(PDF) The impact of demographics, life and work circumstances on college and university instructors’ well-being during quarantea

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The impact of demographics, life and work circumstances on college and university instructors’ well-being during quaranteaching
Michał B. Paradowski
2021, Frontiers in Psychology [special issue “Covid-19 and Beyond: From (Forced) Remote Teaching and Learning to ‘The New Normal’ in Higher Education”]
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Abstract
In response to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, educational institutions around the world were forced into lockdown in order to contain the spread of the virus. To ensure continuous provision of education, most transitioned to emergency remote instruction. This has been particularly the case in higher education institutions.
The circumstances of the pandemic have brought unprecedented psychological pressure on the population, in the case of educators and students exacerbated by the transition to a mode of instruction that was completely novel to the majority. The present study examines how college and university instructors dealt with teaching online in these unprecedented circumstances, with a focus on how factors connected with their daily lives and livelihoods influenced their well-being. A comprehensive online survey was filled out by 804 HE instructors from 92 countries between April and September 2020. We explore how sociodemographic variables such as gender, age, relationship status, living conditions, and length of professional experience non-trivially affect situational anxiety, work-life synergy, coping, and productivity.
The results contribute to a better understanding of the impact of the pandemic and emergency remote instruction on college and university instructors’ well-being by explaining the mechanisms mediating the relationship between individual, contextual and affective variables. It may provide helpful guidelines for college and university administrators as well as teachers themselves as to how help alleviate the adverse effects of the continuing pandemic and school closures on coping and well-being.
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 11 June 2021
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643229

The Impact of Demographics, Life
and Work Circumstances on College
and University Instructors’
Well-Being During Quaranteaching
Magdalena Jelińska 1 and Michał B. Paradowski 2,1*
Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland, 2 Institute of Linguistics, University of Silesia,
Sosnowiec, Poland

In response to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, educational institutions around
the world were forced into lockdown in order to contain the spread of the virus.
To ensure continuous provision of education, most transitioned to emergency remote
instruction. This has been particularly the case in higher education (HE) institutions. The
circumstances of the pandemic have brought unprecedented psychological pressure
on the population, in the case of educators and students exacerbated by the
transition to a mode of instruction that was completely novel to the majority. The
present study examines how college and university instructors dealt with teaching
online in these unparalleled circumstances, with a focus on how factors connected
Edited by:
David Ian Walker, with their daily lives and livelihoods influenced their well-being. Between April and
University of Alabama, United States September 2020, a comprehensive online survey was filled out by 804 HE instructors
Reviewed by: from 92 countries. We explore how sociodemographic variables such as gender,
Seockhoon Chung,
University of Ulsan, South Korea
age, relationship status, living conditions, and length of professional experience non-
Taylor Wayne Acee, trivially affect situational anxiety, work-life synergy, coping, and productivity. The results
Texas State University, United States contribute to a better understanding of the impact of the pandemic and emergency
*Correspondence: remote instruction on college and university instructors’ well-being by explaining the
Michał B. Paradowski
[email protected]
mechanisms mediating the relationship between individual, contextual, and affective
variables. It may provide helpful guidelines for college and university administrators as
Specialty section:
well as teachers themselves as to how help alleviate the adverse effects of the continuing
This article was submitted to
Educational Psychology, pandemic and possible similar disruptions leading to school closures on coping and
a section of the journal well-being.
Frontiers in Psychology
Keywords: teacher well-being, emergency remote instruction, COVID-19 pandemic, negative affect, situational
Received: 17 December 2020
anxiety, loneliness, higher education, work-life synergy
Accepted: 05 May 2021
Published: 11 June 2021
Citation: INTRODUCTION
Jelińska M and Paradowski MB
(2021) The Impact of Demographics,
The circumstances of the pandemic have brought unprecedented psychological pressure on
Life and Work Circumstances on
College and University Instructors’
the population. The adverse—sometimes long-lasting—psychological impact of the lockdown
Well-Being During Quaranteaching. restrictions, stay-at-home orders, quarantine, and other repercussions span anxiety, post-traumatic
Front. Psychol. 12:643229. stress symptoms, psychological distress, confusion, panic disorder, anger, depression, insomnia,
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643229 and emotional exhaustion (Brooks et al., 2020; Qiu et al., 2020; Cénat et al., 2021a).

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 June 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 643229

Jelińska and Paradowski University Instructors’ Well-Being During Quaranteaching

Teachers and students have been among the more impacted confusion and pessimism, (ii) concerns about family health,
groups (International Labour Organization, 2020). As campuses as well as (iii) economic and social concerns and “fear of
almost all over the world successively shut down, in order to tomorrow.” In a qualitative phenomenological study with five
ensure the continuity of learning and of communication between university students in the Philippines, Alvarez (2020) showed
teachers and students (Karalis, 2020), educators were thrust into how learning engagement and isolation and the lack of affective
the provision of alternative modes of delivery, or “emergency and emotional support affected learning engagement. Another
remote teaching” (Hodges et al., 2020; Reimers and Schleicher, study (Yang et al., 2021) showed that students’ self-efficacy and
2020) that for most was an entirely novel form of work. Often, well-being were positively predicted by their perceived closeness
the anxieties were exacerbated by job uncertainty, especially for with the teacher, peer influence, and perceived control over
faculty on precarious contracts who—as happened for instance own learning. Students’ perceived learning outcomes were also
across the United Kingdom—were often dismissed by their found to be positively influenced by instructional support and
institutions in an attempt to cut costs (World Bank, 2020:10). instructor innovation, and–interestingly–negatively by teacher
The combined effect of lockdowns and the transition to online performance (Wang et al., 2021). In a multi-national survey of
delivery have severely affected teacher and student coping and undergraduate students, Nguyen et al. (2021) reported that the
well-being. The strong possibility of deteriorating mental health majority preferred synchronous classes, which mode–especially
because of the sense of uncertainty and anxiety among students when it involved active-learning techniques–correlated with
and faculty members was understandably envisaged already in higher levels of engagement and motivation. Student engagement
the initial stages of the pandemic (Sahu, 2020). and adaptability were also found to significantly correlate with
academic emotion (Zhang et al., 2021). An analysis carried out at
a university in Russia (Dikaya et al., 2021) revealed an association
LITERATURE REVIEW between students’ attitudes to forced remote learning and their
interpersonal communicative skills and thinking and learning
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on higher education has styles. A survey of students’ emotions during and perceptions of
been a burgeoning topic of discussion (Fischer, 2020). However, the shift to online teaching at a Greek university (Karalis and
the majority of the extant literature concerned with “pandemic Raikou, 2020) found that although the majority of the students
pedagogy” tends to focus on the logistics and provision of were satisfied with the new way of attending classes, upon the
training (Reimers and Schleicher, 2020), without taking into closure of the university over three quarters had felt negative
account the psychological impact of the situation on the teachers’ emotions such as stress and anxiety about how the studies would
functioning, let alone trying to tease apart the relative influence be completed, fear of the possibility of non-continuation of
of the factors affecting instructors’ well-being. For instance, the studies, and/or sadness about the interruption; after the online
University of Houston (2020) published a report summarizing classes had started, some of the initial negative emotions gave
the faculty’s perceptions regarding the transition to a remote way to an increase in relief that the semester would not be
teaching model, revealing significant variation in terms of lost, and joy at the continuity of the classes. Across the Turkish
the implementation of technology tools and of the mode of border, students reported high perceived stress, mild generalized
instruction. Watermeyer et al. (2021) carried out a survey of anxiety, and low satisfaction with life (Aslan et al., 2020). In
academic teachers’ reaction to the move to online teaching, and a questionnaire probing the mental health of medical college
found that the majority of the respondents felt confident or students, Cao et al. (2020) found that risk factors increasing
strongly confident in their ability to facilitate online teaching and anxiety were economic consequences as well as having relatives or
assessment and considered their institutions to be supportive in acquaintances infected with SARS-CoV-2, while social support,
facilitating the move to online delivery. Bensaid and Brahimi living with parents, and family income stability were protective
(2021) likewise attributed the successful maintenance of the factors. Similar results were obtained by Wilczewski et al.
learning cycle in higher education institutions in the Gulf to their (2021), whose investigation of the psychological and academic
already established distance education, swift administration and effects of learning online among international students enrolled
policy steps, and access to resources. Jelińska and Paradowski at the University of Warsaw revealed that those who had
(2021b) in turn revealed how teachers’ perception of how their returned to their home countries (and therefore likely had
students were coping with the novel situation was influenced familial support) exhibited higher academic adjustment, while
by their own demographics and professional adaptation to quarantine and self-isolation increased the levels of loneliness –
emergency remote teaching. and acculturative stress when in the host country. Amendola
Where the psychological impact of the pandemic in education et al. (2021) study carried out among students in Switzerland
was a concern, the existing literature has tended to focus on showed that anxiety symptoms decreased with time, and its
the student population. A topical analysis of tweets (Duong levels were predicted by older age, female gender, out-of-country
et al., 2020) revealed that negative sentiments toward the central nationality, loneliness, concerns about own health (positively),
issues of COVID-19 were significantly higher among students and resilience and social support (negatively). Awoke et al. (2021)
than in the general population. Khodabakhshi-Koolaee (2020) measured perceived stress among health science students in
in interviews with 15 postgrad students in Iran who had Ethiopia, with identified correlates of the construct including
experienced living in quarantine, as three of the four main rare contacts with friends and a decreased household income.
emerging themes identified (i) developing negative emotions, In a study employing interview surveys with 195 university

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 June 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 643229

Jelińska and Paradowski University Instructors’ Well-Being During Quaranteaching

students in the United States, over seventy per cent of the Oducado et al. (2020) found that more than half of the teachers
participants indicated increased stress and anxiety due to the surveyed experienced moderate stress related to the epidemic, but
COVID-19 outbreak. The identified factors that contributed to these authors focused primarily on the health factor. Otherwise,
the increased levels of stress, anxiety, and depressive thoughts however, studies examining the relationships between instructors’
among the students included among others fear and worry about adaptation to and well-being during the crisis teaching period
their own health and the health of their loved ones, difficulty and background variables have been scarce. This contribution
in concentrating, disruptions to sleeping patterns, decreased intends to help fill the lacuna by investigating how university
social interactions due to physical distancing, and increased instructors’ sociodemographic characteristics as well as life and
concerns regarding academic performance. To cope with stress work circumstances affected their coping and wellness.
and anxiety, participants sought support from others and helped Wellbeing constitutes a complex and multi-dimensional
themselves by adopting either negative or positive coping construct related to life satisfaction, resilience, work outcomes,
mechanisms. Clabaugh et al. (2021) found that levels of stress and more adequate regulation strategies and better health (Keyes,
difficulty with coping with pandemic disruptions were related to 1998; Diener et al., 1999; Diener, 2009; Dodge et al., 2012;
neuroticism, an external locus of control, gender, and ethnicity, Fisher, 2014), and is defined in various ways generally
while a study from Mexico (Gaeta et al., 2021) discovered a within either a hedonic or a eudaimonic theoretical approach
relationship between university students’ self-regulated learning (Kesebir and Diener, 2008). According to the hedonic tradition,
and emotions such as tranquillity, hope, gratitude, joy, loneliness, subjective wellbeing constitutes “a person’s cognitive and affective
and disinterest, mediated by coping strategies. A study by evaluations of his or her life” (Diener et al., 2003:63). The
Alemany-Arrebola et al. (2020) showed that college students with cognitive component reflects a sense of satisfaction with life,
a higher level of anxiety expressed more negative emotions and whereas the emotional element is composed of high positive
declared lower academic self-efficacy. A World Bank report on and low negative affect referring to moods and emotions (e.g.,
tertiary education during the pandemic recognized that “[l]ong Bradburn, 1969; Diener, 1984, 2006; Diener and Suh, 1997:200;
periods of self-isolation can have an adverse impact on the Diener et al., 1999; Kahneman et al., 1999; Lyubomirsky and
psychological well-being of students and staff, especially for those Lepper, 1999; Arthaud-Day et al., 2005; Kim-Prieto et al.,
who live alone, international students, and students/staff who are 2005; De Leersnyder et al., 2013). The eudaimonic tradition
not in their place of origin” (2020:6). in turn relies on a notion of psychological wellbeing which
On the teacher front, Jelińska and Paradowski (2021a) refers to positive psychological functioning and development
demonstrated how educators’ engagement in and coping with covering purpose in life, autonomy, personal growth, self-esteem,
remote instruction were moderated by gender, teaching level, acceptance, mastery, control, and positive relations with others
mode of delivery (synchronous vs. asynchronous), and the (e.g., Rogers, 1961; Ryff, 1989a,b; Waterman, 1993; Keyes, 1998;
economic status of the respective countries, while MacIntyre Ryan and Deci, 2001; Keyes et al., 2002; Ryff and Singer, 2008).
et al. (2020) investigated the correlates of approach and avoidant This theoretical approach also includes emotional and affect
coping strategies among an international sample of language regulation (Korpela et al., 2018; Puente-Martínez et al., 2018),
teachers during the conversion to online instruction. Our own which are linked to positive self-image (including enhanced self-
analysis of responses from 1,149 language instructors revealed esteem), situation management, and relatedness (Koole, 2009).
that on average, they found that the remote mode of delivery In most theories, a key indicator of wellbeing is positive affect
depressed students’ language progress by around 64% (!), with (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Cohn and Fredrickson, 2009; Kong
concern about students’ outcomes most prominent in beginner- and Zhao, 2013; Coffey et al., 2014; Szczygieł and Mikolajczak,
level classes (Paradowski and Jeliǹska, under review a). Elsewhere 2017). However, existing negative emotions and mood should not
(Paradowski and Jelińska, under review b) we analyzed how be ignored as emotional wellbeing has been defined as “the ratio
inequalities among educators related to demographics, family of positive affect (PA) to negative affect (NA) in a person’s life over
support, access to resources and infrastructure, and anxieties a representative time period” (Larsen, 2009:249). Studies indicate
about the future influenced their psychological overload, and that the amounts of positive and negative affect are uncorrelated
how this influence was mediated by their perception of student (e.g., Diener and Emmons, 1985; Schmukle et al., 2002), and that
coping. We also identified predictors of stress among 435 their relative contribution to emotional wellbeing varies (e.g.,
linguistics instructors teaching online, revealing the influence Larsen et al., 1990).
of anxiety about the future, living conditions, self-acceptance, Many researchers have indicated that the negative affect
appraisal of the situational impact, course optionality, and system is more reactive than the positive affect system (e.g., Ito
perceived effectiveness of the virtual mode of delivery, with a et al., 1998; Cacioppo and Gardner, 1999; Ito and Cacioppo,
mediating effect of acceptance of the virtual instructional mode 2005; Grinde, 2012). Moreover, Larsen (2002) indicated that
(Paradowski and Jelińska, under review c). A study carried the same levels of objectively bad and good events cause
out after school reopening among teachers from the Basque respectively higher levels of negative than positive affect. As
Country (Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al., 2021) showed that levels of observed by Musch and Klauer (2003), compared with positive
anxiety, depression and stress symptoms were influenced by ones, negative events engage more attentional resources and are
gender, age, job stability, the level of education taught, and stored more accessibly in memory. These findings lead to the
parental status. In the Philippines, Rabacal et al. (2020) revealed a conclusion that negative affect is stronger than positive affect
moderate impact of COVID-19 on teachers’ quality of life, while with respect to its reactivity, duration, and cognitive processing

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 June 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 643229

Jelińska and Paradowski University Instructors’ Well-Being During Quaranteaching

(Larsen, 2002, 2009; Larsen and Prizmic, 2008). Individuals and Schaarschmidt, 2008; Woolfolk Hoy, 2008) and decrease
tend to pay more attention to negative information compared their work effectiveness and learners’ outcomes (Klusmann et al.,
to positive information, processing and recalling the former 2008; Day and Gu, 2009; Frenzel et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2016).
more thoroughly (Baumeister et al., 2001; Rozin and Royzman, In addition, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic the
2001). As a result, negative emotions and mood influence overall conditions of living and working under lockdown could induce
emotional wellbeing to a greater extent than positive ones negative feelings and increase teachers’ negative affect. An online
(Larsen, 2009). For this reason, Grinde (2016) suggested that poll of 1,122 US faculty members conducted in October 2020
negative feelings should be included in wellbeing measures. In (Business Wire, 2021) revealed that more than twice as many
this study, we focus on this aspect of emotional wellbeing. respondents were feeling stressed, fatigued, and angry compared
In the ongoing discussion about the relevant definition of with the year before.
well-being, Dodge et al. (2012:230) took into account various The COVID-19 pandemic enforced various challenges such
existing conceptualizations and characterized wellbeing as the as remote work, limited social interactions, and social isolation,
balance between individual psychological, social and/or physical provoking feelings of situational loneliness, which may negatively
resources and psychological, social and/or physical challenges affect health and wellbeing (DiGiovanni et al., 2004; Cacioppo
encountered in everyday life. The challenges introduce an et al., 2010; Lin et al., 2010; Theeke, 2010; Beutel et al., 2017;
imbalance, which in turn reduces wellbeing. To restore the Mullen et al., 2019; Son et al., 2020; Groarke et al., 2020;
equilibrium and regain their wellbeing, an individual needs to use Nguyen et al., 2021). In the United Kingdom, 36% of adult
or adapt all their resources. respondents declared feeling lonely sometimes or often during
This approach seems to be particularly relevant in the the epidemic (Li and Wang, 2020). Higher loneliness was related
context of the COVID-19 pandemic and crisis shifts in life to physical distancing and reduced social contact (Losada-Baltar
such as the abrupt transition to remote teaching, which et al., 2021). It was also associated with financial concerns and
are potential challenges disturbing teachers’ wellbeing. Studies worries about the impact of prolonged quarantine as well as
on past infectious disease outbreaks have shown that such feelings of fear and uncertainty, increased depression, anxiety,
health emergencies impact survivors’, their families’, and affected stress, and an increased affective response to different aspect
communities’ mental health and can lead to higher levels of of the pandemic in Poland, the United Kingdom, and the
anxiety, PTSD, insomnia, and depression (Mohammed et al., United States (Brooks et al., 2020; Holmes et al., 2020; Jia
2015; Keita et al., 2017). Confinement and social and physical et al., 2020; Kantor and Kantor, 2020; Killgore et al., 2020;
distancing can additionally exacerbate the negative symptoms Okruszek et al., 2020; Smith and Lim, 2020; Son et al., 2020;
and require additional relevant individual resources in order Cacioppo et al., 2021). Studies indicate that more frequent face-
to re-establish the balance and protect wellbeing. A body to-face contacts (unlike remote or virtual interactions), as well
of research from the COVID-19 pandemic has accordingly as closeness and quality of relationships moderate the negative
identified numerous stressors and risk factors for mental health, loneliness-inducing influence of the COVID-19 pandemic and
spanning but not limited to fear of or actually getting infected function as protective factors (Bu et al., 2020a,b; Groarke et al.,
(Bo et al., 2020; Nguyen et al., 2020; Rogers et al., 2020), 2020; Li and Wang, 2020; Tull et al., 2020; Rosenberg et al.,
inadequate information as well as excessive consumption of 2021). Close, frequent and satisfying relationships constitute a
negative information from social media (Gao et al., 2020), the basic human need and are core indicators of the social aspect
experience of quarantine (Lei et al., 2020), infection and/or death of wellbeing (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Ryan and Deci, 2000;
of loved ones, stigma, social isolation and loneliness, frustration, Seligman, 2011).
boredom, job/wage losses and associated financial insecurities The aforementioned results concern the general population.
(Brooks et al., 2020; Cénat et al., 2020, 2021b; Nicola et al., 2020), However, there is little evidence how situational anxiety and
among others. Not surprisingly, studies have reported increased loneliness and anxiety as well as closeness of social relationships,
levels of anxiety (Lee et al., 2020; Lei et al., 2020; Moghanibashi- which turned out to be significant determinants of functioning
Mansourieh, 2020), distress (Hao et al., 2020; Mazza et al., 2020), during the COVID-19 pandemic, influence the wellbeing of
post-traumatic stress (Bo et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020), depression teachers, especially in the context of a challenge (Dodge et al.,
(Lei et al., 2020; Nguyen et al., 2020), insomnia (Li et al., 2020), 2012) such as an emergency transition to distance instruction.
and other dimensions of psychological impact (Ahmed et al., In this study we examine the importance of these variables in
2020; Cao et al., 2020; Moccia et al., 2020; Xiong et al., 2020; the emotional aspect of wellbeing, alongside other factors such as
Cénat et al., 2021a,b; Huang and Zhao, 2021) in pandemic- perceived situational coping, work-life synergy (as an indicator
affected populations. of work/life satisfaction protecting against burnout) and self-
Teachers’ work is considered to be one of the most stressful perceived productivity (efficacy). We also take into account other
professions (Frenzel et al., 2016; MacIntyre et al., 2019). Many individual factors and capital, such as teachers’ age, gender,
researchers have observed that teaching is related to a lower- relationship status, and years of experience, which may play a
than-average level of mental health, poorer physical health, and particular role in protecting wellbeing (op. cit.).
lower job satisfaction, making teachers particularly vulnerable The aim of this study is accordingly to investigate
to burnout (Johnson et al., 2005; Chang, 2009; Brackett et al., factors influencing higher education (HE) teachers’ negative
2010; Keller et al., 2014; MacIntyre et al., 2019). All these factors affect as a substantial component of emotional wellbeing
may significantly reduce teachers’ subjective wellbeing (Kieschke (Larsen, 2002, 2009; also: Ito et al., 1998; Cacioppo and Gardner,

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Jelińska and Paradowski University Instructors’ Well-Being During Quaranteaching

1999; Ito and Cacioppo, 2005; Larsen and Prizmic, 2008; Grinde, in real time, despite more than two thirds reporting no prior
2012) during the first few months of the COVID-19 pandemic experience with remote instruction.
in the context of adaptation to emergency remote teaching, Almost 72% of the participants were female. A similar percent
thus potentially conditions more stressful than during “business declared to live with their families or partners. Approximately
as usual.” Based on Dodge et al.’s (2012) resources–challenges 14% had a close other who had contracted COVID-19, and 3.5%
balance approach to wellbeing and factoring in current research experienced the death of a close person due to the virus.
pointing to situational loneliness, anxiety and social relationships
as among the most significant factors influencing mental health Measures
and wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic, we examine their To evaluate how the epidemic reality and remote teaching
role in the professional group of HE instructors during a time of conditions affect instructors’ wellbeing, we devised an online
heightened vulnerability to stress and its various consequences. survey composed of 441 items (Supplementary Material).
In line with the recommendations by Bricheno et al. (2009), It included items concerning respondents’ sociodemographics,
apart from subjective indicators we also include objective the circumstances surrounding the participants’ transition
factors potentially determining wellbeing such as gender, age, to emergency remote instruction, their personal experiences,
relationship status, living conditions, and the number of years of behaviors, attitudes, feelings, physical and mental health, and
teaching experience. personality traits. To measure psychological constructs, 23 short
The study is guided by the following exploratory research scales were developed from International Personality Item Pool
questions: [IPIP] (2018), International Personality Item Pool (n.d.) items.
RQ1: To what extent did HE teachers’ negative affect vary In order to glean more multidimensional information related
depending on sociodemographic factors such as: (1a) gender, to the specific circumstances of the situation that could not
(1b) age, (1c) relationship status, (1d) living conditions, and (1e) be properly measured with existing batteries, we complemented
length of experience in teaching? these with custom-made scales, single-item indicators, as well as
RQ2: Which of the factors potentially affecting professional open-ended questions.
adaptation to emergency remote instruction in the COVID- In the following analysis we focus on the relative contribution
19-related context, from among: (2a) situational loneliness, of demographic variables as well as factors measured with four
(2b) situational anxiety, (2c) family and social support, (2d) short scales (Supplementary Appendix 2) and three single-item
perceived self-productivity, (2e) situational coping, (2f) work-life indicators:
synergy, and (2g) sociodemographic variables such as gender, age, Negative affect was measured with 11 items assessing to
relationship status, living conditions and length of experience in what extent instructors felt negative emotional states such as
teaching, are associated with teachers’ negative affect, and to what sadness (e.g., “I have been sad”), irritation (e.g., “I have been
extent? feeling irritable”), strain (e.g., “I feel building up pressure”),
RQ3: What is the relative contribution of the respective and emotional instability (e.g., “I have been having bouts of
predictors and to what extent does each of them determine anxiety/panic attacks”) as well as symptoms of fatigue (e.g.,
teachers’ negative affect and, consequently, emotional wellbeing? “I feel tired during the day”). Items in this and the other
scales were answered on a six-point Likert scale ranging from
completely disagree to completely agree. The internal consistency
MATERIALS AND METHODS of this scale was high (Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ωh = 0.92,
Guttman’s λ6 = 0.90). Positive correlations (r = 0.75, p < 0.05)
Participants with perceived stress measured by the Perceived Stress Scale
In this contribution, we focus on survey respondents from higher (PSS; Cohen et al., 1983) and negative (r = –0.45, p < 0.05)
education institutions. From April through September 2020 a with self-compassion measured with the short form of the
total of 8041 HE instructors participated in the study. More Self-Compassion Scale (Raes et al., 2011) corroborate good
than 80% were teaching at a university or graduate school. convergent validity of the scale developed for this study.
The instructors hailed from 6 continents and 92 countries Situational loneliness was measured with a 3-item scale
and autonomous territories, half of them (52%) from Europe assessing the extent to which teachers felt lonely (e.g., “I feel
(Table 1). The mean reported age was 44.1 years (SD = 12.5), lonely”) and lacked contact with their colleagues (e.g., “I miss
with over half the respondents aged between 36 and 55. Most daily conversation with my colleagues”) during the period of
did not report the length of their professional experience, 23% lockdown. In the current study its internal consistency reached
had been teaching for more than 5 years (M = 2.5, SD = 1.60), Cronbach’s α = 0.86, McDonald’s ωh = 0.85, and Guttman’s
whereas 18.5% less than that. During the COVID-19 pandemic λ6 = 0.84; however, given its short length, further studies may be
approximately three quarters were teaching synchronous classes needed to verify its validity.
Situational anxiety caused by the COVID-19 pandemic was
The data analysed in this paper form part of a much larger project https:// assessed with a 5-item scale measuring to what extent instructors
schoolclosure.ils.uw.edu.pl that also included educators teaching in the K–12 felt worried about different aspects of their living conditions
track as well as student populations. These latter data are omitted from the
such as their future, job stability, housing conditions, economic
analyses herein. For reasons of space and thematic coherence, we also exclude a
presentation and discussion of other contextual findings as well as those from the situation, and concern about their family members (e.g., “I
battery of psychological tests that concluded the questionnaire. worry about my job stability”). The scale showed good internal

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TABLE 1 | Socio-demographic characteristics of the participants (N = 804).

Frequency (n) Percent (%)

School type
community college/college/undergraduate school 109 13.5
university/graduate school 651 81.0
teacher training college 17 2.1
foreign language center affiliated with a university 27 3.4
Continent
Europe 419 52.1
(Austria, Belgium, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France,
Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jersey, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom, Ukraine)
Asia 122 15.2
(Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Macao, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel,
Japan, Jordan, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Palestine, Philippines, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Vietnam)
North America 210 26.1
(Bahamas, Canada, Costa Rica, Mexico, Puerto Rico, United States)
Oceania 25 3.1
(Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, Aotearoa/New Zealand)
Africa 17 2.1
(Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Morocco, Senegal, South Africa, Tunisia)
South America 11 1.4
(Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay)
Age group (years)
<25 39 4.9
25 – 35 163 20.3
36 – 45 229 28.5
46 – 55 219 27.2
56 – 65 128 15.9
>65 25 3.1
not reported 1 0.1
Years of experience
<5 years 149 18.5
6 –10 years 49 6.1
11 – 15 years 42 5.2
16 – 20 years 24 3.0
>20 years 70 8.7
not reported 470 58.5
Gender2
female 578 71.89
male 215 26.74
non-binary/not listed 11 1.37
Relationship status
in a relationship 579 72.01
single 207 25.75
not reported 18 2.24
Prior experience with remote teaching
lack of experience 541 67.29
prior experience 265 32.71
COVID-19 cases among close others
no 693 86.19
yes 111 13.81
COVID-19-related deaths among close others
no 776 96.52
yes 28 3.48
2 Participants who selected the “Non-binary/Not listed” option as their gender constituted only 1.4% of the respondents and thus their gender was not included as a
variable in the inferential analyses.

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TABLE 2 | Significant differences in teachers’ negative affect (N = 804).

Negative affect

M SE Effect size 95%CI F or t df
Gender ηp 2 = 0.01 0.002 0.03 4.67 2,801
female 32.61* 0.53 31.56 33.66
male 30.53* 0.83 28.89 32.17
not listed/non-binary 40.73 0.68 32.53 48.92
Relationship status d = 0.2 0.07 0.38 2.46* 784
single 34.02* 0.86 32.33 35.72
in relationship 31.50* 0.53 30.47 32.55
Living conditions ηp 2 = 0.01 0.001 0.02 4.52* 2,801
on my own 34.32* 0.98 32.37 36.26
with partner 32.30 0.64 31.05 33.56
with family 30.50* 0.81 28.91 32.09
Age group ηp 2 = 0.01 0.001 0.02 5.96* 2,801
<25 35.33 2.25 30.78 39.89
25–35 34.07 0.97 32.14 35.99
36–45a 34.26 0.86 32.56 35.95
46–55b 30.55* 0.85 28.87 32.23
56–65ab 28.89* 1.02 26.87 30.92
>65 26.68 1.84 22.87 30.49
Professional experience in years ηp 2 = 0.05 0.01 0.09 3.95* 4,329
<5 years 33.41 1.11 33.72 38.96
6 –10 years 34.61 1.49 28.77 33.53
11 – 15 years 28.10 1.92 27.63 32.22
16 – 20 years 28.79 2.30 23.17 30.93
>20 years 28.37 1.23 31.31 33.65

Superscripts indicate significant pairwise differences based on Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05) [for age groups: a 25–35, b 36–45; for professional experience: c <5 years].
*indicates statistical significance at p < 0.05; terms and values in bold refer to the influence on teachers’ negative affect of each respective superordinate category.

consistency of Cronbach’s α = 0.81, McDonald’s ωh = 0.82, and Procedure
Guttman’s λ6 = 0.80. Positive correlation (r = 0.47, p < 0.05) with The custom-made online questionnaire was active from April
perceived stress measured with the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; until September 2020 on a commercial survey software
Cohen et al., 1983) indicates relatively good convergent validity platform (in order to reach respondents in countries where
of the developed situational anxiety scale. solutions such as Google Forms cannot be accessed without
Family and social support was assessed with 4 items a VPN). Participant recruitment was carried out with a
measuring to what extent the teachers felt the support and snowball sampling technique via several channels utilizing the
closeness of their families and significant others (e.g., “I researchers’ direct personal contacts, mailing lists and websites
have good relations at home,” “I feel comfortable having my of professional associations, and thematic groups and pages on
family/partner/roommates/flatmates around during this time”). social media. Participation was voluntary and the respondents
The scale reported good internal consistency of Cronbach’s α and were informed about the purpose of the survey. The protocol had
McDonald’s ωh = 0.80, and Guttman’s λ6 = 0.78. received IRB approval.
The single-item indicators concerned situational coping, Eligibility required having transitioned from regular face-to-
work-life synergy and self-productivity, complemented with face classes to online teaching as part of the response to the
sociodemographic information such as teachers’ age, gender, COVID-19 epidemic. The filter question excluded more than
relationship status, and years of professional experience. We 13% of the initial survey takers – persons who either continued
applied the comprehensive single item approach (CSI) proposed teaching face-to-face, or who had already been teaching online
by Konstabel et al. (2012, 2017), which assumes that the content before the school closures happened.
validity of a one-item indicator is preserved when this item
has a comprehensive content and is newly written instead of Data Analysis
being selected from a longer scale. This approach is based on To observe the differences between the variables and to answer
the assumption that every individual has self-knowledge and is RQ1a-1e, we calculated a t-test for relationship status and one-
able to characterize it if a given construct is sufficiently simple, way ANOVAs for all the remaining sociodemographic variables.
unambiguous or circumscribed to be comprehensible to the To find the answer to RQ2 concerning the extent of the
respondent (Wanous and Reichers, 1996; Loo, 2002). This means association between such potential factors affecting HE teachers’
that the CSI should not be applied to more complex traits or professional adaptation to emergency remote instruction in
dispositions. Thus, in this research it was only used with generic the COVID-19-related context as (2a) situational loneliness,
and more homogenous variables. (2b) situational anxiety, (2c) family and social support, (2d)

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perceived self-productivity, (2e) situational coping, (2f) work- we carried out Student’s t-test and ANOVA. Descriptive statistics
life synergy, and (2g) sociodemographic variables such as: for teachers’ negative affect with respect to the sociodemographic
gender, age, relationship status, living conditions, and length variables are displayed in Table 2. The results indicate that in the
of experience in teaching on the one hand, and teachers’ first few months of the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers differed in
negative affect on the other, we calculated Pearson’s correlation their wellbeing, which reflected their negative emotional states.
coefficient for continuous variables and Spearman’s ρ for Significantly stronger negative moods were reported by female
categorical variables. To study the impact of the predictive factors teachers (M = 32.61, SE = 0.53; possible value range: 11–66)
on negative affect as an indicator of teachers’ wellbeing, we compared with their male counterparts (M = 30.53, SE = 0.83).
used STATISTICA’s General Regression Models (GRM) module The intensity of negative affect significantly varied also between
for building models containing categorical and continuous single individuals (M = 34.02, SE = 0.86) and teachers having
predictor variables (analysis of covariance design). As opposed partners or families (M = 31.50, SE = 0.53), with the former group
to (multiple) regression models, applicable only to continuous feeling more negative emotions than the latter. The differences
variables, the general linear model permits analyses of any in negative affectivity were also age-specific; however, they were
ANCOVA or MANCOVA design which includes both categorical unrelated to teachers’ professional experience.
(e.g., gender) and continuous predictor variables as well as The observed differences with respect to gender, relationship
a wide variety of different types of design. Analysis of status, age and length of professional experience seem to suggest
covariance (ANCOVA), defined as a general linear model, that teachers’ negative affect during the COVID-19 pandemic
combines at least one categorical predictor (i.e., one-way may be related not only to psychological dispositions and states,
ANOVA) and continuous predictors (i.e., linear regression). but also to particular sociodemographic and situational variables.
The dependent variable(s) in such a general linear model To probe which of the factors affecting professional adaptation
is/are always continuous. Similarly as in the case of regression, to emergency remote instruction are associated with teachers’
using ANCOVA requires meeting five assumptions: normality of negative affect and to answer RQ2, we conducted correlation
residuals, homogeneity of variance, homogeneity of regression analyses (Table 3). Negative affect was significantly and positively
slopes, linearity of regression, and independence of error correlated with higher situational anxiety (r = 0.47) and
terms (Garson, 2012; Philippas, 2014). In this study, a general situational loneliness (r = 0.36). Moreover, the stronger the
linear model was the most suitable statistical tool as it negative emotional state, the less the teachers reported work-life
allowed to take into account both categorical and continuous synergy (r = –0.43) and the less productive they felt (r = –
predictors. Applying forward selection, based on adding the most 0.33) during the pandemic. Finally, those who felt more negative
statistically significant variables to the model until there are emotions were also coping worse than others (r = –0.30).
no variables left meeting the entry criteria and a satisfactory To reveal which of the factors affecting professional adaptation
regression equation has been found, underlies the answer to emergency remote instruction predict teachers’ negative affect,
to RQ3. This selection method allows building a purely as well as provide an answer to RQ3 concerning the relative
exploratory model, which is not based on any theoretical
assumptions, but on the statistically significant impact of the
variables. TABLE 3 | Pearson’s r [1] and Spearman’s ρ[2] correlation coefficients between
The linearity assumption was examined via a visual inspection negative affect and factors influencing professional adaptation to emergency
of scatterplots, which indicated that the variables and the remote instruction in the COVID-19-related context.
residuals of the regression (i.e., the errors between the observed Correlation with R2 95%CI
and the predicted values) were normally distributed. The variance negative affect
inflation factor (VIF) not exceeding 1.6 and tolerance values Situational anxiety1 0.47* 0.22 0.17 0.29
ranging from .64 to .94 indicated lack of multicollinearity. Work-life synergy1 −0.43* 0.19 0.14 0.24
The lack of collinearity was also confirmed by a matrix Situational loneliness1 0.36* 0.13 0.09 0.17
of Pearson’s bivariate correlations among all the predictors. Self-productivity2 −0.33* 0.11 0.07 0.15
A visual analysis of a scatterplot of residuals versus predicted Situational coping2 −0.30* 0.10 0.06 0.14
values indicated that the assumption of homoscedasticity was Age1 −0.27 0.07 0.04 0.10
satisfied as well. Family and social support1 −0.18 0.03 0.01 0.05
The significance level was set at .001 for ANCOVAs and at .05 Professional experience1 −0.17 0.03 0.01 0.05
for the remaining analyses. Effect sizes are reported with Cohen’s Relationship status2 0.15 0.02 0.00 0.04

d for the t-test and ηp 2 for ANOVA, respectively. Gender1 0.05 0.003 –0.004 0.01
Living conditions2 −0.02 0 – –
* significant at p < 0.05.

RESULTS
TABLE 4 | The regression results of the effects of variables predicting teachers’
To answer RQ1 and find out whether and to what extent HE negative affect.
teachers’ negative affect varied depending on sociodemographic
Dependent variable R2 Adj. R2 F df1 df2 95%CI
factors such as: (1a) gender, (1b) age, (1c) relationship status,
(1d) living conditions, and (1e) length of teaching experience, Negative affect 0.49 0.47 37.40 8 317 0.41 0.53

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TABLE 5 | General linear model with ANCOVA (forward selection stepwise regression) for variables predicting teachers’ negative affect.

Step Independent variables b SE β t ηp 2 95%CI F

1 Situational anxiety 0.64 0.09 0.30* 6.82 0.54 0.47 0.58 46.58
2 Work-life synergy −2.24 0.38 −0.25* −5.81 0.46 0.38 0.50 33.71
3 Productivity: 0.30 0.22 0.35 16.98
reduced 4.31 0.77 0.26* 5.62
equal −2.42 0.70 −0.15* −3.50
4 Coping: worse than others 5.75 1.82 0.26* 3.16 0.17 0.09 0.21 8.14
5 Age −0.17 0.05 −0.16* −3.77 0.26 0.18 0.31 14.21
6 Situational loneliness 0.33 0.16 0.09* 2.04 0.10 0.03 0.13 4.16
- Family and social support
- Gender
- Relationship status
- Living conditions
- Professional experience

b, unstandardized regression coefficient; SE, standard errors; β, standardized regression coefficient; * significant at p < 0.001.

contribution of the respective predictors and the extent to The impact of anxiety was prominent not only in the statistics,
which each of them determines teachers’ negative affect and, but was also a recurrent theme in the open-ended questions,
consequently, emotional wellbeing, we used ANCOVA to build a where the respondents repeatedly mentioned “anxiety and fear
stepwise regression model with the forward selection procedure. about the pandemic,” “general anxiety about the world right now,”
It was preceded by a simple linear regression giving more “anxiety, workload, uncertainty,” “my own personal struggle with
general insight into the extent to which all the factors affecting anxiety increasing due to covid,” and “the uncertainty and anxiety
professional adaptation to emergency remote instruction predict surrounding the state of the world in general.”
teachers’ negative affect. The entire model, as shown in Table 4, is The impact of gender on anxiety (albeit with only a very
significant (F 8,317 = 37.40, p < 0.001) and predicts approximately small effect size) mirrors the findings by Alemany-Arrebola et al.
49% of variance in negative affect. The most influential predictor (2020) among college students, where women had higher scores
of teachers’ negative emotional states was anxiety (β = 0.30, in trait and state anxiety; the latter accentuated in cases where a
t = 6.82, p < 0.001), explaining approximately 22% of the variance relative had died – thus showing that the stressful situation of the
in negative affect. The subsequent most consequential predictors pandemic and remote learning together with a critical event such
turn out to be work-life synergy (β = 0.25. t = –5.81. p < 0.001) as the illness and death of a relative or friend due to COVID-19
followed by teacher productivity (reduced: β = 0.26, t = 5.62, increases anxiety levels (and—in the case of the original study—
p < 0.001; unchanged: β = –0.15, t = –3.50, p < 0.001). The influences the perception of academic self-efficacy). A similar
next important predictor is situational coping (β = 0.26, t = 3.16, conclusion was reported in Turkey by Aslan et al. (2020), where
p < 0.001). The last two moderator variables are teachers’ age female (as well as less physically active) students displayed higher
(β = –0.16, t = –3.77, p < 0.001) and situational loneliness levels of perceived stress and by Karaman et al. (2021), in
(β = 0.09, t = 2.04, p < 0.001). It should be noted that all Switzerland by Amendola et al. (2021), and in the US (Business
the influences of these predictors have medium to large effects Wire, 2021; Clabaugh et al., 2021), while among teachers a
(Cohen, 1988). Interestingly, family and social support as well similar trend was observed in the Basque Country (Ozamiz-
as variables such as gender, relationship status, and length of Etxebarria et al., 2021). In the general population, three studies
professional experience no longer contribute to the regression carried out in Italy (Mazza et al., 2020; Moccia et al., 2020) and
model. The results are presented in Table 5. Iran (Moghanibashi-Mansourieh, 2020) showed women’s mental
health to be more impacted than men’s; on the other hand,
research in China (Cao et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2020; Huang
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION and Zhao, 2021) and a meta-analysis by Cénat et al. (2021a) of
papers again mainly hailing from this country found no gender
The current COVID-19 pandemic is unprecedented in scale, as differences in females’ and males’ experience of pandemic-related
are the nearly global school closures that have gone along with stressors. A comparison of the results implies a possible role of
it. The well-being of students and instructors has been upended, context (teaching/studying vs others) influencing the potential
to the extent that many instructors started contemplating role of gender in perceived situational anxiety.
quitting the profession (Business Wire, 2021; Gewin, 2021). Apprehension about job stability could be alleviated by
The current study has attempted to reveal some of the institutions making furlough arrangements for all faculty and
mechanisms responsible for college and university instructors’ suspensions of staff dismissals at least during the period of the
differential coping with the transition and wellness, with the crisis, in line with recommendations by the World Bank, since
resultant model predicting approximately 49% of variance in “faculty dismissed at this time will find it almost impossible to
negative affect. secure alternative employment amid the crisis” (2020:10).

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The adverse impact of loneliness is fairly straightforward and, concerning the coverage of a story where a teacher has been
as with anxiety, was a recurrent theme in the answers to the giving lessons from her hospital bed following a surgery. While
open-ended questions, which frequently mentioned “isolation, many news outlets were portraying the action as a model and
not being able to interact with my students, not being able to inspiration, most teachers have rightly expressed frustration at
teach them;” “I feel isolated. The teaching is fine, but I have the unhealthy, dystopian expectations of a broken education
had very little interaction with colleagues, which makes me feel system. Teachers deserve a humanistic approach, especially
irrelevant;” “lack of contact with the students. I felt very isolated during the added strain of emergency remote instruction. Our
and like I was talking into the void;” “the isolation and feeling respondents commented: “Thank you for sharing this survey!
that I am not connecting with students and fellow teachers I enjoyed completing it, and thought it was one of the more
in my school;” or “disconnection from students.” Loneliness comprehensive and compassionate surveys I’ve done during this
constitutes an emotional experience provoked by unfulfilled time.”; “Just completed this survey and I too would HIGHLY
needs for social contact (Margalit, 2010). Cacioppo and Hawkley recommend that you spend some time completing it. It’s LONG
(2009) point out that the experience of loneliness impairs as surveys go, so grab yourself a good cup of tea/coffee and some
individual ability to self-regulate affecting physiological, cognitive nibbles and find yourself a quiet space, it’s going take over half
and emotional functioning. It may constitute an important an hour, but I can safely say I have never felt that a survey could
risk factor for depressive symptoms even for healthy people be life affirming but this is! It actually made me feel better. It’s
(Cacioppo et al., 2006; Grov et al., 2010). Neto and Barros like your own personal therapist at these difficult times. Thank
(1992) in their study examining loneliness among teachers found you! Well done.” and “I was able to relate all the questions to my
that educators whose professional experience was longer than experiences. I appreciated that the survey seemed to focus on the
20 years were significantly lonelier than those with a shorter educator as a whole person rather than just a ‘provider of lessons
professional experience; the former group also experienced and materials.’,” underlining the importance of seeing teachers in
lowered self-efficacy, which constitutes one of the predictors a holistic and humanistic manner.
of job satisfaction (Lent and Brown, 2006; Duffy and Lent, Despite the challenges of emergency remote teaching, HE
2009). While loneliness is usually a temporary state, COVID- instructors are in a privileged position compared with most
19-induced lockdown and social distancing may have extended of their counterparts teaching at lower levels of education,
it. Lack of personal contact with teachers and longing for live as the education level handled has already turned out
communication during the lesson were downsides of remote to be a significant predictor of coping and engagement
instruction indicated by around 80% of the students in a (Jelińska and Paradowski, 2021a).
study by Karalis and Raikou (2020). The post-pandemic world may see the trend of classes
The significance of the right work-life synergy and becoming more blended (Bozkurt, 2019; Kim, 2020), integrating
maintaining the right priorities is especially important in conventional face-to-face instruction with online learning
view of the reality that ensuring of teacher and student well- (Garrison and Kanuka, 2004; Dziuban et al., 2018). The “new
being may sometimes be at odds with pressures to “cover the normal” will hopefully remove most of the current stressors,
syllabus”: “[t]here is a potential tradeoff between ensuring but awareness of the variables influencing teacher coping and
well-being and significantly increased screen time derived from a well-being will be nonetheless be useful to both teachers
transition to distance learning” (Reimers and Schleicher, 2020:8). and administrators.
Our findings from a sample of nearly 1,500 educators (Jelińska One of the obvious limitations, shared by most large-scale
and Paradowski, 2021a) showed that the most engaged and surveys, is the issue of participant self-selection. Given that
best-coping teachers were characterized by having modified their participation in this study was completely voluntary, and that
lesson plans and eased the grading scheme during this period. on many occasions the questionnaire took upwards of 45 min to
Teacher well-being should never be forgotten, neither by complete, the respondents were already motivated, could relate to
administrators nor teachers themselves. Already in the spring of the topic, and had the spare time and technology to comfortably
2020, a guide published by the OECD recommended that: fill it out. This means a limit on the representativeness and
Second only to supporting learning, a key priority of education generalization potential of the data and resultant findings (see
institutions should be the well-being of students and staff . . . A Brown, 2001:85).
protracted pandemic, and its multiple effects in the health, income This university instructors’ perspective will be complemented
and well-being of individuals and communities, is likely to strain with later publications on other relevant aspects of
the psychological reserves of all, including students and teachers. educators’ adaptation to the transition, as well as analyses
Educators and leaders of education systems should make explicit of students’ points of view.
and visible their goals for well-being, and pursue strategies that help
maintain well-being in the face of a global health event that will
have a considerable toll in the lives and health of individuals. . . DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
As such impact becomes proximal to every learner and educator,
this may impact their motivation and functioning. (Reimers and The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following
Schleicher, 2020:7f ). licenses/restrictions: The data are part of a larger project still in
At the time of writing this paper, a discussion is ranging progress. Requests to access these datasets should be directed to
in the press and on teacher groups in the social media MBP, https://schoolclosure.ils.uw.edu.pl.

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 June 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 643229

Jelińska and Paradowski University Instructors’ Well-Being During Quaranteaching

ETHICS STATEMENT Poland. MBP also acknowledges support from COST Actions
15109 COSTNET, 15130 SAREP, and 18232 MAT-DYN-NET.
The survey protocol had been reviewed and approved by
University of Warsaw’s Human Research Ethics Committee. The
respondents were provided with information about the survey ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and participated voluntarily.
We thank the volunteers who completed and provided feedback
on the pilot versions of the survey, all the participants who took
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS the time to fill in the questionnaire despite other commitments,
as well as friends, colleagues, professional associations, and
MBP conceptualized the study, designed the survey instrument, administrators of the thematic groups on social media for
piloted and administered the data collection, and contributed to publicizing and/or enabling to share information about the
the interpretation of the data and the writing of the article. MJ survey. We also thank Adaora Anyichie-Odis, lmran Aslan, and
contributed to the survey instrument, carried out the quantitative Ryan Michael Oducado for comments on an earlier draft of this
analyses, and contributed to the writing of the article. Both article, and TA and SC for detailed and constructive feedback.
authors approved the submitted version.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
FUNDING
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found
The authors are supported by the SONATA-BIS Grant No. online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.
2016/22/E/HS2/00034 from the National Science Centre of 2021.643229/full#supplementary-material

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December 25, 2025
Michał B. Paradowski
University of Warsaw, Faculty Member
Michał B. Paradowski, PhD, DLitt (Dr Habil.), is an associate professor at the Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw, a teacher and translator trainer, and a language teaching and research consultant. He gave 270+ invited lectures, seminars and workshops in Europe, America, Africa, Asia and Oceania and penned over 80 publications. His edited volumes are ‘Teaching Languages off the Beaten Track’ (2014) and ‘Productive Foreign Language Skills for an Intercultural World’ (2015); his (2017) monograph appeared under the title ‘M/Other Tongues in Language Acquisition, Instruction, and Use’.
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Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Life of Faculty Teaching in Universities
Ester Rada
Bedan Research Journal
COVID-19 has greatly affected the education sector compelling educators to adapt to online teaching and platforms quite abruptly. Thus, this study aims to determine the impact of this pandemic on the life of college faculty and its consequences on their social, emotional, and personal aspects due to the transition from physical classes to online lectures and design a support program to help reframe and alleviate its impacts. This is a descriptive study using a convergent mixed methods design. Employing a snowball sampling technique, a modified web-based global questionnaire that is divided into 7 sections, was administered via Google forms. With the use of SPSS v. 23, results showed from 81 respondents in 37 universities that despite the limited time and resources in the preparation, the faculty displayed an adaptive behavior. Remarkably, the narratives related impacts of emergency remote education on personal life circumstances more than what the figures showed in the statistical a...
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The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Emergency Distance Teaching on the Psychological Status of University Teachers: A Cross-Sectional Study in Jordan
Hussam Fakhouri
The COVID-19 pandemic has struck many countries globally. Jordan has implemented strict nationwide control measures to halt the viral spread, one of which was the closure of universities and shifting to remote teaching. The impact of this pandemic could extend beyond the risk of physical harm to substantial psychological consequences. Our study aimed at assessing 1) psychological status, 2) challenges of distance teaching, and 3) coping activities and pandemic-related concerns among university teachers in Jordan in the midst of COVID-19-related quarantine and control measures. We conducted a cross-sectional study using an anonymous online survey. The measure of psychological distress was obtained using a validated Arabic version of the Kessler Distress Scale (K10). Other information collected included sociodemographic profile, methods used to handle distress, motivation to participate in distance teaching, and challenges of distance teaching as well as the most worrisome issues during this pandemic. Three hundred eighty-two university teachers returned completed surveys. Results of K10 showed that 31.4% of respondents had severe distress and 38.2% had mild to moderate distress. Whereas gender was not associated with distress severity, age had a weak negative correlation (Rho = −0.19, P < 0.0001). Interestingly, most teachers had moderate to high motivation for distance teaching. Engagement with family was the most reported self-coping activity. More than half of the participants were most concerned and fearful about SARS-CoV-2 infection. In conclusion, university teachers have shown to exhibit various levels of psychological distress and challenges during the implementation of precautionary national measures in the battle against COVID-19 in Jordan.
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Navigating Online Teaching During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Challenges and Coping Strategies Among College Teachers in Mizoram
R. Lalhmingsangi
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Aspects of the Well-being of University Instructors Related to Online Education During and After the Pandemic -Case Study of a Hungarian University
András Buda
2025
In the past decade, quite a few articles have been published about the advantages and disadvantages of working from home online, and by studying the experiences that they present, it would be possible to much more thoroughly plan the rather complex, multi-faceted process of digital transition. However, the coronavirus epidemic that broke out in early 2020 did not allow for thoughtful preparation. The new work schedule resulted in profound changes to the work of university lecturers, thus, it obviously also had a significant impact on their well-being. In this study, we examine the state of the well-being of the instructors at one of the biggest universities in Hungary, the University of Debrecen. The period in question is at the introduction of emergency remote teaching and at the end of the pandemic period. Using quantitative and qualitative methods, we collected data and information at different times. Based on this, we revealed what resources the instructors relied on, how they were able to meet the challenges of education online.
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Teachers experiences of stress and their coping strategies during COVID - 19 induced distance teaching
Franziska Heinschke
Journal of Pedagogical Research
Mastering distance teaching imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic was challenging for many teachers. In the present cross-sectional survey, we assessed the level of stress that teachers experienced during the lockdown of schools in Germany, their strategies to cope with it, and external and internal barriers for distance teaching with an online questionnaire. Teachers were recruited for the study on the basis of nationwide professional networks (e.g. Eduserver-Education in Germany, The German Education Union (GEW)) as well as by advertising the study on homepages of associations for different special educational needs and in social networks (e.g. Facebook, Instagram). A total of 380 teachers from different school forms participated. They experienced medium to high levels of stress. More than 50 percent of them spent more than four hours daily on remote teaching, with secondary grammar school teachers experiencing significantly more stress and working more hours daily than special education teachers. The vast majority of them experienced technical barriers, but most of them felt able to cope functionally with the stress. Female teachers experienced significantly more stress, but coped with it more often in a functional way; teachers used more functional coping strategies when they expected external factors as barriers for distance teaching. The results imply that teachers' digital skills should be developed, schools should be better equipped with the necessary computer hard-and software, and more research on psychological factors contributing to teachers' willingness to use technologies for remote teaching in the pandemic and beyond should be done.
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The impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on EFL instructors' stress level
Sevim Inal
Innovational Research in ELT, 2023
The Covid-19 epidemic, which emerged towards the end of 2019 and has influenced the whole world since then, has had many negative effects, especially in terms of health, social, economic, and psychological aspects. The transition from traditional face-to-face education to technology-based distance education has created many difficulties in education. In addition to the difficulties that resulted from the transfer of education to the online environment, many teachers faced additional sociological and psychological problems in their daily lives. In this present study, a survey consisting of two parts was conducted to identify the stress levels and difficulties faced by 20 EFL instructors during the pandemic. The first part includes demographic information while the second part was made up of 3 pre-defined items and one open-ended item. The analysis of the data revealed that the stress levels of instructors increased during the pandemic. In addition, instructors' commentary revealed that they experienced various difficulties categorized under the headings of social interaction, stress level, and alienation.
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Keep your friends close": Przyswajanie języka obcego poprzez interakcje rówieśnicze a edukacja zdalna w dobie pandemii
Andrzej Jarynowski
Acta Neophilologica, 2021
This paper focuses on second language acquisition in the context of social interactions naturally taking place among learners, especially in immersion/Study Abroad settings. We showcase the methodology of social network analysis, which has recently shed new light on the relationship between the individual position in the social network and language acquisition, helping to determine which contexts, intensity and direction of interactions are most conducive to L2 progress. At the time of the current COVID-19 pandemic, physical interactions can pose an epidemiological risk. Thus, we conclude with a discussion concerning the challenge of maximising students’ exposure to the target language in the context of emergency remote learning.
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COVID-19 pandemic-related anxiety, stress, and depression among teachers: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Dr Sandy Nicoll
Work
BACKGROUND: As millions of teachers have been forced to rely upon remote teaching due to the closure of schools during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is particularly important to understand the extent to which teacher’s psychological wellbeing has been affected by this global health crisis. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis was twofold: 1) ascertain the prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression among teachers during the COVID-19 outbreak; 2) identify the associated factors of these psychological wellbeing domains of the teachers. METHODS: Academic Search Premier, Eric, PsycInfo, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for articles published from December 2019 and July 2021, using search terms including “COVID-19” “anxiety” “depression” “stress”, and “teachers”. RESULTS: This study included 54 studies synthesising data from 256,896 teachers across 22 countries. The meta-analysis showed higher prevalence of stress (62.6%, 95% Confidence Interval ...
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Remote Working During COVID-19: BOONS or BANES For Instructors Working in Higher Education Institutions in Pakistan
Zartasha Sarwar
Pakistan BioMedical Journal, 2022
Around the world, the Covid-19 pandemic has emerged as the most serious threat to human health, economy, and well-being, affecting substantially every country. The current outbreak has presented society with unexpected obstacles and has jeopardized mankind and global resilience. The present study intends to determine the influence of Covid-19 on 250 educators teaching at various public and private higher educational institutions in Pakistan. An online cross-sectional survey was conducted using a link to a Google questionnaire form. The survey consisted of 20 questions covering demographic information, physical activity, remote working challenges, time spent on social media, and issues with online education. The data were collected using the snowball sampling method, and it was analyzed using SPSS 2021. The findings revealed the detrimental effects of COVID-19 lockdowns, such as excessive use of social media, a sedentary lifestyle, insufficient online classes training,excessive workl...
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Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Routines of Higher Education Institutions: A Global Perspective
Priyatma Singh
Sustainability, 2022
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
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Emotional State of Teachers and University Administrative Staff in the Return to Face-to-Face Mode
Jorge Guadalupe Lanas
Behavioral Sciences
Social distancing and security measures have contained the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite this, the return to face-to-face activities is necessary for specific companies, and some higher education institutions have already done so. The various disorders that this new reality could generate have motivated the present study, which aims to analyze the emotional state of teachers and administrative staff. The instrument used was the abbreviated depression, anxiety, and stress scale (DASS-21), with an internal consistency index of 0.87. The methodology was based on applying a survey to 202 participants from Quito, Ecuador. The sample consisted of 97 men and 105 women aged between 23 and 59 years. A quantitative and cross-sectional design was used in this research. The results show that 40.1% of the respondents presented anxiety, 36.63% depression, and 38.61% stress between mild and highly severe categories. Additionally, when analyzing the depression, anxiety, and stress levels...
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Evaluating a cross-lagged panel model between problematic internet use and psychological distress and cross-level mediation of school administrator support on problematic internet use: The serial mediating role of psychological needs thwarting of online teaching and psychological distress
Jeffrey Gamble
Frontiers in Public Health
BackgroundTo reduce the transmission of COVID-19, many teachers across the globe, including teachers in China, were required to teach online. This shift to online teaching can easily result in psychological need thwarting (PNT) of teachers' psychological basic needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness), leaving them vulnerable to negative psychological outcomes. Resulting negative emotional state may lead to problematic internet use (PIU), which can lead to further psychological distress, forming a vicious cycle.MethodsThe present study was conducted using a cross-lagged panel model (with longitudinal data) and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) (with cross-sectional data). The aims were to investigate (i) the reciprocal relationships between two specific forms of PIU [problematic social media use (PSMU) and problematic gaming (PG)] and psychological distress among schoolteachers, and (ii) the influence of administrators' support on schoolteachers' PIU through a cross...
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Navigating old and new terrains of academic practice in higher education: indelible and invisible marks left from the Covid-19 lockdown
Eva Seidl
London Review of Education
Higher education has been (re)shaped by the Covid-19 pandemic in ways which have left both indelible and invisible marks of that period. Drawing on relevant literature, and informed by an exchange catalysed through a visual narrative method, authors from four European universities engage with two reflective questions in this article: As academics, what were our experiences of our practice during the lockdown periods of the Covid-19 pandemic? What might we carry forward, resist or reimagine in landscapes of academic practice emerging in the post-Covid future? The article explores how academics experienced and demonstrated resilience and ingenuity in their academic practice during that turbulent time. Particular insights include entanglements of the personal and professional, and the importance, affordances and limitations of technology. In addition, the authors reflect on some of the ongoing challenges exacerbated by the pandemic, such as education inequalities. The article concludes...
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