(PDF) TZ V

free download https://www.tallziraa.de/Endpublikation/0_470.html German Protestant Institute of Archaeology (GPIA) ✴ Biblical Archaeological Institute Wuppertal (BAI) Tall Zirā‘a The Gadara Region Project (2001-2011) Final Report Volume 5 Hellenistic to Roman Period (Strata 8–6) Susan Schütz Editors of the Tall Zirā‘a Final Reports Dieter Vieweger and Jutta Häser Der Verlag behält sich die Verwertung des urheberrechtlich geschützten Inhalts dieses Werkes für Zwecke des Text- und Data-Minings nach § 44 b UrhG ausdrücklich vor. Jegliche unbefugte Nutzung ist hiermit ausgeschlossen. www.tallziraa.de 1. Auflage Copyright © 2024 by Deutsches Evangelisches Institut für Altertumswissenschaft d es H eiligen L andes/BiblischArchäologisches Institut Wuppertal, Jerusalem/Amman/Wuppertal Dieses Werk einschließlich all seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne schriftliche Zustimmung des Deutschen Evangelischen Instituts für Altertumswissenschaft des Heiligen Landes (DEI) u nzulässig und strafbar. Da s gi lt insbesondere fü r Ve rvielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form (print, photography, CD-ROM, DVD, BLUERAY, Internet or any other medium) without written permission of the German Protestant Institute of Archaeology (GPIA). All Tall Zirā‘a-Final Reports (Volumes 1–9) are available free of charge: http://www.tallziraa.de/Endpublikation/0_470. htm (PDF-Version for download) © Jerusalem/Amman/Wuppertal 2017–2024 Cover-Layout: Patrick Leiverkus Front and back cover: Tall Zirāʿa and Wādī al-ʿArab; aerial view, looking from east to west; by courtesy of APAAME, David Kennedy, 2011 Terracotta head back cover: © BAI/DEI, drawing: E. Brückelmann Standard-Layout: Based on the template of the DAI-volumes ›Menschen – Kulturen – Traditionen‹/Forschungscluster Editorial work: Jutta Häser/Ute Wielandt Typesetting: Ute Wielandt Druck und Einband: Books on Demand GmbH, Norderstedt Printed in Germany ISBN 978-3-579-08294-3 www.gtvh.de Table of ConTenTs lisT of figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX lisT of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX lisT of PlaTes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .XXI lisT of abbreviaTions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXII PrefaCe by D. Vieweger/J. Häser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 aCknowledgemenTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 inTroduCTion by S. Schütz/J. Häser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1 . relevanT HisToriCal informaTion and PeriodisaTion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1 .1 . The Hellenistic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1 .2 . The Roman Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1 .3 . Periodisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.4. Definition of the Decapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2 . sTraTum 8: HellenisTiC Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.1. General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2 .2 . Complexes Stratum 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2 .2 .1 . Complex A: Outer Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2 .2 .2 . Complex B: Enclosing Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2 .2 .3 . Complex C: Residential Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2 .2 .3 .1 . Comparable Settlement Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 2.2.3.2. Phoenician Influence at the Tall Zirā‘a? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2 .2 .4 . Complex D: Entrance Area to the Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2 .2 .5 . Features in Area I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 2 .3 . Find Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2 .3 .1 . Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.3.1.1. Distribution of Pottery Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.3.1.2. Repertoire of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.3.1.3. Terracotta Head TZ 007430-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 2 .3 .1 .4 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2 .3 .2 . Metal Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.3.2.1. Distribution of Metal Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 VI 2.3.2.2. Repertoire of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.3.2.3. Regarding the Potential for Interpreting Nails and their Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 2 .3 .2 .4 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 2 .3 .3 . Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 2 .3 .3 .1 . Ptolemaic Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 2 .3 .3 .2 . Seleucid Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 2 .3 .3 .3 . Hasmonean Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 2.3.3.4. Unspecified Hellenistic Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2 .3 .3 .5 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2 .3 .4 . Glass Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 2.3.4.1. Distribution of Glass Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 2.3.4.2. Repertoire of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 2 .3 .4 .3 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 2 .3 .5 . Animal Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.3.5.1. Distribution of Bone Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.3.5.2. Identifying the Bone Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2 .3 .5 .3 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 2 .3 .6 . Stone Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.3.6.1. Distribution of Stone Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.3.6.2. Repertoire of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2 .3 .6 .3 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.4. Overall Evaluation of the Hellenistic Stratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 3 . sTraTum 7 C, 7 b, 7 a: early roman Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 3.1. General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 3 .2 . Complexes Stratum 7 c: First Construction Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3 .2 .1 . Complex A: House with Olive/Wine Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 3 .2 .2 . Complex B: House Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 3 .2 .3 . Complex C: House Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 3 .2 .4 . Complex D: Residential and Farm Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 3 .2 .4 .1 . Stratum 7 b: First Reconstruction Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 3 .2 .4 .2 . Stratum 7 a: Second Reconstruction Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 3 .2 .4 .3 . Comparable Domestic Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 3.2.4.4. Additional Features from Stratum 7 Area I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 3 .2 .5 . Complex E: Farmstead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 3 .2 .5 .1 . Considerations on Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 3 .2 .5 .2 . Room Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 3.2.5.3. Farmsteads in the Region of Israel and Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 VII 3 .2 .5 .4 . Farmyards and Projections – Architectural Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 3 .2 .5 .5 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 3 .2 .6 . Complex F: Building Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 4 . sTraTum 6 C, 6 b, 6 a: (early) roman Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 4.1. General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 4 .2 . Complexes Stratum 6 c: First Construction Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 4 .2 .1 . Complex D: Living Quarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 4 .2 .1 .1 . Stratum 6 b: First Reconstruction Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 4 .2 .1 .2 . Stratum 6 a: Second Reconstruction Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 4.2.1.3. Additional Contexts from Stratum 6 Area I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 4 .2 .1 .4 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 4 .2 .2 . Complex E: Farmstead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 4.2.2.1. Room Backfill E 1 – E 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 4 .2 .2 .2 . Reconstruction and Room Filling E 13 – E 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 4 .2 .2 .3 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4 .2 .3 . Complex F: Residential Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 4.2.3.1. Further Contexts from Stratum 6 Area II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 4 .2 .4 . Geomagnetic Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 4.3. Evaluation of Finds from Stratum 7 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 4 .3 .1 . Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 4.3.1.1. Distribution of Pottery Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 4.3.1.2. Repertoire of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 4 .3 .1 .3 . Pottery Wheels (Bearings) and Handmade Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 4 .3 .1 .4 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 4 .3 .2 . Metal Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 4.3.2.1. Distribution of Metal Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 4.3.2.2. Repertoire of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 4 .3 .2 .3 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 4 .3 .3 . Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 4 .3 .3 .1 . Herodian Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 4 .3 .3 .2 . Early Roman Imperial Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 4 .3 .3 .3 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 4 .3 .4 . Glass Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 4.3.4.1. Distribution of Glass Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 4.3.4.2. Repertoire of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 4 .3 .4 .3 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 4 .3 .5 . Animal Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 VIII 4.3.5.1. Distribution of Bone Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 4.3.5.2. Assessment of the Bone Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 4 .3 .5 .3 . Worked Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 4.3.5.4. A Falcon-headed Shell in the Style of the Tridacna Clams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 4 .3 .5 .5 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 4 .3 .6 . Stone Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 4.3.6.1. Distribution of Stone Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 4.3.6.2. Repertoire of Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 4 .3 .6 .3 . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 4 .3 .7 . Wall Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 4 .4 . Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 4.4.1. Features Relevant for Dating: Stratum 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 4.4.2. Features Relevant for Dating: Stratum 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 4.4.3. Summarising Consideration of the Dating Taking into Account the Evaluation of Finds . . 254 4.5. Overall Evaluation of Roman Strata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 5 . ConClusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 6. Plates and Catalogue of finds from tall Zirā‘a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 6.1. Catalogue of Selected Hellenistic Ceramic Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 6.2. Catalogue of Hellenistic Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 6.3. Catalogue of Selected Hellenistic Glass Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 6.4. Catalogue of Selected Metal Finds (Repertoire of forms, Stratum 8) (without plates) . 276 6.5. Catalogue of Selected Bone Finds (Stratum 8) (without plates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 6.6. Catalogue of Selected Stone Finds (Stratum 8) (without plates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 6.7. Catalogue of Selected Early Roman Ceramic Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 6.8. Catalogue of Selected Early Roman Ceramic Finds (without plates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 6.9. Catalogue of Early Roman Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 6.10. Catalogue of Middle and Late Roman Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 6.11. Catalogue of Indefinite Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 6.12. Catalogue of Roman Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 6.13. Catalogue of Selected Metal Finds (Repertoire of forms, Strata 7 and 6) (without plates) . 291 6.14. Catalogue of Selected Bone and Mollusc Finds (Stratum 7 and 6) (without plates) . . . 294 6.15. Catalogue of Selected Stone Finds (Strata 7 and 6) (without plates)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 6.16. Catalogue of Selected Wall Paintings (Strata 7 and 6) (without plates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 7 . bibliograPHy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 IX lisT of figures Figures of Preface and Introduction Fig. 0.1 Tall Zirā‘a, view from west to east . . 1 Fig. 0.2 Tall Zirā‘a and its geographic location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Fig. 0.3 Fig. 0.4 Fig. 0.5 Tall Zirā‘a. Topographical map with Areas I to III with 5 m x 5 m excavation squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Map of the Tall Zirā‘a area . . . . . . . . 3 Fig . 0 .6 Plan with squares in Area I . . . . . . . 12 Tall Zirā‘a with its three excavation areas and the artesian spring in 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Fig . 0 .7 Plan with squares in Area II . . . . . . 13 Fig . 0 .8 Plan with squares in Area III . . . . . . 13 Figures of Chapter 2 Fig. 2.1a Stratum 8, Area II, with find numbers and colour-coded complexes . . . . . 26 Fig. 2.1b Stratum 8, Area II, with overlying disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Fig. 2.2 Stratum 8, Area II, aerial view of the state of excavation in 2011 with the complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Fig. 2.3 Stratum 8, Area 1; with context numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Fig. 2.4 Complex A, Stratum 8, traces of habitation outside the fortified settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Fig. 2.5 Complex A 1, Stratum 8, Square AY 128: remains of the stone and clay wall of tabun 11416 . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Fig. 2.6 Complex A 1 / Complex A 2, Stratum 8, Square AY 129: wall 11172 . 30 Fig. 2.7 Complex A 2, Stratum 8, Square AY 129: cooking pot TZ 101524-006, from the second‒first century BC, in situ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Fig . 2 .8 Tabun 10768/10803 . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Fig. 2.9 Complex A 3, Stratum 8, Square AW 127: cooking site with Late Hellenistic-Early Roman cooking pot TZ 101236-001 in situ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Fig. 2.10 Complex A 1, Stratum 8, Square AX 129: collapse 11216 and 11280 . . . 32 Fig. 2.11 Complex B, Stratum 8, outer wall . 34 Fig. 2.12 Complex B, Stratum 8, Square AU/AV 126: double-faced wall construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Fig. 2.13 Complex B, Stratum 8, Square AV/AU 126: preserved height of the wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Fig. 2.14 Complex B, Stratum 8, individual wall sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Fig. 2.15 Complex B, Stratum 8, Square AU 127: row of ashlars placed in front of the complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Fig. 2.16 Complex B, Stratum 8, Square AV 132: eastern end of the wall . . . . . . 36 Fig. 2.17 Complex B, Stratum 8: location of tower 4062/4017 in Area I and Complex B, Area II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Fig. 2.18 Tower in Area I, Square AT 123: the hole from an illegal excavation in 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Fig. 2.19 Complex C, Stratum 8, residential development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Fig. 2.20 Complex C 1, Stratum 8, Square AU 126. Finds: No. 1: handle TZ 111652005, No. 2: knife blade TZ 112206001, No. 3: kantharos handle TZ 101533-028, No. 4: hook TZ 112194001, No. 5: knife blade TZ 112205001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Fig. 2.21 Complexes C 1, C 2 and C 4, Stratum 8, Square AS 126 . . . . . . . . 41 X Fig. 2.22 Complex C 3 and C 4, Stratum 8, Square AU 127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Fig. 2.23 Complex C 3, Stratum 8, Square AU 127: floor remains 11285 . . . . . . . . 42 Fig. 2.24 Complex C 3, Stratum 8, Square AU 127: unnumbered collapse . . . . . . . 42 Fig. 2.25 Complex C 4, Stratum 8, Square AU 128: eastern room wall 11063/11458 and entrance area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Fig. 2.26 Complex C 4/C 6, Stratum 8, Square AU 128: wall 11063/11458 in elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Fig. 2.27 Complex C 3 and C 5, Stratum 8, Square AU 128: wall 11474 . . . . . . 44 Fig. 2.28 Complex C 6, Stratum 8, Square AT 128/129: overlying disturbances . . . 44 Fig. 2.29 Complexes C 5, C 8 and C 9, Stratum 8, Square AU 129 . . . . . . . 45 Fig. 2.30 Complex C 8, Stratum 8, Square AU 130: tabun 10622/ 10623 . . . . . . . . 45 Fig. 2.31 Complexes C 6, C 9, C 10 and C 11, Stratum 8, Square AT 129/130 . . . . 46 Fig. 2.32 Complex C 11 and C 13, Stratum 8, Square AT 131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Fig. 2.33 Complex C 12, Stratum 8, Squares AU/AV 132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Fig. 2.34 Complex C 13, Stratum 8, Square AT 132: miniature jug TZ 101522002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Fig . 2 .35 Hellenistic courtyard house at Bethsaida, area plan B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Fig. 2.36 Merisha; general plan . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Fig. 2.37 Complex D, Stratum 8 . . . . . . . . . . 55 Fig. 2.38 Complex D 1 and C 12, Stratum 8, Square AU 132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Fig. 2.39 Complex D 1, D 2, D 3 and C 12, Stratum 8, Square AU 133 . . . . . . . 56 Fig. 2.40 Complex D 1, Stratum 8, Square AU 132: alcove in wall 10665 (arrow) . 57 Fig. 2.41 Complex D, Room D 3, Stratum 8, Square AU 134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Fig. 2.42 Complexes D 3 and D 4, Stratum 8, Square AT 134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Fig. 2.43 Complexes C 12, C 13 and D 1, Stratum 8, Square AU 132: collapse 11190 (single row, resting on soil) within Room C 12, probably belonging to wall 10665 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Fig. 2.44 Complexes B and D (red), Stratum 8: ascending side of the tall . . . . . . . . . .58 Fig. 2.45 Complexes D and B, Stratum 8, Square AV 132: area between the complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Fig. 2.46 Area I, Stratum 8, Square AR 121; Wall 6111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Fig. 2.47 Stratum 8; distribution of pottery finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Fig. 2.48 Terracotta head TZ 007430-001 . . . 65 Fig. 2.49 Stratum 8: distribution of metal finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Fig. 2.50 Elbow brooch TZ 112197-001; Stratum 8, Square AX 129, Context 10329 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Fig. 2.51 Drawing of elbow brooch TZ 112197001; Stratum 8, Square AX 129, Context 10329 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 Fig. 2.52 Cosmetic spatula TZ 112022-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a, also 06 c, b, a, Square AW 129, Context 11162 . . . 70 Fig. 2.53 Nail (hinge pin) TZ 002303-001; Stratum 3 b, a, Square AQ 119, Context 533 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Fig. 2.54 Nail TZ 001197-001 with round head; Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AM 119, Context 73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Fig. 2.55 Nail (hook) TZ 112212-001; Stratum 8, Square AW 128, Context 11295 . . 71 Fig. 2.56 Nail TZ 015370-001; Stratum 07 c, b; Square AW 129; Context 5272 . . . . 72 Fig. 2.57 Coins of the classical periods found at Tall Zirā‘a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Fig. 2.58 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 73 Fig. 2.59 Overview on the dating of the Hellenistic coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Fig. 2.60 Distribution of diagnostic glass finds from Stratum 8 in Area II . . . . . . . . 79 Fig. 2.61 Conical bowl TZ 110313-001; Stratum 6, and 5, Square AX 130, Context 10348 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 XI Fig. 2.62 Conical bowl TZ 110313-002; Stratum 6, and 5, Square AX 130, Context 10348 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Fig. 2.70 Rubbing stone TZ 112381-001; Stratum 8, Square AV 131, Context 11224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Fig. 2.63 Hemispherical bowl TZ 016699-003; Stratum 10, Square AR 121, Context 4936 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Fig. 2.71 Rubbing stone TZ 112466-001; Stratum 8, Square AU 132, Context 11202 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Fig. 2.64 Ovoid bowl TZ 016681-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AR 123, Context 4616 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Fig. 2.72 Rubbing stone TZ 112466-001; Stratum 8, Square AU 132, Context 11202 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Fig. 2.65 Decorated bowl TZ 010840-001; Stratum 3 b, a, Square AF/AG 115, Context 2517 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Fig. 2.73 Mortar TZ 111833-001; Stratum 8, Square AW 127, Context 11081 . . . 87 Fig. 2.66 Stratum 8, Area II: distribution of bone finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Fig. 2.67 Comparison of the number of bones by species and area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Fig. 2.68 Weaver’s spatula TZ 112242-001; Stratum 8, Square AW 128, Context 11295 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Fig. 2.69 Stratum 8, Area II; distribution of stone finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Fig. 2.74 Pedestal of a tripod bowl TZ 112367001; Stratum 8, Square AW 128, Context 11295 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Fig. 2.75 Pedestal of a tripod bowl TZ 112367001; Stratum 8, Square AW 128, Context 11295 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Fig. 2.76 Weight TZ 111311-001; Stratum 8, Square AW 127, Context 10758 . . . 88 Fig. 2.77 Whetstone or grindstone TZ 112696001; Stratum 8, Square AT 128, Context 11471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Figures of Chapter 3 Fig. 3.1 Stratum 7 c, Area I: showing context numbers and complexes . . . . . . . . . 95 Fig. 3.8 Complex A 2; Stratum 7 c, b, a; Square AP 120: channel 1030/1042 . 99 Fig. 3.2 Stratum 7 c, b, a, Area II: showing context numbers and complexes . . . 96 Fig. 3.9 Complex A 2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AP 120: channel 4560 . . . . . 99 Fig. 3.3 Complex A, Stratum 7 c, b, a: remains of a house with a pressing facility . . 97 Fig. 3.4 Complex A 1, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Squares AQ/AP 119: room walls and pit 2673 intersecting the feature with two fragments of lapis pedicinorum TZ 009889-001 / 002 (Context 2664) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Fig. 3.10 Complex A 2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AO 119: Hellenistic-Roman pottery from channel section 1030/ 1042 (Context 1029) . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Fig. 3.5 Complex A 2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AP 120: remains of an olive/ wine press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Fig. 3.6 Complex A 2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AP 120: Context 4248 and underneath it collapse 4559 . . . . . . 98 Fig. 3.7 Complex A 2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AP 120: collapse 4559 under 4248; right: part of TZ 014106001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Fig. 3.11 Complex A 2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AP 120, Context 4274: hinge stone TZ 013517-001; cuboid; round depression in the centre . . . . . . . . . 100 Fig. 3.12 Complex A 2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AP 119: floor 2684 . . . . . . 100 Fig. 3.13 Complex A 1/2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AQ 119: ‘make-up palette’ TZ 009893-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Fig. 3.14 Complex A 1/2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Squares AQ 119/ AP 120: lapis pedicinorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 XII Fig. 3.15 Complex A 1/2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Squares AQ 119/ AP 120: lapis pedicinorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Fig. 3.32 Complex D 3 and D 4, Stratum 7 c, Square AQ/AP 123: entrance in wall 4906 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Fig. 3.16 Floor plan of the house with wine press in Ḫirbat aš-Šūna aš-Šamalīyah; pressing room with stones weight lying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Fig. 3.33 Complex D 3, Stratum 7 c, Square AQ 123: stone-built oven 5273 at wall 5508 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Fig. 3.17 Ḫirbat aš-Šūna aš-Šamalīyah; pressing room; anchorage for the plenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Fig. 3.18 Ḫirbat aš-Šūna aš-Šamalīyah; pressing room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Fig. 3.19 Marisa; reconstructed pressing room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Fig. 3.20 Complex B, Stratum 7 c, b, a, remains of a house . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Fig. 3.21 Complex B 1, B 2 and B 3, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AM 119: Room B 1, worktop 76 embedded in the floor . . 107 Fig. 3.22 Complex B 1, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AM 119: fragment of the Olynthus mill TZ 001150-001 . . . 107 Fig. 3.23 Complex B 1, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AM 119: workstone 76 set into the floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Fig. 3.34 Complex D 3, Stratum 7 c, Square AR 123, Context 5189: plaster TZ 016359-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 Fig. 3.35 Complex D 4, D 5 and D 6, Stratum 7 c, Square AP 122/123: excavated features and assumed course of the wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Fig. 3.36 Complex D 5 and D 6, Stratum 7 c, Square AP 123, disturbance of Room D 6; top left: disturbance due to rebuilding in Stratum 7 a . . 115 Fig. 3.37 Complex D, Stratum 7 c, Square AP 121/122: silo 4417 . . . . . . . . . 116 Fig. 3.38 Complex D, Stratum 7 c, Square AP 121/122: silo 4417 top layer . . 116 Fig. 3.39 Complex D; Stratum 7 b; detail of the general plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Fig. 3.40 Complex D; Stratum 7 b; with elevation data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Fig. 3.24 Complex B 3, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AM 119: restored stone bowl TZ 001241-001 . . . . . . . . . . 107 Fig. 3.41 Complex D; Room D 2; Stratum 7 b; AQ 123; Floor remains 4908 / 5112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Fig. 3.25 Complex C; Stratum 7 c, b, a: remains of a house . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Fig. 3.42 Complex D, Room D 3, Stratum 7 b, AQ 123, Context 5116: limestone bowl fragments TZ 015385-001 / TZ 015386-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Fig. 3.26 Complex C 1 and C 2, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AE 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Fig. 3.27 Complex D, Stratum 7 c: remains of a house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Fig. 3.28 Complex D 1, Stratum 7 c, Square AR 123, Context 4765: Herodian oil lamp TZ 020490-001 . . . . . . . . 111 Fig. 3.29 Complexes D 1 and D 2, Stratum 7 c, Square AR 123: floors of the rooms in eastern profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Fig. 3.30 Complex D 1 and D 2, Stratum 7, Square AR 123: upper stonework and foundation of wall 4209 . . . . . 112 Fig. 3.31 Complex D 2, Stratum 7 c, Square AR 123: wall corner 4343 and 4 209 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Fig. 3.43 Complex D, Room D 3, Stratum 7 b, AQ 123, Context 5116: reconstructed limestone bowl TZ 015385- 001 / TZ 015386-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Fig. 3.44 Complex D, Room D 3, Stratum 7 b, AQ 123, Context 5116: weight TZ 015683-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Fig. 3.45 Complex D; Room D 3; Stratum 7 b; AQ 123; TZ 015446-001; Miniature loom weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Fig. 3.46 Complex D, Room D 4, Stratum 7 b, Context 5092: location of oil lamp TZ 020223-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 XIII Fig. 3.47 Complex D, Room D 4, Stratum 7 b, Context 5092: oil lamp TZ 020223001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Fig. 3.64 Complex A/D, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AR 122, Context 4045 with loom weights in situ . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Fig. 3.48 Complex D, Room D 4, Stratum 7 b, Context 5092: TZ 015780-001 . . . 122 Fig. 3.65 Complex A/D, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AR 122: loom weights . . . 133 Fig. 3.49 Complex D, Stratum 7 a, Area I: with context numbers and colourcoded complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Fig. 3.66 Complex A/D, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AQ 120, Context 3410: TZ 011780-001/ 002, TZ 011781-001/ 002 and TZ 011782-001 . . . . . . . . 134 Fig. 3.50 Complex D, Stratum 7 a: with elevation data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Fig. 3.51 Complex D 3, Stratum 7 a, Square AQ 123, Context 5024: limestone tile TZ 015985-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Fig. 3.52 Complex D 3, Stratum 7 a, Square AQ 123, Context 5024: limestone tile TZ 015985-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Fig. 3.53 Complex D 3; Stratum 7 a; Square AQ 123; Context 5024; Limestone bowl TZ 017234-001 . . . . . . . . . . 126 Fig. 3.54 Complex D 3, Stratum 7 a, Square AQ 123, Context 5024: limestone cup TZ 017235-001 . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Fig. 3.55 Complex D 3, Stratum 7 a, Square AQ 123, Context 5024: metal finds: fittings and nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Fig. 3.56 Complex D 5, Stratum 7 a, Square AP 123: reconstruction phase . . . . 127 Fig. 3.57 Complex D 5, Stratum 7 a, Square AP 123: installation 4996/4994 . . 127 Fig. 3.58 Complex D 5, Stratum 7 a, Square AP 123: worked stone TZ 015982001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Fig. 3.59 Complex D 5, Stratum 7 a, Square AP 122: tabun 4806/4807 . . . . . . . 128 Fig. 3.60 Complex D 5, Stratum 7 a, Square AP 122: cooking pot TZ 006802002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Fig. 3.61 Rȧmat Rȧḥẹl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Fig. 3.62 Complex A/D, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AR 121:‘column base’ TZ 018179-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Fig. 3.63 Complex A/D, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AR 123, Context 4262: tip of dagger TZ 015171-001 . . . . . . . 132 Fig. 3.67 Complex E, Stratum 7, Excavation Areas I and II, in 2012. Complex E (reconstructed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Fig. 3.68 Complex E, Stratum 7: architectural remains of the farmstead . . . . . . . . 137 Fig. 3.69 Complex E, Stratum 7: excavation contexts with disturbances by Stratum 6 and Stratum 4; (Early) Roman disturbance (Stratum 6) only in AY 130, AX 130, AX 132 . . . . . . . 137 Fig. 3.70 Complex E, Stratum 7: excavation contexts with disturbances by Stratum 6 and Stratum 4 . . . . . . . . 139 Fig. 3.71 Complex E 1, Stratum 7, Square AW 126: wall 11049; view of the western profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Fig. 3.72 Complex E 2, Stratum 7, Square AV 126: remains of pavement 10853 and uppermost layer of wall 11049 . . . 140 Fig. 3.73 Complexes E 3 and E 5, Stratum 7, Square AV/AU 127: ashlar within wall 11143; Hellenistic repurposing . . . .141 Fig. 3.74 Complexes E 3 and E 5, Stratum 7, Square AU 127: wall 11143; the incorporation into the Hellenistic wall (Stratum 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Fig. 3.75 Complexes E 3 and E 5, Square AU 127: wall 11143 . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Fig. 3.76 Complex E, Stratum 7, Squares AU 127 and AW 132: snail shells (Vineyard snail) from pits 11323 and 11375 in Room E 5 (left) and E 20 (right) . . 143 Fig. 3.77 Complexes E 9 and E 6, Stratum 7, Square AY 127: surrounding disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Fig. 3.78 Complexes E 6 and E 7, Stratum 7, Square AX 126/127: double wall . . 143 XIV Fig. 3.79 Complexes E 2, E 3, E 7, E 8 and E 10 , Stratum 7, Squares AW/AV 127/128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Fig. 3.80 Complexes E 9, E 11 and E 13, Stratum 7, Square AX 128: wall corner 11391/11419 under the disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Fig. 3.81 Complex E 12, Stratum 7, Square AX 128: lowest position of wall corner 11328/ 11329 . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Fig. 3.82 Complex E 12, Stratum 7, Square AY 128: wall 11400 . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Fig. 3.86 Complex E 13; Stratum 7; Square AW 128: tabun 10078 in profile . . 149 Fig. 3.87 Complexes E 13, E 14 and E 17, Stratum 7, Square AY 129: wall corner 10219 and 10229 . . . . . . . . 152 Fig. 3.88 Complex E 17, Stratum 7, Square AY 129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Fig. 3.89 Complexes E 19, E 21 and E 22, Stratum 7, Square AX 131 . . . . . . 153 Fig. 3.90 Complex E 20, Stratum 7, Square AX/AW 132: walls and modification from Stratum 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Fig. 3.83 Complexes E 12, E 13 and E 14, Stratum 7, Square AX/ AY 128: wall corner 11328 and 11329 . . . . 148 Fig. 3.91 View from Room E 6 to Gadara . . 155 Fig. 3.84 Complex E 13, Stratum 7, Square AX 129: part of the preserved clay wall from 11160 in the southern profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Fig . 3 .93 Hirbet Basatin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Fig. 3.85 Complex E 13, Stratum 7, Square AX 129: tabun layer . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Fig. 3.92 Um-Rīhan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Fig . 3 .94 Madalic Adasi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Fig. 3.95 Complex F. Stratum 7 c, b, a . . . . . 169 Fig. 3.96 Complex F 1, Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AS 132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Figures of Chapter 4 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6 Stratum 6 c, Area I, with context numbers as well as colour-coded Complexes D (green) and D 6 (purple) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Stratum 6 c, b, a; Area II, with feature numbers and colour-coded Complexes E (orange) and F (turquoise) and overlying disturbances . . . . . . . 173 Complex D, Stratum 6 c, new building: Complex D (green) and extension D or new Complex D 6 (pink) . . . . . 174 Complex D, Stratum 6 c: aerial photograph, spring 2009 . . . . . . . . 175 Complex D 1 and D 2, Stratum 6 c, b, a, Squares AR/AQ 123: new constructions on top of the building with continuing usage from Stratum 7 (green) and newly added walls from Stratum 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Complex D 2, Stratum 6 c: the three walls, 4616, 4343 and 4344, built side by side are clearly visible . . . 175 Fig. 4.7 Complex D 2, Stratum 6 c, b, a: continued use and new construction of wall 4343 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Fig. 4.8 Complexes D 2 and D 3, Stratum 6 c, Square AQ 123: pavement 4870 runs under the wall from Stratum 6 b . . 176 Fig. 4.9 Complexes D 4 (and D 5), Stratum 6 c, Square AP 123: the western end of walls 4702 and 4667 . . . . . . . . . 177 Fig. 4.10 Complex D 4, Stratum 6 c, b, Square AP 123: staircase 4856 in wall 4330 / 5027 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Fig. 4.11 Complex D 5, Stratum 6, Square AP 123: tabun 4638/ 4639 with three phases of use . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Fig. 4.12 Complex D 6, Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Fig. 4.13 Complex D, Stratum 6 b: part of the general plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Fig. 4.14 Complex D, Stratum 6 b, with elevation data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 XV Fig. 4.15 Complexes D 2 and D 3, Square AQ 123, Stratum 6 b: newly laid clay floor 4789 and wall 4631 . . . . . . . 183 Fig. 4.32 Tip of a knife blade TZ 111389-001; Stratum 6, Square AV 126, Context 10851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Fig. 4.16 Complexes D 2 and D 3, Stratum 6 b, Square 123: new room layout with the covered-over wall 4788 . 183 Fig. 4.33 Gold-coloured glass fragments TZ 111805-001; Stratum 6, Square AU 126, Context 11013 . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Fig. 4.17 Complex D 4, Stratum 6 b, Square AP 123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Fig. 4.34 Bracelet TZ 112320-001; Stratum 6, Square AU 127, Context 11246 . . 196 Fig. 4.18 Stratum 6 a, Area I, with context numbers and colour-coded Complexes D and D 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Fig. 4.35 Cast residue TZ 112175-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AU 127, Context 11310 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Fig. 4.19 Complex D; Stratum 6 a; with elevation data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Fig. 4.36 Complex C 3 and C 5, Stratum 8, Square AU 128: wall 11474 . . . . . 199 Fig. 4.20 Complex D, Stratum 6 a, Square AP 123: reconstruction within Room D 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Fig. 4.37 Complex E 17, Stratum 6, Square AY 129: installation of walls 10461/10470 into wall 10229 (also Stratum 7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Fig. 4.21 Complex D, Stratum 6 a, Square AP 123: reconstruction within Room D 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Fig. 4.38 Complex E 18, Stratum 6, Square AY 130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Fig. 4.22 Metal bracelet TZ 009732-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AQ 119, Context 2631 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Fig. 4.39 Complexes E 20, E 25 and E 26, Stratum 6, Squares AX 131/132 and AW 132: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Fig. 4.23 Stone weight TZ 006934-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AO 119, Context 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Fig . 4 .40 Geomagnetic plan (detail) together with the plans of Area I (Complex D) and II (Complex E) Stratum 6 . . . . 210 Fig. 4.24 Writing tablet (?) TZ 007083-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AN 119, Context 822 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Fig. 4.41 Strata 7 and 6, Area I: distribution of pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Fig. 4.25 Spindle whorl TZ 013375-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AR 123, Context 4181 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Fig. 4.26 Bead TZ 014632-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AQ 123, Context 4681 . . 189 Fig. 4.27 Loom weight TZ 014095-001; Stratum 6 a, Square AP 121, Context 4431 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Fig. 4.28 Eye bead TZ 015310-001; Stratum 6 a, Square AT 123, Context 5350 . . 190 Fig. 4.29 Beads TZ 013253-001; Stratum 6 a, Square AS 122, Context 4232 . . . . 191 Fig. 4.30 Architectural element (?) TZ 009890001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AP 118, Context/Find 2669 . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Fig. 4.31 Complex E, Stratum 6, with elevation data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Fig. 4.42 Strata 7 and 6, Area II: distribution of pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Fig. 4.43 Bowl TZ 003149-002; Stratum 3 b, a, Square AG 115, Context 1659 . . . 214 Fig. 4.44 Terra Sigillata TZ 100048-007; Stratum 4 c, b, a, also Stratum 3 b, a, Square AW 128, Context 10041 . . 214 Fig. 4.45 Herodian oil lamp TZ 101204-033; Stratum 5, Square AT 132, Context 10927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Fig. 4.46 Mould-made lamp TZ 101658-001; Strata 4 to 2, Square AT 132, Context 11390 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Fig. 4.47 Bearing of a potter’s wheel TZ 111630-001; Strata 7 and 6 (between Complex E and F), Square AT 129, Context 11034 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Fig. 4.48 Misfired specimens; Room E 13, Stratum 7 and 6, Square AW 129 . . 217 XVI Fig. 4.49 Lifespans of pottery groups from Tall Zirāʿa relating to Strata 7 and 6 . . 218 Fig. 4.50 Stratum 7: distribution of metal finds in Areas I and II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Fig. 4.51 Stratum 6: distribution of metal finds in Areas I and II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Fig. 4.52 Finger ring TZ 015302-001; Stratum 7 b, Context 5270 . . . . . . 221 Fig. 4.53 Bead / pendant TZ 012513-001; Stratum 7, Context 3410 . . . . . . . . 221 Fig. 4.54 Garment pin TZ 014299-001001; Stratum 7, Context 4274 . . . . . . . . 221 Fig. 4.70 Distribution of the glass finds (only diagnostic sherds) in Areas I and II in Strata 7 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Fig. 4.71 Stratum 7: distribution of glass finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Fig. 4.72 Stratum 6: distribution of glass finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Fig. 4.73 Ribbed mould-made bowl TZ 016727-001; Strata 13 and 12, Square AQ 122, Context 5101 . . . 229 Fig. 4.74 Ribbed mould-made bowl TZ 111816-001; Strata 6 and 5, Square AT 128, Context 1104 . . . . . . . . . . 229 Fig. 4.55 Tweezers TZ 111384-001001; Strata 5 and 4c, Context 10733 . . . 221 Fig. 4.75 Linear cut bowl TZ 016748-001 . . 229 Fig. 4.56 Spatula TZ 017252-001; Stratum 7 b, Context 5187 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Fig. 4.76 Linear cut bowl TZ 016684-001 . . 229 Fig. 4.77 Beaker TZ 111765-001 . . . . . . . . . 230 Fig. 4.57 Latch-lifter key TZ 015269-001; Stratum 7 a, Context 5113 . . . . . . 222 Fig. 4.78 Balsamarium TZ 111801-001 . . . . 230 Fig. 4.58 Fitting TZ 017255-001; Stratum 7 c, Context 5189 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Fig. 4.59 Hook TZ 017304-001; Stratum 7 a, Feature 5522 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Fig. 4.60 Knife blade TZ 015373-001; Stratum 7 a, Context 5113 . . . . . . 222 Fig. 4.61 Fishing net weight TZ 017258-001; Stratum 7 c, Context 5189 . . . . . . 222 Fig. 4.62 Elbow brooch TZ 111559-001; Stratum 6, Context 11017 . . . . . . . 223 Fig. 4.63 Bracelet TZ 015198-001; Stratum 6 a, Context 4742 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Fig. 4.64 Mirror fragment TZ 110531-001; Stratum 6; Context 10310 . . . . . . . 223 Fig. 4.65 Mirror fragment TZ 112181-001; Stratum 6, Context 11327 . . . . . . . 223 Fig. 4.66 Sickle TZ 112223-001; Stratum 6 (also 5, 4), Context 11226 . . . . . . . 224 Fig. 4.67 Needle TZ 111609-001; Strata 7 and 6, Context 11014 . . . . . . . . . . 224 Fig. 4.68 Key TZ 110496-001 with five teeth; Stratum 6, Context 10407 . . . . . . . 224 Fig. 4.69 Distribution of glass finds (incl. all indeterminate finds) in Areas I and II in Strata 7 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Fig. 4.79 Comparison of number of bones by species and area; Strata 7 and 6 . . 233 Fig. 4.80 Bone needle TZ 016613-001; Stratum 6 c, Square AQ 123, Context 4988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Fig. 4.81 Bone needle TZ 017205-001; Stratum 6 c, Square AQ 123, Context 4788 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Fig. 4.82 Bone needle TZ 017206-001; Stratum 6 c, Square AQ 123, Context 4941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Fig. 4.83 Bone needle TZ 017207-001; Stratum 7 a, Square AQ 123, Context 5070 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Fig. 4.84 Bone needle TZ 112241-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AU 127, Context 11284 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Fig. 4.85 Spatulae; No. 1: TZ 017208- 001, No. 2: TZ 017209-001, No. 3: TZ 017211-001, No. 4: TZ 017213-001, No. 5: TZ 17212- 012 und No. 6: TZ 017210; Stratum 7 b, Square AQ 123, Context 5116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Fig. 4.86 Spatula TZ 016619-001; Stratum 7 a, Square AP 123, Context 4999 . . . . 235 Fig. 4.87 Spatula TZ 016620-001; Stratum 7 c, b, Square AP 123, Context 5155 . 235 Fig. 4.88 Spatula TZ 01945-001; Stratum 7 c, Square AQ 123, Context 5201 . . . 235 XVII Fig. 4.89 Weaver’s shuttle TZ 019543-001; Stratum 7 b; Square AP 123; Context 5095 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Fig. 4.105 Grinding stone TZ 015591-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AE 114, Context 5304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Fig. 4.90 Spindle shaft TZ 017202-001; Stratum 7 c, Square AQ 123, Context 5201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Fig. 4.106 Bowl with pedestal TZ 111684-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a, also 6 c, b, a, Square AX 126, Context 10831 . . . . . . . . 242 Fig. 4.91 Spindle whorl TZ 016617-001; Stratum 6, Square AQ 123, Context 4789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Fig. 4.107 Bowl with pedestal TZ 111684-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a, also 6 c, b, a, Square AX 126, Context 10831 . . . . . . . . 242 Fig. 4.92 Spindle whorl TZ 017203-001; Stratum 7 c, Square AQ 123, Context 5201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Fig. 4.108 Stone stopper TZ 013542- 001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AR 123, Context 4181 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Fig. 4.93 TZ 016614-001; Stratum 7 c, b; Square AP 123, Context 5095; two matching fragments of a wedgeshaped object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Fig. 4.109 Mug with handle TZ 015388- 001; Stratum 10, Square AQ 122, Context 4737 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Fig. 4.94 Falcon-headed shell TZ 016456-001; Stratum 7 a, Square AQ 123, Context 5070 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Fig. 4.95 Falcon-headed shell TZ 016456-001; Stratum 7 a, Square AQ 123, Context 5070 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Fig. 4.96 Distribution of stone finds in Area I in Strata 7 and 6 within Complexes A, B, C and D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Fig. 4.97 Distribution of the stone finds in Area II in Strata 7 and 6 within Complexes E and F . . . . . . . . . . . . .239 Fig. 4.98 Proportion by type of stone (with reference to chippings/tools) . . . . . 240 Fig. 4.99 Proportion by type of stone (without reference to chippings/tools) . . . . . 240 Fig. 4.100 Rubbing stone TZ 110841-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AW 132, Context 10604 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Fig. 4.101 Rubbing stone TZ 016061-001; Stratum 6 b, Square AP 123, Context 4770 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Fig. 4.102 Hammer stone TZ 111739-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AX 126, Context 10883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Fig. 4.103 Mortar bowl TZ 110157-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a, also 6 c, b, a, 5, Square AW 128, Feature 10069 . . 241 Fig. 4.104 Quern TZ 111699-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AX 126, Context 10883 . . 241 Fig. 4.110 Bowl TZ 015948-001; Stratum 7 c, Square AQ 123, Context 5206 . . . 242 Fig. 4.111 Plate TZ 010833-001; Stratum 7 a, Square AL 118, Context 1503 . . . . 242 Fig. 4.112 Vessel TZ 019513-001; Stratum 7 b, Square AP 123, Context 5095 . . . . 242 Fig. 4.113 Distribution of limestone vessels Stratum 8 Hellenistic to 6 (Early) Roman; Area I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Fig. 4.114 Part of the tesserae finds from Areas I and II; Strata 7 and 6 . . . . . . . . . 243 Fig. 4.115 Marble tile TZ 112712-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a also 6 c, b, a, Square AU 130, Context 11449 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Fig. 4.116 Marble tile TZ 110839-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AW 132, Context 10559 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Fig. 4.117 Spindle whorl TZ 015332-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AR 121, Context 5522 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Fig. 4.118 Stone weight TZ 111686-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AX 126, Context 10831 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Fig. 4.119 Casting mould TZ 112153-001 (front); Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AY 128, Context 11337 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Fig. 4.120 Drawing of the mould TZ 112153001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Fig. 4.121 Casting mould TZ 112153-001 (side, backside); Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AY 128, Context 11337 . . . . . . . . . 245 XVIII Fig. 4.122 Mould for earrings and pendants from City of David, Area H; ceramic . . 245 Fig. 4.123 Column drum TZ 111671-001; Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AS 123, Context 11020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Fig. 4.124 Column drum TZ 111689-001; Stratum 7 c, b, a also 6 c, b, ab Square AW 127b Context 10740 . . . . . . . 246 Fig. 4.125 Door socket stone TZ 015363-001 from wall 4906; Stratum 7 c, b, a, Square AP 123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Fig. 4.126 Wall painting TZ 016352-001; Stratum 6 a, Square AP 123, Context 4766 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Fig. 4.127 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (1); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Fig. 4.128 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (11); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Fig. 4.129 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (39); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Fig. 4.130 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (13); Stratum 6 c, b, a; Square AT 128; Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Fig. 4.131 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (9); Stratum 6 c, b, a; Square AT 128; Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Fig. 4.132 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (10); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Fig. 4.133 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (6); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Fig. 4.134 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (4); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 4.135 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (1); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 4.136 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (5); Stratum 6 c, b, a; Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 4.137 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (23); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 4.138 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (12); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 4.139 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (2, 3); Stratum 6 c, b, a, Square AT 128, Context 10625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 4.140 Fragments of wall paintings from a residential house on the south-western slope of the acropolis at Gadara . . 251 Fig. 4.141 Stratum 7, Area II, Complex E: location of finds relevant to dating . 253 Figure of Chapter 5 Fig. 5.1 General overview of the strata and areas covered in this volume . . . . . 260 Figures of Chapter 6 Fig. 6.1 Epheasian Plate TZ 101031-002 . . 263 Fig. 6.8 Cooking pot TZ 100294-006 . . . . 265 Fig. 6.2 Kantharos TZ 101533-028 . . . . . . 263 Fig. 6.9 Amphora TZ 005761-013 . . . . . . . 266 Fig. 6.3 Kantharos TZ 006023-041 . . . . . . 264 Fig. 6.10 Amphoriskos TZ 021571-001 . . . . 266 Fig. 6.4 Bowl TZ 101531-043 . . . . . . . . . . 264 Fig. 6.11 Juglet TZ 020062-041 . . . . . . . . . . 267 Fig. 6.5 Plate TZ 101511-028 . . . . . . . . . . 264 Fig. 6.12 Small pot TZ 020184-007 . . . . . . . 267 Fig. 6.6 Jug TZ 101282-019 . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Fig. 6.13 Oil lamp TZ 020720-007 . . . . . . . 267 Fig. 6.7 Casserole TZ 100608-003 . . . . . . . 265 Fig. 6.14 Oil lamp TZ 100344-001 . . . . . . . 267 XIX Fig. 6.15 Bowl TZ 111479-001 . . . . . . . . . . 275 Fig. 6.24 Table amphora TZ 100642-013 . . 281 Fig. 6.16 Bowl TZ 010045-001 . . . . . . . . . . 276 Fig. 6.25 Jug TZ 100216-029 . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Fig. 6.17 Mirror TZ 112182-001 . . . . . . . . . 277 Fig. 6.26 Jug TZ 100624-001 . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Fig. 6.18 Key TZ 111382-001 . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Fig. 6.27 Pithos TZ 100528-002 . . . . . . . . . 282 Fig. 6.19 Plate TZ 005197-008 . . . . . . . . . . 279 Fig. 6.28 Pithos TZ 020223-010 . . . . . . . . . 283 Fig. 6.20 Bowl TZ 005815-005 . . . . . . . . . . 279 Fig. 6.29 Amphoriskos TZ 021571-001 . . . . 283 Fig. 6.21 Bowl TZ 006790-099 . . . . . . . . . . 279 Fig. 6.30 Oil lamp TZ 100279-001 . . . . . . . 284 Fig. 6.22 Bowl TZ 101439-007 . . . . . . . . . . 280 Fig. 6.31 Wall painting TZ 110869-002 (13, 12, 11, 10, 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Fig. 6.23 Bowl TZ 100822-001 . . . . . . . . . . 280 XX lisT of Tables Tables of Introduction Tab. 0.1 Example of context table . . . . . . . . 14 Tab. 0.2 Example of table with detailed registration of contexts and finds . . 14 Table of Chapter 1 Tab. 1.1 Overview of the eras covered in this volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Tables of Chapter 2 Tab. 3.7 Contexts within Complex D; Stratum 7 a (surrounding features such as Stratum 7 c) . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Tab. 3.8 Contexts between the complexes; Stratum 7 c, b, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Tab. 3.9 Contexts within Complex E, Stratum 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Tab. 3.10 Contexts within Complex F; Stratum 7 c, b, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Tables of Chapter 4 Tab. 4.1 Correlation table for Area I and II for Stratum 6 (Early) Roman . . . . 171 Tab. 4.2 Contexts within Complex D, Stratum 6 c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Tab. 4.3 Contexts within Complex D, Stratum 6 b (surrounding features such as 6 c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Contexts within Complex D, Stratum 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Tab. 4.4 Contexts within Complex D; Stratum 6 a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Tab. 2.5 Contexts within Area I, Stratum 8 . . 61 Tab. 4.5 Tab. 2.6 Overview of the bones found in Stratum 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Contexts outside Complex D, Stratum 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Tab. 4.6 Tab. 2.7 Overview of the stone objects found in Stratum 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Contexts within Complex E, Stratum 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Tab. 4.7 Contexts within Complex F, Stratum 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Tab . 4 .8 Additional contexts in Area II Stratum 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Tab. 4.9 Overview of the bones found in Strata 7 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Tab. 2.1 Contexts within Complex A, Stratum 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Tab. 2.2 Contexts within Complex B, Stratum 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Tab. 2.3 Contexts within Complex C, Stratum 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Tab. 2.4 Tables of Chapter 3 Tab. 3.1 Table of correlations Area I and II for Stratum 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Tab. 3.2 Contexts within Complex A; Stratum 7 c, b, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Tab. 3.3 Contexts within Complex B, Stratum 7 c, b, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Tab. 3.4 Contexts within Complex C, Stratum 7 c, b, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Tab. 3.5 Contexts within Complex D, Stratum 7 c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Tab. 3.6 Contexts within Complex D, Stratum 7 b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Tab. 4.10 Distribution of limestone vessels in all strata; Areas I and II . . . . . . . 243 Tab. 4.11 Overview of the stone finds and types of stone in Strata 7 and 6; Areas I and II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Tab. 4.12 Dating of Strata 7 and 6 . . . . . . . . . 254 XXI lisT of PlaTes Pl. 1 Hellenistic pottery from Tall Zirā‘a – imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Pl. 16 Roman pottery from Tall Zirā‘a – imports, table wares . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Pl. 2 Hellenistic pottery from Tall Zirā‘a – table wares, cooking vessels . . . . . 306 Pl. 17 Pl. 3 Hellenistic pottery from Tall Zirā‘a – everyday vessels, vessels for personal use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Roman pottery from Tall Zirā‘a – table wares, cooking vessels, everyday vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Pl. 18 Pl. 4 Hellenistic pottery from Tall Zirā‘a – vessels for personal use, oil lamps . . 310 Roman pottery from Tall Zirā‘a – everyday vessels,vessels for personal use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Pl. 19 Pl. 5 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 312 Roman pottery from Tall Zirā‘a – oil lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Pl. 6 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 314 Pl. 20 Pl. 7 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 316 Roman terracotta figurines from Tall Zirā‘a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Pl. 8 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 318 Pl. 21 Pl. 9 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 320 Early Roman coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Pl. 10 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 322 Pl. 22 Middle-Late Roman coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Pl. 11 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 324 Pl. 23 Unspecified coins from Tall Zirā‘a . 348 Pl. 12 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 326 Pl. 24 Unspecified coins from Tall Zirā‘a . 350 Pl. 13 Hellenistic coins from Tall Zirā‘a . . 328 Pl. 25 Unspecified coins from Tall Zirā‘a . 352 Pl. 14 Hellenistic glass from Tall Zirā‘a . . 330 Pl. 26 Roman glass from Tall Zirā‘a . . . . 354 Pl. 15 Hellenistic glass from Tall Zirā‘a . . 332 XXII lisT of abbreviaTions Abbreviated Journals, Series and Collective Works AA AASOR ADAJ AfO AJA ANRW AnSt AntTard AST BAR BASOR Bjb CBRL DNP IEJ IstMitt JBL Archäologischer Anzeiger The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan Archiv für Orientforschung American Journal of Archaeology Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt Anatolian Studies Antiquité tardive . Revue internationale d’histoire et d’archéologie Araştırma Sonuçları Toplantısı Biblical Archaeological Review Bulletin of American School of Oriental Research Bonner Jahrbücher des Rheinischen Landesmuseums in Bonn Council for British Research in the Levant Bulletin Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopädie der Antike Israel Exploration Journal Istanbuler Mitteilungen Journal of Biblical Literature JNES JNSL Journal of Near Eastern Studies Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology Levant Levant. Journal of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem and the British Institute at Amman for Archaeology and History MAA Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry NEA Near Eastern Archaeology NEAEHL New Encyclopaedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly RE Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft SHAJ Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan TIB Tabula Imperii Byzantini TMA Tijdschrift voor Mediterrane archeologie ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina Vereins Abbreviated Coin Literature BMC Crete Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum; Greek Coins of Crete and the Aegean Islands CSE I Corpus speculorum Etruscorum I RIC VI The Roman Imperial Coinage VI RPC I Roman Republican Coinage I Rouvier Numismatique des Villes de la Phénicie SC I Seleucid Coins I SC II Seleucid Coins II SNG Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, BlackBlackburn burn Museum SNG Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Danish Kopenhagen National Museum SNG Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Israel I, Spaer Arnold Spaer Collection XXIII Abbreviated Ancient Authors and Works Cato agr. Colum. Dan. Jos. Ant. Jud. Bell. Jud. vita Cato, de agri cultura Columella; rei rusticae libri duodecim Book of Daniel Josephos (Flavius Josephus), antiquitates Judaicae Josephos (Flavius Josephus), bellum Judaicum Josephos (Flavius Josephus), de sua vita Plin. nat. Pol. Ptol. geogr. 1. Macc. 2. Macc. Mk. Mt. Strab. Vitr. Plinius maior, De naturalis historia Polybios, historiae Claudius Ptolemaeus, geographia 1. Book of the Maccabees 2. Book of the Maccabees Gospel of Mark Gospel of Matthew Strabo, geographica Vitruvius, de architectura General Abbreviations BAI Biblical Archaeological Wuppertal Institute DoA Department of Antiquities of Jordan GPIA German Protestant Institute of Archaeology Abbreviations used in the Catalogues D Diameter Obv . Obverse g gram rem remaining H Height Rev . Reverse h hour (position of stamp on coins) Th Thickness L Length W Width Fig. 0.1 Tall Zirā‘a, view from west to east (Source APAAME D. Kennedy 2011). PrefaCe by D. Vieweger/J. Häser When the German engineer G . Schumacher explored Transjordan in 1885, he discovered among other sites, Tall Zirā‘a1 (Fig. 0.1). He was the first European since the time of the Crusaders to enter this region. However, after thousands of years of prosperity, the valley had changed significantly during the Ottoman Period . The bedouins told Schumacher that the wādī had degenerated into a “popular shelter for all sorts of refugees and criminal scum” . Except for a few sugar mills that were operated by water power, there were only a few small hamlets. A water flow of about 0.75 m3 per second flowed through the Wādī al-‘Arab in June 1885, and 1 Schumacher 1890, 110. 142 f. Schumacher visited Tall Zirā‘a and described remains of rectangular buildings. His observations are published by Steuernagel 1926, 81. the Wādī az-Zaḥar added the same amount of spring water . C . Steuernagel wrote: “Where the valley widens and the water becomes shallow, there are large numbers of trout that are easy to catch. Once while bathing, Schumacher saw a black water snake, almost a metre long. These are said to be very common here and are highly dreaded”2. The archaeologist N. Glueck visited Tall Zirā‘a in 1942 . He reported the “singularly imposing and completely isolated hill of Tall Zera‘ah (...)”3 and mentioned a water source on the plateau of the tall as the 2 3 Steuernagel 1926, 80. Citation is given in English translation; cf. also Schumacher 1890, 142 f. For Schumacher’s travels see in general: Schumacher 1886 . Glueck 1951a, 182 Fig. 71. 2 D . Vieweger/J . Häser “result of a natural siphon phenomenon leading the underground flow of the water from the higher level of the hills beyond down to below the bottom and, as through a pipe piercing its center, up to the top of Tall Zera‘ah”. Although the tall4 had already attracted attention due to its location and imposing appearance, no intensive research was conducted at that time, because of the hill’s location close to the border of Israel to the west and Syria to the north . During the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 and again during the Six-Day War in 1967, the western part of the Wādī al-‘Arab was declared a military zone. A passage which had been open in all directions for millennia was thus essentially cut off from sections of its surroundings. The territory around Gadara and the Wādī al-‘Arab, in the triangle between Jordan, Syria and Israel, became the northwesternmost corner of the Hashemite Kingdom, and there was not even a paved road to the tall . Even the construction of the Wādī al-‘Arab Dam in 1978 did not make a significant difference to the status quo . The archaeologists who surveyed the area prior to the dam’s construction as part of salvage investigations did not appreciate the archaeological potential of the tall that majestically overlooked the future reservoir. Some more time passed before the ratification of the Oslo Peace Accords in 1993, but it was not until after the peace treaty between Jordan and Israel, signed by King Hussein and Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin on October 26, 1994, that the area became accessible to the public again. D. Vieweger, director of the Biblical Archaeological Institute Wuppertal (BAI), and, since 2005, also of the German Protestant Institute of Archaeology (GPIA), traveled to the northwestern part of Jordan several times between 1998 and 2000, exploring the area for a suitable tall site that would serve as authoritative chronological record for the region’s long and important cultural history. He found it in the Wādī al-‘Arab. Tall Zirā‘a—located in the middle of the Wādī al-‘Arab (Fig. 0.2 and Fig. 0.3)—was continuously inhabited for at least 5,000 years and offers a unique insight into the way of life of the region’s people. Its outstanding archaeological significance results from the artesian spring at its center, which created optimal settlement conditions over thousands of years. For this reason, Tall Zirā‘a offers a great opportunity to compile a comparative stratigraphy for northern Jordan from the Early Bronze Age right through to the Islamic period, while at the same time tracing cultural developments in urban life, crafts and religious history over long periods of time. Moreover, it is possible to study the numerous remains from Biblical times in a broad cultural and historical context . As mentioned earlier, a major trade route ran through the valley, connecting Egypt in the south with the Syrian-Mesopotamian region in the north. The Wādī al-‘Arab also connects the Jordan Valley with the Mediterranean coast via the northern Jordan ford at Ǧisr el-Maǧami‘ (Gešer Naharajim), and the plains of Jezreel and Tall al-Ḥiṣn (Beth Shean) with the eastern Jordanian highlands. It was possible to climb from the Jordan valley, at some 290 m below sea level, to the fertile and very early populated Irbid-Ramtha basin, which lies around 560 m above sea level. Direct routes led from the Irbid-Ramtha basin to Dimašq (Damascus) in the north, Baġdād in the east and Amman in the south. Since the Yarmūk valley in the north and the Wādī Ziqlāb in the south are too steep and narrow to serve as major transportation routes, the Wādī al-‘Arab played a prominent geopolitical role. Not surprisingly, economic success and the hard work of residents over the millennia have left a wealth of traces in the valley. More than 200 sites of human habitation, from the very earliest settlements to the Islamic Period, provide an eloquent testimony to the history of this region: Settlements, channels, water mills, cisterns, oil presses, wine presses, watchtowers and burial sites . Tall Zirā‘a offered good living conditions for a settlement; the artesian spring ensured an unfailing water supply, and the hill provided security. The tall rises impressively (depending on the direction) between 22–45 m above the ground . As the only prominent natural elevation in the lower Wādī al-‘Arab, Tall Zirā‘a dominates the valley. From here, not only Gadara can be seen, but also the narrow entrance of the wādī to the west can be well monitored. The adjacent fertile wādī ensured adequate nourishment, with potentially arable land in the western and central valleys, terraced slopes and spurs suitable for rainfed agriculture in the east, and wādī slopes suitable for grazing small livestock, forming a broad semicircle from east and south to the west. Based on his observations, D. Vieweger 4 The Arabic word ‘tell’ or ‘tall’ as well as the Hebrew word ‘tel’ will be written in this publication in the standard literary Arab version ‘tall’ or ‘Tall NN’. Preface Fig. 0.3 Fig. 0.2 Map of the Tall Zirā‘a area (Source: BAI/GPIA; P. Leiverkus). Tall Zirā‘a and its geographic location (Source: Ababsa 2013, Fig. 1). decided to implement preliminary investigations here from 1998 to 2000. The ‘Gadara Region Project’ was launched in 2001 by the Biblical Archaeological Institute (BAI) in Wuppertal, Germany. During the first survey season, the surface of Tall Zirā‘a was explored, the tall was accurately surveyed, and more than 24,000 pottery sherds and many other finds were systematically collected and analyzed5. The results of the survey helped to formulate the objectives of the excavation program and to select suitable areas (residential, religious, administrative and craft production) for investigation . The first excavation season on the tall took place in 2003. The first team was financed by the ‘Society of Friends of the BAI Wuppertal’ and traveled under the direction D . Vieweger with a Volkswagen bus from Wuppertal via Turkey and Syria to Amman. A house of the Ottoman period in the Gadara/ Umm Qēs archaeological site served as living and working quarters, which was in a very poor condition at that time, but was sympathetically renovated and equipped with modern sanitary facilities and kitchens in the following seasons. The results of the first season were so promising that the ‘Gadara Region Project’ was inaugurated, with a planned time frame of ten to twenty years. Over the course of the subsequent 18 seasons, 25 strata were uncovered in three areas and several scientific processes and archaeological experiments were carried out; surveys were also completed for the area around Tall Zirā‘a and in the Wādī al-‘Arab. The slopes of the Wādī al-‘Arab from Tall Zirā‘a upward to the region of Ṣēdūr and Dōqara, as well as the region around the Wādī al-‘Arab dam, were surveyed in 2009; large parts of this region had not previously studied in detail. 78 sites, 30 of which were previously unknown, were documented. The environmental survey continued in 2010 in the region of Dōqara, which is near Irbid; 57 sites were documented at that time . In 2004, the BAI Wuppertal under the directorship of D. Vieweger, and the German Protestant 5 Vieweger et al. 2017, 59–155; Vieweger et al. 2003, 191– 216 . 3 4 D . Vieweger/J . Häser Institute of Archaeology (GPIA) in Amman which also served as the research unit for the German Archaeological Institute (DAI), under the directorship of J. Häser, agreed on a close partnership, which ensured ongoing archaeological and interdisciplinary collaboration for the remainder of the archaeological seasons. The subsequent directors of the GPIA in Amman, F. Kenkel, K. Schmidt and B. Jansen, agreed to continue this cooperation . In 2018, excavations in Area II resumed under the direction of K. Schmidt with a special focus on the Iron Age. The results of the 2018 and 2019 campaigns have been published in a printed and an online version6 . All finds were stored at the excavation house in Umm Qēs. Some of the more important finds were exported to the Biblical Archaeological Institute Wuppertal (BAI) and restored by M . Blana; they were returned to the Department of Antiquities of Jordan in several stages, with the last ones returning to Jordan in spring 2015. More than 50 objects discovered during the project are on display in the Jordan Museum in Amman. In July 2019, a special exhibition titled ‘Tall Zirā‘a – Mirror of Jordan’s History’ opened at the Jordan Museum in Amman, displaying 84 finds from Tall Zirā‘a that attest to the cult and religion, arts and crafts, and cultural contacts of the people at this site over thousands of years7. In 2020, the exhibition was also presented at the Museum of Jordanian Heritage at the Yarmouk University in Irbid. The results of the excavations have been presented in the form of articles in several scientific journals as well as monographs and dissertations8 . In addition, the Tall Zirā‘a website provides information in German and English about current activities on and around the tall9. After 18 intensive seasons exploring the tall and its surrounding, it was decided to interrupt excavation and survey activities in order to publish a complete record of the results so 6 7 8 9 10 11 Schmidt (ed .) 2022 . Häser – Schmidt (eds .) 2019 . For a complete list of the publications concerning the ‘Gadara Region Project’ cf. <http://www .tallziraa .de/Publikationen/0335 .html> (10 .12 .2022) . Cf. www.tallziraa.de Several authors in: Vieweger – Häser (eds .) 2017 . Vieweger 2019 . far. To this end, it was decided that work from 2012 onward would consist of study seasons in the excavation house at Umm Qēs to process the data and results gathered to date . The following volumes of the final publication are already published or planned: Volume 1: Introduction10 Volume 2: Early and Middle Bronze Age (Strata 25–17)11 Volume 3: Late Bronze Age (Strata 16–14)12 Volume 4: Iron Age and Persian Period (Strata 13–9)13 Volume 5: Hellenistic and Roman Period (Strata 8–6) Volume 6: Hellenistic to Umayyad Period (Strata 8–3). Ceramic, Glass and Metal Finds14 Volume 7: Byzantine and Umayyad Period (Strata 5–3)15 Volume 8.1/8.2: Wādī al-‘Arab Survey16 Volume 9: The Iron Age, Hellenistic and Early Roman Period in Area II17 All volumes will be or have been already published online in English, in order to make the results available free of charge and to a wide audience. The online publication also allows the integration of 3D-images, reconstructions and digital films. Furthermore, original data from the excavations, such as plans and database extracts, are included. These additional documents are published in German18; however, they will be understandable to anyone with some knowledge of the German language and allow professional researchers to access the primary data . The printed version of the publication can be ordered from Gütersloh Verlag in Germany. Volumes 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8.1/8.2 and 9 have already been published . General comments on the systems and processes used in the publications follow: 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Soennecken 2022 . Soennecken in prep . Kenkel 2020; Hoss 2020a; Hoss 2020b. Häser 2024 . Soennecken – Leiverkus 2021 . Schmidt (ed .) 2022 . Cf. the appendices to the present volume. Preface The Palestine Grid 1923 is the basis for the geographic grid system used for the project. It was first used in the autumn 2001 for 5 m x 5 m squares on Tall Zirā‘a, for both excavation and survey work19 . ● The citation style is based on the guidelines of the German Archaeological Institute (DAI), but has been adapted to the conventions of English language publications. ● In order to minimize misunderstandings, the problem of transliterating Arabic and Hebrew words into English orthography with Latin letters for local place and family names is solved with by the transcription system of the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, which is based on the guidelines of TAVO (Tübinger Bibelatlas des Vorderen Orients) . ● In this publication, the name of the site is called Tall Zirā‘a . Other transcriptions include Tell Zer‘ah (MEGA Jordan; Jadis; Kerestes et al. 1977/1978; Glueck 1951a; Glueck 1951b); Tell Zer‘a (Reicke – Rost 1979); Tell Zara‘a/ Tell Zara‘a (Schumacher 1890; Steuernagel 1926); Tell Zira‘a (Hanbury-Tenison 1984), Tall Zar‘a (AAJ, SHAJ). ● All dimensions in the catalogues and in the captions are in cm unless otherwise stated . 19 Cf. Vieweger – Häser (eds.) 2017, 235–237 for the grid system used on Tall Zirā‘a. 5 6 D . Vieweger/J . Häser Bibliography Ababsa 2013 Kenkel 2020 M. Ababsa, General Introduction, in: M. Ababsa (ed.) Atlas of Jordan (Amman 2013) 24–28 <https:// books.openedition.org/ifpo/docannexe/image/ 4852/img-1.jpg> (12.12.2022) F. Kenkel, The Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Pottery, in: D. Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011) Final Report Volume 6 Hellenistic to Umayyad Period (Strata 8–3) Ceramic, Glass and Metal Finds (Gütersloh 2020) 15–225, and online <https:// www .tallziraa .de/Endpublikation//1_472 .html> (05 .05 .2022) Glueck 1951a N. Glueck, Explorations in the Eastern Palestine IV. Part I, AASOR 25–28 (New Haven 1951) Glueck 1951b N. Glueck, Explorations in the Eastern Palestine IV. Part II, AASOR 25–28 (New Haven 1951) Häser 2024 J. Häser, Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 7 Byzantine to Umayyad Period (Gütersloh 2024), and online <https://www .tallziraa .de/Endpublikation> Häser – Schmidt (eds .) 2019 J. Häser – K. Schmidt (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – Mirror of Jordan’s History (Amman/Berlin 2019) Hanbury-Tenison 1984 J. W. Hanbury-Tenison, Exploration du Wadi elArab. Chronique archéologique, RB 91, 1984, 230–231 Hoss 2020a S. Hoss, The Hellenistic to Umayyad Glass Finds, in: D. Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011) Final Report Volume 6 Hellenistic to Umayyad Period (Strata 8–3) Ceramic, Glass and Metal Finds (Gütersloh 2020) 227–391, and online <https://www.tallziraa. de/Endpublikation//1_472 .html> (29 .04 .2021) Hoss 2020b S. Hoss, The Hellenistic to Islamic Metal Finds, in: D. Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011) Final Report Volume 6 Hellenistic to Umayyad Period (Strata 8–3) Ceramic, Glass and Metal Finds (Gütersloh 2020) 393–431, and online <https://www.tallziraa. de/Endpublikation//1_472 .html> (05 .05 .2022) Kerestes et al . 1977/1978 T. M. Kerestes – J. M. Lundquist – B. G. Wood – K. Yassine, An Archaeological Survey of Three Reservoir Areas in Northern Jordan 1978, AAJ 22, 1977/1978, 108–135 Reicke – Rost 1979 B. Reicke – L. Rost, Biblisch-Historisches Handwörterbuch 4. Register und historisch-archäologische Karte Palästinas (Göttingen 1979) Schmidt (ed .) 2022 K . Schmidt (ed .) with contributions by H . Blitte – H.-M. Jakubik – B. Jansen – A. Lichtenberger – B. Meller, L. Olsvig-Whittaker – K. Schmidt – F. Schöpf – B. Schröder – S. Shammas – B. Springer-Ferazin – E. Strothenke-Koch, Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 9 The 2018 and 2019 Excavation Seasons: The Iron Age, Hellenistic and Early Roman Period in Area II (Gütersloh 2022) Schumacher 1886 G. Schumacher, Across the Jordan (London 1886) Schumacher 1890 G. Schumacher, Northern ‘Ajlûn ‘Within the Decapolis’ (London 1890) Soennecken – Leiverkus 2021 K. Soennecken – P. Leiverkus, Tall Zirā‘a . The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 8.1 and 8.2, Wādī al-‘Arab Survey (Gütersloh 2021), and online <https://www.tallziraa.de/ Endpublikation//1_481 .html> (05 .05 .2022) Preface Soennecken 2022 Vieweger – Häser (eds .) 2017 K. Soennecken, Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 3 Late Bronze Age (Gütersloh 2022), and online <https:// www.tallziraa.de/Final-publication/Volume-2/1_ 483 .html> (10 .12 .2022) D . Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a . The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 1 Introduction (Gütersloh 2017), and online <http://www .tallziraa .de/Endpublikation//1_472 . html> (10 .12 .2022) Soennecken in prep . Vieweger – Häser (eds .) 2019 K. Soennecken, Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 4 Iron Age and Persian Period (Gütersloh) Steuernagel 1926 D . Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 2 Early and Middle Bronze Age (Gütersloh 2019), and online <https://www.tallziraa.de/ Final-publication/Volume-2/1_476.html> (10.12.2022) C. Steuernagel, Der ‘Adschlūn, ZDPV 49, 1926, 1–162 Vieweger – Häser (eds .) 2020 Vieweger 2019 D. Vieweger, Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 2 Early and Middle Bronze Age (Gütersloh 2019), and online <https:// www.tallziraa.de/Final-publication/Volume-2/1_ 476 .html> (10 .12 .2022) D . Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 6 Hellenistic to Umayyad Period (Strata 8–3) Ceramic, Glass and Metal Finds (Gütersloh 2020), and online <https://www.tallziraa.de/Final-publication/ Volume-6/1_477.html> (10.12.2022) Vieweger – Häser (eds .) 2021 D. Vieweger, unter Mitarbeit von J. Eichner und P. Leiverkus, Der Tell Zera‘a im Wādī el-‘Arab. Die Region südlich von Gadara, Das Altertum 48, 2003, 191–216 D . Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report 8.1 and 8.2, Wādī al-‘Arab Survey (Gütersloh 2021), and online <https://www.tallziraa.de/Endpublikation//1_481 .html> (10 .12 .2022) Vieweger et al . 2017 Vieweger – Häser (eds .) 2022 D. Vieweger – J. Häser – P. Leiverkus – G. Bongartz – G. Bülow – J. Große Frericks – D. Biedermann – A . Rauen – K . Rassmann – S . Reiter – K . Soennecken – L. Olsvig-Whittaker – D. Adan-Bayewitz, Scientific Methods, in: D. Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report Volume 1 Introduction (Gütersloh 2017) 157–232, and online <http://www. tallziraa.de/data-file-bai/docs/final_publication/ V-I_3._Scientific_Methods.pdf> (10.12.2022) D . Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011), Final Report 3 Late Bronze Age (Gütersloh 2022), and online <https:// www.tallziraa.de/Final-publication/Volume2/1_483 .html> (10 .12 .2022) Vieweger et al . 2003 7 aCknowledgemenTs The present Volume 5 of the Tall Zirā‘a final reports is based on my doctoral thesis finished in 2020. This work would never have been possible without a lot of support. My sincere thanks go first to my supervisors. Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. h. c. Dieter Vieweger warmly accepted me in the excavation team of Tall Zirā‘a and after that as a staff member at the Biblical Archaeological Institute in Wuppertal . He made it possible for me to travel through Jordan for the first time so I could enjoy its rich archaeological heritage. My fascination continues to this day and will surely inspire me to many more travels. Prof. Dr . Angelika Geyer on the other hand has accompanied me throughout my studies at the University of Jena. Her lectures, seminars and excursions had contributed significantly to my enthusiasm for the subject. I thank her deeply for her constant encouragement, her helpful hints and the expedient discussions over the years . I thank Prof. Vieweger for financing this volume and his work as editor in cooperation with Dr. Jutta Häser. Thanks go also to Isabelle Ruben for the English translation and Frank Zimmer for the typesetting . I am also grateful to the head of the excavation of Tall Zirā‘a in Area II, Dr. Jutta Häser and the editor of the pre-classic strata, Dr. Katja Soennecken, both of them, always had an open ear for my questions and thoughts even when it took hours to take a close look at every little detail with me . In the many years of work on the evaluation of the excavation I was lucky receiving lots of support. I am aware that many people have contributed to this work, to whom I would also like to express my gratitude: Marianne Voigt-Werling for her support in creating the architectural plans, Patrick Leiverkus for solving computer and database problems, Prof. Dr. Norbert Benecke for the evaluation of the bone finds, Dr. Andrea Schwermer for the determination of pre-classical pottery, Dr. Stefanie Hoss for evaluating the glass and metal finds, Dr. Karsten Dahmen for identifying the coins, Hans-Martin Jakubik for the processing of the stone finds, the restorers Matthias Blana, Beatrice Lindig and Naif Zaban, Prof. Dr. Achim Lichtenberger and Prof. Dr. Armin Eich for the constructive debates before publication as well as Antje Cassel and Anke Laderick for their incredible patience when picking out every find, no matter how small . I also thank Imran and Ferial Melkawi for always making me feel at home during my time in Umm Qēs. I will never forget the entire wonderful Tall Zirā‘a team, our enriching conversations, long days of excavation, and exciting trips through the country . Special thanks to my fellow student and dearest friend Kristin Oswald, who not only tirelessly read and critically evaluated my work, but also gave me courage over the long period of production, listened to every idea and patiently endured every mood . The same applies to Dr. Frauke Kenkel, who has accompanied me since my first day in Jordan and her processing of the classic ceramics had also made a significant contribution to my work. Furthermore, special thanks go to Dr. Matthias Edel, Cathrin Palm, Dr. Mareike Rind, Dr. Andrea Gropp, Anna Dremel, Jennifer Busch and countless other people who supported me in different ways over the years! I thank you a lot . This work would also not been possible without the approval of a scholarship from the Hugo Gressmann Foundation and two scholarships from the German Academic Exchange Service for my research stays in Jordan and Israel! The scholarships gave me not only the opportunity to work on this thesis, but also shaped me personally . The new people and the cultural impressions are irreplaceable and will accompany me for a long time. Finally, I would like to thank my family, who always had a lot of understanding for my grueling leisure activity, the long stays abroad and always willingly supported me . Thank you very much! Susan Schütz inTroduCTion by S. Schütz/J. Häser The present volume of the Tall Zirā‘a Final Reports contains the results of the excavations of the Hellenistic to Roman strata, i.e. Strata 8 to 6, which were carried out under the direction of D. Vieweger and J. Häser. So far on Tall Zirāʿa, three areas (I–III) have been opened in a total excavation area of about 3000 m2 (Fig. 0.4 and Fig. 0.5)1 . All areas serving different aims. In Area I we explored residential areas, specifically the living quarters and working areas of the tall’s artisans (Fig. 0.6). In Area II we focused primarily on administrative buildings (Fig. 0.7), and in Area III on a prestigious building from the (Roman-) Byzantine era (Fig. 0.8) . The Hellenistic and Roman strata were reached out in all areas, but mainly in Area I and II, which are the focus in this work. The architectural remains of the Hellenistic period (Stratum 8) were found only in Area I and II. They represent a fortified structure and agricultural installations. So far, no architectural features of Hellenistic date were found in Area III. However, finds like Hasmonean coins—although found in later strata—might be a hint to occupational remains of the Hellenistic period in this area too. Architectural remains of the Roman period (Strata 7 and 6) were found in all three excavated areas. The main feature was a Roman villa in Area II with associated agricultural installations in Area I. The large vaulted structure that was found in Area III was surely used as a cistern at some time but it is questionable if this was its original purpose2 . Volume 5 is based on the excavation results from 2001 to 2011. The descriptions of the individual strata follow the same scheme used already in Volumes 2,3, 4, 5 and 7 of the Tall Zirā‘a final reports: 1) A short comprehensive introduction and an overall map of the area to include the context numbers and complex names . The individual context categories (walls, floors, pits etc.) are colour-coded. The complexes are labelled by capitals (A, B, C etc.) from north to south and from west to east . 2) Description of the individual complexes. First the complex is roughly described, naming the squares it covers . Fig. 0.4 Tall Zirā‘a with its three excavation areas and the artesian spring in 2011 (Source: APAAME, D. Kennedy). Fig. 0.5 Tall Zirā‘a. Topographical map with Areas I to III with 5 m × 5 m excavation squares (Source: BAI/ GPIA) . 1 2 Vieweger – Häser 2017a, 27–57; Vieweger – Häser 2017b, 235–266 . Vieweger – Häser 2017a, 19 and Fig. 1.11; Häser 2024, 69–72 . 12 S. Schütz/J. Häser Fig . 0 .6 3) Description of the individual rooms, which are labelled by numbers (A 1, A 2 etc.), again from north to south and from west to east. A room constitutes an enclosed area and can be either an interior space or a yard . a) In this description, the rooms’ boundaries as well as the architecture in their respective area (walls) are characterized. Unless stated otherwise, wherever the term “wall” appears in the text, it means the foundation of a wall. These generally consist of several layers of stone. b) Next, installations are described, (i.e. finds that are neither a wall nor fill layer and were used to serve a specific everyday purpose) such as stoves, silos, etc. The “context” denotes a coherent area (i .e . a find context within one square, usually a wall, Plan with squares in Area I (Source: BAI/GPIA) . an installation, a stove, soil or a floor). In some cases, a find was given a context number, however, this documentation practice was common only during the first years of excavation3 . c) These are followed by the fill layers that can be attributed to a specific room. It can either be a fill layer between two floor levels, collapse debris of the roof or the walls, a floor, paving, or an area that was intentionally levelled when a new stratum was created . Since these can only occasionally be positively differentiated, the term “fill layer” was chosen and, if possible, further specified in the text. The fill layers lying above 3 Context numbers in Area I consist of one to four digits, in Area II of five digits (starting with 10000). Introduction 225305 211830 225305 211855 AY 127 AY 128 AY 129 AY 130 AY 131 AX 126 AX 127 AX 128 AX 129 AX 130 AX 131 AX 132 AW 126 AW 127 AW 128 AW 129 AW 130 AW 131 AW 132 225185 211820 2006 2007 2008 2009 225300 211825 225185 211825 2007 2008 2014 AA 125 Z 125 AW 133 Y 125 225170 211810 AV 126 AV 127 AV 128 AV 129 AV 130 AV 131 AV 132 AV 133 225285 211870 AU 126 AT 127 AU 128 AU 129 AU 130 AU 131 AU 132 AU 133 AU 134 AT 126 AU 127 AT 128 AT 129 AT 130 AT 131 AT 132 AT 133 AT 134 AS 126 AS 127 AS 128 AS 129 AS 130 AS 131 AS 132 AS 133 AS 134 225270 211825 AR 132 AR 133 AR 134 225265 211855 Fig . 0 .7 225150 211810 Plan with squares in Area II (Source: BAI/GPIA) . a stratum’s floors are also included as the finds enclosed belong to this stratum . Fill layers illustrate the downside of continuous settlement and frequently, a clear distinction between individual phases or strata are impossible, and only the finds contained within the fill layers give evidence of a transition from one stratum to the next. Likewise, many pits of younger strata disturb the contexts of older ones. d) Next, selected or relevant finds are described. Finds are labelled with a six-digit number with the prefix “TZ” and a three-digit extension (e.g. TZ 001234-001). In an appendix, all finds of a specific stratum are listed and briefly described in catalogues which are subdivided into catalogues of metal, glass, stone, worked bone, ceramics. Finds are described in the context of the stratum where they were discovered, even if they might be dated to an earlier or later period . 4) The description of a complex is rounded off, if possible, by a reconstruction and an overall interpretation of the complex. 5) At the end of the description of each complex, there is a short table listing all contexts pertaining to this complex (Tab. 0.1) . This is a condensed version of the detailed table of contexts (Tab. 0.2) and only states whether there are any finds in any particular context. The finds are categorized into artefacts, which are objects processed or made by humans, and ecofacts, such as organic material, components of the natural environment, e.g., unworked animal bones. The artefacts are once more subdivided into 225170 211840 X 123 X 124 X 125 X 126 X 127 X 128 W 123 W 124 W 125 W 126 W 127 W 128 V 123 V 124 V 125 V 126 V 127 V 128 U 123 U 124 U 125 U 126 U 127 U 28 225150 211840 225265 211870 Fig . 0 .8 Plan with squares in Area III (Source: BAI/GPIA) ceramics and small finds. The column of the ceramics only lists the diagnostic finds (such as rim sherds or decorated sherds) and no body sherds . The bone finds often lack a description and a definite number since their state of preservation frequently rendered them both uncountable and indescribable . When evaluating the bone finds, only the definable ones were taken into account . Flint objects are given the general term “flint/tool” in the tables. At the end of each subchapter, a short interpretive overall description of the respective stratum is given. This addresses the stratum’s pattern of settlement, its architecture, notable complexes, crafts and trade, unusual small finds, ceramics and bones. 13 14 S. Schütz/J. Häser Context Square Description/Interpretation Complex Pottery Others 3271 AR 120 loose sediment with cobbles A2 ✓ ✓ – 3280 AR 120 sandy, loose sediment A2 ✓ ✓ ✓ 3294 AR 120 remains of clay wall and stone foundation of tabun A2 ✓ – ✓ 3307 AR 120 debris A2 – – – Tab. 0.1 Artefacts Ecofacts Example of context table (Source: BAI/GPIA). Befund Quadrant Komplex Beschreibung Bemerkung Interpretation 5 AM 118 D4 Trockenmauer aus Feldsteinen und Spolien Stratum 05 auch 04 a.b.c.03 a.b Mauer Material Fundnr. Ansprache Anzahl Warengruppe Bemerkung Typologie Keramik 20621 Deckel 1 WM C Buff MB SB EZ Bauchscherbe Flasche 1 WM C Buff MB SB EZ Henkel mit Randlippe Flasche/ Krug 1 WM C Buff MB SB EZ Henkel Kochtopf 1 CP 5 MB Kochtopf 1 CP 5 MB Randlippe Krug 1 HM R2B FB Boden Krug 1 WM C Buff MB SB EZ Bauchscherbe mit Henkelansatz Krug 1 WM C Buff MB Randlippe Krug 2 WM C R2B MB SB EZ Bauchscherbe mit Henkelansatz Schale 1 WM C Buff MB SB EZ Randlippe Schale 1 WM C R2B MB Randlippe 8 Tab. 0.2 AL 117 D 5/6 Trockenmauer aus Feldsteinen Datierung Dekor Reliefdekor Stratum 05 auch 04 a.b.c.03 a.b Example of table with detailed registration of contexts and finds (Source: BAI/GPIA). Kt MB 1b Mauer Typ Bauchscherbe --- Introduction Bibliography Häser 2024 Vieweger – Häser 2017b Bzyantine to Umayyad Period, Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011) Final Report 7 (Gütersloh 2024) D. Vieweger – J. Häser, Framework of Archaeology Work on Tall Zirā‘a, in: D. Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011) Final Report 1 (Gütersloh 2017) 235– 266 and online <http://www.tallziraa.de/data-file-bai/ docs/final_publication/V-I_4._Framework_of_ Archaeological_works_on_Tall_Ziraa.pdf> (10 .12 .2022) Vieweger – Häser 2017a The ‘Gadara Region Project’/Tall Zirā‘a, in: D. Vieweger – J. Häser (eds.), Tall Zirā‘a – The Gadara Region Project (2001–2011) Final Report 1 (Gütersloh 2017) 13–57 and online <https://www .tallziraa . de/data-file-bai/docs/final_publication/V-I_1._ The_Gadara_Region_Project.pdf> (10 .12 .2022) 15