Swami Krpalvananda

OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ••• PA R T T HR E E Tantra-Based Gurus 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 169 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 170 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 CHAPTER 8 • Swami Kṛ pālvānanda: The Man behind Kripalu Yoga ELLEN GOLDBERG INTRODUCTION I n 1977, Swami Kṛ pālvānanda (1913–1981; also known as Kripalu or Bapuji) moved from western India to live in silence (mauna) and continue his life of prāṇ ayoga sādhanā in a small house (kuṭīr) on the property of the Kripalu Yoga ashram located in the rural area of Sumneytown, Pennsylvania. He inspired a transnational community of devotees when his lay disciple Amrit Desai (b. 1935; see Goldberg, 2013) brought him into international prominence not only by naming his center and his style of yoga in his honor but also by adopt- ing and adapting Kripalu’s life and teachings as the basis of his Kripalu ap- proach. Yet in spite of the global popularity of the Kripalu name and the fact that he galvanized the growth of the Kripalu yoga ashram—today one of the most successful yoga centers in North America with 2011 revenues estimated at $30.6 million dollars—the life of Swami Kṛ pālvānanda (hereafter referred to as Kripalu) is little known and has yet to receive scholarly attention.1 In this paper I provide a portrait of Kripalu’s life as relayed by his prin- ciple disciples: Swami Rajarshi Muni (1931–) in a short hagiography (1974) and a longer version (2002); Swami Vinit Muni (1938–1996) through con- versations in India and in Canada between 1989 and 1996; and Amrit Desai during interviews conducted in 2010 at his ashram and home in Salt Springs, Florida,2 and supplemented by Kripalu’s profoundly autobiographical com- mentary of the fifteenth-century Haṭhayogaprādīpikā (HYP) of Svātmārāma called Rahasyabodhinī (Secret Treatise, 1974). What becomes clear is that Kri- palu’s transmission of yoga is based essentially on an encoded performative ( 171 ) 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 171 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 172 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga Figure 8.1: Kripalu. (Courtesy of Muni Mandal Ashram Trust, India.) reenactment of his own personal journey to reach nirbīja samādhi (pure con- sciousness). He focuses on three core elements not typically seen in other modern approaches, namely, prāṇ otthāna (the partial awakening of prāṇ a or life force) through śaktipāt dīkṣ ā (initiation through the awakening of śakti), prāṇ ayoga sādhanā (also referred to as sahajayoga and siddhayoga), and the attainment of immortality or divine body (divya deha, siddha deha). The im- portance of these core elements is reinforced repeatedly in Kripalu’s com- mentaries on particular Hindu scriptures including the Bhagavad Gītā, the Upaniṣ ads, and various haṭ hayoga root (mūla) texts.3 Here we observe what Benjamin Richard Smith (2008) and Mark Singleton (2008) refer to as the circular construction of authority. Within the Kripalu lineage, this implies that yoga experiences are considered authentic insofar as they accord with Kri- palu’s life as outlined in his biography, hagiography, and autobiography. The various narratives and commentaries set forth by Kripalu are held to be de- finitive and, as such, set the standard by which yoga experience is measured particularly within the monastic community (saṃ nyāsins). I argue, too, that the goal of Kripalu yoga sādhanā for himself and his principle disciples is primarily mystical—not in the sense that De Michelis (2004) employs the term but rather as it pertains to the attainment of the 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 172 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 S WA M I K Ṛ PĀ LVĀ N A N DA  173  final limb (aṅga) of yoga sādhanā (spiritual practice) called nirbīja samādhi. In this sense Kripalu’s approach offers an interesting counterpoint to the schools of Modern Postural Yoga that emerge, for example, from the teachings of the Krishnamacarya lineage (e.g., B. K. S. Iyengar, K. Pattabhi Jois, T. K. V. Desikachar) as identified by De Michelis (2004) and Singleton (2010). When performed voluntarily, the practice of postures or āsanas—what Kripalu refers to as cit-sādhanā—is considered a necessary though preliminary stage of yoga required primarily for the purification (śodhana) of the body-mind and for arousing prāṇ a. Kripalu applies this strategy to advance a simplified methodology specifically for householders and nonmonastics (pravṛtti-mārga sādhaks)4 that syncretizes āsanas and prāṇ āyāma with elements from the bhakti tradition (e.g., repetition of mantra; practice of guru-sevā, or service to the guru), the vernacular tradition in Gujarat (e.g., chanting bhajans or de- votional songs), dharma and ethics (e.g., the practice of yama and niyama), and modern science (e.g., psychology and anatomy). What emerges is a living and fully engaged alternative yoga lifestyle that exemplifies what Paul Heelas (2008) recently referred to as inner-life spiritualities. For Kripalu this implies practicing a gradual path of postural yoga framed by an ascetic paradigm that has been modified and modernized exclusively for nonmonastics, including his closest lay disciple Amrit Desai, and it embraces what Gregory P. Fields (2001) calls religious therapeutics, meaning basic spiritual “principles and prac- tices that support human well-being” (p. 1). For monks and nuns (nivṛtti or prāṇ a-mārga sādhaks), Kripalu insists on a performative reenactment of haṭ hayoga sādhanā as outlined in his commen- taries on medieval Nāth yoga root texts, specifically the HYP. What becomes evident, as we will see further on, is that for adept practitioners the tantric elements of the haṭ hayoga tradition, including the full awakening of kuṇ ḍalinī and advanced practices such as khecarī mudrā, replace āsanas as the core prac- tices leading to nirbīja samādhi. The adept thus follows a step-by-step reenact- ment of Kripalu’s own history of prāṇ ayoga sādhanā as a way to cultivate the tantric goal of an immutable and immortal body. Within the Kripalu lineage, the internal logic of a two-stage approach that requires monks and nuns to follow a much closer reading of medieval haṭhayoga treatises than householders seems neither arbitrary nor idiosyn- cratic. Nor is it surprising that the exoteric (public and communally practiced) postural limbs (aṅga) rather than the more esoteric (subjective, privately prac- ticed, and therefore secretive) mystical limbs of Kripalu’s teachings on yoga are most widespread particularly among the majority of his nonmonastic disciples. We see that in more advanced stages, Kripalu’s approach to yoga is deeply tied to the logic of renunciation (saṃ nyāsa, vairagya) and taking a vow of celibacy (brahmacarya) is mandatory. Whether this makes it more authentic is a question that modern scholars (see, e.g., Alter 1997) and practitioners of yoga and tantra could debate, but for Kripalu the answer is perfectly clear. 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 173 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 174 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga A BRIEF SKETCH OF KRIPALU’S EARLY LIFE To understand the significance that śaktipāt, prāṇ ayoga sādhanā and divine body play as well as the defining role that Kripalu’s life as a source of author- ity and authenticity holds within the Kripalu lineage particularly among saṃ nyāsins, a look at his life as told through the narratives of his disciples and through his commentary on the HYP is necessary. In this section I outline briefly the background on the early life of Kripalu. In the following sections I provide a tripartite structure that discusses each of the three key features of his approach to modern yoga, namely, śaktipāt, prāṇ ayoga, and divine body, and situate them within the context of his extraordinary life story. Kripalu was born January 13, 1913, into a Kayāstha Brahmin community in Dahboi, Gujarat, under the given name Saraswati Chandra Majmudar (af- fectionately known as Hariprasad). Dabhoi is the modern name of the an- cient town of Darbhavati in the Vadodara district near Baroda. In the early 1900s, Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaekwad III ruled throughout the state. And though noted scholars have suggested his princely government was “ideal and progressive” due to the implementation of social, political, and constitu- tional reform based on Western modernization, Manu Bhagavan (2001: 387) argues that Gaekwad advanced a number of Western initiatives as a strategy to “reclaim” and “redeploy” them in an Indian setting and thus “challenge the presumed normality of the colonial way of life.” According to Bhagavan, Gae- kwad’s reforms included radical legislation in 1902 to allow Hindu widows to remarry (p. 390), and in 1904 he signed the Infant Marriage Prevention Act. He reformed primary education in Baroda by making vernacular education in Gujarati free to all citizens. He also created international scholarships, devel- oped a public library system, and challenged the prevailing status of women as second-class citizens. He initiated charities for the poor, opened hospi- tals, provided access to clean water through the construction of public wells, and, perhaps most relevant to our discussion, advocated that Indians master modern Western science and technology—all in the interest of the modern Indian nation (p. 391). We see several of these modern ideas embraced as nor- mative in Kripalu’s own life and in his approach to yoga, particularly the role that science and gender equity play. By the time Kripalu was born, Baroda had modernized its social, intellectual, political, and financial institutions prima- rily as a mode of resistance against colonial forces (see Bhagavan, 2001 for more details). On a personal or familial level, there is little historical evidence of Kri- palu’s childhood. His parents, Jamnadas and Mangalaba, are portrayed in his hagiography as pious Vaiṣ ṇ avas. His father worked as a cleric in a lower court of law but died when Kripalu was only seven years old, leaving his mother and a family of nine children in financial ruin. Mangalaba managed to edu- cate Kripalu until grade seven, but when poverty overcame the family he was 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 174 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 S WA M I K Ṛ PĀ LVĀ N A N DA  175  forced to leave school to find work at age fourteen. All we know from the scant material available is that as a young boy Kripalu dreamed of becom- ing either a musician or an actor and, like many still today, made his way in 1930 to Bombay (now Mumbai) to find fame and fortune. However, he sank into depression and despair, felt his life was worthless, and attempted suicide several times. ŚAKTIPĀT DĪKṢ Ā INITIATION In 1930, the young Kripalu met a “mysterious man” named Swami Pranav- ananda (also known as Dadaji) who became his sadguru (true guru). During ārtī (the ceremony of light) at the Mahālakṣ mī Temple in Bombay,5 Kripalu visualized committing suicide by throwing himself off the Sandhurst Bridge onto an oncoming train. According to Rajarshi Muni’s (1974: 3) hagiographi- cal account, Kripalu cried out, “I don’t want to live a futile and loveless life. I don’t want to live.” Strangely enough, at that precise moment a saffron clad holy man (sādhu) carrying a water pot (kamaṇ ḍalu) entered the temple and sat down beside Kripalu; he took his hand gently and said, “Don’t cry my son” (ibid.). The sādhu called Kripalu sādhak (spiritual aspirant) and asked him to come see him the following day at his ashram. When Kripalu arrived half an hour late on January 15, 1931, Pranavananda’s disciples were still waiting for him. It seems that four months earlier Pranavananda had predicted his coming. When he arrived, Pranavananda called him swami, but Kripalu po- litely corrected him by saying that he was not in the least bit interested in becoming a saṃ nyāsi (monk)—he said he had neither the inclination, given that he was only eighteen years old, nor the requisite purity (ibid.). Nevertheless, over the next fifteen months Pranavananda instructed Kri- palu in various aspects of yoga during two daily one-hour meditation sessions in the morning and evening. He taught Kripalu about nonattachment, equa- nimity, introspection, giving, patience, compassion, and selfless love (prema). Pranavananda initiated Kripalu into the ancient and esoteric teachings of yoga through śaktipāt dīkṣ ā, ordained him as a yogācārya (yoga teacher), and installed him as the third kūla-guru in the modern day Pāśupata lineage of Lord Lakulíśa (we will say more about this further on). Few details are avail- able except to relay that in preparation for initiation Kripalu fasted for forty- one days, lived in seclusion in a completely enclosed room, took darśan with Pranavananda twice daily, and confessed that he desired “wealth, women, and fame” (Rajarshi 1974: 15). Śaktipāt dīkṣ ā defines a profound turning point and moment of spiritual transformation in Kripalu’s life, as it does in the spiritual lives of many Kri- palu devotees. Douglas Brooks (1977) draws on similar experiences within the Siddha Yoga community. He refers to śaktipāt initiation as energy unleashed 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 175 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 176 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga by the guru or as the guru’s “grace bestowing power (anugraha-śakti)” (p. xxxviii). Paul Muller-Ortega (1997: 407) writes that śaktipāt is a “deeply secret and mystical notion of spiritual awakening” and is considered the “highest form of spiritual initiation, an initiation that bestows immediate and spontaneous entry into spiritual life.” Regarding the Siddha Yoga lineage, Muller-Ortega claims that śaktipāt is “the rarest form of esoteric or secret initiation” (ibid.) given by the guru, and he argues that there are no living sources of śaktipāt initiation in India before Swami Muktananda (1908–1982; see Jain, in this volume). However, we know without a doubt that Pranavananda initiated Kri- palu in 1931 through śaktipāt and that Kripalu as a guru of modern yoga in turn initiated others, implying that śaktipāt is not as “rare” or as “unavailable” as Muller-Ortega claims.6 One possible reason for the error could lie in the modern usage of the term śaktipāt, as June McDaniel (2009) points out. The Kulārnava Tantra refers to śaktipāt by the earlier name vedha dīkṣ ā, meaning initiation by piercing, and it describes five basic types of initiation, namely, varṇ a dīkṣ ā (the place- ment of Sanskrit letters on the body), samaya dīkṣ ā (initiation by ritual), sparśa dīkṣ ā (initiation by touch), vāk dīkṣ ā (initiation by word or mantra), and dṛksāñjana dīkṣ ā (initiation by sight or gaze) (McDaniel, 2009; see also Śiva Pūraṇ a, Vāyavīyasaṃ hitā 15.7–10). So too, David Gordon White (2009) describes the tantric initiation of “co-penetration” (known as samāveśa) where the guru “penetrates the body of his [or her] disciple via the mouth, eyes, or heart, through the conduits of ‘rays’ or ‘channels,’ to transform the latter from within, thereby ensuring his [or her] future release from this world” (p. 140). Although the exact details of Kripalu’s initiation are hard to pin down, it is evident from his autobiographical writings that he received śaktipāt from Pranavananda by sight and touch. The penetration or transmission of śakti through the rays that emanate from the eyes are a direct source of the guru’s power, as White notes, and thus an effective conduit for giving and receiving śaktipāt initiation. Kripalu describes śaktipāt as a profoundly embodied experience signal- ing the partial awakening of prāṇ a or energy of kuṇ ḍalinī śakti. For Kripalu, śaktipāt initiation does not indicate the full awakening of kuṇ ḍalinī as com- monly believed (see, e.g., Brooks, 1997: xxxviii). The sādhak or sādhakā (male or female student) who receives śaktipāt directly from the guru typically ex- periences a variety of spontaneous movements or preliminary signs (lakṣ aṇ a) called kriyās that could include shaking, spontaneous postures, crying, danc- ing, chanting, or visions in his or her meditation. This is arguably an intrinsic part of purification and spiritual refinement that, according to Kripalu, sig- nals entry into a beginner stage of yoga only and is a requisite condition for higher initiations. Kripalu is unambiguous in his conviction that stories told by disciples of uncontrollable shaking, trembling, crying, movements such as bandhas (locks), or visions are primary experiences resulting from what he 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 176 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 S WA M I K Ṛ PĀ LVĀ N A N DA  177  calls prāṇ otthana—or the partial awakening of kuṇ ḍalinī due to śaktipāt. In an unpublished letter to John White dated October 29, 1977, Kripalu writes: In this modern age the partial awakening of the pranic energy (prāṇ otthāna) is believed to be kuṇ ḍ alinī. This is not in accordance with the ancient scriptures. My own experience is in agreement with this. The awakening of pranic energy is different from the awakening of kuṇ ḍ alinī. The occurrence of various physical manifestations is not the awakening of kuṇ ḍ alinī. This opinion of mine is totally different compared to modern yogis. (Muni Mandal Ashram Trust, India) Furthermore, although Kripalu claims there is only one process of śaktipāt, he does distinguish between śaktipāt for extraordinary disciples (saṃ nyāsis) and group śaktipāt for nonmonastics and states quite clearly that group śaktipāt is not “true” śaktipāt but rather a special relaxation technique (Rajarshi 2002: 234). Kriplau was thoroughly aware that various modern gurus initiated large groups en masse via śaktipāt, and although he tried to avoid this method of initiation and discern for himself the fitness of each individual devotee, he was persuaded by Rajarshi Muni to hold several śaktipāt meditation retreats at his ashram in Malav, Gujarat. On one occasion in 1970 ninety-five people attended, and many began to experience various automatic movements (kriyās) from the release of prāṇ a (prāṇ otthāna). In 1971 Rajarshi organized three more meditation retreats where “nearly five hundred men and women Figure 8.2: Śaktipāta Initiation. (Courtesy of Muni Mandal Ashram Trust, India.) 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 177 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 178 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga received shaktipat initiation” (p. 245) with similar results. Kripalu and mem- bers of his lineage (e.g., Amrit Desai) attracted large followings because of their charismatic ability to bestow śaktipāt dīkṣ ā (see Goldberg, 2013). PRĀṆ AYOGA SĀDHANĀ Śaktipāt bestows initiation into prāṇ ayoga sādhanā—or what I would describe as the defining feature of Kripalu’s approach to yoga and the key to under- standing his role as guruji (beloved guru) and bapuji (father) in a lineage that bears his name. After a brief pilgrimage to Mathura, Pranavananda disappeared suddenly, leaving Kripalu on his own. He returned to Gujarat in 1932 where he stud- ied classical vocal music from a disciple of the legendary musician Ustad Faiaz Khan of the Baroda Royal Court. He became a classically trained music teacher, traveled throughout western India on foot giving music lessons and singing bhajans, and, by all accounts, became quite popular in the small towns and villages around Baroda. In 1941 when his family thought it was time for him to marry, he broke off the engagement and took saṃ nyāsa dīkṣ ā (monas- tic ordination) in 1942 on the banks of the Narmada River at Rajpipla from Swami Shantananda of the Udasin lineage and was given the name Swami Kṛ pālvānanda (bliss of compassion). After his initiation, Kripalu traveled to Haridwar where he studied Hindu scriptures at the Munimandal Ashram, the principal center of the Udasin lin- eage founded by Swami Keshavananda, Shantananda’s guru. Shortly thereaf- ter, Kripalu moved to the forests of the Himalayan foothills, lived in isolation in a simple hut in Rishikesh, bathed each day in the Ganges, begged for his food, and absorbed himself in meditation. During the 1940s, Rishikesh was populated mostly by sādhus and yogis, and the town, as Sarah Strauss (2005: 26) observes, provided the embarkation point for pilgrimage to the four aus- picious sites of the Garhwal region, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Gangotri, and Ya- munotri, collectively referred to as Char Dham.7 These pilgrimage sites, as Strauss points out, are the abodes of various gods and goddesses of Hindu mythology. Thus, the Garhwal region offered Kripalu an ideal setting to seek self-realization. During this time, Kripalu experienced a series of visions (darśans) of his guru in what he refers to as his true or divine form. In the first vision, Pranava- nanda appears to Kripalu as a handsome, nineteen-year-old saint. He explains to Kripalu how he entered the corpse of an old sādhak named Pranavananda8 before coming to Bombay and that the form Kripalu was now seeing is his true form. Two years later, on guru pūrṇ imā (festival of homage to one’s guru), Kripalu experienced a second vision. Rajarshi Muni recounts how a “divine light shooting straight from the darkness of space came directly toward him,” 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 178 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 S WA M I K Ṛ PĀ LVĀ N A N DA  179  and before Kripalu could “jump in surprise, he found Dadaji [Pranavananda] standing right before him in his ‘true form’” (Rajarshi 1974: 39). In the vision, Dadaji (or Pranavananda) bestowed his blessing on Kripalu through what June McDaniel (2009) calls “the mystical transmission of a hidden lineage” and instructed him in the advanced method of prāṇ ayoga (or sahajayoga) through the subtle power of his yoga siddhis (powers, perfections). The very next day Kripalu moved into a hut in a remote village near Baroda and started prāṇ ayoga sādhanā for ten hours a day—a schedule he adhered to for more than two decades. He changed his diet following the strict yogic practice of moderation (mitāhāra). At night he often went into states of deep ecstasy and wandered naked through the village. Devotees were posted at the gates of the town to watch over him in case he wandered away, which he often did. Then, in December 1955, the villagers of Kayavarohan9 invited Kripalu to give a lecture on the Bhagavad Gītā. They took him on a tour of the Brahmesh- war Mandir, and when he saw the Śiva liṅgam enshrined in the temple he im- mediately identified the face of the young man carved in the black meteoric rock as the true form of his sadguru as he had experienced him during darśan while in the Himalayas—he was Lakulish (or Lakulīśa, c. early first–second century CE), the twenty-eighth incarnation (avatāra) of Śiva and the founder of the Pāśupata sect (Kṛ pālvānanda, 1972).10 The Viśvakarmāvatāra-vāstu- śāstra identifies Lakulīśa as a young, naked, ūrdhvaretas (ithyphallic) yogi seated in a type of lotus posture (padmāsana), holding a citrus fruit (mātuliṅga) in his right hand and a club (daṇ ḍa or lakula) in his left hand (Bhandarkar, 1904–07: 166, also cited in Lorenzen, 1972: 177). The codified description of Lakulīśa that we find in the vāstu-śāstras matches with the mūrti located in the Brahmeshwar Mandir at Kayavarohan and with Kripalu’s darśans of Lakulīśa during meditation.11 The Kāravaṇ a-māhātmya is probably the most useful primary source for our purpose of recording the intersections between Lakulīśa and Kāyāvarohaṇa. It recounts the story of Śiva who incarnated as the son of a brahmin couple in the village of Ulkāpurī (modern-day Avākhal). As a divine infant he performed miraculous deeds (siddhis), but he died when he was only seven months old. His mother immersed him in the waters of a nearby tīrtha, as was the custom in traditional infant burial. As the story goes, he was taken by tortoises to the Jāleśvara liṅgam and then brought back to life as Lakulīśa by entering the corpse of a chaste brahmin student found on the cremation grounds at Kāyāvarohaṇa (see White, 2009: 193). In another version of the story, Śiva as Lakulīśa enters the body of a young brahmin ascetic to propagate Pāśupata dharma. David Lorenzen (1972: 176) refers to a thirteenth-century record from Somnātha showing that Śiva came to Lāṭa and lived at Kāyāvarohaṇa as Lakulīśa “in order to bestow favor on the universe.” The central message in these narratives, as well as several inscriptions found near Udaipur, is the de- scent of Śiva-Lakulīśa, founder of the Pāśupata sect in the twenty-eighth yuga 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 179 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 180 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga (age), at Kāyāvarohaṇa (kāyā + avarohaṇ a translates as descending of the body). As we will see further on in the chapter, the Nāth tradition that develops ap- proximately eleven hundred years later absorbed aspects of the Pāśupatas,12 and therefore it is not at all surprising that haṭ hayoga plays such a defining role in Kripalu’s approach to modern yoga sādhanā. However, there is still more to this story. In c. 1024 CE, Muslim invad- ers under Mahmud Ghazni raided and destroyed the Somnātha Temple lo- cated near Veraval in Junagadh District, considered the original home of the Pāśupatas, on the Arabian Sea. Legend has it that Anant Sarvagna, who was installed as the Pāśupata teacher at Kāyāvarohaṇa, received instructions during meditation to protect the temple’s statue (mūrti) of Lakulīśa by bury- ing it in an underground pit. Shortly thereafter (c. 1025 CE), Muslim invad- ers continued on to Kāyāvarohaṇa, one of the 68 tīrthas in India, looted the temple, and left only ruins behind. The liṅgam of Lakulīśa that had been buried by Sarvagna surfaced in a farmer’s field approximately eight hundred years later in 1866, but the villagers had no knowledge of its historical significance and referred to it as Raja-rajeshwara (Rajarshi 1974). It was not until 1955, when Kripalu visited Kayavarohan, that he immediately identified the mūrti not only as the original liṅgam of Lakulīśa but also as the true form of his guru Pranavananda. What transpired on a deeply personal level for Kripalu is that during eve- ning meditation he received a third vision of Lakulīśa-Pranavananda. He was instructed in this vision to revive Kayavarohan as a modern pilgrimage center and to create an institute of modern yoga “open to men and women of all races, religions and nationalities” (Rajarshi 1974: x). When the temple eventually reopened in 1974, a prospectus was circulated at the inaugural cer- emony introducing the future home of the Shri Lakulish Institute of Yoga. It was advertised as a non-profit, non-sectarian university open to all aspi- rants regardless of their sex, caste, creed, race, religion, or nationality. Course offerings included physiology, psychology, biochemistry, parapsychology, and sociology to prepare students for the modern scientific study of yoga (Pro- spectus, 1974). The brochure addressed the future goals of Kayavarohan based on the global appeal and institutionalization of Kripalu’s biography (and hagiography), which was at the time being publicized widely by his lay dis- ciple Amrit Desai as spiritual director (“Gurudev”) of the Kripalu Yoga center in the United States. It also underscores the defining role Kripalu’s life as an adept yoga-guru played in establishing what I referred to earlier as the circular construction of authority within the tradition for future generations of lay and monastic disciples East and West. Immediately after he recognized his guru as Lakulīśa, Kripalu began to experience advanced yogic techniques automatically in meditation—that is, prāṇ ayoga sādhanā— including khecarī mudrā (discussed in detail further on in the paper) and kevala kumbhaka (spontaneous cessation of breath) by the 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 180 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 S WA M I K Ṛ PĀ LVĀ N A N DA  181  sheer force (haṭ ha) of fully awakened kuṇ ḍ alinī. In his commentary on the HYP, Kripalu describes how his capacity to restrain the modifications of the mind (citta-vṛ tti) became effortless. He refers to this state as the samādhi of haṭ hayoga (known as sabīja samādhi or concentration with seed) and as the beginning stage of rājayoga. Although David Gordon White (2003: 81) offers an alternative reading of the term rājayoga, Kripalu explains that entrance into sabīja samādhi occurs when the adept experiences spontaneous khecharī mudrā and kevala kumbhaka due to the force of fully awakened kuṇ ḍ alinī, meaning it ascends upward from the ajña cakra (command center) located in between the eyebrows to the sahasrāra or crown cakra—hence the use of the term rājayoga. The fundamental point in Kripalu’s approach is that the power of prāṇ a harnessed in the body ascends naturally (sahaja) by means of its own inner intelligence and force. Kripalu distinguishes prāṇ a-induced or self- arising alchemical techniques such as khecarī mudrā, śāmbhavī mudrā, unmani mudrā, śakticālana mudra, and vajrolī mudrā, from voluntary or citta-induced practices such as the āsanas that he typically associates with the beginning stages of yoga sādhanā. Kripalu also distinguishes prāṇ a-induced mudrās and bandhas from voluntary mudrās and bandhas (e.g., the bandhas required in the modern-day Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga; see Chapter 5, in this volume), and he discusses this point at some length in his commentary on the HYP. He bases his tiered pravṛ tti- and nivṛ tti-mārga approach to yoga on this critical and little-known distinction. What we see (or perhaps what Kripalu would like us to see) in his particular discussion of prāṇ ayoga sādhanā is a modern yoga-guru’s reenactment of the hidden lineage of the Pāśupatas as a forerunner to the medieval sampradāya of Nāth Siddhas, particularly with reference to the practices of haṭha and tantric yoga for alchemical transmutation and perfection of the body, a point of im- portance noted in White’s (1996: 97, 122) historical analysis of the Nāth tra- dition. Kripalu’s emphasis on the intensification and spontaneous movement of prāṇ a beyond the initial and partial awakening (prāṇ otthāna) experienced during śaktipāt dīkṣ ā provides a central thesis. Through his own autobiogra- phy, he reveals how prāṇ a moves by the grace and compassion (kṛpā) of the sadguru to produce perceptible signs of health and healing in the body in- cluding slimness, radiating aura, and luminous eyes (the “rays” that enable the guru to give śaktipāt), extraordinary strength, bliss, and restraint of the senses, to name just a few, leading the adept gradually to divine body or im- mortality (jīvanmukti, divya deha). For Kripalu, the metaphysics of modern haṭhayoga are preoccupied with purification, self-cultivation, rejuvenation, and longevity. Although these are concrete goals they are never viewed as ends in themselves; rather, they are linked to a broader template of adept strate- gies that he believes remove ignorance (avidyā)—the root cause of illness and suffering—and furthermore produce an internal elixir of immortality (amṛta) capable of bestowing long life and liberation. 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 181 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 182 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga Khecarī mudrā and kevala kumbhaka are two essential practices that bring about this transformation and, in Kripalu’s view, distinguish the adept from the beginner. Khecarī mudrā refers to the difficult haṭ hayoga practice or siddhi of elongating the tongue through a process of milking (dohana), moving (cālana), and striking (tāḍana). These actions spontaneously sever the tongue from the frenum linguae by the sheer force of prāṇ a, without the use of exter- nal instrumentation, so that it can be inserted fully into the “three-peaked mountain” or cavity called the “diamond bulb” (Khecarīvidyā of Adināth (KV) 3: 50) located behind the soft palate in the region above the uvula (rājadanta, HYP 3: 32–53; KV 3:1, 15). When accompanied by the spontaneous restraint of the breath (kevala kumbhaka) and the three bandhas (mūla, uddīyāna, and jālandhara), khecarī mudrā facilitates the preservation and drinking of candrājala (also known as amṛta and somarasa or the nectar of immortality) by physically sealing off the cavity above the uvula with the severed tongue (HYP 3: 47–50; KV 3: 20–25). The mudrā prevents the nectar of immortality from being consumed by the lower cakras, particularly the maṇ ipūra cakra (or third cakra located in the navel region and referred to as sūrya or sun). As a result, the adept “cheats” death, as the KV states, and he or she attains an im- mortal body (KV 3: 10–20). This siddhi also enables the yogi to enter the body of another being at will. As to the therapeutic benefits, the HYP states there is no more hunger, thirst, old age, disease, or death for the adept who knows the secret rejuvena- tion practice of khecarī mudrā, nor is the adept subject to the mundane laws of time (kāla) or karma (HYP 3: 38–40; Śiva Saṁ hitā [SS] 3: 66). The Gorakṣ aśataka (GŚ) makes the explicit claim that khecarī mudrā alone renders the body im- mortal (GŚ 131–148; cited in Mallinson, 2007). The KV and the HYP also ex- plain, as Kripalu stated earlier, that the experience of khecarī mudrā enables the yogi or yogini to still (nirodha) the fluctuations of the mind (citta-vṛttis) to such an extent that he or she enters deeper and deeper states of medita- tive absorption (laya). Thus, khecarī mudrā accompanied by kevala kumbhaka announce the attainment of sabīja samādhi, and are interpreted by Kripalu as the onset of rājayoga. They provide corporeal evidence that the haṭ hayoga stage is complete. IMMORTALITY AND DIVINE BODY  DIVYA DEHA  In 1959 Kripalu took a vow of silence that he maintained for over twenty years. In 1965 he relocated from Malav to Kayavarohan and devoted himself to the restoration of the temple and to his sādhanā. On May 3, 1974, the liṅgam of Lakulīśa was ceremoniously (re)-installed (prāṇ a-pratistḥ ā). Over twenty-five thousand people attended the opening ceremony including a large contingent from Canada and the United States led by Desai. Then, in 1977, Kripalu left 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 182 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 S WA M I K Ṛ PĀ LVĀ N A N DA  183  India with one of his principle disciples, Swami Vinit Muni, and traveled to Canada, specifically Toronto and Montreal where he met with devotees, and the United States where he lived for four years in a small house called Mukti- dham (abode of liberation) that is still maintained by disciples on the original ashram property of the Kripalu Center. Kripalu remained in silence and con- tinued to do sādhanā in seclusion while in the United States, though twice yearly he offered talks (read aloud by Desai) and led satsang. He describes how groups of 250, 500, and 1000 (referred to as “brothers and sisters”) poured into the Kripalu Center for programs and retreats (Kṛ pālvānanda 1981). On October 1, 1981, Kripalu returned to India where he died in Ahmed- abad, Gujarat, at approximately 6 o'clock the morning of December 29. He was hailed not only as a great guru but also as a saint, and thousands of devo- tees East and West claimed he did not die “a usual death” but rather chose to leave his body and enter mahāsamādhi (final liberation). There are of course considerable reasons to doubt this account, but I will not pursue this think- ing here. What is significant is that Kripalu fervently believed until the very last moment that his body was being transformed alchemically due to sādhanā rather than being consumed by death. He refused medical treatment includ- ing alternative therapies. Nevertheless, his mahāsamādhi (ritual ceremony) was held in Malav, Gujarat, on the sixteenth day after his death in accordance with Indian tradition. The details of his last days are recorded in a Kripalu Yoga ashram pamphlet called Guru Prasad, April 1982. One framework that is useful for us to understand the role that Kripalu’s life plays as both model and measure of what constitutes authentic yoga ex- perience is based on the core elements directly issuing from his aspiration to attain immortality. Although the Kripalu approach to haṭ hayoga was modified for beginners, Kripalu himself emphasized prāṇ ayoga sādhanā (once śaktipāt and the awakening of kuṇ ḍalinī sufficiently matured) as the only way for adept disciples to attain spiritual liberation through divine body—even though he himself was ultimately unsuccessful. For Kripalu, it is clear that the merging of the physical and the mystical dimensions of yoga manifest in the living body only to the extent that the adept experiences marked health and thera- peutic benefits. On this point, not only does he follow a decidedly pragmatic approach and makes few distinctions between the system of physical yoga and its metaphysical or mystical correlates or between macrocosm and micro- cosm, but he also places much more emphasis on the mystical dimensions of yoga than many of his contemporaries. By physical yoga, I refer primarily to advanced and spontaneous experi- ences of various mudrās or fire-generating (yogāgni) practices arising from prāṇ ayoga sādhanā such as mahā, mahāveda, khecarī, vajrolī, sahajolī, amarolī, yonī, and śakticālana,13 accompanied by spontaneously arising bandhas such as mūla, uḍḍiyāna, and jālandhara, prāṇ āyāmā, most notably kevala kumbaka, stages of anāhata nāda (inner sound) including drum, cymbal, and vīṇ ā 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 183 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 184 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga sounds, and the final stages of sabīja and nirbīja samādhi. The meaning here is that Kripalu engages the psychophysical culture of haṭ hayoga as a radical biotherapeutic strategy to remove disease, decay, and ultimately even death so that the material body (sthūla śarīra) becomes completely transformed (para śarīra) or transubstantiated. In the process, Kripalu never loses sight that haṭhayoga’s final aim of liberation (mukti, mokṣ a) is conceived in terms of a perfect body that is free from old age, disease, and death (HYP 1: 29; 2: 16, 20; 3: 6–7, 40–44; 4: 13, 27, 70, 74; see also KV 1:1, 15; 3:10, 45, 55).14 He believes the adept yogi can cultivate the ability to enter another’s body at will. Why? For Kripalu the liberated body is a living body or jīvanmukti that is not bound by the mundane laws of time (kāla) and karma. Just as his sadguru, now identi- fied as Lakulīśa-Pranavananda, was not limited, it seems, by ordinary or con- ventional consciousness or constrained by the limits of death and could enter another person’s body at will—Kripalu too sought the siddhi of divine body.15 To this end I am told that he had his body photographed regularly and that he kept records of his hair, teeth, and nails to track any physiological changes or potential signs of alchemical transformation. On more than one occasion he announced publicly to his disciples, “if I do not attain a divine body, consider me an ordinary sadhak” (Kṛ pālvānanda, 1977: viii).16 Even in the final mo- ments before death, the hope of attaining divine body lingered, and he falsely attributed the changes occurring in his body to alchemical transformation. We see that for Kripalu health and healing are prefigured in the performa- tive and experiential dimensions of adept yoga practice—there is a causal link.17 However, even though the adept’s body becomes a somatic vehicle of spiritual and mystical transformation that unveils the inscribed metaphysical map of tantric yoga philosophy by using techniques that could to some extent be described as Modern Postural Yoga (MPY), this only creates the physical and hygienic conditions requisite for deeper spiritual training. For Kripalu, haṭhayoga as physical culture is a means—not an end—leading to divine body. This does not diminish his contribution to Modern Postural Yoga (as per De Michelis’s, 2004 category) insofar as he provides the novice with what he calls “the proper” introduction necessary for deeper spiritual understanding and de- velopment, but it does call attention to the pervasive overlap of adept tantric sādhanā not typically found in other modern posture–identified approaches. To best accomplish this goal, as I stated at the outset, Kripalu identifies three key elements found within the more esoteric traditions of haṭha and tantric yoga, namely, śaktipāt dīkṣ ā and prāṇ ayoga sādhanā, since in his own experience they perfect the receptivity of the human body to create and sustain conducive circumstances for a direct understanding of what transcendence ultimately means—immortality. These three elements, as far as I can see, are not taught in conjunction in other modern approaches and, as I have argued, they sum- marize the measure of what constitutes “authentic” yoga not only for Kripalu’s disciples but also for Kripalu himself as a guru of modern yoga par excellence. 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 184 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 S WA M I K Ṛ PĀ LVĀ N A N DA  185  CONCLUSION: WAS KRIPALU SUCCESSFUL? In this paper I presented a sketch of Kripalu’s life based on the biographi- cal, hagiographical, and autobiographical material available. Furthermore, I structured this portrait to illuminate two important issues. First, Kripalu’s life provides a circular construction of authority within the Kripalu lineage. That is to say, his yogic experiences as guru (and as bapuji) within the Kri- palu community mark the standard by which all yoga experiences are meas- ured. Second, I framed his life narrative around three central features, namely, śaktipāt dīkṣā, prāṇayoga sādhanā, and the attainment of divine body. These factors, as I stated at the outset, are unique in the overall context of the trans- national phenomenon of modern yoga. One difficult question that I have not asked but that yet seems critical is whether Kripalu was successful. If we measure his success by his own crite- rion—to attain a divine body—then Kripalu has failed to achieve his goal, though as June McDaniel (2009) recently said, he “set the bar rather high.” Even if we approach the notion of divine body as part of an esoteric or sym- bolic landscape that is uniquely subjective and highly mystical, from Kripalu’s own point of reference he did not achieve his goal—he was not able to enter another body at will. If, however, we measure the success of Kripalu through the lens of his guru’s request during darśan to reestablish Kayavarohan as a place of pilgrimage and to teach yoga as a modern spiritual practice to women and men of all races, religions and nationalities, then by galvanizing a trans- national community of yoga teachers and practitioners located today across twenty-seven countries, Kripalu fulfilled his guru’s instructions. Finally, if we look at whether he was successful from the point of view of the Kripalu dis- ciple and devotee, then we see that Kripalu left the tradition of modern yoga with a rich legacy and a paradigmatic figure of the modern guru whose author- itative two-stage approach to yoga has only begun to be understood, studied, and practiced. REFERENCES SANSKRIT TEXTS Khecarīvidyā of Adinātha: A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation of an Early Text of Haṭhayoga. Sanskrit with English. Trans. James Mal- linson. London: Routledge, 2007. Gheraṇ ḍa Saṁ hitā. Sanskrit with English. Trans. S. C. Vasu, 1914–15. Reprint, Delhi: Oriental 6 Books, 1980. Gheraṇ ḍa Saṁ hitā. Sanskrit with English. Trans. James Mallinson. Woodstock: Yogavidya.com, 2009. 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 185 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 186 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga The Haṭhayogapradīpikā of Svātmārāma with the Commentary Jyotsnā of Brahmānanda and English Translation. 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With Heat Even Iron Will Bend: Discipline and Au- thority in Ashtanga Yoga. In Mark Singleton and Jean Byrne (eds.), Yoga in the Modern World: Contemporary Perspectives. London: Routledge Hindu Studies Series, pp. 140–161. Strauss, Sarah. 2005. Positioning Yoga: Balancing Acts Across Cultures. Oxford: Berg. White, David Gordon. 1996. The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ———.2009. Sinister Yogis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. NOTES 1. In 2010, an earlier version of this chapter appeared in Religions of South Asia 4 (1): 67–88. Since 1994, Amrit Desai is no longer associated with the Kripalu center. How- ever, their current Website claims that it has welcomed over one million visitors since it opened its door in the early 1970s, and it boasts a roster of high profile patrons and international teachers. As stated, in 2011 the Kripalu center reported revenues total- ing over $30.6 million dollars under its charitable, tax-exempt status, making it one of the largest and most successful spiritual organizations in North America (see IRS public tax return, http://www.guidestar.org/FinDocuments/2009/231/718/2009- 231718197-065128bd-9.pdf (accessed June 24, 2013)). 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 187 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 ( 188 ) Gurus of Modern Yoga 2. In 1989 I conducted field research on various sites relevant to Kripalu’s life including the Brahmeshwar Mandir in Kayavarohan, his mahāsamādhi in Malov, and the Muni- mandal Ashram of the Udasin lineage in Haridwar. In 2002 I stayed at Kripalu Muni Mandal Ashram in Pransali located near the well-known Śiva temple at Somnath. 3. The heritage of yoga scriptures in India is vast. Kripalu was selective and fo- cused primarily on medieval Nāth haṭhayoga texts such as Haṭhayogapradīpikā (HYP); Haṭ hapradīpā (HD); Gorakṣ a Saṁ hitā; Gorakṣ a Paddhati; Gorakṣ aśataka (GŚ); Gheraṇ ḍ a Saṁ hitā (GS); Khecarīvidyā (KV); Yoga Bīja; Śiva Saṁ hitā (ŚS); and Haṭ haratnāvalī, to name just a few. This genre of Sanskrit literature concentrates primarily on a prescriptive regimen of corporeal practices that facilitate samādhi and longevity. Goraknāth of the Nāth yoga sampradāya first used the technical term haṭ ha in the Haṭ hadīpikā (HD). See also Reddy (1982) for more details on two unpublished manuscripts of the HD in the Darbar Library, Nepal and Government Manuscript Library Bhubaneswar, Orissa. See also White (1996) for an excellent study of Nāth tradition in India. 4. Kripalu’s pravṛ tti mārga for non-renouncers emphasizes citta over prāṇ a meaning that āsanas and prāṇ āyāma (breathing practices) are learned and practiced volun- tarily. The practice remains steady, and the energy is restrained. In more advanced or adept stages, āsanas and other kriyās arise spontaneously (sahaja), involun- tarily, or naturally through the intense force of awakened kuṇ ḍ alinī. 5. The Mahālakṣ mī Temple was completed in Bombay c. 1785. Considering Kripalu’s own visionary experiences at Kayavarohan, the temple has an interesting story. The chief engineer of the Hornby Vellard named Ramji Shivji was having a difficult time building the exterior sea wall. It had collapsed on more than one occasion. However, the goddess Lakṣ mī came to him in a dream and told him to look under the sea for three buried statues (of Lakṣ mī, Sarasvatī, and Kālī). He led a search, found the three statues, and built a temple to house them. 6. Kripalu claims if a guru gives śaktipāt it does not necessarily mean that he is a perfect yogi (mahātma. For example, Amrit Desai, as a householder or lay disciple, bestowed śaktipāt). Tibetan lamas also employ a variant of śaktipāt during certain ritual initiation ceremonies or wongkurs. 7. After returning from a field trip to the Amarnath caves in 1989, I traveled this par- ticular pilgrimage route with Swami Vinit Muni, Kripalu’s principle disciple, and visited the Udasin headquarters in Haridwar as well as the site of a small Kripalu ashram on route to Gangotri, Badrinath, Kedarnath, and Yamunotri. 8. Kripalu refers to this as nirmānadeha or the historical or emanation body that ap- pears in time and space. 9. The modern day town of Kayavarohan is variously referred to as Kārvan, Kāyāvarohaṇ a, Kāyāvatāra, Kārohana, and Kāyārohaṇ a, as well as Medhavati. For more details see Lorenzen (1972: 177). Kripalu (1972) adds that although Kayavaro- han was located only 25 kilometers from his home in Dabhoi, he knew nothing of its history as an ancient pilgrimage center, nor had he visited it before this invitation. 10. The name Lakulīśa means “lord who holds a club” (lakulin): it is a compound of lakula “club” with the possessive suffix –in, and īśa “lord.” Variants of this name in- clude Nakulīśa, Lakuleśa, Lakulin, and Lakulīśvara (Lorenzen 1977: 177; see also Dasgupta [1922], 1988). Manuscripts of the Pāśupatas including the Pāśupatas Sūtras with the Pāñcārtha bhāṣ ya (commentary) of Kauṇ ḍinya (also referred to by Mādhava as the Rāśīkara bhāṣ ya and published in 1940 in the Trivandrum series; see Sastri, 1940), and the Gaṇ akārikā, are attributed to the early Gupta period (c. 280–550 CE) and were rediscovered in the 1930s. We see monistic as well as 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 188 06/09/13 1:32 PM OUP-SECOND UNCORRECTED PROOF, September 6, 2013 S WA M I K Ṛ PĀ LVĀ N A N DA  189  monotheistic elements in this literature with a theoretical emphasis placed on grace (kṛ pā), compassion (karuṇ ā) and karma—we also see references to śaktipāt. Furthermore, the Pāśupatas hail originally from Gujarat given several references in the Kāravaṇ a-māhātmya to the temples at Somnātha and Kāyāvarohaṇ a as im- portant centers of the early Pāśupata sect. We also see references to Lakulīśa’s per- sonal history at Kāyāvarohaṇ a in the Vāyu, Kūrma, Skandha, Śiva (SP), and Lińga Purāṇ as. For example, the SP lists twenty-eight yogācāryas each having four dis- ciples. The last yogācāya born at Kāyāvarohaṇ a is listed in the SP as Lakulish. 11. Although R. C. Agarwala (1965) identifies two unusual standing poses from Rajas- than, Alain Danièlou argues that standing poses are considered normative (cited in Lorenzen, 1972: 177). The mūrti of Lakulīśa in the Brahmeshwara Mandir at Kayavarohan is in seated posture, though not padmāsana. 12. As White (1996: 146) argues, “We may quite safely characterize the emergence of the Nātha Siddhas as a marriage between Nāthas (i.e. Śaiva groups—Pāśupatas, Kāpalikas, and Śaktas—for whom Śiva had long been called Nāth, “Lord”) and Sid- dhas (Maheśvara and Rasa Siddhas and Sittars, as well as Buddhist Siddhācaryas) which took the institutional form of the Nātha sampradāya.” It is also significant that the teachings of the Pāśupatas were traditionally kept secret and revealed only to initiates based on strict caste rules until a householder path evolved from the earlier monastic orders. Today, the Somnātha Temple is still one of the most revered and active sites of the Pāśupatas in India. In the seventh century, Vara- nasi was also a popular site for Pāśupata tradition, and in the literature one finds stories that explain clashes between Varanasi and Kayavarohana. Since the eighth century, Pāśupatinātha Temple in Nepal has become a central place of pilgrimage. For more details on the Pāśupata sect, see Sastri (1940), Minoru (1958, 2002), Kripalu (1972), Lorenzen (1972); Sanderson (2006), and White (2009). 13. For this reason, do-it-yourself instructions on how to practice mudrās (seals) are typically omitted from haṭ hayoga treatises, suggesting to Kripalu that they must be learned as he did, either through direct transmission from an accomplished guru or through spontaneous yoga-kriyās. See Goldberg (2002) and White (1996). 14. As Mircea Eliade (1969) observes, the human body is valorized in the śaivāgamas (e.g., haṭ hayoga root texts) in ways unknown before in the history of Indian reli- gions. Purification, rejuvenation and longevity, eradication of all disease, recogni- tion of the human body as homologous to the cosmos, and the acquisition of a transfigured body beyond the grasp of death are among the possible siddhis (per- fections, powers) declared attainable through sādhanā. 15. There are countless stories in Hindu, Buddhist, and Daoist literature of immor- tals, siddhas or transcendents who have obtained longevity or bodily immortality through alchemy or yoga. 16. Elsewhere he makes reference to the Bhagavad-Gītā 7:29, claiming that only a yogi who has attained divine body is a siddha yogi. 17. The lists of remedial cures and benefits include but are not limited to corrective movements in the body, increased endurance and strength, the release of afflic- tive or painful emotions (kleśas), the cessation of hunger and thirst (HYP 1: 32; 2: 55, 58; GS 3: 28), the eradication of deadly diseases (HYP 1: 28–29, 31; GS 1: 16), balancing the three humours (dośas, i.e., bile, phlegm, and wind); eliminating the signs of old age such as deteriorating health, gray hair, and wrinkles (HYP 3: 29), radiance (GS 1: 18–19), endurance (SS 3: 54), the extension of one’s lifespan, and the transfiguration of the body (GS 3: 4–30; SS 4: 25, 28, 41, 51, 56)—also reveal- ing deeper and subtler states of consciousness (samādhi). 09-Singleton-Chap08.indd 189 06/09/13 1:32 PM