(PDF) Teachers’ perception of student coping with emergency remote instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic: The relative impact of educator demographics and professional adaptation and adjustment
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Teachers’ perception of student coping with emergency remote instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic: The relative impact of educator demographics and professional adaptation and adjustment
Michał B. Paradowski
2021, Frontiers in Psychology [Research Topic "Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Psychoeducational Variables Involved in the Health Emergency"]
April 22, 2021
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Abstract
The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has upended lives and thrown the taken for granted into disarray. One of the most affected groups were teachers and students, faced with the necessity of school closures and—where logistically feasible—an urgent shift to emergency remote instruction, often with little prior notice. In this contribution, based on an online survey involving participants from 91 countries, we offer a perspective bridging the two groups, by investigating the role of teachers’ demographics and professional adaptation to emergency remote teaching in their perception of how their student were coping with the novel situation. The resultant model explains 51% of variance, and highlights the relative weights of the predictor variables. Given the importance of teacher perceptions in the effectiveness of their instruction, the findings may offer valuable guidelines for future training and intervention programs.
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 22 April 2021
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648443
Teachers’ Perception of Student
Coping With Emergency Remote
Instruction During the COVID-19
Pandemic: The Relative Impact of
Educator Demographics and
Professional Adaptation and
Adjustment
Magdalena Jelińska 1 and Michał B. Paradowski 2,1*
Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland, 2 Institute of Linguistics, University of Silesia,
Sosnowiec, Poland
Edited by:
The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has upended lives and thrown the taken for
Michael S. Dempsey,
Boston University, United States granted into disarray. One of the most affected groups were teachers and students, faced
Reviewed by: with the necessity of school closures and—where logistically feasible—an urgent shift to
Mwarumba Mwavita, emergency remote instruction, often with little prior notice. In this contribution, based on
Oklahoma State University,
United States an online survey involving participants from 91 countries, we offer a perspective bridging
Evangelia Karagiannopoulou, the two groups, by investigating the role of teachers’ demographics and professional
University of Ioannina, Greece
adaptation to emergency remote teaching in their perception of how their students
*Correspondence:
were coping with the novel situation. The resultant model explains 51% of variance,
Michał B. Paradowski
[email protected]
and highlights the relative weights of the predictor variables. Given the importance of
teacher perceptions in the effectiveness of their instruction, the findings may offer valuable
Specialty section:
guidelines for future training and intervention programs.
This article was submitted to
Educational Psychology, Keywords: educational psychology, COVID-19 pandemic, evaluation, emergency remote teaching, school closure,
a section of the journal distance learning, perception of student coping, professional adaptation
Frontiers in Psychology
Received: 31 December 2020
Accepted: 02 March 2021 INTRODUCTION: BACKGROUND LITERATURE
Published: 22 April 2021
Citation: In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, early 2020 saw a global suspension of face-to-face classes
Jelińska M and Paradowski MB (2021) and large-scale school closures in an attempt to curb the viral transmission, impacting over 90% of
Teachers’ Perception of Student the world’s student population (UNESCO, 2020). In order to ensure continuity of education, where
Coping With Emergency Remote logistically possible institutions transitioned to emergency remote instruction, usually with little
Instruction During the COVID-19
time given for preparation. The transition and implementation of the new teaching and learning
Pandemic: The Relative Impact of
Educator Demographics and
format have posed numerous risks, problems, and challenges to both teachers and students (Bao,
Professional Adaptation and 2020; Cachón-Zagalaz et al., 2020; Hiraoka and Tomoda, 2020).
Adjustment. Current scholarship on emergency remote instruction during the COVID-19-induced school
Front. Psychol. 12:648443. closures tends to focus either on teacher or student populations. The University of Houston’s (2020)
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648443 report summarizing the faculty’s perceptions regarding the transition revealed significant variation
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
in terms of the implementation of technology tools and of they meet obstacles and challenges (Pajares, 1996; Tschannen-
the mode of instruction. A survey by Quality Matters and Moran et al., 1998; Woolfolk Hoy et al., 2005). Instructors
Eduventures
Research (Legon et al., 2020) carried out among who feel more efficient and competent themselves set higher
chief online officers at colleges and universities reported that expectations for their students (Midgley et al., 1995; Wolters
while most believed the pivot to remote teaching to be a logistic and Daugherty, 2007; Cho and Shim, 2013), but simultaneously
success, most simultaneously admitted at least a measure of are more positive and responsive to them (Gibson and Dembo,
difficulty, citing low levels of faculty and student preparedness. 1984) and tend to provide them with more support promoting a
A report published by Ohio State University (Jaggars et al., good learning atmosphere (Bru et al., 2002; Rubie-Davies, 2007,
2020, p. 25) discovered among others that faculty who taught 2010; Sakiz et al., 2012; Holzberger et al., 2013, 2014; Guo et al.,
their courses in real-time rated online teaching challenges less 2014).
negatively than those who used an asynchronous delivery format. The results of the above studies refer to the educational
A survey deployed by eLearning Researc Practice Lab Indiana process under normal conditions of on-site and face-to-face
University Pervasive Technology Institute (2020) found that two- classes. Little is known about whether they will be replicated
thirds of the instructors felt disconnected from their students in the case of emergency remote teaching. Existing studies
and that it was more difficult to teach, while three quarters of concerning online teaching or learning focus mainly on
the students felt they had lost touch with their IU community; identifying the most significant technical skills such as those
a similar number declared it took them more effort to complete needed to use the specific software application, or on dealing
their course assignments after the transition. A study carried out with difficulties with particular software and using it in student
among university students at a Greek university (Karalis and assessment of learning, as illustrated for instance in Hampel and
Raikou, 2020) found that the majority of the students surveyed Stickler’s (2005) skills pyramid (see also Livingston and Condie,
experienced negative emotional states such as stress, anxiety, 2006; Compton, 2009). However, research has not yet attempted
and sadness at the announcement of university closure, but to investigate how teachers’ circumstances, behaviors, and
that these decreased once online classes had started. Thematic attitudes affect their perception of students’ coping with online
analyses of the responses revealed the important role of the delivery. Moreover, remote learning entails specific problems that
teachers in this positive shift. Watermeyer et al. (2020) found may influence teaching and learning quality and effectiveness,
that the majority of the academic teachers in their sample felt such as the deficit of “live,” “face-to-face” contact felt by both
confident or strongly confident in their ability to carry out online students and teachers (e.g., Stodel et al., 2006; Arroyo et al.,
teaching and assessment, and considered their institutions to 2015; Barnard-Ashton et al., 2017; Janse van Rensburg, 2018;1 );
be supportive in facilitating the move to online delivery. Li lack of adequate technological affordances to efficiently deliver
et al. (2020) assessed the impact of the outbreak on stress, poor the program, provide support to participants, and satisfy their
mental health, and poor sleep quality symptoms among college learning needs; and inadequate teacher and student competencies
students in Guangdong. Wilczewski et al. (2021) investigated to use the technological solutions (Garrison et al., 1999; Pawan
the psychological and academic effects of learning online among et al., 2003; Livingston and Condie, 2006). These deficits can
international students enrolled at the University of Warsaw. result in increased feelings of insecurity, confusion, and threat
Alemany-Arrebola et al. (2020) analyzed the impact of trait- and among learners, as well as feelings of doubt and fear of failure
state-anxiety on university students’ perception of academic self- among teachers (Arroyo et al., 2015; Janse van Rensburg, 2018)
efficacy in Spain. Zaccoletti et al. (2020) investigated the decrease influencing how they perceive their students and, in consequence,
in Italian and Portuguese primary and lower secondary school how they teach them.
pupils’ motivation from the perspective of the parents. Thus, teachers’ sense of competence, which is related to the
A sudden forced transition to remote teaching constitutes notion of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), may facilitate adaptation,
an important factor that may influence students’ handling of enhancing their ability to deal with challenges and difficulties
this unprecedented educational challenge, as well as teachers’ related to this novel teaching context. It may also be linked to
perception of students’ coping with remote learning. Perceptions the degree to which the teachers support their students in the
of students’ abilities guide teachers’ choices of instructional new learning context as well as in the COVID-19 pandemic
methods (Biddle and Anderson, 1986; Snow, 1994; Martin, 2006; social context, if it shapes expectations toward the students,
Hardré and Sullivan, 2009; Cho and Shim, 2013). Those who adjustment of instruction to this new situation and the students’
perceive their students’ achievement, motivation, work habits, abilities, evaluation of their activity, as well as potential difficulties
and class activity negatively have lower learning expectations with assessment. All these factors seem to be related to if not
(Rubie-Davies, 2010). Highly consequential for the efficiency of determine how teachers perceive students’ coping during the
the teaching process and student achievement is also teachers’ transition to remote instruction. The social projection hypothesis
perception of their own competencies (Tucker et al., 2005; Guo (Krueger and Acevedo, 2005; Krueger et al., 2006; Krueger, 2007)
et al., 2012; Miller et al., 2017). Numerous studies indicated permits the conjecture that teachers’ own sense of competence
that teacher self-efficacy positively influences beliefs about and how they cope in this particular educational context as well
teaching (Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk-Hoy, 2001; Skaalvik
and Skaalvik, 2007; Cho and Shim, 2013), modes of instruction, 1 Jeliska, M., and Paradowski, M. B. (under review). The impact of demographics,
and students’ outcomes (Zee and Koomen, 2016). Teachers’ life and work circumstances on college and university instructors’ well-being
perception of their own self-efficacy is also related to how during quaranteaching: findings from a global survey. Front. Psychol.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
as their satisfaction with remote teaching and perception of its (51%) were aged between 25 and 45; 44% declared to be over 45
effectiveness may be automatically projected onto and attributed years old; 83% were female.
to students. Most of the participants had been teaching their subject for
The aim of this study is thus to investigate the ways in which more than 5 years. Almost 62% declared to teach classes in real
teachers’ perception of how their students were coping with the time (synchronously) during the COVID-19 pandemic, although
novel situation was affected by their professional adaptation to as many as 79.1% had no prior experience with this mode of
emergency remote teaching (ERT; Hodges et al., 2020), following instruction. More than 62% of all the respondents found remote
the social projection hypothesis (Krueger and Acevedo, 2005; teaching (whether synchronous or asynchronous) less effective
Krueger et al., 2005; Krueger, 2007), as well as sociodemographic than face-to-face classes; 53.2% estimated that the pandemic
variables. The study is guided by the following exploratory situation had affected teachers and students equally, whereas
research questions: 33.1% found students to be in a worse situation than the teachers.
The participant sociodemographics are presented in Table 1.
RQ1: To what extent—if any—does teachers’ perception of
students’ coping vary depending on sociodemographic factors
Measures
such as (1a) teachers’ gender, (1b) teachers’ age, (1c) length of
To verify how teachers adapt to and cope with emergency
teaching experience, and (1d) level of education handled?
remote teaching, we designed a custom-made online survey (see
RQ2: To what extent—if any—does teachers’ perception of
Supplementary Material). It comprised 441 items concerning
students’ coping vary depending on their attitudes toward
respondents’ sociodemographics, the circumstances surrounding
remote teaching based on (2a) perception of remote teaching
their transition to emergency remote instruction, personal
effectiveness, (2b) prior experience with remote instruction,
experiences, behaviors, attitudes, feelings, physical and mental
(2c) mode of remote instruction, i.e., synchronous vs.
health, as well as their personality traits. Psychological constructs
asynchronous classes, and (2d) appraisal of the relative
were measured with 23 short scales developed from IPIP
situational impact on teachers and students (i.e., whether one
items and inspired among others by in-depth analyses of Brief
of these group is more affected)?
COPE (Carver, 1997), Life Orientation Test—Revised (Scheier
RQ3: Which of the indicators of teachers’ professional
et al., 1994), Five-Dimensional Curiosity Scale Revised (5DCR;
adaptation to emergency remote instruction are associated
Kashdan et al., 2020), Individual Adaptability I-ADAPT-M
with teachers’ perception of student coping with online classes,
(Ployhart and Bliese, 2006), and Grit Scale (Duckworth et al.,
and to what extent?
2007). Due to the rather general nature of these existing
RQ4: Which of the indicators of teachers’ professional
questionnaires, which does not permit capturing more situation-
adaptation to emergency remote instruction predict their
oriented circumstances, we developed custom-made scales,
perception of student coping with online classes?
single-item indicators, as well as open-ended questions. The
RQ5: What is the relative contribution of the respective
content of these items was consulted with academics with
predictors and to what extent does each of them determine
experience in the field and discussed/piloted with teachers
teachers’ perception of student coping with online classes?
and students.
Which of them have the greatest influence on how teachers
In this article, to analyze how teachers’ professional adaptation
perceive their students’ learning?
to emergency remote instruction contributes to their perception
To this end, from April until September 2020, we carried out a of student coping, we focus on five short scales and nine specific
custom-made multinational survey.2 single-item indicators complemented by sociodemographic
factors such as gender and education stages handled. Two
of the designed scales assessed aspects of teacher adaptation
MATERIALS AND METHODS to ERT such as adjustment of instruction and evaluation
uncertainty/issues, one scale measured perceived student coping,
Participants whereas the other two scales investigated self-perception of
From April through September 2020, a total of 6,582 educators supportive teaching and sense of competence.
participated in a study probing teachers’ adaptation to emergency Instructional adjustment was measured with three items
remote instruction during the COVID-19 epidemic. Of these, assessing the extent to which the respondents had modified
1,944 completed the questionnaire and met the inclusion criteria. their teaching mode and material (e.g., “During this epidemic, I
Approximately 40% represented higher education institutions, have felt that I have to alter not just the medium and method,
teaching at a university, graduate school, or community college; but also the content of my classes”) as well as changed their
24.3% taught at secondary and 29.2% at K-primary education evaluation (e.g., “I have eased the grading scheme”). The items
levels. The teachers came from 6 continents and 91 countries in this and all the remaining scales were answered on a six-point
and autonomous territories, with almost equal proportions Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 6 (completely
representing Europe (41.6%) and North America (40.6%). Their agree). The internal consistency of this scale was satisfactory
reported mean age was 43.6 years (SD = 11.9). More than half (Cronbach’s α = 0.70, McDonald’s ωh = 0.68, Guttman’s λ6 =
0.59, Reykov’s ρ = 0.89).
2 The data presented in this paper come from a larger project https://schoolclosure. Evaluation uncertainty was measured with a three-item scale
ils.uw.edu.pl/. assessing the extent to which teachers experienced difficulties in
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
evaluating students’ activity (e.g. “I find it difficult to evaluate scales was subsequently validated through confirmatory factor
students’ activity during online classes”) and verifying progress analysis (CFA) using the SEPATH module in the STATISTICA
(“I am unable to verify whether the students are learning”) software. For this purpose, we applied the maximum likelihood
as well as doubts about the integrity of the assignments and method, which resulted in the same five-factor structure. The
examinations (“I am anxious that some students may be using comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990) estimates how much
the situation to cheat in their assignments/exams”). In the the non-centrality parameter is reduced when moving from an
current study, its internal consistency reached Cronbach’s α unstructured baseline model (i.e., one with the worst fit) to the
of 0.73, McDonald’s ωh = 0.75, Guttman’s λ6 = 0.68, and considered model. Values of at least 0.90 indicate a good fit
Reykov’s ρ = 0.98. of the model. The root mean square error of approximation
Perceived student coping was assessed with four items (RMSEA) based on the non-centrality parameter estimates the
measuring teachers’ perception of the extent to which students difference between the hypothesized model and the perfect
coped with the transition to remote learning (e.g., “I feel that model. A well-fitted model is indicated by values lower than
some of my students have been left behind/fallen through 0.05 (Browne and Cudeck, 1993). The standardized root-mean-
the cracks in the shift to remote teaching”), reacted positively square residual (SRMR) reflects the discrepancy between the
to remote teaching (“My students have responded positively reproduced and the observed correlations. As the cutoff criterion,
to my remote teaching”), and experienced difficulties such as Hu and Bentler (1998) recommended a value of 0.08, with
lack of concentration and/or attention (“The students have higher values indicating poorer fit to the data and values lower
trouble with concentration and staying focused during the online than 0.05 indicating an excellent fit. Both RMSEA and SRMR
classes”). Three of the items were reverse worded, indicating issue are the absolute fit indices. In this study, the CFA fit indices
occurrence. The scale reported a satisfactory internal consistency indicated satisfactory fit for the model: χ 2 (220) = 352.74,
of Cronbach’s α = 0.72, McDonald’s ωh = 0.74, Guttman’s λ6 = p = 0.001—given that χ 2 is highly sensitive to large sample
0.69, and Reykov’s ρ = 0.94. sizes and leads to the rejection of models with the simplest
Supportive teaching was measured with a five-item scale misspecification, we also examined the goodness-of-fit index GFI
gauging to what extent teachers perceived themselves as = 0.900, CFI = 0.904, RMSEA = 0.046, and SRMR = 0.061. They
motivating (“I can talk my students into learning”), supporting provided confirmatory evidence for the factor structure.
students’ activity (“I am good at helping people work well The single-item indicators were used to assess other aspects
together”), inclusive (“I try to make sure everyone in a group feels related to educators’ perception of the students during the remote
included”), building their relation with the students/class on trust teaching period, such as student activity evaluation (“Thanks to
and security (“I trust my students”), as well as fostering student the change, some students who used to be passive have now
well-being (“I try to make my group members happy”). The scale become more active”) and overly demanding expectations (“Now
showed good internal consistency of Cronbach’s α, McDonald’s my students ought to be able to do more because they have
ωh and Reykov’s ρ = 0.73, and Guttman’s λ6 = 0.71. more time”). They also allowed measuring COVID-19 situation-
Sense of competence was measured with an eight-item scale related aspects of teaching such as reassuring attitude (“I try
assessing the extent to which teachers felt they had knowledge to reassure my students during these times”), perceived initial
and skills necessary to face challenging or demanding tasks (e.g., ability to teach remotely (“I felt confident in my ability to
“I know how to get things done” and “I like to work on tasks teach remotely when I was told to do so”), prior experience
that require a great deal of skill”), preparedness (e.g., “I am with remote teaching (“I had been teaching e-learning, blended
always prepared”), having multitasking ability (“I can manage courses, MOOCs or webinars before this epidemic”), and mode
many things at the same time”), being tech-savvy (“I am a of remote instruction (synchronous vs. asynchronous). Finally,
confident user of new technologies”), and lifelong training in some single-item indicators were used to measure perceived
their professional skills (“I continually train to keep my teaching remote teaching effectiveness, satisfaction with online teaching
skills and knowledge up-to-date”). In the current study, the software/solutions (“Do you like the tools/software/platform you
scale reported good internal consistency of Cronbach’s α and have been using to teach the online classes?”), and the appraisal
McDonald’s ωh = 0.76, Guttman’s λ6 = 0.74, and Reykov’s of the relative situational impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
ρ = 0.67 and correlated positively with supportive teaching on teachers and students in the educational context. This item
(r = 0.47, p < 0.05). measures instructors’ perception of how the situation influences
The scales were distinguished on the basis of exploratory different stakeholders of the education process: as affecting
factor analysis (EFA) preceded by an analysis of inter-item teachers more than students, students to a greater extent than
correlations. As the criterion for item selection, we followed teachers, or influencing both groups to a similar extent. In
the recommendation by Clark and Watson (1995) that items addition to single-item indicators, we took into account basic
should ideally correlate between 0.15 and 0.50. Using maximum sociodemographic information such as teachers’ age, gender, and
likelihood estimation with standardized varimax rotation, we education stage handled.
identified five factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.0 (from 4.4 One-item measures are often criticized for their low reliability
for the first factor to 1.04 for the fifth factor). All loadings but and estimation difficulty, as well as vulnerability to the response
two were greater than 0.40. All the factors accounted for 52% style effect compared with longer scales, but these arguments
of total variance explained. The EFA factor loadings of all the are not always sufficiently justified (Wanous and Reichers,
items are presented in Appendix Table 6a. The model of these 1996; Konstabel et al., 2012; Jovanović and Lazić, 2020).
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
In psychometric theory, the longer the scale, the lower the A prerequisite to take part in the study was having transitioned
measurement error and thus the higher scale reliability. However, from regular face-to-face classes to online teaching as part of the
with an increasing number of items, respondents may pay response to the COVID-19 epidemic. The opening filter question
decreasing attention to their responses, which reduces the quality excluded more than 13% of the initial survey takers, who either
of the information obtained (Gogol et al., 2014). Moreover, continued teaching face-to-face or had already been teaching
Wanous and Reichers (1996) proposed a procedure based on online before the school closures happened.
a formula for the correction for attenuation which allows
measuring the reliability of single-item indicators. In this study, Data Analysis
we applied the comprehensive single item approach (CSI) In order to answer RQs 1a–d and 2a–d, the relationships
proposed by Konstabel et al. (2012, 2017). The CSI assumes that between the variables, based on the significant differences, were
the content validity of a one-item indicator is preserved when this analyzed on the basis of independent-sample t tests and one-
item has a comprehensive content and is newly written instead way ANOVAs. To find the answer to RQ3, continuous variables
of being selected from a longer scale. This approach is based on were characterized by means of Pearson’s correlation coefficient
the assumption that every individual has self-knowledge and is and categorical variables by Spearman’s ρ. To verify the
able to characterize it if a given construct is substantially simple, predictors of perceived student coping with remote teaching, we
unambiguous, or narrow to be comprehensible to the respondent used STATISTICA’s General Regression Models (GRM) module
(Wanous and Reichers, 1996; also Loo, 2002). This means that applying the methods of the general linear model, which
the CSI should not be applicable to more complex traits or allows building models combining categorical and continuous
dispositions. Thus, in this research, it was only employed with predictor variables (analysis of covariance design). In contrast
general and more homogeneous variables. Numerous single- with (multiple) regression models applicable only to continuous
item measures have successfully been used in studies measuring variables, the general linear model permits the analysis of any
self-esteem (Robins et al., 2001), self-efficacy (Hoeppner et al., ANCOVA or MANCOVA design that includes both categorical
2011), job satisfaction (Wanous et al., 1997; Nagy, 2002), burnout (e.g., gender) and continuous predictor variables as well as a
(West et al., 2012), psychosocial stress (Littman et al., 2006), wide variety of different types of design. Analysis of covariance
life satisfaction (Jovanović and Lazić, 2020), the need to belong (ANCOVA) is defined as a general linear model, and combines
(Nichols and Webster, 2013), ability ratings (Rammstedt and at least one categorical predictor (one-way ANOVA) and
Rammsayer, 2002), and even personality facets (Rammstedt and continuous predictors (linear regression). In all general linear
John, 2007; Denissen et al., 2008; Konstabel et al., 2017). In models, the dependent variable(s) is/are always continuous. As
the field of education, they have been used to measure teaching in the case of regression, the use of ANCOVA depends on five
effectiveness (Wanous and Hudy, 2001), academic anxiety and assumptions: normality of residuals, homogeneity of variance,
academic self-concept (Gogol et al., 2014), among others. Single- homogeneity of regression slopes, linearity of regression, and
item indicators are appreciated as they allow reducing survey independence of error terms (Garson, 2012; Philippas, 2014). In
time, are highly flexible, easily adjust to new contexts, and yield this study, a general linear model was the most suitable statistical
more generalizable research results that are easier to interpret. tool to find the answers to RQ4, allowing to take into account
They also protect against item redundancy, which may evoke both categorical and continuous predictors. The answer to RQ5
respondent frustration, mental fatigue, and boredom (Nagy, utilizes forward selection, based on adding the most statistically
2002; Konstabel et al., 2012, 2017; West et al., 2012; Gogol et al., significant variables to the model until there are no more such
2014). Gardner et al. (1998) posit that in some contexts single- variables meeting the entry criteria and a satisfactory regression
item general indicators of psychological constructs may be better equation has been found. The significance level was set at 0.001
than a set of responses to numerous construct facets. They are for ANCOVAs and at 0.05 for the remaining analyses. Effect
particularly useful in large-scale surveys that cover numerous sizes are reported with Cohen’s d for the t test and ηp ² for
variables (Nagy, 2002; Konstabel et al., 2012, 2017; West et al., ANOVA, respectively.
2012). The linearity assumption was examined via a visual inspection
of scatterplots showing that the variables and the residuals of the
regression (i.e., the errors between the observed and the predicted
Procedure values) were normally distributed. The variance inflation factor
The custom-made questionnaire was active from April until (VIF) not exceeding 1.6 and tolerance ranging from 0.64 to 0.94
September 2020 on a commercial survey software platform (in indicated lack of multicollinearity. The lack of collinearity was
order to facilitate responses from countries where solutions also confirmed by a matrix of Pearson’s bivariate correlations
such as Google Forms are inaccessible without a VPN). The among all the predictors. A visual analysis of a scatterplot of
participants were recruited based on a snowball sampling residuals vs. predicted values indicated that the assumption of
technique using several channels including the researchers’ direct homoscedasticity was satisfied as well.
personal contacts, mailing lists and websites of professional
associations, as well as thematic groups and pages on social RESULTS
media. The respondents were informed about the purpose of
the survey and they participated voluntarily. The protocol had To answer the first two research questions, i.e., whether and
received IRB approval. to what extent teachers’ perception of students’ coping varied
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Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
TABLE 1 | Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants (N = 1,944). TABLE 1 | Continued
Frequency (n) Percent (%) Frequency (n) Percent (%)
Stage of education handled Not reported 1 0.1
K-primary 568 29.2 Remote teaching mode
Secondary 472 24.3 Synchronous 1,202 61.8
Tertiary 772 39.7 Asynchronous 742 38.2
Other 27 4.2 Prior experience with remote teaching
Not reported 51 2.6 Lack of experience 1,537 79.1
Continent Prior experience 407 20.9
Europe 809 41.6 Perceived effectiveness of remote teaching vis-à-vis F2F instruction
(Austria, Belgium, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Less efficient 1,217 62.6
Republic, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, Equally efficient 526 27.1
France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
More efficient 201 10.3
Ireland, Italy, Jersey, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Malta, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Appraisal of relative situational impact
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Students affected more than teachers 644 33.1
Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Teachers and students affected equally 28 53.2
United Kingdom, and Ukraine)
Teachers affected more than students 113 5.8
North America 789 40.6
Not reported 153 7.9
(Bahamas, Canada, Costa Rica, Mexico,
Puerto Rico, and USA)
Asia 200 10.3
(Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia,
China, Hong Kong, Macao, India, Indonesia, depending on sociodemographic factors such as (1a) gender, (1b)
Iraq, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Kuwait, Laos, age, (1c) length of teaching experience, and (1d) education stage
Lebanon, Malaysia, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan,
handled as well as whether and to what extent it varied depending
Palestine, Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, on the teachers’ attitudes toward remote teaching based on (2a)
Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Vietnam) perception of remote teaching effectiveness, (2b) prior experience
Oceania 72 3.7 with remote instruction, (2c) mode of remote instruction, i.e.,
(Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, and New Zealand) synchronous vs. asynchronous classes, and (2d) appraisal of the
South America 38 2.0 relative situational impact on teachers and students (i.e., whether
(Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, one of these group was more affected), we calculated Student’s
Trinidad and Tobago, and Uruguay) t test and ANOVA, respectively. Table 2 presents significant
Africa 36 1.9 differences for teachers’ perception of student coping with remote
(Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, learning. The results indicate that the teachers differed in their
Mauritius, Morocco, Senegal, South Africa, perception among several dimensions.
and Tunisia) Male teachers felt that students coped better (M = 3.42, SD =
Age groups (years) 1.07) compared with their female counterparts (M = 3.20, SD =
<25 95 4.9 1.01). Differences also occurred across all three education stages:
25–35 397 20.4 primary (M = 2.87, SD = 0.99), secondary (M = 3.04, SD = 0.96),
36–45 595 30.6 and tertiary (M = 3.58, SD = 0.96).
46–55 533 27.4 Perception of student coping was also influenced by
56–65 282 14.5 perception of remote teaching effectiveness. Those who found
>65 40 2.1 their remote instruction to be less efficient than face-to-
Not reported 2 0.1 face classes were convinced that students experienced more
Gender difficulties while learning online (M = 2.88, SD = 0.89), whereas
Female 1,610 82.8 their colleagues who estimated remote teaching as equally or
Male 320 16.5 more efficient did not deem it more difficult for their students
Not listed/non-binary 14 0.7 (M = 3.85, SD = 0.90 and M = 3.83, SD = 1.07 respectively).
Experience teaching the subject Student coping was also perceived differently among teachers
<5 years 615 31.6 who conducted synchronous and asynchronous classes. The
6–15 years 620 31.9 former found students to cope better (M = 3.48, SD = 1.00),
16–25 years 473 24.3 compared with teachers who did not teach in real time (M = 2.85,
26–35 years 178 9.2 SD = 0.95).
>35 years 57 2.9 Finally, differences in perception of student coping were also
related to educators’ prior experience with remote instruction.
(Continued) Teachers who had taught remotely before the pandemic
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Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
TABLE 2 | Significant differences in teachers’ perception of student coping with remote learning (N = 1,944).
Perceived student coping
M SD Effect size 95%CI F or t df
Gender ηp ² = 0.006 0.001 0.01 F = 5.71* 2,1941
Female 3.20* 1.01
Male 3.42* 1.07
Not listed/non-binary 3.34 1.03
Age group ηp ² = 0.11 0.08 0.13 F = 74.28 3,1889
<25 years 3.09 1.00
25–35 3.20 1.03
36–45 3.21 1.01
46–55 3.26 1.03
56–65 3.36 1.03
>65 years 3.46 1.05
Education stage ηp ² = 0.004 0.0 0.008 F = 1.73* 5,1907
K-primarybcd 2.87* 0.99
Secondaryacd 3.04* 0.96
Tertiaryab 3.58* 0.96
Otherab 3.80* 1.02
Experience in teaching the subject ηp ² = 0.008 0.002 0.01 F = 3.95 4,1938
≤5 years 3.15 1.01
6–15 years 3.29 1.02
16–25 years 3.22 1.01
26–35 years 3.32 1.11
>35 years 3.60 00.97
Perceived relative effectiveness of remote teaching ηp ² = 0.20 0.018 0.23 F = 249.63* 2,1941
Less efficient 2.88* 0.89
Equally efficiente 3.85* 0.90
More efficiente 3.83* 1.07
Appraisal of relative situational impact ηp ² = 0.01 0.001 0.012 F = 4.28 3,1940
Students affected more than teachers 3.15 0.98
Teachers and students affected equally 3.25 1.04
Teachers affected more than students 3.41 0.99
Not reported 3.42 0.98
Mode of remote instruction d = 0.64 0.55 0.74 t = 13.75* 1,942
Synchronous 3.48* 1.00
Asynchronous 2.85* 0.95
Prior experience with remote teaching d = 0.27 0.18 0.36 t = 5.78* 1,942
Lack of experience 3.17* 1.02
Prior experience 3.50* 1.02
Superscripts indicate significant pairwise differences based on Tukey’s post-hoc test (p < 0.05) [for education stages: a—K-primary, b—secondary, c—tertiary d—other; for efficiency:
e—less efficient]. The bold values always refer to the influence on perceived student coping of each respective superordinate category.
estimated that their students were coping better and had fewer and personal adaptation to ERT and perceived student coping
difficulties (M = 3.50, SD = 1.02), compared with teachers who with online learning, providing the answer to the third
had no prior experience with conducting online courses (M = research question (RQ3). The way teachers perceive how their
3.17, SD = 1.02). students cope with online courses is significantly and negatively
Interestingly, differences in perception of student coping correlated with teachers’ evaluation uncertainty (r = −0.57)
with remote teaching were unrelated to teachers’ age, length of and instructional adjustment (r = −0.45). Moreover, the more
experience in teaching the subject, or appraisal of the relative effective the perception of remote teaching, the more the teachers
situational impact on teachers and students. felt students were coping with it (ρ = 0.44). Perception of student
Table 3 indicates the results of correlation analyses showing coping was also related to the education level handled, with more
further relationships between indicators of teachers’ professional positive perceptions at higher education levels (ρ = 0.32). It also
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
TABLE 3 | Pearson’s r [1] and Spearman’s ρ [2] correlation coefficients between TABLE 4 | The regression results of the effects of indicators of teacher
indicators of teachers’ professional adaptation to ERT and perceived student professional and personal adaptation to remote teaching on the perception of
coping with online learning. student coping with online learning.
Perceived student R2 95%CI Dependent variable R2 Adj. R2 F df1 df2 95%CI
coping
Perceived student coping 0.51 0.51 108.70 18 1,874 0.48 0.53
Evaluation uncertainty1 −0.57* 0.33 0.29 0.36
Instructional adjustment1 −0.45* 0.20 0.16 0.24
Perceived remote 0.44* 0.17 0.13 0.21
teaching effectiveness2 less efficient than face-to-face instruction: β = −0.17, t = −9.45,
Education level handled2 0.32* 0.10 0.06 0.14 p < 0.001 and equally efficient: β = 0.07, t = 3.90, p < 0.001), the
Activity evaluation1 0.30* 0.09 0.05 0.13 education level handled (K-primary: β = −0.07, t = −4.23, p <
Initial confidence in ability 0.29* 0.08 −0.01 0.07 0.001 and tertiary: β = 0.10, t = 5.65, p < 0.001), immediately
to teach remotely1 followed by teachers’ appraisal of the relative impact of the
Overly demanding 0.21* 0.05 0.01 0.09 pandemic situation on teachers and students (students affected
expectations1 more than teachers: β = −0.04, t = −2.38, p < 0.001 and both
Supportive teaching1 0.14* 0.02 −0.02 0.06 groups equally impacted by the pandemic context: β = 0.04, t
Reassuring attitude1 −0.12* 0.02 −0.02 0.06 = 2.46, p < 0.001). The subsequent predictors are supportive
Sense of competence1 0.10* 0.01 −0.03 0.05 teaching (β = 0.11, t = 5.90, p < 0.001) and overly demanding
Appraisal of relative 0.03 0.00 −0.04 0.04 expectations (β = 0.06, t = 3.57, p < 0.001) followed by sense
situational impact
of competence (β = −0.09, t = −4.36, p < 0.001) and perceived
*Significant at p < 0.05. initial confidence in the ability to teach remotely (β = 0.09, t =
4.70, p < 0.001). The last two moderator variables are a reassuring
attitude toward the students (β = −0.05, t = −2.60, p < 0.001)
correlated with teachers’ ease of evaluating their students’ activity and prior experience with remote teaching (β = 0.04, t = 2.40, p
(r = 0.30). Finally, there is a trend suggesting that teachers who < 0.001). Interestingly, teachers’ gender did not contribute to the
from the very outset had felt confident teaching remotely found regression model.
that their students experienced fewer difficulties (r = 0.29).
To reveal which of the indicators of teachers’ professional DISCUSSION
adaptation to emergency remote instruction predict their
perception of student coping with online classes (RQ4) and to The analyses revealed a number of factors that influenced
find out the relative contribution of the respective predictors and teachers’ perception of how their students were coping with
the extent to which each of them determines teachers’ perception emergency remote learning. These spanned both different aspects
of student coping (RQ5), we used ANCOVA to build a stepwise of professional adjustment and sociodemographic variables.
regression model with the forward selection procedure. It was The inability to verify whether the students have been
preceded by a simple linear regression to additionally obtain a completing their online assignments and tests independently has
more general insight into how all the investigated indicators of been a recurrent concern, both in teachers’ discussion forums and
teachers’ professional and personal adaptation to ERT predict in the literature (e.g., Gonzales, 2020; Jargon, 2020). Given lack of
teachers’ perception of student coping with online classes. an easy and foolproof way of ensuring student integrity outside
Table 4 illustrates the extent to which indicators of teachers’ of commercial automated proctoring software, many instructors
professional and personal adaptation to ERT predict their have opted for open-book-style assessment that can both be
perception of student coping with online classes. The entire individualized and at least does not penalize honesty.
regression model is significant [F (18, 1874) = 108.70, p < 0.001] The importance of being able to formatively evaluate students’
and predicts ∼51% of variance in teacher perception of student activity is a related aspect. On the one hand, capacity to track
coping with remote learning. students’ progress facilitates summative evaluation at the end of
To more deeply probe the relative role of the indicators, we the road. The divide created by the computer or smartphone
built a multiple regression model based on forward selection screen impairs dialogue and the ability to provide tailored, ample
using an ANCOVA design. The results are presented in Table 5. feedback (Iwai, 2020) as well as to become aware of individual
The teachers’ perception of how students cope with remote students’ emotional and/or academic difficulties (Zaccoletti et al.,
learning depends most on teachers’ evaluation uncertainty (β = 2020, p. 9). On the other hand, the outcome emphasizes
−0.33, t = 17.19, p < 0.001) and instructional adjustment (β = the importance of teacher–student interaction. This connection
−0.17, t = −8.96, p < 0.001). It is also predicted by the extent to is reinforced by the finding concerning the importance of
which teachers feel able to evaluate students’ activity (β = 0.14, t synchronous classes, mirroring the results in Jelińska and
= 7.80, p < 0.001), followed by the mode of remote instruction Paradowski (2021). Limiting face-to-face interactions may
(synchronous vs asynchronous; β = −0.10, t = −5.72, p < adversely affect students’ emotional development, emotional
0.001). The subsequent most consequential predictors turn out to intelligence, and interpersonal and other soft skills (Hurst et al.,
be perception of the effectiveness of remote teaching (respectively 2013; Kaur and Bhatt, 2020, p. 45).
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
TABLE 5 | General linear model with ANCOVA (forward selection stepwise regression) for variables predicting teachers’ perception of student coping with remote learning.
Step Independent variables b SE β t R2 ηp ² 95%CI F
1 Evaluation uncertainty −0.24 0.01 −0.33* −17.19 0.30 0.14 0.11 0.16 295.61
2 Instructional adjustment −0.15 0.02 −0.17* −8.96 0.30 0.04 0.03 0.06 80.23
3 Activity evaluation 0.09 0.01 0.14* 7.80 0.21 0.03 0.02 0.05 60.88
4 Remote teaching mode (asynchronous) −0.10 0.02 −0.10* −5.72 0.14 0.02 0.01 0.03 32.73
5 Perceived remote teaching effectiveness 0.05 0.03 0.07 48.19
Less efficient −0.26 0.03 −0.17* −9.45 0.23
Equally efficient 0.11 0.03 0.07* 3.90 0.06
6 Education level handled 0.03 0.02 0.04 18.35
K-primary −0.15 0.03 −0.07* −4.23 0.17
Tertiary 0.18 0.03 0.10 * 5.65 0.12
7 Appraisal of relative situational impact 0.01 0.00 0.02 8.10
Students more affected than teachers −0.08 0.03 −0.04* −2.38 0.20
Teachers and students affected equally 0.07 0.03 0.04* 2.46 0.18
8 Supportive teaching 0.18 0.03 0.11* 5.90 0.31 0.02 0.01 0.03 34.76
9 Overly demanding expectations 0.04 0.01 0.06* 3.57 0.12 0.01 0.00 0.01 12.72
10 Sense of competence −0.13 0.03 −0.09* −4.36 0.36 0.01 0.00 0.0.02 19.01
11 Initial confidence in ability to teach remotely 0.06 0.01 0.09* 4.70 0.27 0.01 0.00 0.02 22.11
12 Reassuring attitude −0.05 0.02 −0.05* −2.60 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.01 6.74
13 Prior experience with distance teaching 0.05 0.02 0.04* 2.40 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.01 5.77
14 Gender – – – – – –
b—unstandardized regression coefficient; SE—standard error; β—standardized regression coefficient. *Significant at p < 0.001.
Teachers who felt their students were coping worse were at enhanced participation in school activities, heightened academic
once more likely to have introduced major adjustments to their motivation, and depressed disruptive behaviors (Wang et al.,
instruction. This is a logical connection, as such alterations and 2013). Indeed, a humanistic approach and a pedagogy of
the reprioritization of curriculum goals (Reimers and Schleicher, compassion (Bozkurt and Sharma, 2020), while always crucial,
2020) are usually made in response to perceived problems. gains particular importance in difficult times like these, when
Perceptions of student coping differed substantially the psychological pressure of the lockdown, social distancing
depending on the education level handled. This finding is restrictions, and remote schooling pile on top of academic
in line with observations by Hvas and Aller (2020) and Jelińska workload, homework (Commodari and La Rosa, 2020, p. 5), and
and Paradowski (2021). One possible explanation is that online evaluations (Navarro-Mateu et al., 2020).
young learners are the most reliant on assistance, scaffolding, Finally, the results emphasize the significance of initial
and support in their scholastic process (Paradowski, 2014, convictions. The importance of teachers’ perception of the ease of
2015), while parents and other guardians may not always be use of technology in a high-school context had been underlined
around during the pandemic—or be capable—to help out with e.g. by Allen and Seaman (2013); in the context of the current
technology, ensure that the children stay on task and submit pandemic, Lederman (2020) emphasized that a lot hangs on the
their work in a timely manner, and help out in other ways initial implementation of ERT.
necessary. Younger students are also more likely to be affected by
contextual factors (Sameroff, 2010), are more vulnerable to the
impact of traumatic experiences (Bartlett et al., 2020), and have CONCLUSIONS
been missing their other caregivers such as grandparents (Dalton
et al., 2020), who play a major role in their lives (Salvador, 2008; The relationship between the student and the teacher has
Clemente-González, 2016). Older, less dependent students have been claimed to be a major driver of the motivation to learn
better-developed self-regulation strategies and are therefore (Szabó, 2019, p. 19). Just as students’ self -perceptions about own
better able to adapt and take control over their learning (Herold, ability and competence are significantly associated with academic
2017; Zaccoletti et al., 2020, p. 9). Younger children are moreover performance (Colom, 2012; De la Fuente et al., 2019; Ahmadi,
less likely to have a computer/tablet/smartphone to access 2020), teachers’ perception of how their learners are coping have
remote classes in real time; it is also much more difficult for them a strong automotive influence on their teaching effectiveness
to have to spend long hours stationarily in front of the screen. and may result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Given that the
The findings also emphasized the importance of a supportive post-pandemic world may see the trend of traditional classes
and reassuring attitude. Teacher support has been positively becoming more blended (Kim, 2020) and increasingly integrating
related to indicators of student behavioral engagement, including ICT (Gannon, 2019), there have been recommendations of
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 9 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
teacher training to adjust to the new instructional format AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
(Toquero, 2020). Awareness of the variables influencing teachers’
perception of how the students are handling non-F2F instruction MBP conceived the study and the questionnaire, piloted, and
will be useful to both instructors themselves and program administered the data collection, performed the literature review,
directors and may influence the content of helpful training and participated in the creation of the questionnaire and the
intervention programs. One such adjustment may be educators’ writing of the manuscript. MJ carried out the analyses and
heightened role as facilitators (remotely) guiding, monitoring, participated in the creation of the questionnaire and the writing
and motivating their students (Paradowski, 2015; Luthra and of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and
Mackenzie, 2020). approved the submitted version.
Given the short length of some of the scales, as well
as the use of single-item indicators, further studies may FUNDING
be needed to verify the validity of the respective findings.
Also, with the data analyzed in this contribution coming The authors are supported by the National Science Centre
from a cross-sectional sample, one cannot confidently of Poland SONATA-BIS Grant No. 2016/22/E/HS2/00034.
establish causal relationships. Complementary analyses MBP also acknowledges support from COST Actions 15109
from a longitudinal component of the survey will feature COSTNET, 15130 SAREP and 18232 MAT-DYN-NET.
in future publications.
Another obvious limitation is the issue of respondent self- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
selection. Given that participation in this study was entirely
voluntary and that not infrequently the questionnaire took The authors thank the volunteers who completed and provided
upwards of 45 min to complete, the respondents were already feedback on the pilot versions of the survey, all the participants
motivated, could relate to the topic, and had the spare time and who took the time to fill in the questionnaire despite other
technology to comfortably fill it out. This means a limit on the commitments, as well as friends, colleagues, professional
representativeness and generalization potential of the data and associations, and administrators of the thematic groups on social
resultant findings. Nonetheless, the robust effects of at least the media for publicizing and/or enabling to share information about
most influential factors merit attention. the survey. We also thank Mwarumba Mwavita and Evangelia
Karagiannopoulou for detailed feedback and Mohammed
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Alfatihalzain Alsheikhidris, Adaora Anyichie-Odis, Lawrence
Burke, Orly Calderon, Georgia Irre, Dishon Were, Rosemary
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be Mbogo, Abdul Cader Mohamed Nafrees, Ozma Siddiqui, and
made available by the authors, without undue reservation. Milada Walkova for comments on an earlier version of
this manuscript.
ETHICS STATEMENT
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
The survey protocol had been approved by University of
Warsaw’s Human Research Ethics Committee. The respondents The Supplementary Material for this article can be found
were provided with information about the survey and online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.
participated voluntarily. 2021.648443/full#supplementary-material
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measure. Psychol. Rep. 78, 631–634. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1996.78.2.631 distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 13 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
APPENDIX
Jelińska, M. and Paradowski, M. B. (2021). Teachers’ perception of student coping with emergency remote instruction during the
COVID-19 pandemic: the relative impact of educator demographics and professional adaptation and adjustment. Front. Psychol.
12:648443. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648443
TABLE A1 | Instructional adjustment scale–means, standard deviations, and item-total score-corrected correlations of the items (N = 1, 944, α = .70, ωh = 0.68, λ6 =
0.59, ρ = .98).
Items M SD rtt
I have had to modify my lesson plans for remote teaching. 4.97 1.40 0.49
I have eased the grading scheme. 4.41 1.47 0.43
During this epidemic, I have felt that I have to alter not just the medium and method, but also the content 4.29 1.60 0.54
of my classes.
Scale 13.66 3.55 0.41
TABLE A2 | Evaluation uncertainty scale–means, standard deviations, and item-total score-corrected correlations of the items (N = 1,944, α = 0.73, ωh = 0.75, λ6 =
0.68, ρ = 0.98).
Items M SD rtt
I find it difficult to evaluate students’ activity during online classes. 4.20 1.59 0.66
I am unable to verify whether the students are learning. 3.94 1.54 0.66
I am anxious that some students may be using the situation to cheat in their assignments/exams. 3.71 1.75 0.37
Scale 11.85 3.87 0.46
TABLE A3 | Perceived student coping scale – means, standard deviations, and item-total score-corrected correlations of the items (N = 1,944, α = 0.72, ωh = 0.74, λ6
= 0.69, ρ = 0.94).
Items M SD rtt
I feel that some of my students have been left behind/fallen through the cracks in the shift to remote 2.48 1.51 0.53
teaching.
My students have not coped well with remote learning. 3.42 1.39 0.67
My students have responded positively to my remote teaching. 4.23 1.18 0.37
The students have trouble with concentration and staying focused during the online classes. 2.83 1.45 0.48
Scale 12.97 4.10 0.40
TABLE A4 | Supportive teaching scale–means, standard deviations, and item-total score-corrected correlations of the items (N = 1,944, α = 0.72, ωh = 0.71, λ6 = 0.69,
ρ = 0.73).
Items M SD rtt
I can talk my students into learning. 4.69 1.01 0.38
I try to make sure everyone in a group feels included 5.07 0.86 0.53
I am good at helping people work well together. 4.84 0.92 0.53
I try to make my group members happy. 4.91 0.89 0.54
I trust my students. 4.67 0.95 0.39
Scale 24.18 3.16 0.34
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 14 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
Jelińska and Paradowski Teachers’ Perception of Student Coping
TABLE A5 | Sense of competence scale–means, standard deviations, and item-total score-corrected correlations of the items (N = 1,944, α = 0.76, ωh = 0.76, λ6 =
0.74, ρ = 0.67).
Items M SD rtt
I get things done quickly. 4.42 1.15 0.48
I know how to get things done. 4.88 0.92 0.55
Even with difficult tasks, I am always confident. 4.18 1.13 0.51
I like to work on tasks that require a great deal of skill. 4.64 0.99 0.45
I am a confident user of new technologies. 4.44 1.24 0.37
I continually train to keep my teaching skills and knowledge up-to-date. 4.56 1.18 0.39
I can manage many things at the same time. 4.87 1.07 0.52
I am always prepared. 4.65 1.10 0.39
Scale 36.61 5.25 0.29
TABLE A6 | Results of exploratory factor analysis.
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5
My students have not coped well with remote learning. 0.26 −0.02 0.07 −0.31 0.79
I feel that some of my students have been left behind/fallen through the cracks in the shift to remote 0.01 0.03 −0.38 0.50
teaching. 0.23
The students have trouble with concentration and staying focused during the online classes. 0.31 0.01 −0.01 −0.35 0.45
My students have responded positively to my remote teaching. 0.29 0.10 0.09 0.01 0.42
During this epidemic, I have felt that I have to alter not just the medium and method, but also the content 0.03 0.08 0.69 −0.06
of my classes. −0.02
I have had to modify my lesson plans for remote teaching. −0.16 0.02 0.03 0.68 −0.13
I have eased the grading scheme. −0.22 0.01 −0.02 0.49 −0.10
I am unable to verify whether the students are learning. −0.78 −0.11 −0.04 0.22 −0.21
I find it difficult to evaluate students’ activity during online classes. −0.71 −0.14 0.01 0.26 −0.15
I am anxious that some students may be using the situation to cheat in their assignments/exams. −0.45 −0.02 −0.10 0.02 −0.09
I try to make my group members happy. 0.02 0.15 0.72 0.00 0.00
I try to make sure everyone in a group feels included. 0.02 0.18 0.68 0.06 0.07
I am good at helping people work well together. 0.03 0.34 0.56 −0.02 0.03
I can talk my students into learning. 0.09 0.28 0.37 0.04 0.07
I trust my students. 0.16 0.24 0.35 0.01 0.10
I know how to get things done. 0.00 0.64 0.02 0.02 0.02
I get things done quickly. 0.02 0.60 0.15 0.10 0.00
I can manage many things at the same time. −0.01 0.60 0.15 0.10 −0.01
Even with difficult tasks, I am always confident. 0.06 0.58 0.12 −0.07 0.01
I like to work on tasks that require a great deal of skill. 0.09 0.47 0.15 −0.05 0.04
I am always prepared. −0.04 0.46 0.09 −0.04 0.01
I am a confident user of new technologies. 0.15 0.40 0.07 −0.05 0.03
I continually train to keep my teaching skills and knowledge up-to-date. 0.05 0.38 0.29 0.08 −0.03
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 15 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648443
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Michał B. Paradowski
University of Warsaw, Faculty Member
Michał B. Paradowski, PhD, DLitt (Dr Habil.), is an associate professor at the Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw, a teacher and translator trainer, and a language teaching and research consultant. He gave 270+ invited lectures, seminars and workshops in Europe, America, Africa, Asia and Oceania and penned over 80 publications. His edited volumes are ‘Teaching Languages off the Beaten Track’ (2014) and ‘Productive Foreign Language Skills for an Intercultural World’ (2015); his (2017) monograph appeared under the title ‘M/Other Tongues in Language Acquisition, Instruction, and Use’.
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Teachers’ engagement in and coping with emergency remote instruction
during COVID-19-induced school closures: A multinational contextual perspective
Michał B. Paradowski
Online Learning Journal [Special Issue on the COVID-19 Emergency Transition to Remote Learning], 2021
The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has affected educational systems all over the world, throwing educators and learners into the need for shifting to emergency remote instruction, usually with little time given for preparation. From April until September 2020 we carried out a custom-made multinational longitudinal survey study involving participants from 118 countries, exploring 435 interlocking factors that potentially influenced the patterns of the stakeholders’ adaptation to teaching during school closures. Using agglomerative hierarchical clustering followed by a k-means cluster analysis, we detect two readily distinguishable groups, of better- and worse-coping instructors. Subsequently, we zoom in on two of the key constructs differentiating the two cohorts, namely teachers’ engagement in remote teaching and teacher coping with remote instruction. We present and discuss the findings against the backdrop of one individual and three contextual variables which were identified as significant moderator predictors: gender, education level handled, mode of delivery (synchronous vs asynchronous), and the economic status of the respective countries. The relative contribution of these predictors is calculated using a general linear model. Apart from their epistemological significance, the non-trivial findings offer valuable pedagogical and administrative guidelines for the continuing wave of the pandemic, as well as for planned online courses ‘proper’. The detection of the contextual effects also underscores the importance of large multisite research.
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Teachers’ Experiences of Emergency Remote Schooling During the Pandemic: Drivers for Student and Teacher Wellbeing
Matthew Kearney
Australian Journal of Education
This article discusses findings from a recent survey ( n = 297) of teachers’ views of both their own and their students’ experiences during the 2021 enforced emergency remote schooling period occurring in New South Wales Australia, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The quantitative analysis reported here explores teachers’ views regarding teaching and learning during this challenging period. It identifies three latent constructs, learning, assessment, and interaction, and then uses structural equation modelling to identify the perceived impact of these constructs on student and teacher wellbeing. The remote schooling period had a significant negative impact for teachers and their students across a range of elements of teaching and learning, as well as wellbeing. Student learning experiences and their peer interactions were found to be strong predictors of students’ wellbeing outcomes. Assessment design and teachers’ feedback to students were significant in predicting levels of teacher w...
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Pandemic, Higher Education, and a Developing Country: How Teachers and Students Adapt to Emergency Remote Education
Teodoro Jr. Revano
Manuel B . Garcia
2022 4th Asia Pacific Information Technology Conference (APIT), 2022
The sudden transition to emergency remote education (ERE) caused by the pandemic has been a highly complex undertaking for teachers and students alike. For developing countries, such a disruption only aggravates the preexisting global education crisis and influences the sector in unprecedented ways. Thus, we explored how teachers and students from higher education in a developing country adapt to ERE during the pandemic. Specifically, we attempted to identify the common challenges faced by teachers and students and their coping strategies to handle pandemic-induced stress. To this end, we conducted a comparative cross-sectional study from October to November 2021 with 78 teachers and 94 students from a higher education institution in Manila, Philippines. Our results show that while self-regulation is the greatest challenge among students, it is the conduciveness of the home environment for teachers. Interestingly, although teachers and students have varying concerns, both groups rely on acceptance, humor, and positive reframing as their coping strategies. By painting a holistic picture of the challenges and coping strategies of both teachers and students, education policymakers and administrators can make an informed decision on how to best continue ERE and prepare in advance for the resumption of school in the new normal.
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Predictors of The Subjective Effectiveness of Emergency Remote Teaching During The First Phase of The COVID-19 Pandemic
Tomasz Knopik
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 2022
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Teachers’ Readiness for Remote Teaching During COVID-19 Pandemic: Does It Exist?
Lilian Tzivian
Evija Mirke
2021 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), 2021
The state of emergency due to the COVID-19 pandemic influenced educational processes in schools all over the world. Teachers had a very short time to reform all their work and started to use new technologies, which increased their workload and level of stress. Information on factors affecting teachers’ readiness for remote teaching is insufficient, and we aimed to investigate it in this study. We performed a population-based cross-sectional study after the first experience of teachers working remotely during the Spring 2020 state of emergency in Latvia. We assessed the self-reported “overall readiness for remote teaching” using five sub-domains of a specific survey. We observed a reversed association between the teachers’ “overall readiness for remote teaching” and teaching the subject of sports ($\beta=$ -7.25, CI -10.97; -3.54) and a significant association with the self-assessment of teachers’ own digital skills ($\beta=$ 6.54, CI 5.25; 7.83). We conclude that special training programs for teachers on the efficacy of remote teaching should be created to help them get over the difficulties of new educational processes and improve their digital skills. We recommend additional support for sports and health teachers as their readiness for remote teaching was significantly lower.
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Uncovering teacher's situation amidst the pandemic: Teacher's coping mechanisms,
initiatives, constraints, and challenges encountered
Kevin Caratiquit
International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 2022
This paper aimed to discover the coping, initiatives, constraints, and challenges public secondary school teachers encounter in the new normal education. The central question of this paper lies in "What are the adapting and coping mechanisms of teachers and students in the distance learning modality amidst the pandemic?". This paper used the qualitative research design and employed a phenomenological approach to investigate secondary publicschool teachers' coping mechanisms and initiatives in the new normal education. This paper focused on twelve public secondary school teachers in Cagayan, Philippines. The research's findings are: (1) Most teachers encountered substantial challenges due to a lack of resources, student supervision, and duties. (2) Most teachers were constrained by the advent of the digital era. (3) Public-school teachers cope with their students' needs by employing effective initiatives and teaching strategies. (4) Despite their weariness and stress, teachers report positive outcomes such as tremendous enthusiasm and building connections with the school community. Meanwhile, the schools' adaptation to distant learning should be guided and encouraged by the following policies and concepts:(1) Access to technology for students. (2) Regular monitoring and feedback (3) Providing curriculum and instruction of the highest quality. Through this paper, teachers may benefit from adopting various coping techniques and activities for the new normal education.
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Emergency Remote Teaching Experiences of Teachers during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Turkey
Ahmet Polat
European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 2025
The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a sudden transition to Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) in Turkey, as well as around the world, presenting unprecedented challenges for teachers. This study investigates the experiences of K-12 teachers during this period, focussing on the challenges they faced, the strategies they employed to address them and their perspectives on the advantages and disadvantages of ERT. Data were collected from 385 teachers through a qualitative survey conducted at the end of the 2019-2020 academic year. Content analysis revealed key findings that clustered around 'Technology' (access, system, competence) and 'Pedagogy' (interaction, motivation, classroom management). Teachers have developed various strategies to address these challenges. This research offers valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities of ERT and provides practical recommendations to enhance the quality and equity of online learning experiences for policymakers and educators.
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Experiences of Teachers While Teaching at Home During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Kelly Hall
Research Journal of Education, 2022
The purpose of the study was to assess how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the experiences of teachers as they transitioned to teaching online. The researchers investigated the experiences of 81 teachers of grades 4-12 in South Texas while teaching at home during the pandemic. An online survey using a 3-point scale, posed questions to teachers about their experiences with administrative support, technical difficulties, communications capabilities, and personal wellbeing under pandemic protocols. Findings showed that teachers experienced a lack of administrative support and reported deteriorating wellbeing conditions. Daily contact with students and colleagues and weekly contact with parents was reported. Decreased social time was experienced by teachers as were increased stress and frustration levels. Most respondents observed different online learning capabilities among students from different social backgrounds. We conclude that teaching from home offers additional stress factors f...
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Online Teaching in COVID-19 Pandemic: Secondary School Teachers’ Beliefs on Teaching Presence and School Support
Manolis Kousloglou
Education Sciences, 2022
The COVID-19 pandemic, with the consecutive lockdowns, has led schools around the world to transition suddenly from face-to-face education to online teaching. The purpose of this paper was to investigate secondary school teachers’ beliefs on online teaching presence and school support for online learning during the pandemic. The sample was 238 teachers in Greece who are interested in e-learning and received some preparation to teach online courses. An online questionnaire was administered and three factors were revealed: instruction and organization, facilitation and cognitive activation, and school support. Teachers’ perceived online teaching presence was strong (over 63% expressed agreement), and the highest percentages of agreement were linked to clear instruction, communication of time frames and course topics, and facilitation and encouragement that could help students learn. On the other hand, perceived school support for online learning was weak (over 50% expressed disagreeme...
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Keep your friends close": Przyswajanie języka obcego poprzez interakcje rówieśnicze a edukacja zdalna w dobie pandemii
Andrzej Jarynowski
Acta Neophilologica, 2021
This paper focuses on second language acquisition in the context of social interactions naturally taking place among learners, especially in immersion/Study Abroad settings. We showcase the methodology of social network analysis, which has recently shed new light on the relationship between the individual position in the social network and language acquisition, helping to determine which contexts, intensity and direction of interactions are most conducive to L2 progress. At the time of the current COVID-19 pandemic, physical interactions can pose an epidemiological risk. Thus, we conclude with a discussion concerning the challenge of maximising students’ exposure to the target language in the context of emergency remote learning.
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Virtual Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Bibliometric Review and Future Research Agenda
Eglantina Hysa
Risk Management and Healthcare Policy
Virtual learning has emerged as a powerful platform for students and academicians in the "new normal" owing to the availability of advanced technological tools and platforms. Recently, considerable literature has grown up around the role of digital and remote technologies in learning and teaching during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. However, the research evidence on this topic is still fragmented, requiring a synthesis of this rapidly growing literature. This study aims to assess the key research trends in virtual learning during the COVID-19 pandemic through a bibliometric analysis of 1595 studies from 589 journals during 2020-21. Our study highlights the influential aspects, such as the most contributing countries, journals, authors, and keywords in this research field. We identified the following four main research trends: 1) challenges in online learning and blended learning strategies; 2) student-centered, collaborative learning, and curriculum design; 3) home-based laboratory learning; and 4) teachers' professional competence and interdisciplinary learning. We conclude this research by discussing the implications for regulators and educational institutions, and directions for future research.
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The Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction in the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Life Satisfaction among Teachers during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Aleksandra Rogowska
European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education
This study examines the indirect effect of job satisfaction on the relationship between emotional intelligence and life satisfaction among teachers during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland. A sample of 322 teachers aged 23–71 (M = 45.37, SD = 8.99) participated in a cross-sectional online survey. The online survey (Google form) contained some demographic information and standardized psychological questionnaires: the Multivariate Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) for measuring emotional intelligence, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)—a short form for job satisfaction assessment, and the Life Satisfaction Scale (SWLS). Emotional intelligence is a significant positive predictor of job satisfaction and life satisfaction, and job satisfaction is a strong positive predictor of life satisfaction. Job satisfaction partly mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence and life satisfaction. To maintain the well-being of teachers during a pandemic, sc...
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Exploring special need students’ perceptions of remote learning using the multimodal model of online education
Lawrence Meda
Education and Information Technologies, 2022
The global pandemic of COVID-19 forced institutions of higher learning to implement emergency remote learning and to change pedagogical approaches to enhance access and success for all students. Students have mixed views about remote learning. The purpose of this study is to examine special educational needs and disabled students' perspectives of remote learning in the United Arab Emirates. The study was conducted using a qualitative case study within an interpretivist paradigm. Thirty-three special educational needs and disabled students were selected to complete an open-ended questionnaire and participate in semi-structured interviews. It was found that students applauded extraordinary convenience and reasonable accommodation they were getting as a result of remote learning. However, post COVID-19, the majority opted for face-to-face instruction as they described it as 'irreplaceable'. The study concludes that students' nature of special needs and disabilities are influential towards their choice of a mode of instruction.
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A systematic review of K–12 education responses to emergency remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic
Samah Hatem Almaki
International Review of Education
Emergency remote teaching (ERT) has potential for transforming future instruction and learning across the K-12 educational domain. The study presented here evaluated empirical evidence from peer-reviewed literature pertaining to the challenges and opportunities experienced by teachers and students during the implementation of ERT prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic. To locate relevant reports and research, the authors explored three databases: Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Scopus. Based upon predefined selection criteria, they selected 51 studies for thematic and content analysis. Next, they developed a taxonomy which comprised three categories: (1) K-12 education responses to ERT; (2) educational inequality; and (3) learning outcomes. Using this taxonomy, the authors conducted a deep analysis and critical review to highlight multiple challenges and critical gaps in the literature surrounding ERT in K-12 education settings. Their review reveals innovative strategies for overcoming obstacles to technological readiness, online learning adaptation and teachers' and students' physical and mental health. This knowledge will be valuable to policymakers, researchers, practitioners and educational institutions in reducing the adverse effects of catastrophic situations on childhood education in the future.
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Dificuldades enfrentadas por docentes do ensino superior frente ao contexto da pandemia de COVID-19
Anderson Luciano
Revista iberoamericana de educación (Impresa), 2022
The COVID-19 pandemic changed the schedule of activities proposed for the academic year 2020-21, in which face-to-face classes were replaced by emergency remote teaching (ERE). For higher education professors, although good teaching practices are a constant concern of universities, challenges have arisen due to the sudden transition and implementation of the ERE. For this reason, this study aimed to investigate the main difficulties encountered by higher education professors in
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Digital teaching and learning: Exploring primary school teachers’ approaches, sources of concern & expectations
Figen Karaferye
Journal of Educational Technology and Online Learning
Concerning the use of digital technologies in education, the COVID-19 pandemic acted as a catalyst for rethinking educational policies. With the shift to emergency remote teaching, schools experienced a paradigm shift in delivering education. School leaders and teachers found themselves in the necessity of quick adaptation to various new modes, from using digital/online platforms to responding to the needs and expectations of their students. The experience led to contingency plans in the process and shed some light on the future-oriented plans and scenarios in education, which accelerated the use of digital technologies in education. In parallel with those, professional development courses and support provided for teachers have grown in number, variety, and extent. In this regard, the current study aims to examine primary school teachers’ approaches to digital teaching & learning, their sources of concern, and their expectations from effective professional development courses based ...
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