010:66) explains that the diviner Dibịa Aja diagnoses the cause of an affliction and forces that are responsible for its occurrence then refers the client to the appropriate doctor (the sacrifice priest or herbalist) to effect the healing. While performing his duty as the sacrificing priest, the Dibịa Aja goes into his shrine (ihu arụsị) and decorates himself with all the necessary customs that will make him commune adequately with the spirits. The major materials for sacrifice are mainly animals of various kinds and levels. At times, it may be food items of any kind, depending on the nature of the sacrifice and the divinity before which the sacrifice could be made. Just like the Dibịa Afa, Dibịa Aja makes incantations and evocations, calling on the spirits and ancestors to accept the sacrifice so that things will augur well with the people. The divinity may reject the sacrifice to show displeasure over the material or method or accept it. After the preliminary act of worship, the dibịa kills the animal and pour the blood on the shrine, an act described by Ubesie (2004) as ịgọ mmụọ – pleading with spirits. 2.3.3 Dịbịa Mgbọrọgwu na Mkpaakwụkwọ This is the Igbo traditional medical doctor who has acquired the knowledge and wisdom of the ancestors to cure one disease or the other with animal parts and plants. He is able to identify the particular leave(s), roots, stems and animal parts or whole to treat one form of ailment or the other. Dibịa Mgbọrọgwu produces the drugs by boiling, squeezing to extract the juice or pounding to produce a relative solid swallowing drug. In some cases, Dibịa Mgbọrọgwu may combine organic and inorganic materials such as nzu – kaolin, lower animals like snail, lizard, rat another animal parts to produce his drugs. Just like the orthodox medicine men, Dibịa Mgbọrọgwu can cure or take care of sicknesses/health conditions, ranging from mere fever, cholera, physical injuries and burns to higher ones like fibroid, epilepsy, infections, etc. To administer these medicines to the patient, it can come in form of external application of rubbing or incision, inhaling or bathing with the liquid drug. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 237 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays 2.3.4 Dibịa Ọgwụ DibịaỌgwụ is a little bit similar to dibịa mgbọrọgwu na mkpaakwụkwọ, but with some additional motifs. This is the traditional medicine man who performs mysterious acts such as afflicting target subjects with diabolical ailments. Through his diabolic way and material eliminate life in form of poison or abstract waves. Some other traditional medicines from DibịaỌgwụ could be used as protective measures from enemy attacks, both humans and spiritual, preserve one‟s destiny, secure long life, maintain progress and prosperity. That is why Ofomata (2007:429) identifies DibịaỌgwụ as traditional medicine man who does medicine in a negative manner that harm or jeopardise the welfare of the people. They can kill, hinder one‟s progress or afflict one with obnoxious diseases that may render one useless throughout the person‟s life time. Ofomata describes them as evil traditional medicine men. In the Igbo traditional life, it is assumed that DibịaỌgwụ eats with both left and right hand, simply because he prepares medicines both to kill, destroy, maim and to save at the same time. He makes medicines to afflict diseases and neutralize it another way. The materials for this kind of medicines are usually very strange and out of reach of the prospective clients. Therefore, the medicine man is expected to source the materials while the client pays. Finally, the duties of these forms of traditional medicine institutions are closely related, except in their philosophy. They are related in the sense that, one may refer a client to the other depending on the nature of the ailment or needs. The materials and manner of administering medications may be or almost the same to achieve the common goal of cure and maintenance of health and posterity. Though they are similar, they equally disagree in their philosophy; some believe that they are master of all trades, they can diagnose, sacrifice, administer drugs and even do the work of the DibịaỌgwụ, no need for referral to the other specialist. Again, many traditional medical practitioners are people without western education, who rather acquired the knowledge and use of plant medicine and their effects on human body from their forefathers, and guard against any kind of intrusion. They equally protect the therapeutic knowledge by keeping it secret thereby hindering the spread and posterity of this important indigenous knowledge in the traditional medicine institution. In some cases, they transfer information only to direct offspring and relations with a family circle just to make sure the knowledge remains an aspect of family identity. Again, it is noticed that the four aspects of the traditional medicine institution is closely related in their practices – to take care of people‟s health condition, either for diagnosis, healing and prevention. But, at times, one aspect tries to carry out what the other is supposed to. For example, dibịaafa who diagnoses a health condition, supposed to refer the client to the dibia mgbọrọgwụ na mkpaakwụkwọ or dibịa Ọgwụ as the case may be. Some of them believe that they can do what the other dibịa can do thereby making some mistakes through trials and errors that may not give the adequate and expected result. 3.0 Analysis of Data 3.1 Traditional medicine Institution In Onyekaọnwụ’s Plays The traditional medicine institution as traditional medicine practitioner appears in the form of dibịa afa, dibịa aja, dibịa mgbọrọgwu na mkpaakwụkwọ and dibịa ọgwụ. Dibịa afa is known as the „diviner‟; dibịa aja is the sacrificial healers/ritual practitioner; dibịa mgbọrọgwu na mkpaakwụkwọ is the „herbalist‟; while dibịaọgwụ is the occult. This study reveals various places Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 238 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays and forms these aspects of the dibịa institution appear in Onyekaọnwụ‟s plays namely: Nwata Rie Awo (1979), Ọkụ Ghara Ite (1994), Ọkụ Uzu Daa Ibube (1991) and Eriri Mara Ngwugwu (1985). 3.1.1 Dibịa Afa - The Diviner In the plays of Onyekaọnwu, there are many instances the work of dibịa afa are shown. In Nwata Rie Awọ, page 82, Onyekaọnwụ shows how Otikpọ advices Awọrọ to go to dibịa afa the diviner, to find out the cause of his predicaments. Otikpo: Awọrọ enyi m! gaa be dibịa afa: Awọrọ my friend! Go to a diviner Dibịa afa ka m na-ekwu, ọ bụghị dibịa ọgwu. I mean a diviner not an occult Ebe ị ga-achọpụta ihe mere ebe – Where you will find out whathappened here Ọ bụ a mataodu mbamba – When you get the cause E wee chọwa, mpụmpụ - You will look for a solution. (page 82, Acts 5, Scene 1) Here, Awọrọ is faced with an unpalatable situation that he knows neither the cause nor the solution. So his friend, Otikpo advices him to consult a diviner who will look into the matter and correct those anomalies in his life. Ezikeojiaku (2000:69) basing his argument on the theory of indigenous knowledge claims that dibịa afa uses various methods to communicate with the spirit world, ancestors and deities in order to solve a client‟s problem(s). The theory also has it that dibịa afa connects to the spirits and receives guidance which is what Awọrọ needs at this point in time. Further in the play, Onyekaọnwụ shows the real act of divination by the dibịa afa precisely: Dibịa afa: Afọ, nkwọ, eke, orie, ahịa nanọ - Afo, nkwọ, eke, orie four market days Ubọchi nanọ - four days. Ọkara turu, o turu ọfa – idiomatic expression Ọfa turu ọkara ọ mụta oturu – idiomatic expression Hei, Hei, Hei, anya ahụọ m mmụọ - Hei, Hei, Hei, my eyes has seen spirits Chineke ekwela ihe ọjọọ - God forbid person‟s evil. Sịnụ Chineke ekwelaihe ọjọọ - Ask God to forbid evil. (page 90, Acts 5, Scene 2) Dibịa afa uses the ancestral language – idioms and proverbs to express/interpret his message to the people, which the theory of indigenous knowledge also identifies. In his play,Ọkụ Ghara Ite, Onyekaọnwụ calls dibịa afa a visioner in Act 2, Scene 1, where Ukpabi consults Okagbuo the visioner who does the same work with the diviner. Okagbuo: Nwa m, ihe m hụrụ n’abalị gara aga – My child, what I saw last night. N’isi gị abụghị ihe a ga-eji ọnụ kọ- Concerning you, cannot be explained. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 239 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays Ọ dị ndị na-akpa nkata igbu gị - there are some people who are planning to kill you. Ọ bụghị taa, ọ bụrụ echi – If it is not today, it will be tomorrow Ejiri m anya m abụọ, ọ bụghị na nrọ - I saw it with my two eyes, not dream ( page 49, Act 2, Scene 1) Immediately, the same visioner that identifies the problem, proffers a solution which is supposed to be the duty of the other dibịa medicine man. Okagbuo: Taa, n’abalị taa, kpọkọrọ nwunye gị - Today, this night, take your wife Na ụmụ gị, si obodo a gbapụ - And your children, escape from the town Gbagaa ala ebe ndị ọ bụla sitere – To anywhere, people from Obodo a agaghị ahụ gị anya wee ruo – This town will not see you Ihe dịka afọ iri – For about ten years (page 50, Act 2, Scene 1) This goes in line with the opinon of the theory of indigenous knowledge that dibịa afa plays the role of maintaining balance and harmony in the Igbo society, reflecting Igbo cosmology and philosophy. Since there is no other solution to his problem, Okagbuo asks Ukpabi to go on selfexile to another town called Kakanda. In the text Ọkụ Ụzụ Daa Ibube, Onyekaonwu does not portray traditional medicine institution as much as in the other plays of his. However, in Act 2, Scene 1 page 16 the elders of the land consult dibịa afa to find out the cause of the omen that befall the land. The dibịa afa tells them that their deity Amadịọha and the „land‟ are angry with them that brought about the random and untimely death among the people. Eze Omaliko: …Onye ọbụla jiri anya ya abụọ - Everybody used their twoeyes: Hụrụ mkpampa Amadịọha na ala Isuebu – saw what Amadịọha and the land of Isuebu Kpasara ụmụ Isuebu abalị ole na ole gara aga – did few days ago. Were ya mara na iwe ha dị ọkụ - By that learn that they are angry N’ebe anyị nọ - With us, (Page 15, Act 1, Scene 1) Because of this, they (the people of Isuebu) seek the services of dibịa afa who reveals the cause of the bad omen. When it seems that the people of Isuebu are delaying in averting the situation, one of the elders of the land reminds them what the dibịa afa tells them to do. Chikezie: site n’ihe ndị anyị nụrụ ugbu a – From all that we have just heard Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 240 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays Dibịa afa kwuru – The diviner said Anyị amatala na ihe na-ebe – We observed that what is happening Na-eberịrị ………… is still happening. ( page 16, Act 1, Scene 1) This shows that dibịa afa actually identifies the mystic occurrences among the living. In line with Ubesie‟s (2004:186) submissions, this supports the theory of indigenous knowledge which promotes greater understanding and appreciation of African culture. In addition, in the text Eriri Mara Ngwugwu, Onyekaọnwu shows the services of dibịa afa in pages 61, 63 and 65 respectively. In this play, dibịa afa is referred to as „a prophet‟ and according to his performance in the text, a prophet is a religious man who is with the Supreme Being and can speak on behalf of that Supreme Being. Nọọsụ: Olee ihe mmere – See what I did Ụwa jiri bụrụ m ogwu na uke? – The world is like a thorn to me Ka m gakene be prọfeetị anyị - Let me go to our prophet‟s house. Mata ma ọ ga-enye aka – Find out whether he will help Ime ka ibu arọ a – To make this heavy burden M bu n’obi dajụlata – I bear in my mind lighten (Page 61, Act 3, Scene 2) Here, this character is confused about her experiences in the life she is living – things are not going on well with her and so she wants some clarifications; this made her to go to the prophet. Ezikeojiaku (2000:69) explains that diviner considers the past, looks into the future in order to correct some anomalies in a person‟s life and the indigenous knowledge theory has it that the dibịa afa connects with the spirit world to receive guidance on how to better the life of the people. In page 63, Onyekaonwu shows how the prophet carries out the real act of divination which he calls prayer ekpere. Ekpere: Ana m akpọ gị - I call upon you Ka ị rịdata ugbua – That you come now Bịa nụrụ arịrịọ nwa gị - Hear the plea of your child Gbadata bịa nụrụ ekpere nwa gị - Descend and listen to prayer Ka ha ra bụ ihe ndị - All those things Na-emekpa ya ahụ - troubling her Amusu, ajo mmụọ, ekwensu elu – Witches, evil spirit, satan of the sky. Na nke ala – And the one of the land. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 241 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays (Page 63, Act 3, Scene 2) When the diviner is in the act of divination, his language (use of words) automatically changes to the one unknown to the client, which he (the diviner) later interprets with a language an ordinary man can understand in line with Okeogu (2017:144) that in medical domain, diviner – (dibịa afa)uses specialised language in communicating with the unseen forces (spirit world). And the theory of indigenous knowledge explores the language of the diviner – (dibịa afa) as being idioms and a form of traditional expressions that are beyond the assimilation of the client. Lastly, on page 65s, the diviner expresses what he observes in a way the client will be able to comprehend because the client does not have the spiritual eyes and ears to see and hear the spirits which the diviner discussed with in his divination. Bụrọda Ọsai: Ka a na-ekpere gị ekpere – As the prayer was going on Ahụrụ m ndị mmụọ ọzọ – I saw other angels Ka ha bịara gbaa gị okirikiri – As they surrounded you …setan bịa, were mma agha – Satan came with his sword Chụsasịa ha – And scatters them …Ahụrụ m ebe etinyere gị n’igbe ozu – I saw as they put you in coffin Na-akwado itinye gị n’ime ala – About to put you in the grave Ma ọ dị ndị na-adọ - But there are those hindering them Ka a ghara itinye igbe ahụ n’ime ala – That the coffin will not be lowered to the grave (Page 65, Act 3, Scene 2) The diviner here, is able to identify why things are not going on well with the nurse. The dibịa afa casts his cowry seeds which Onyekaọnwụ modernises as candle and incense on the ground within a circle and makes some chants and evocations (prayers). After this, he will interpret the act from the position of the cowry seeds. He also holds ọfọ – the staff of justice and equity, which Onyekaọnwụ calls the bible and holds in his hand to prove to his client, justice and equity in their transaction. To look deeply into the practices of dibịa afa (the diviner), one may wonder how the diviner is able to study the positions of the ordinary cowry seeds cast on the ground tell him the message he wants for the client; using various methods to communicate with the spirits (dead ancestors) and other deities. He then interprets the messages received from them to the clients. This is purely indigenous and transmitted from generation to generation according to their experiences and practices. Dei (2004:38) says that the indigenous knowledge and wisdom emerge as people‟s experiences and the interactions with the social and natural world in which they live increase. All of these also support the theoretical concerns of ecocriticism which looks into the Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 242 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays interaction and relationship between this natural/physical word and the people within a particular environment and time. 3.1.2 Dibịa Aja: The Sacrifice Priest This is the traditional medicine man whose duty is to perform sacrifices or worship to appease the gods and deities of the land. Dibịa aja specializes in performing sacrifices, rituals and communicates with the ancestors, gods and deities of the community. When a traditional Igbo man is in doubt of the future (what tomorrow will bring), concerning a journey to be embarked upon, an adventure to go into or faced with an ugly situation, he goes to dibịa afa to make inquiries. It could be that the client needs to appease his chi, agwụ, ikenga or other deities. It could also be for a bumper harvest, blessing of child bearing or to avert one calamity or the other that want to/befall the land or an individual. It is there and then that the dibịa aja comes in to perform his duty of sacrificing priest to the deity responsible for that occurrence/event at that particular time. However, Onyekaọnwụ does not show much of this aspect of traditional medicine institution in his plays.Thus,they can only be seen , in two out of the four plays under study. In the play entitled e, Ọkụ Ghara Ite pages 23 and 50, the activities of dibịa aja are exhibited. The chairman (onye isi oche) of Iduma cult asks Ụkpabi to sacrifice his wife to Oduma in order to be rich. Onye isi oche: Mazị Ukpabi, ị ga-egbu nwunye gị - Mr. Ukpabi, you will kill your wife. Beta ire ya ma ghụtakwa mkpụrụ anya – Cut the tongue and pluck the eye balls Ya abụọ chitara Oduma - The two and bring to Oduma. (Page 23, Act 1, Scene 2) Ordinarily, items for sacrifices are supposed to be animals like goats, chickens, dogs, and so on. At times, food items such as kolanut, bitter kola, alligator pepper, yams, cocoyam, fruits and vegetables according to the theory of indigenous knowledge. But in this case, Ụkpabi is asked to kill his wife for sacrifice to Oduma which the theory of indigenous knowledge calls ritual performance, and the practitioners are called ritualist (a branch of sacrifice priest). During the time of such performance, dibịa aja calls upon the deities by their brave names and efforts, narrates the good stories of the past in order to arouse their willingness to hearken and/or accept the sacrifice or plea. In Eriri Mara Ngwugwu, Onyekaọnwụ shows how sacrifice is done by the prophet for the nurse when things are not going on well with her. The prophet who is also the sacrifice priest asks her (the nurse) to bring some items like five white pigeon, six red candles and one bottle of olive oil. Profeeti: Mgbe ị ga-abịa, ị ga-eweta – When you are coming, bring Pijin ọcha ise – Five white pigeon Pakeeti kandụlụ meei mmei isii – Six red packets of candles Na otu ekpem oliivu oyili – And one bottle of olive oil Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 243 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays (Page 67, Acts 3, Scene 2) When all these are made available, the prophet makes the sacrifice by killing the pigeon and sprinkles the blood on the altar or shrine, light the candle and incense too in such a way that it is obviously seen that a sacrifice of blood is being carried out there. Onyekaọnwụ fails to show that specifically in his narration. Normally, when performing his duty of sacrifice, priest to the gods, dibịa aja goes to the shrine and decorates himself with all the necessary costumes that will make him commune adequately with the spirits. The dibịa aja uses chants, incantations and evocations to call on the deity/spirit to accept the sacrifice so that things will augur well with the people as in the case of the nurse. Prọfeetị: Ma i mechasịa ihe ndịa – When all these are done A gwara gị - As you are told Ndị Igwe ga-atọpụ gị - Heaven will loose you from the chain Agbụ ha kere gị - They chained you with (Page 67, Acts 3, Scene 2) Here, the prophet assures his client (the nurse) of being liberated from the bondage of enemy that makes her not to prosper in life. This means that the divinity has accepted the sacrifice and ready to lose their holds on the client. 3.1.3 Dibịa Mgbọrọgwu na Mkpaakwụkwọ - The Herbalist This is regarded as traditional medicine man whose duty is to take care of health challenges with natural plants growing within the environment. This medical doctor handles any kind of ailment with leaves, roots and stems of medicinal plants and animals of high and low species. All these are drugs for one health challenge or the other; it is left for the herbalist to identify and administer the right drug(s) to the right case of the client. To emphasise the duties of dibịa mgbọrọgwụ na mkpaakwụkwọ, Onyekaọnwụ, prominent Igbo playwright shows this in three out of the four plays under study. In the play Nwata Rie Awọ, the playwright in page 84 shows where Awọrọ (character) advices the wife on the act of taking herbal drugs. Awọrọ: Ana m eche na ị ga-akwụsịgodu – I am think you will stop Ịnụ ọgwụ ahịhịa ndị ahụ ị na-anụ - Taking those herbal drugs you have been takeing. Ka a gaa be dibịa afa wee – For us to go to the diviner Chọpụtacha ojije akụ na ọlịla akụ - To find out in and out Emechaa, nye ndị mmụọ ihe ha – After that, give the spirits their thing. (Page 84, Act 5 Scene 1) Here, Odinchefu, the wife of Awọrọ has been taking herbal medicines without getting any positive result which may be as a result of not taking the right step that is going to a diviner dibịa afa for diagnosis before the dibịa mgbọrọgwu administers his drugs for more positive result. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 244 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays Moreso, Okunade (2010:67) emphasises that the role of the diviner dibịa afa is very important in healing process. In Ọkụ Ghara Ite, Page 76 Onyekaọnwụ indicates the healing process with herbal medicines at the commentary section of the play, by a passerby (onye na-agafe) who sees Akachukwu lying helplessly on the ground. (Ka ọ nọzi na-eti mkpu a, otu onye na-agafe Ụzọ wee nụ ya wee gbagara. Mgbe ọ na-ajụ ya Ihe mere ya ma na-ekelekwa ya, ọ na-ehileke naanị n’isi, ọ dịghị ihe o kwuru, karịa ka e duru ya ozigbo gawa be dibịa ahịhịa As he is bewailing, a passerby heard. As he asked him what happened, he only shaked his head without speaking any word, only that he should take him to the herbalist immediately). (Page 76, Act 2, Scene 5) Onyekaonwu represents the importance of herbal medicine as the only and quickest remedy to a dying or unconscious client. The moment the drug is administered, the dying life comes back to life just as Adodo (2000:15) says. What he refers to life here is all the fresh natural plant growing around our environment and the theory of indigenous knowledge investigates the knowledge and wisdom of the dibịa mgbọrọgwu which enables him to identify the particular plants (leaves, roots and stems) that should be applied to a particular health challenge and healing will occur. The theory goes further to say that the knowledge and wisdom is instinctive in man and passed down from generation to generation. The ecocriticism theory says that it is how human actions affect the environment and dibịa mgbọrọgwu‟s efforts to mitigate or restore balance within a given situation and circumstance. Still on healing through the use of herbal drugs, Onyekaọnwụ, in his play Eriri Mara Ngwugwu pages 10 and 82 illustrates how effective herbal drugs are when administered. In page 10, Onyekaọnwụ shows that herbalist can move from place to place with his herbal drugs to reach out to those that don‟t have easy access to the dibịa‟s residential place. Acha: Ọ dapụrụ dimkpa, too, na-enwu – A fair huge man O nwere akara dị ya na nti aka nri – He has a mark on his right cheek O nwere ike ịdị ihe dị ka – He may be about Afọ iri anọ na ise ma ọ bụ karịa – Forty five years or more Ọ sịrị na aha ya bụ Okwuike Ogbunanjọ - He said that his name is Okwuike Ogbunanjo Na ya bụ nwadibia ahịhịa – And he is a herbalist Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 245 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays (Page 10, Act 4, Scene 2) Here, Acha who Onyekaonwu does not tell us whether he is dibịa afa that is referring a client Oriaku Okwundụ or just an ordinary referrer is directing his client to go to his dibịa mgbọrọgwụ dibịa ahịhịa. According to Onyekaọnwụ term is get some herbal medicines which he assumes to be a remedy to her problem. In page 82, dibịa mgbọrọgwụ na mkpaakwụkwọ which Onyekaọnwụ simply calls dibịa ahịhịa is represented. Ochonganooko: Onye Iduma a mara ama – A well known Iduma citizen N’ihe gbasara ahịhịa ọgwu – In herbal medicines Ziri ka m dute gị - Asked me to bring you mụ na gị Na o nwere ọgwụ ya ga-enye – For there is a medicine he will give you and I Ka nwa nwoke anyị na-achọ achọ - That the male chile we are looking for Wee rute anyị aka na-atufughị oge – Will be ours The play shows here that dibịa mgbọrọgwu na mkpaakwụkwọ takes care of all sorts of ailment including infertility and even the particular gender one wants as Ọchọnganooke the character says. According to the Igbo culture, not having male child is an ugly human experience which may cause emotional trauma in the family. Both husband and wife don‟t relent in search of how and where to go to get some medications to remedy the situation That is why the principle and practice of ecocriticism says that dibịa mgbọrọgwụ addresses the physical, spiritual and emotional ailment of the people and community. Supported by the theory of indigenous knowledge that the Igbo cultural values and practices are preserved by dibịa mgbọrọgwu who fits into the larger ecological context of the environment, using natural plants and other elements for healing and ensure community wellness. However, according to World Health Organization (1996), Nigeria is the 11th largest known developing country for medicinal plants and that is why dibịa mgbọrọgwụ has extensive knowledge of plant medicines and it is deeply rooted in Igbo culture and traditional practices. The theory of indigenous knowledge says that the ability to cure one ailment or the other with ordinary leave, root, stem and animal parts procured from the environment requires traditional man of highly intelligent level in tradition and traditional practices. Then, ecocriticism examines this environmental interactions and relationship that help to promote the well-being of the people and community. 3.1.4 Dibịa Ọgwu: This is the traditional medicine man who makes the kind of medicines that kills which Ofomata (2007:429) describes as „dibịa nsi‟ – negative doctor. They are well known for negative medicines that kills (poison), afflict obnoxious diseases, madness, leprosy, elephantiasis and so on just to harm and jeopardise the life of the people. Nevertheless, dibịa ọgwụ does medicines that strengthens and gives/mpowers one to accomplish some special assignment or achievement life as Onyekaọnwụ represents in his Nwata Rie Awọ page 30. Awọrọ: Nnaa ekelee m gị - I greet you, father Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 246 Eze, Mabel Nkechinyere; An Appraisal of the Dibia institution And traditional Medicine As A Style In Goddy Onyeakaọnwụ‟s Plays Ejikwa m ohere nke a na-echetara gị - I use this opportunity to remind you Na nwadibịa ahụ ga-egbuchi m ahụ - That the medicine man for transdermal drug Maka mgba a m na-akwadebe – Against the wrestling I‟m preparing ịgba ga-abịa n’ụtụtụ a – Will come this morning (Page 30, Act 2, Scene 1) This medicine given to Awọrọ really strengthens Awọrọ into success by defeating his opponent (Akatoosi) in the wrestling competition. Oha Mmadụ: …N’ikpaeazu, Awọrọ ebulie Akatosi – At last, Awọrọ carried Akatosi Amangwu wee were ọnụ gaa – Amagwu left with joy Bulie Awọrọ dọwasa n’ubu na – Carried Awọrọ on the shoulder agụ egwu mmeri – And sing the song of victory Awọrọ uses this medicine to revitalize himself for the fight, not physical strength, tactics, agility or skill but just with ordinary transdermal drugs made with some obnoxious materials like abuba ugo (eagle feather), ọji ugo asaa (white eagle kolanut) eze agụ (lion‟s teeth), otu egbenu ọkụkọ (one cock and out udu mmanya (one drum of palm wine) page 30. The materials for this kind of medicine are usually very strange and out of the reach of prospective clients, therefore it behooves the medicine man to source the materials while the client pays. Finally, the traditional medicine in Igbo culture comes through the services of traditional medicineinstitution which comes in four forms - dibịa afa – the diviner/visioner, dibịa aja – the sacrifice priest, dibịa mgbọrọgwu namkpaakwụkwọ - the herbalist and dibịa ọgwụ - the fettish doctor. Their duties are inter-related that a process may not be completed without referral while some assume to be master of all, handling almost all the duties of others. The medicines of the dibịa could come in form of mere sacrifice, syrup, solid, power or body wash. At times, it comes as a substance blown in the air/spread on the ground or by abstract wave according to the case and need of the client. (Ofomata, 2013:438). Conclusion The study examined dibiainstitution as a unique style in the written plays of Goddy Onyekaonwu. It showcased the four aspects of the traditional medicine institution namely, dibia afa, dibia aja, dibia mgbọrọgwụ and dibia ọgwụ. Dibia afa the diviner is the native doctor that diagonises the clients‟ through divination to explain the causes and solution to the problem, dibia aja the sacrifice priest performs all the necessary sacrifices for atonements and request to gods/deities, dibia mgbọrọgwụ na mkpaakwụkwọ the herbalist uses herbs and animal parts to take care of the health conditions of patients while dibia ọgwụ the medicine man is the one that does evil medicine that may mar or make people‟s life. Two literary theories were used to examine the study. The eco criticism theory which looks at the interaction between nature and the physical environment and the theory of indigenous knowledge which pays more attention to the unique traditional knowledge and perspectives of indigenous cultures. Finally, four plays of Goddy Onyekaọnwụ were analysed to show the activities of various aspects of dibia which according to the study has a sole objective of health care management. 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[email protected]ABSTRACT This article applies a geo-spatial analysis to Chimamanda Adichie’s Americanah and posits that historical memory is culpable in global relationships, especially where it involves blacks and the sites of their colonialisms. The novel charts a route of migration which traverses the Atlantic Ocean and has historical relevance and the potential to define black bodies within a global context. The methodology adopted was a systematic close reading where significant geographical sites were logged and their respective contextual data analysed to reveal their thematic relevance. Findings: the study, through the lens of Digital Geography, reveals a cartographic analysis of realities that are etched on the fabric of home within global consciousness, slavery, colonialism, and neo-colonialism. This study further asserts that the crisscross between Nigeria, America and the United Kingdom adumbrates a cartography of identity, race and agency that is definitive with far-reaching implications. Experiences in the ‘new world’ forces characters to apprehend race, its rigid borders, its socio-economic implications, and the constraining topography African bodies must navigate in order to become and belong. Crisscrossing the Middle Passage unveils historical and contemporary experiences where blacks become aware of race, identity and agency. Thus, Americanah is a novel that delineates the new coordinates for Black Bodies on the global stage. Keywords: Geospatial, Migration, Literary Cartography, Identity, Black, Diaspora, Colonial, Postcolonial INTRODUCTION In all ramifications humans are mobile. From the earliest beginnings to the present, mobility eventuates human‟s essential personality; always moving from one physical space to another, from one essential reality to another, and evolving from one state to another, mobility is an intrinsic part of our humanity. The concept of home has never been defined by „static‟. Home to humans is anywhere acceptable shelter is, anywhere acceptable sustenance is found and anywhere sufficient resources can be found to suit needed purpose. Humans, therefore, are always in search of home. Home is at once a physical and psychological reality; it is a physical place and a mindscape where acceptable reality is perceived, pursued and eventuated. Most literatures paint a picture of „home‟ as perceived or as desired: the physical and the emotional space. The degree to which one succeeds in apprehending these spaces determines one‟s success in life. The picture of home one Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 250 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah conceives and ultimately apprehends is a direct map of one‟s emotional, social, economic and physical trajectories, and these illustrate the arcs of one‟s experiences. A veritable map of „home‟ shows an essentialized topography that is instructive and illustrative of growth; home is never a single location or destination as it is in continuous flux and perpetually creative. Home is at once a topography and a tapestry of memory, emotion, people, places, and connotes, at many levels, comfort and acceptance, sanctuary, nostalgia and longing, family and loved ones, community, self-acceptance, and many more. Many factors have affected the picture and site of home; economic, social political, and religious factors have often determined where individuals call home, especially where forced displacements necessitate the movement of peoples from their original homes, becoming immigrants in a new location and adopting “a hyphenated condition of identity” (Hassan 180); a new home means a new location, but not just a new home but a new home that is imbued with dual personalities, hence the „hyphenated‟ identity. Hassan agrees that the search for home is germane and part of the DNA of our modern world when he asserts that, “the problem of belonging and searching for home is one of the characteristics of our modern mobile world” (173). Mobility thus is an essential aspect of home in that it engenders and eventuates a rootlessness that is almost endemic in the Global South sites, which sites have traditionally been impoverished by slavery, colonialism, imperialism and racism. These factors stripped inhabitants of these sites of the vestiges of personhood even as they denuded them of capacities needed to create comfort in their traditional home sites. Diaspora, therefore, is a product of a rootlessness that is occasioned by a loss of the determinate properties that allow for the building of a safe and sustainable home. Between slavery, colonialism, imperialism, neo-imperialism and globalization, individuals in the global south have had the comfort of home taken away from them, forcing them to seek pastures new in order to arrive at a measure of livable comfort. DIASPORA: A HISTOGRAPHY The history of Diaspora can be traced to the conquest of Judah in about 586 BCE when the Jews were enslaved and dispersed to many nations as recorded in the books of 2 kings 24:14; 2 kings 25:11-12; Jeremiah 52:30; Psalm 137; Ezekiel; Jeremiah 29, 2 Chronicles 36:22-23, etc of the Bible. Later in about 70 CE the Romans destroyed the temple and dispersed the Jewish across the Roman Empire. In the 20th Century we have had the African Diaspora starting with the slave trade to colonialism, imperialism; between 1915 to Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 251 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah 1917 the Ottoman Empire instituted a genocide that resulted in the mass killing and expulsion of Armenians; the Irish Diaspora necessitated by the Great Famine of 1845 – 1852; the late 20th and 21st centuries saw a new type of Diaspora resulting from wars, transnationalism, globalization, and post-colonialism. The diaspora of the late 20th and 21st centuries were basically labor, trade, cultural and imperial diasporas whose relocation of home were extrinsic rather than intrinsic; they pursued what the non-native home could offer them which the native home could not. Often times these were pursuit of education, commerce, the golden fleece, and a pursuit of “circulating imaginaries about them” (Salazar 576), which imaginaries are usually written in clichéd literature that attracts and titillates the reader into wanting to experiencing what is detailed in them. REVIEW OF SCHOLARSHIP Majority of members of any diaspora are faced with myriads of problems, some of which include trauma, displacement, loss of connectivity, and transnationalism that dislocates rather than locate; Hassan observes that, “the immigrants thought they were going home, but reality appeared to be very different from the myth” (182). The trauma of displacement, mistreatment, racism, loss of connection, poverty, etc. became a fact of life that they needed to negotiate daily. This negotiation sometimes results in a decision to return, either voluntarily or forced. Alatas and Slama offer that, “returns are part and parcel of diasporas. They constitute a special from of mobility, and yet they entail much more than geographical or physical movement” (411). We see characters in most diaspora literatures returning home for one reason or the other; sometimes permanently and sometimes to touch base in order to reaffirm their identity and heal from the trauma of their diaspora experiences. These returning and re-imbedding do not occur without friction: the reason for wanting to return may result from certain frictions within the diaspora communities, and returning into a native communities may also eventuate frictions; “communities maintain boundaries” (Alatas and Slama 416), boundaries perhaps equivalent to the stages of transition that encompass the three stages of existence in Yoruba mythology which worldview displays three distinct stages of existence, namely the living, the dead/ancestors and the living. These distinct stages are circumscribed by a fourth stage, what Wole Soyinka calls “the Immeasurable gulf of transition” (26) which can only be accessed when humans are “stripped of excrescences” and subject themselves to “transitional memory” (27). Thus, therefore, humans exist in a cyclic continuum that evinces a going and coming. No location is in situ; every location exist in transition. Conditions of our humanity create a transit-complex that Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 252 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah ensures that humans are always seeking out sites of relative improved comfort. However, the same conditions that elicit transitions can coax an individual to return to their original sites, either permanently or briefly. METHODOLOGY The methodology for this study is integrative where a mixed method geospatial/postcolonial analysis of Adichie‟s Americanah is done; a traditional and systematic close reading revealed locations that were tagged with their associated characters and characteristics. The data retrieved form the geodatabase from where an interpretation of the text is carried out in line with the theoretical frameworks. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Immigration of humans from point „a‟ to „b‟ is geographical as well as economic and social; our humanity is one large laboratory where „specimens‟ are planted, replanted and deplanted for economic and geographical reasons. Thus, Literary Geography, an interdisciplinary area of study that straddles literary studies and human geography, is a concept that explores the relationship between places, space and literature; not only does it indicated where stories are, it also interrogates how place affects narrative, character and the meaning that we glean from them. Again, literary geography considers how literature creates and shapes our conception, experience and appreciation of real and imagined places. Doreen Massey posits that “what gives a place its specificity is not some long internalized history but the fact that it is constructed out of a particular constellation of social relations, meeting and weaving together at a particular locus” (Massay Power… 66). As has been stated earlier, a place is constantly being made and remade as experiences from diverse backgrounds meet and interact, that is, a place is always becoming, always shaped by global forces. An immigrant, for instance, in a limbo and devoid of traditional connection or earthings is imperiled and impeded. Immigration is a geographic exercise, and its depiction in literature delineates a geographic experience of characters as they move from one point of experience to another, and how each point determines the type and extent of experience experienced. In Chinua Achebe‟s Things Fall Apart, for instance, Okoronkwo‟s travails are geo-tagged: his experiences may be studied by his movement from his native land to the site of his exile and back to his native land. Each of these sites elicit and eventuate distinct experiences and outcomes, and thus become not just idle settings but active characters that shape Okonkwo‟s Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 253 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah psychology and fate. From this we see one essential and poignant detail that stands out, which is that space is not idle nor is it neutral; a welter of tragic interiorization overwhelms Okonkwo in his exile in Mbanta and this intensifies his personal tragedy, engenders a collision of cultures, heightens his sense of humiliation and loss of status. Yi-Fu Tuan observes that “place is a center of meaning constructed by experience” (152) and we see this especially evident in Okonkwo‟s case, where Mbanta becomes a meaningful location, laden with cultural and personal information that writes an overflow of tragic emotions into the life of an erstwhile impeccable young man . Where for an immigrant in a racist locale place is tainted by parochial racial prejudices, for the natives, “it is the sphere of everyday, of real and valued practices, the geographical source of meaning, vital to hold on to as “the global” spins its ever more powerful and alienating webs” (Massey, For Space… 5-6). The work of the writer is therefore cut out for them to ensure that these records of place, space and experience are carefully annotated since the writer, in the words Robert Tally Jr, “is a cartographer… mapping unknown or poorly known territories for the reader” (5). The writer thus is a cartographer, especially when they use their narrative to create a map of experiences, which map direct the reader‟s perception, understanding and empathy, just like a map would guide a traveler through an unknown site. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS/ANALYSIS OF DATA Chimamanda Adichie in Americanah mentions about forty six (46) major places: 14 in America; 4 places in UK; 4 in Europe; one in Canada; one in Jamaica; 5 in Africa and 10 in Nigeria. Place names are mentioned about 266 times in the text. (See figure below). Some of these places are political sites, while some are educational sites (Princeton and Yale, for instance). The vast canvas of Americanah is at once an illustration of travel experience and “a way of charting the world, of imposing a grid on experience, of locating oneself and others in a potentially confusing world” (Tally 5) Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 254 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah Literary geography sees “literary works (as serving) a cartographic function by creating a figurative or allegorical representation of a social space…” (Tally “On Literary …”3).Americanah as a narrative evinces a two-dimensional spatiality that is at once physically and subjectively measurable, and both illustrate personal, separate experience and the social construction of space through vicarious personal and communal experiences. The 266 mentions of actual spaces in the novel is essentially “a mere representation of space and place, whose function is to help the … reader or writer make sense of the world‟ (Tally “On Literary 4). As a map is useful to a traveler so is a novel to the reader; the novel guides the reader to spaces, and in those spaces, illustrate vicarious spatial experiences and their symbolism. THE SMELLS OF AMERICAN DREAM Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, in Americanah, deploys a deliberate geographical template to visualize and normatively deconstruct the western notion of immigration as monolithic and the inseparable relationship between immigration, race and identity. As the protagonists keep moving, they keep changing; every new space arrived at, every new experience experienced, is the characters‟ attempt to negotiate their identity within evolving spaces. Americanah is a novel that jostles with space; on the very first page in chapter1, Adichie mentions eleven place names; Ifemela, the protagonist, has vast travel experience and her itinerary sounds like a travel board of diverse experience: Princeton, in the summer, smelled of nothing…. Philadelphia had the Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 255 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah Musty scent of history. New Haven smelled of neglect. Baltimore smelled of brine, and Brooklyn of sun-warmed garbage. But Princeton had no smell. She liked taking deep breaths here…. But she did not like that she had to go to Trenton to braid her hair (13) The map she presents here is an olfactory spread that delineates the various smells of certain American cities; each of these smells and their respective cities represent levels of personal experiences. Princeton has no smell because she came into a measure of financial and social ease there: She liked the campus, grave with knowledge, the Gothic buildings with their vine-laced walls transformed… into a ghostly scene. She liked, most of all, that in this place of affluent ease, she could pretend to be someone else, someone specially admitted into a hallowed American club, someone adorned with certainty (13). Her certainty is a product of a sense of acceptance and contentment with herself and the „crusade‟ she is on in her blog, „Raceteenth or Various Observations About American Blacks (Those Formerly Known as Negroes) by a Non-American Black.‟ Her blog opens a veritable vista from where she explores the underbelly of American race predicament and a human condition designed in America for Americans. Princeton had commandeered a life of ease and freedom for her such that she could sit back, kick up her heels and virtually luxuriate in the American dream, “often, she would sit in cafes, or airports, or train stations, watching strangers, imagining their lives, and wondering.” This experience contrasts with her experiences in Philadelphia. Where “New Haven smelled of neglect, Baltimore of brine and Brooklyn of garbage”, they each delineate her experiences in those sites: Philadelphia represents financial hardship, degrading job, racial segregation and breakup with Obinze. The breaking with Obinze is particularly traumatic as it was procured in silence; a sudden cessation of communication. A cutting off. A shutting down of a previously viable, though long-distance, relationship. This shutting down makes her distraught and almost desolate, and this compounds her isolation and marks the lowest ebb of her spirit in America. In Philadelphia she encountered shades of racism, some spiked and open, some veiled and subtle. A case in point, the carpet cleaner who came to clean Kimberly‟s home (where she was babysitting), thinking she, Ifemela, was the homeowner became hostile but became cheery when he realized she was just a help like himself: Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 256 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah It didn‟t matter to him how much money I had. As far as he was concerned I did not fit as the owner of that stately house because of the way I looked. In America‟s public discourse, “Blacks” as a whole are often lumped with “Poor whites” Not Poor blacks and Poor whites. But blacks and Poor whites. A curious thing indeed. (193) Being black and different had made her stick out like a sore thumb and, earlier in her stay in America she had decided to affect an American account in order to blend in. But it did not help because she always found herself in the mix of racism. Ifemela records in her blog post that, “In America, tribalism is alive and well. There are four kinds - class, ideology, region, and race… There‟s a ladder of racial hierarchy in America. White is always on top… American Black is always on the bottom (216). In another blog post, Ifemela writes, “American racial minorities – blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and Jew – all get shit from white folks… so whiteness is the thing to aspire to. (239) Philadelphia represents many shades of loss: loss of her peace of mind on occasion of „poverty‟ and loss of her innocence on occasion of the indelible tryst with the tennis coach that leaves her feeling violated, tainted and depressed, all because she needed to do it to get money to pay her bills. From Philadelphia she moved to Baltimore, Maryland, which she had said “smelled of brine”(13), and according to her, “when she arrived in Baltimore knowing she was going to live there, and not merely visiting Curt, she thought it forlorn and unlovable” (240). Baltimore assured her Independence, academic life, connection, analysis of race, assimilation. In her blog post titled “Why Dark-Skinned Black women – Both American and Non-American – love Barack Obama, (249) Ifemela analyses and tries to understand the depth and complex nature of racism in America, with its various strands of „Indian‟, “ FullBlooded Negroes”, White Greek, Italian, half-Chinese, splash of Cherokee, Non-Black American Blacks, mixed races, all jostling for recognition and superiority. This jostling is essentially because, not succeeding in being white, by skin tone, accent, dress, straightening of hair, the best and only option for non-whites is color-bashing and region-bashing; many non-whites are caught protesting the strand and locale of their „color‟ in such expressions as “stop saying I‟m Jamaican or I‟m Ghanaian”; “Don‟t call me black, I‟m from Trinidad” (235). These protestations are basically evidence of color bleeding and validation due to the region of your color. The Trinidadian feels superior to the West African black and would be quick to assert that superiority. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 257 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah Baltimore is where her race analytics tools are brought to bear on the great American race issue and the nuances of American culture vis a vis „other‟ cultures, speech and identity within her burgeoning sense of self and agency in the diaspora. Her blog becomes the lab through which she assays the racial conundrum that America is. She is well positioned to analyze race and racism because she lives it and has to deal with all of its strands on a daily basis. LONDON: LOSS OF AGENCY AND IDENTITY London rears its head up in a chance encounter between Ifemela and Kayode, one of Obinze‟s friends back in Nigerian. While waiting for her boyfriend, Curt, to bring around the car to pick her Kayode identifies and tries to rekindle memory. While discussing with him she learns that her former boyfriend, Obinze, is in London. London is cold, grey, full of cagey behavior, and false marriages, and for Obinze, London represented failure, first, of his dream to live in America, second, of his mother to stick to her uprightness by lying to ensure that he got a UK visa as her research assistant when he was not, and third, his failure to realize anything worthwhile in the three years of his living in the UK. Obinze discovers, as Chika and Bose his cousin‟s wife‟s friends tell us, that London is a leveler: But it‟s not his fault, it‟s because we are in London. He is the kind of man I would never even look at in Nigeria, not to talk of going out with. The problem is that water never finds its different levels here in London. London is a leveler. We are now all in London and we are now all the same, what nonsense (282) Within the constraints of being black in unprepossessing London, we find evidences of classconsciousness even among the blacks. Chika disparages an Onitsha man because, “he is so bush. He grew up in Onitsha and so you can imagine what kind of bush accent he has” (282); while struggling with racism they are busy with understated striated social classism. London is stark, noncommittal, dispassionate, and everyone is struggling with one form of challenge or the other. London is loss of identity; Obinze becomes Vincent in order to use Vincent‟s national Insurance number to work. His adoption of a false identity is an act of necessity occasioned by his need to find employment that would help him pay his bills and this route is charged with inherent perils as, from an intrinsic perspective, it produces an “alienation of vision and the crisis of self-image” (Ashcroft 9). Of course, his status as an Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 258 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah illegal immigrant had warped any vision of sanity he had had; he had become flotsam on a rough sea of abjection, loss of agency and invisibility. At a dinner in Emenike‟s home, in the company of Emenike‟s British wife, Georgina, and her friends, Obinze discovers the difference between racism in American and Britain. Emenike informs the gathering that, “it seemed to me that in America blacks and whites work together but don‟t play together and here (Britain) blacks and whites play together and don‟t work together” (316). Obinze informs the gathering that: A white boy and a black girl who grow up in the same working-class town in this country can get together and race will be secondary, but in America, even if the white boy and black girl grow up in the same neighborhood, race would be primary (316). From the flow of the conversation, perhaps aided by inebriating spirits and cocktails and rich and affected gourmet dishes, racism and classism are cloaked in double-speak and lethargic labels with even blacks like Emenike deeply immersed in it in other to be accepted by the „owners‟ of the land. Emenike, for instance, evinces a vapidity and insouciance that is disheartening and disconcerting; realizing the profit of being vacuous in his ass-licking, he reaches new heights by totally transforming into a „Brit‟ without the blood or perhaps it is his “While people are watching us”(391) personality, that forces him to be white. After her breaking up with Curt, Ifemela traded Baltimore for New Haven for her personal growth, her love life, her finance, her confidence, and brought an upscale almost academic tint to her life. New haven and Yale presented an academic aura that Ifemela relished and feared. Blaine‟s friends were at once welcoming and critical of her person; they viewed her not really as an outsider but as a butterfly which flew at the periphery of their academe. From Blaine‟s friends and colleagues, to Shan‟s „Salons‟ Ifemela is given first hand recipes of the race situation in America and grist for her blog which centers on racism and being black in myriads of typical American case studies. Obama‟s electioneering and the race hoopla it raises is topical in private as well as public discourses and a blog post titled, “Is Obama Anything but Black?” illustrates this acutely: So lots of folks – mostly non-black- say Obama‟s not black, he‟s biracial, multiracial, black-and-white, anything but just black. Because his mother was white. But race is not biology, race is sociology. (387). What is apparent, like the post shows, is not the shade of black or white that you are. What is really important is how you are socialized. Even the tiniest percentage of black blood in your Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 259 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah vein taints you and paints you as a black, “if a random black guy commits a crime today, Barack Obama could be stopped and questioned for fitting the profile. And what would that profile be? “Black man” (387). A character in Sello Duiker‟s Thirteen Cents, Allen, is described thus, “it‟s that white thing. It just eats him up that he‟s not all white” (25). How white or how black you are on the color spectrum can determine your fate and how much of the human dream you can aspire to realize. Even within the black streak of the spectrum there is disagreements as to who is most authentic and relevant; Blaine‟s tiff with Boubacar is essentially a quarrel steeped in provenance. While many equate Boubacar‟s essential intelligence as fey, Blaine sees it differently, “it‟s interesting how he says ordinary things and thinks they are pretty deep” (388), perhaps affronted by an African black receiving such adulations while he an American black does not. Beyond this light-hearted scrimmage and petty jealousies, is the more fundamental George Floydesque tragedy that plays out when Mr. White, a black security guard at the library, is criminalized in a stereotypical manner all because he is black. Mr. White‟s hellacious experience displays white knees flush on the necks of non-white „others‟, especially blacks. New Haven thus offers Ifemela a more nuanced access into epistemological racism with its dialectics, streams, trajectories and discursive elements. Racism in New Haven is more discursive and academic because important, highly socialized members of the black community can look at it from the vantage of privilege, without the priority of experiencing it; there is a one-way-glass experience that allows them to see others experience racism while they „academicize‟ its effect and social implications, hemmed in with subtle jibes, selfdeprecating anecdotes and nuanced responses. LAGOS: LOUD AND UNAPOLOGETIC It is in Lagos that Ifemela is christened Americanah. Lagos is loud in its protestation of serenity. It is defiant in its commerce: its exuberance is flailing, virulent, and protuberant; “Ifemela stared out of the windows, … thinking how unpretty Lagos was, roads infested with potholes, houses springing up unplanned like weeds. Of her jumble of feelings, she recognized only confusion” (438). Lagos is effusive in its display of wealth. Ikoyi is wealth and money, Onikan is “faded splendor” (454). Lagos highlights a change in Ifemela‟s personality as “she always heard the unnatural high pitch of her voice” (455). Lagos harbors many streams of people: "young women... with unknown sources of wealth... who live lives they can't afford"(478); "...DSTV images would get grainy, phone networks would clog, the Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 260 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah roads would flood and traffic would snarl"(482); "gaudy garlands of security at the entrance(s)" (483) at banks; Lagos is "a transactional city... Depressingly transactional. Even relationships, they are all transactional "and bombastic" (487), Lagos is full of “exaggerated politeness, exaggerated praise, even exaggerated respect that you haven't earned at all, and it's so fake and so garish" (488); a place of confidence but no dignity” (488); Lagos is about love, infidelity and the resolves in between; "the painting in Lagos always looks crooked, never hung straight" (513) and "Lagos is about hustling"(35). Lagos is the site "of the almost rich in the presence of the rich, and the rich in the presence of the very rich" and it is a place of "repulsion and longing" (38). It is the place of affected love and love born out of sympathy like we have in the Union between Obinze and Kasi. Beyond these, Lagos possesses an inchoate class hierarchies that foreshadows and eventuates what Ifemela and Obinze experienced abroad. Ifemela‟s return to Lagos opens up a contrasting vista of place and experience. Between Baltimore, Philadelphia and New Haven Ifemela experienced a compounding reality that paints those cities in their respective lights; they are what they are and no attempt is made to say otherwise. Lagos, on the other kind is a compact and vibrant concatenation of everything. Lagos is an experience. A pulsating, extreme contrast of a city. The commanding wealth of Obinze contrasts with the subdued middle class pretentions of Ifemela. The eclectic hustle and bustle interspaced with both poor and rich, who are both indentured by the ubiquitous go-slow of Lagos, emblematizes the euphoric kaleidoscope of colorful Danfo buses, symphonic car horns, unreliable electricity supply, loud music blaring from vengeful loudspeakers placed in the center of the earspace, abrasive demanding, challenging, pungent, warm, salty, smoky and unparalleled creativity. Lagos is a large canvas of colors, sounds and opportunities. This is what draws Ifemela back home. THE GEOSPATIAL NARRATIVE The novel Americanah is at once a travelogue and a novel of experience. It is an immigrant's tale as well as a Nigerian tale; a novel that crisscrosses spaces and identities and culture and social politics that tilt towards race. Ifemela's blogs, 'Raceteenth or the Various Observations About American Blacks …' highlights the racial tint of Ifemela's perceptive realities: the black experience and the black immigrant experience are central to the discursive peculiarities of the novel. Her experiences from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Baltimore, Maryland, to Brooklyn, New York, to New Haven, Connecticut, to Princeton, New Jersey highlight her Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 261 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah outsiderness even in the translucent and almost passive inclusivity of race relations. Each site offers her customized racial experiences; as she travels deeper into American culture her experience of racism changes. Between Philadelphia and New Jersey Ifemela matures from the vulnerable, naive newly arrived immigrant who is forced into a tryst in order to pay her bills to a self-confident CEO of a viable blog who pays her own bills and can take the decision of whether to remain in a relationship or not, someone who can decide to stay or not stay because she has a measure of stability. This picture contrasts with Obinze's trajectory of Lagos to London and back to Lagos. Obinze's sites are situate in marginal spaces, peripheral almost carcéral sites with their restrictive and erase personalities. When finally he lands in the Detention center, his American dream stutters and finally is extinguishers. His deportation is a forced, involuntary and shameful experience that contrasts with Ifemela's legitimate, though emotionally charged trajectory through America. Where Philadelphia emblematizes a 'lived race,' Maryland highlights an „outside the race spectrum' condition. Where Princeton represents 'theoretical race' London represents lived, illegal and fractured race for Obinze. For both Ifemela and Obinze Lagos represents an absence of race and a gathering of reckless abandon, sexual titillation, gratification and a bustling hustle that leaves both characters gasping for breath, and inching towards a decision that would change both their lives. In the affection map, Lagos symbolizes the site of young love and, at the end, the site of risky, reckless, selfish and gratifying love. In America, Ifemela's love map shows Philadelphia - commodification of love; Curt-love and stability, wealth and dissonance, Blaine - love, intellectual connection and also pressure. For Obinze: UK –Clothhide - love for papers, and Lagos - love of convenience and status. In between, for both Ifemela and Obinze, Lagos and America and UK, is the Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean is the site of the middle passage where slaves were transported from Africa to the plantations in the New World. The Atlantic Ocean is a chasm, deep and inviolate but stained with the blood and stories of Africans transported in harsh conditions and those who travel with their hearts in their mouths seeking a new experience and a path out of the poverty of African leadership, experience and world. The Atlantic Ocean is a site of transformation, of loss and re-invention; an individual leaves home a legal entity and transforms to an illegal immigrant in the UK, hiding away and erased. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 262 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah As the Atlantic watches them emigrate, it watches them return and, like Ifemela and Obinze discover, they can never be the same after experiencing the West. Both Ifemela and Obinze had left home to search for another 'home' outside the shores of their comfort zone. Both had experienced the arbitrary vectors of visas and border and discovered that home is not static, but evanescent, always changing, always evolving, even as identities become fluid. Why do they deign to return? For Ifemela returning to Nigeria is not borne out of a simple desire to return home, it is a complex migration laden with complex rationales with a deep apprehension of the requisite implications. At her return she discovered that a lot had changed. Homes that were once luxurious, which she had relished and wished she could reside in became sites of squalor and repugnance. Ifemela is "astounded by how much it had declined. The paint was peeling on buildings, the streets pitted with potholes, and the whole estate resigned to its own shabbiness."(481). The once famous estate is dilapidated and gone to the dogs, and this represents the shabbiness of the Nigerian condition where we see, from a far distance, an edifice of glorious proportion only to discover, at close inspection, a decrepitude that rankles. The illusion of home turns sallow and sour in the mouth as one tastes the reality of home. Home branded her an Americanah because she had changed in subtle and loud ways; she is hybrid, a mestizo, and the space she inhabits is a hybrid site of contentious reality. Thus, a trajectory that causes one to traverse the middle passage cannot allow one to be the same; it changes one. CONCLUSION A geospatial mapping of Chimamanda Adichie‟s Americanah shows that far from being a linear immigration narrative, the novel is a cartographic analysis of realities that are etched on the fabric of global consciousness; between a history of slavery perpetuated through the watery presence of the middle passage, Ifemela and Obinze re-enact the trauma and travails of many Africans who were ferried across the Atlantic ocean in the worst possible manner, and who endured the worst possible fate. In their crisscross of the ocean – from Lagos to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Princeton, Yale and back to Lagos, on the one hand, and Lagos to London and back to Lagos, on another hand, there is a palpable feeling that it is not about departures and arrivals; it is a map of a network of relationships fostered in individuality, identity, and perception, and all of these taken within racial and class consciousness. Where in the original Middle Passage blacks went on a unidirectional trip of forced displacement, trauma, slavery, marginalization, privation, the second middle passage is a Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 263 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah personal choice, though borne out of existential privations and social dearth. Even in this personal journey history is a veritable shadow, as the templates crafted in the first Middle Passage are still in operation during the second middle passage; Ifemela and Obinze, and others of their class and race are constrained to carry on from where the slaves of the new world had stopped. Both characters, replanted on a foreign soil face a racism they never imagined in their country of birth. Between Ifemela‟s racial journey in America and Obinze‟s illegal status in London, we apprehend the almost inviolate rigidity of borders and economic hierarchies that the black body has to navigate within global contexts Though Obinze‟s return to Nigeria is forced, and Ifemela‟s return is her personal decision, what is apparent is that the return journey is a geospatial mapping of self-discovery, self-awareness, and reclamation of agency. It is at once a rejection of the Western allure that pulls the formerly colonized to come to the „metropole‟ in order to be „civilized‟ but which ends with trauma, depression, loss of agency, and angst. The characters, Ifemela and Obinze, seem to say that the Middle Passage must be breeched, but its breeching must be carried out within the contexts of Black awareness of home and the constitutive elements of a new reality that redefines, reconfigures and reasserts home and belonging. The difference between Lagos and Philadelphia and London is longitude and latitude; any individual can become, belong, and reclaim wherever they find themselves. Rumfa Journal of Arts, 4, No. 2, January 2026, ISSN: 2992-4251 264 Isaac M. Udoh, PhD; A Geospatial Analysis Of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie‟s Americanah References Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. Americanah. Farafina, Paperback Edition, 2014. Alatas, Ismail Fajrie and Martin Slama. “Rethinking Diaspora Returns: Hadrami Trajectories In Indonesia Religio-Political Field” BIJDRAGEN TOT DE TAAL-LAND-EN VOLKENKUNDE, 178, 2022, 410-439. Accessed from https://about.jstor.org 102.90.100.81 on Tuesday 26 August, 2025, 19.49.29. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffins and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-colonial Literature, 2nd Edition. Taylor & Francis, 2002. Chinua, Achebe. Things Fall Apart. Heinemann, 1958 Duiker, Sello. Thirteen Cents. David Phillip Publishers, 2002. 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