(PDF) Understanding social relations through settlement vs cemetery records. Late Bronze Age social (in)equalities in the case o

Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Quaternary International journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint Understanding social relations through settlement vs cemetery records. Late T Bronze Age social (in)equalities in the case of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Brina Škvor Jernejčiča,∗, Petra Vojakovićb a University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Department of Archaeology, Slovenia b Arhej d.o.o., Sevnica, Slovenia 1. Introduction activities taking place within the settlement as well as the activities, management and life in individual buildings or households. The set- New perspectives about Late Bronze Age social relations and (in) tlement grid, the structure and size of the buildings, the settlement equalities can be gained using different methodologies and different items and the social roles of households also indirectly reflect the social approaches from various research and scientific fields. Especially for structure, relations, and interactions of the prehistoric community. non-literate societies, the identification, reconstruction, and under- Studying the funerary contexts from the associated necropolis advances standing of social relations and interactions among individuals as well this knowledge: the anthropological data reveal the age and sex of the as within various social groups (e.g., families, kin, regional commu- deceased, the analysis of the funerary practices illuminates the beliefs nities, etc.) poses a methodological challenge to prehistoric archae- of the living, while the analysis of the attire (combinations of grave- ology. Our approach is based on combining the traditional analysis of goods) indicates the gender and age, the social standing and roles of architecture and material culture with statistical and anthropological individuals, and their membership in particular families or clans, all of data, gained with recent research on the Late Bronze Age Ljubljana. which brings us closer to understanding the social relations in the Late However, we do not intend to give an overview on the social relations Bronze Age. in general, but rather to tender new considerations and insights into the processes of transformation of the Late Bronze Age societies and their 2. Reading the settlement records from the Tribuna site in (in)equalities at Ljubljana. Ljubljana We observed the social relations by conducting a complementary study that considers both the settlement and cemetery records and thus Settlements offer a good insight into the social relations and social offers a more comprehensive understanding of the topic. Ljubljana, the (in)equalities of the prehistoric population living in an area, with the capital city of Slovenia, has provided one of the crucial archaeological supposition that they can, to a certain degree, reveal social structures records for understanding the prehistoric communities in the south- (e.g. Gilman, 1981; Hofmann, 2012, pp. 183–196; Müller et al., 2015).1 eastern Alpine region at the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 1st Ljubljana, more precisely the strategically positioned settlement on the millennium BC. Recent archaeological investigations at Tribuna un- hill of Grajski hrib (Fig. 1: 4), was populated from the middle of the earthed relatively large parts of a Late Bronze Age settlement on the second millennium BC onwards (Puš, 1973, pp. 12–13; Puš, 1992, p. 18; right bank of the Ljubljanica River, while the more or less con- Vičič, 1990, p. 178; Horvat, 1991, pp. 232–233; Vojaković, 2013, pp. temporaneous cemetery on the left riverbank at Dvorišče SAZU was 341–344, 354–355; Vojaković, 2014a, pp. 66–67),2 though our analysis excavated and initially published in the second half of the 20th century focuses on the records from the more recent excavations at Tribuna, but was recently re-evaluated. As already mentioned, the contribution which is a site located at the foot of Grajski hrib and next to the below examines the area from two perspectives: the world of the living Ljubljanica River, in the Prule area of Ljubljana (Fig. 1: 9).3 The dis- and that of the dead. An analysis of the settlement contexts from cussion below offers a detailed presentation of the first/earliest building Tribuna provides insight into the life of the prehistoric inhabitants – phase dating to Ha A2/B1 (mid-11th to the first half of the 10th century their organisation and use of space, changes thereof over time, the BC) and of the second phase dating to Ha B1–B2 (first half of the 10th to Corresponding author. ∗ E-mail address:

(B. Škvor Jernejčič). 1 See also the article by Mihovilić, Teržan, Toškan, Achino in this volume. 2 The earliest traces of human activities at Ljubljana, dating to Bd D/Ha A1, are the settlement on Grajski hrib, which was fortified with an earthen rampart, and a reinforced embankment of the former bed of the Ljubljanica River excavated at Prule (Vojaković, 2013, pp. 344–350, 354–355; Žerjal et al., 2014). 3 The Tribuna settlement was discussed in the doctoral thesis of one of the authors of this article (Vojaković, 2013). A brief overview of some of the results can be found in Vojaković (2014a); Vojaković (2014b). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.12.033 Received 13 March 2018; Received in revised form 2 December 2018; Accepted 31 December 2018 Available online 10 January 2019 1040-6182/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Fig. 1. Different Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age locations at Ljubljana. Settlement records: 1 – Slovenska and Čopova ulica; 2 – Kongresni trg and Park Zvezda; 3 – Kopitarjeva and Streliška ulica; 4 – Grajski hrib; 7 – Gornji and Stari trg; 9 – Tribuna; 10 – Prule area; 12 – Golovec. Cemetery records: 2 – Kongresni trg and Park Zvezda; 5 – Dvorišče SAZU, Auersperg Palace, NUK (National and University Library) and Novi trg; 6 – NUK 2; 8 – St. Florian church; 11 – area near Karlovški most (after: Vojaković 2013, 341–359; Škvor Jernejčič 2014b, 363–366, fig. 22.1.2). the end of the 10th century BC).4 Recent archaeological investigations buildings were furnished with hearths; Buildings 11, 12 = 13 and 18 have shown that the settlement on Grajski hrib first expanded in Ha A2/ even had a hearth in every room (Fig. 2; Table 1). Buildings in the B1, in the 11th century BC (Vojaković, 2013, pp. 354–359; Vojaković, western part were smaller, with one or two rooms, had an orientation 2014a, p. 67). At the southern foot of the hill, in the areas of Prule and that differed from the buildings in the eastern part with the exception of Gornji/Stari trg, a settlement developed along a road that presumably Building 8, and were built using earthfast post, post-pad, and combined led to the Dolenjska region and, at least to the extent revealed by the methods. Hearths were only documented in the larger, two-room Tribuna site, according to a preconceived and well-organised plan buildings (Fig. 2; Table 1). (Figs. 1 and 2). The settlement grid consisted of the main road, as well As for the small finds (Table 1), nearly all buildings in the eastern as the perpendicular and parallel streets (or/and squares) leading from part yielded an almost complete set of household items in each of the it and separating buildings of rectangular plans and an orientation with rooms,7 which comprises serving, cooking and storage ware, as well as a roughly 30° deviation from true north. In this regard, the Tribuna cooking utensils.8 In the western part, such complete sets are known settlement differs markedly from the known settlements of the same, Ha from Buildings 1, 3, 6 and 19 that had no hearths and were earthfast A date in the surrounding areas and regions.5 The closest parallel, albeit post constructions, as well as in Building 8, which was furnished with a of a Ha B date, is the settlement at Ormož some 100 km to the northeast, hearth and was a post-pad construction.9 The most common tools are which also had a carefully planned layout with buildings, of rectangular ceramic spindle whorls (Fig. 2; Table 2), recovered in both parts of the plans and furnished with hearths, which were constructed in rows and settlement. Building 12 = 13 also revealed a stone mould that was in separated by paved surfaces (Lamut, 1987, pp. 46–57; Lamut, 1988–89, repeated use and heavily burnt through. Numerous loom weights came pp. 235–247; Lamut, 2001, pp. 207–242; Dular, 2013, pp. 90–94; Dular, to light in Building 11 in the eastern part. Three iron objects (Table 2; Tomanič Jevremov, 2010). Figs. 5 and 6) are also associated with Building Phase 1: an iron punch/ Over time, the settlement grid at Tribuna changed and with it the chisel found in the first surface layer (SU 2858; Fig. 5: 12) of Road 1, as position, length, and orientation of the streets and buildings (Figs. 2 and well as an iron nail and an amorphous piece from Square 3 (SU 3297 3), though it retained a distinction between the eastern and western and SU 4248; Fig. 5: 23–24). Since Tribuna is a complex multi-period parts. In the eastern part, the settlement grid was dictated by Road 2, site and the iron slag is attested only from Phase 2 onwards (Fig. 6), we perpendicular to Road 1 in the northern side of the excavation area, cannot exclude the possibility that these three iron objects represent with multi-room buildings of a NE-SW orientation constructed parallel infiltrated finds. with Road 2 and the stream that divided the settlement into two parts. The western part shows a more regular grid of parallel and perpendi- cular streets with small, one-to two-room buildings in between. (footnote continued) The excavated remains allow us to propose possible interpretations stone, clay or wood (post-pad construction), with the corner timbering tech- of the use and organisation of the buildings by comparing the methods nique and in a combination of earthfast post and post-pad techniques (Dular, of construction, internal layouts and household items from the first two 2008b, p. 340; Vojaković, 2013, pp. 300–305). building phases. In Phase 1, dating from the mid-11th to the first half of 7 With the exception of Buildings 15, 12 = 13 (Room B), 17 (Rooms B and C) the 10th century BC, long, multi-room buildings in the eastern part of and 18 (Room C), which only contained serving and cooking/storage ware, but the settlement were constructed with a post-pad technique and a no cooking utensils, as well as Buildings 11 (Room A) and 14 = 16 (Room A), combination of post-pad and earthfast post techniques.6 Almost all which only contained cooking/storage ware and cooking utensils. 8 Tableware comprises bowls, cups, kantharoi, amphorae and situlae; cooking/storage ware consists of jugs, variously sized jars and pithoi; cooking 4 For the relative and absolute chronology of the site, see Vojaković (2014b). utensils include handstones, sieves, lids, baking lids, ceramic rings, firedogs and 5 For a general overview, see Teržan (1999), pp. 97–143; for the settlements portable ovens, but also querns and handstones. 9 at Rogoza, Orehova vas and Dragomelj, see Črešnar (2010); Grahek (2015); Buildings 4 and 9 did have a hearth but lacked a complete set of household Turk (2003). items. Building 4 had a greater number of cooking/storage ware and Building 9 6 The buildings at Tribuna were constructed using four different construction had a greater number of serving and cooking/storage ware. Buildings 2 and 5 techniques: with earthfast posts, with posts anchored in a bedding of either yielded no small finds. 139 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Fig. 2. Ground plan of the settlement at Tribuna in Ljubljana. Distribution of the types of construction, internal layouts and tools or implements in Building Phase 1 (drawing: Petra Vojaković). In their location, orientation, size, method of construction, internal processing of meat, with the former taking place on the banks of the layout, household items and the presence of tools, Buildings 8, 11, Ljubljanica, after which the already portioned units were brought to the 12 = 13 and 18 (Fig. 2; Table 1) are distinct from the other buildings of settlement (Vojaković, 2013, pp. 275–276; Vojaković, 2014a, p. 69).10 Phase 1. They were larger, with two or more rooms, and located in the Implements, such as spindle whorls, loom weights, and a stone eastern part with the exception of Building 8. They were constructed mould, indicate the possible activities or crafts practised in the build- with either the post-pad or the combination technique and had at least ings. Buildings 8, 12 = 13, and 18 may be connected with spinning, of one hearth, a complete set of household items, as well as animal and which the spindle whorls from Building 18 were found together with plant remains. This indicates that the buildings were used for storing, the stone mould (Fig. 4: 3). Building 11 can be associated with weaving. preparing and serving food. Interestingly, the recovered quernstones The Bronze Age textile craft in central Europe is presumed to have been were found outside the buildings rather than in their interiors. This may suggest that cereal processing took place outside the buildings or out- side the settlement. Similarly, analysing the animal remains from the 10 Borut Toškan (IzA ZRC SAZU) analysed the animal bones, for which we are site led Borut Toškan to presume a separate primary and secondary sincerely grateful. 140 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Fig. 3. Ground plan of the settlement at Tribuna in Ljubljana. Distribution of the types of construction, internal layouts and tools and implements in Building Phase 2 (drawing: Petra Vojaković). a household production, organised on a household level and not a full- (proximity to stream, river, exposure to sunlight, wind direction, etc.), time occupation (Belanová Štolcová, Grömer, 2010, pp. 9–20; Harding, though the network of buildings, squares, and streets seems to have 2000, pp. 254–270). Surprisingly, spindle whorls and weights were not been primarily adapted to the course of the main NW-SE route (Road 1). found together in the same buildings, suggesting a separation of ac- Most buildings in the western part shared this NW-SE orientation, tivities. The differences in the finds may also indicate different roles of parallel to Road 1, but had their entrances facing the south (Fig. 2). the members of a household (Harding, 2000, p. 393). A number of Considering their size, orientation, construction method, and small spindle whorls have been found in the hearths (Table 2); these could be finds, these buildings can be interpreted as primarily living quarters. In interpreted as intentionally deposited, i.e. as votive objects with a contrast, the buildings in the eastern half were living quarters with an special, cult significance. accompanying workshop. They had a NE-SW orientation parallel to the The differences in the orientation of buildings and in the grid of the stream, with the entrances located either in the east or the west wall, or settlement may reflect different uses of the buildings. The differences in possibly in both, as seen in the floor plan of Building 8 (Fig. 2). Could the grid certainly mirror an adaptation to the natural environment the positioning of the entrances indicate the exploitation of the 141 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Table 1 Settlement parameters of Building Phase 1 at Tribuna in Ljubljana. Location Building Size of builing Orientation Spaces Method of construction Internal layout/hearth Household items Tools and implements W part Building 1 smaller SE-NW one-room earthfast post hearth? serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 3 smaller SE-NW two-room combined / serving ware, / cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 4 bigger SE-NW two-room combined 2x hearth cooking/storage ware / Building 5 smaller SE-NW one-room earthfast post / / / Building 6 bigger SE-NW two-room earthfast post 2x hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 8 bigger NE-SW two-room post-pad hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 19 smaller SE-NW one-room combined / serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils E part Building 11 bigger NE-SW two-room combined 2x hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 12 = 13 bigger NE-SW three-room post-pad 2x hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 14 = 16 bigger NE-SW two-room combined smaller and outer serving ware, / hearth cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 15 smaller NE-SW one-room post-pad / serving ware, / cooking/storage ware Building 17 bigger NE-SW three-room combined / serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 18 bigger NE-SW four-room combined 4x hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Table 2 Tools and implements associated with Building Phase 1 at Tribuna in Ljubljana. Location Building Spinning tool/ Spinning tool/ Spinning tool/ Weaving tools/ Weaving tools/loom Metallurgical tools Iron items spindle whorls spindle spindle loom weight weight in secondary whorls in whorls in position secondary position fireplace W part Building 1 1x Building 6 1x miniature bowls Building 8 1x 1x miniature bowls Building 19 1x Street pins, 2 miniature bowls E part Building 11 3x Building 2x 1x mould 12 = 13 Building 17 2x Building 18 2x 1x Road 1 punch/chisel Square 3 nail, amorphous piece P. Street 12 1x nozzle windward side for the more effective circulation of air? constructed in the comer timbering technique. In the eastern part, the The next building phase, dating to Ha B1–B2 or throughout the 10th grid remained relatively unchanged, and the combined method was still century BC, brought significant changes not only in the grid of the prevalent, only Buildings 11 and 15 were constructed solely using the western part but also in the method of construction and internal layout earthfast post method. Almost all buildings now had a hearth (Table 3). of individual buildings (Fig. 3; Table 3). In addition, the settlement Most of the buildings in the eastern part yielded a complete set of spread all across Prule, with the areas of Grajski hrib and Stari/Novi trg household items, as in the previous phase (Table 3). In the western part, remaining inhabited (Vojaković, 2013, pp. 341–352, 356–357). The however, only the two main buildings and those closest to them north-western part of the Tribuna settlement shows a marked change in (Buildings 4a+6a, 4b+6b, 8 and 10) yielded a complete set. the grid, but also in the construction methods and function of the Spindle whorls continue to be the most numerous types of tools and “main” buildings of the phase, namely the large Buildings 4a+6a and 8 implements (Fig. 3; Table 4). They indicate that spinning continued to with hearths. The former was a post-pad construction, the latter take place in Buildings 8 and 18. Building 11 revealed a loom weight in 142 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Fig. 4. Metallurgical tools at Tribuna in Ljubljana. 1: Building 6 (SU 7789a); 2: Building 8 (SU 4506); 3: Building 12=13 (SU 2865a); 4: Road 1 (SU 2858); 5–6: Street 2 (SU 7758); 7: P. Street 12 (SU 4122). 8–9: Building 8 (SU 3929; 3852); 10: Building 10 (SU 3976); 11: Building 11 (SU 2354); 12–13: Building 12=13 (SU 2828; 2982); 14–15: Building 17 (SU 3498; 3263); 16–17: P. Street 12 (SU 3384). 1-2, 4, 6-9, 11-15 pottery; 3, 5, 10, 16-17 stone. Scale = 1:3. 143 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Fig. 5. Tribuna, finds from Road 1 (SU 2858) 1–18; Square 3 (SU 3297) 19–23; Square 3 (SU 4248) 24; Building 14=16 (SU 5426) 25–29. 2-7, 9-11, 13-21, 25 pottery; 1, 8, 22 bronze; 12, 23-24, 26-27 iron; 28-29 stone. Scale 1–28 = 1:3; 29 = 1:6. Phase 1 and a spindle whorl in Phase 2, which may indicate a change bowls or melting pots from Buildings 8 and 17 (Fig. 4: 8,9,14,15), and not only in the construction method but also function. Several spindle even pieces of iron slag found on the floors of Buildings 3, 17, and 18 whorls were found in Buildings 14 = 16 and 17, which yielded no craft- (Table 4) suggest metallurgic activities. Interestingly, Buildings 8, 11, specific items in the previous phase. Weaving tools of Phase 2 were only 17, and 18 contained items associated with both metallurgy and spin- found in Building 18, more precisely a stone weight that could also have ning. In addition, two amorphous iron pieces were found in the repaired been used for weighing a fishing net. The nozzle from Building 11 floor of Room C in Building 14 = 16 (SU 4526; Fig. 5: 26–27). The iron (Fig. 4: 11), pins from Building 12 = 13 (Fig. 4: 13), several miniature artefacts and pieces of iron slag suggest that ferrous metallurgy was 144 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 spinning implements did not occur in the same buildings as weaving implements, but in some instances did occur together with me- tallurgical ones (Tables 1 and 3). We can conclude that the part of the settlement investigated at Tribuna consisted of houses and workshops. The open spaces or squares strewn across the settlement as places of socialization, exchange of goods, and other activities may also indicate the presence of commercial activities. This could mean that the ex- cavated area is a sort of a “lower town” of a larger settlement complex extending from the foot of Grajski hrib, with the central, fortified part of the settlement located at the summit. The settlement area at Tribuna was highly structured throughout its existence, which indicates orga- nization and planning. The regular and preconceived layout of the settlement indicates a good organisation of labour and a consensus in building the settlement. In addition, the diversity of buildings, their construction, size, small finds, and possible activities within them Fig. 6. Representation of iron slag and iron items according to building phases suggest that accessibility to knowledge, skills and not to mention raw at Tribuna in Ljubljana. supplies was not afforded to individual members of society, but rather to select groups. practised at the Tribuna settlement from the 10th century BC onwards. The settlement at Tribuna reached its largest extent in Ha B2–B3, in The records from settlement contexts show that there was an in- the 9th century BC, at the end of the Late Bronze Age and the beginning crease in the number of buildings where crafts and/or other economic of the Early Iron Age (Vojaković, 2013, pp. 114–162, 282–283, activities were practised in Phase 2. In Phase 1, only Buildings 8, 11, 322–327). The settlement grid in Phase 3 did not differ from the pre- 12 = 13, and 18 were identified as such and were joined in Phase 2 by vious phases, and only small changes are observable in the construction Buildings 3, 14 = 16, and 17. These were still large, multi-room method, internal layouts, and small finds. Spindle whorls continue to buildings located in the eastern part (with the exception of Buildings 3 prevail among tools and implements, with weights and metallurgical and 8) and constructed using the earthfast post, comer timbering and a tools also recovered. There was an increase in iron slag and iron arte- combination of the two techniques and furnished with at least one facts in comparison with Phase 2 (Fig. 6). Also in this phase, spindles hearth (Building 3 was without a hearth). They all yielded a complete were found together with loom weights in Building 12 = 13, which set of household items and most also animal, and plant remains, asso- could mean that both activities were performed under the same roof. In ciated with storing, preparing and serving food.11 Alongside these, addition, the remains of a (metallurgical) furnace and a nozzle found in Buildings 8, 11, 17 and 18 provided evidence for spinning and me- this building indicate metallurgical activities. In Phase 4, at the end of tallurgical activities, Building 14 = 16 only for spinning and Buildings the 9th and in the 8th century BC, there is a marked increase in iron slag 3 and 12 = 13 only for metallurgical activities. The presence of me- and iron artefacts (Fig. 6). Soon after, in the second half or at the end of tallurgy increased in Phase 2, which in Phase 1 was only documented in the 8th century BC, the settlement experienced a sharp decline and was Building 12 = 13. In Phase 2, spindle whorls in hearths as indications of only re-inhabited in Ha D2/D3 (Vojaković, 2013, pp. 199–215, specific rituals were only found in Buildings 8 and 12 = 13. 284–285, 332–337). The changes observed in the settlement grid between the two phases may be attributable to the increase of crafts and metallurgical activities, to the appearance of ferrous metallurgy in the 10th century BC and 3. Aspects of cemetery data from Ljubljana: the case of Dvorišče consequently to the construction of new buildings intended for eco- SAZU cemetery nomic purposes in the western part of the settlement. Interestingly, iron slag was found in both parts in Phase 2: in the floors of the long A rather different perspective on the Late Bronze Age community of Buildings 17 and 18 in the eastern and in the floor of Building 3 in the Ljubljana can be gained from its cemetery records. In this regard, the western part, where smaller residential buildings were dominant in the most extensive and integral information is offered by the cemetery area, first phase (Fig. 3). Bronze and ferrous metallurgy at Tribuna has been discovered in 1948 on the left bank of the Ljubljanica River in the confirmed by several moulds (associated with Phases 1 and 2) and pins, courtyard of the building of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and as well as pieces of iron smelting slag, blacksmithing scales and frag- Arts, which also gave the cemetery its name – Dvorišče SAZU (Fig. 1: 5) ments of nozzles (Fig. 4). These finds indicate local production, but not (Stare, 1954; Puš, 1971, 1982). The cemetery is an example of a typical its extent. Fig. 6 presents the number of iron slag pieces in individual Urnfield period necropolis in which a uniform mode of burial, that is, phases and shows the presence of slag from Phase 2 onward, from the cremation, persisted throughout several generations, which spanned 10th and throughout the 9th century, with a significant increase in from the beginning of the Late Bronze Age and all the way into the Iron Phase 4 dating to the end of the 9th and 8th century BC. The adjacent Age. As such, it represents one of the key sites for understanding how site of Prule 13 also revealed a large amount of prehistoric iron slag the communities living in the area of the south-eastern Alps developed (Vojaković, 2013, pp. 347, 360; Vojaković, 2014a, p. 69). These finds in the period that led to the formation of the Iron Age. certainly indicate early beginnings of smelting and ironworking, as The re-analysis of the complete cemetery records together with new early as in Phase 2 or the 10th century BC. radiocarbon dates showed that the oldest graves should be placed as Most buildings at Tribuna can be linked to everyday activities such early as the 13th century BC or in the Br D period,13 whereas the in- as storing, preparing, and serving/consuming food and can, therefore, terments continued without a noticeable interruption throughout the be defined as living quarters or houses. Some of them, mostly the long Early and Late Urnfield periods (from Ha A to Ha B1–B2) and all the multi-room buildings, also yielded tools associated with spinning, weaving, and metallurgy (casting and blacksmithing).12 Interestingly, (footnote continued) buildings interpreted as workshops on the basis of small finds (Svoljšak, 1974, 1980; Svoljšak, Dular, 2016). 11 13 Two quern stones were unearthed in Building 14 = 16. Re-analysis of the entire cemetery area was conducted as a part of doctoral 12 A similar structure has been documented in the Early Iron Age settlement research of one of the authors of this article; see Škvor Jernejčič (2014a); Škvor at Most na Soči, comprising smaller, one- or multi-room houses and longer Jernejčič, 2018, Fig. 1; 3: 1–2. 145 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Table 3 Settlement parameters of Building Phase 2 at Tribuna in Ljubljana. Location Building Size of builing Orientation Spaces Method of construction Internal layout/hearth Household items Tools and implements W part Building 1a bigger NE-SW two-room earthfast post hearth serving ware, / cooking/storage ware Building 1b bigger NE-SW two-room earthfast post / serving ware / Building 3 smaller SE-NW one-room comer timbering / serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware Building 4a+6a bigger NE-SW one-room post-pad hearth serving ware, / cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 4b+6b bigger NE-SW one-room comer timbering hearth? serving ware, / cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 5 smaller SE-NW one-room earthfast post hearth / YES Building 8 bigger NE-SW two-room comer timbering 2x hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 10 smaller NE-SW one-room earthfast post hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 19 + 20 bigger NE-SW two-room combined / serving ware, / cooking/storage ware E part Building 11 bigger NE-SW two-room earthfast post hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 12 = 13 bigger NE-SW two-room combined 2x hearth? serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 14 = 16 bigger NE-SW three-room combined 2x hearth? serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 15 smaller NE-SW one-room earthfast post / / / Building 17 bigger NE-SW three-room combined 2x hearth serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils Building 18 bigger NE-SW four-room combined 3x hearth? serving ware, YES cooking/storage ware, cooking utensils way to the Early Iron Age (Ha B3–C1). At the end of the 8th and at the carried out according to set rules or codes. beginning of the 7th century BC, the number of graves drastically di- - On the basis of metal grave-goods (in exceptional cases also of bone, minishes. It even appears that a temporary cessation of burials on the glass, stone or ceramic artefacts) and their combinations or com- cemetery grounds can be observed (Škvor Jernejčič, 2014a, pp. position, individual pieces of attire can be recognised,16 which are 237–238; Škvor Jernejčič, 2017, p. 153), which is coincident with the presented here in the combination tables (Tables 5 and 6). more long-term break of settlement records in the habitation area of - Each of the attire variants is characterised by the presence of a Tribuna.14 specific “main” grave-good object, such as pin, razor, knife, torques, The questions regarding the social relations and social (in)equalities bracelet, fibula or (hair-)ring.17 will be addressed in the present discussion on the Ljubljana cemetery - These pieces of attire can reflect the sex and age of the deceased or primarily through the analysis of grave-goods and their combinations, further also their status and social role.18 while the varied burial practices will in part also be included. However, in this case only the Late Bronze Age graves of the Ha A2/B1 and the Ha B1–B2 periods, that is, the period from the middle of the 11th century 16 Combination tables of the grave-goods from the graves of the Dvorišče to 850/820 BC,15 are included, as they constitute a representative SAZU cemetery in Ljubljana (Tables 5 and 6) have been compiled according to sample for the research and enable us to compare the results with the the already existent combination tables for the Urnfield period cemeteries of settlement data from the Tribuna area. The following discussion is Dobova, Pobrežje, and Ruše (Teržan, 1995, Abb. 12–15; Teržan, 1999, based on certain premises, including: Figs. 10–13), which also resulted in the same criteria used to produce the mentioned tables. Such method was chosen to allow the comparison between - Grave-goods are the result of intentional selection, which was the collected data of different Urnfield cemeteries. 17 It should be stressed here that these grave-goods are categorised in sub- ordinate relation or position. This means that the various combinations of grave-goods from individual graves have been assigned to particular attire 14 See above. groups on the basis of the presence/absence of first and foremost pins, then 15 For the relative and absolute chronology of the Dvorišče SAZU cemetery in razors, knives, torques, bracelets, fibulae and (hair-)rings. For instance, one of Ljubljana, see primarily Gabrovec (1973); Gabrovec (1983); also Škvor the examples, graves nos. 3, 41 and 56 are all categorised under the attire type Jernejčič (2014a), pp. 196–240; Škvor Jernejčič (2014b); Škvor Jernejčič I/2, even though they also contain fibula and/or torques, which are char- (2014c), Fig. 10; Škvor Jernejčič, 2018, Fig. 1. The exact analysis and definition acteristic for the attire types II and IV (Cfr. Table 5). 18 of chronological problems relating to individual phases cannot be given here. For the analyses of cemeteries from the south-eastern Alpine area, see Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that we consider and correlate the Late Teržan (1995); Teržan (1999); Črešnar and Thomas (2013). A similar metho- Urnfield or Ha B1–B2 period with the phase Ljubljana Ib (its older and younger dological approach is used also in the studies that discuss the organisation of part), while the Early Iron Age or Ha B3 and Ha C0 periods correspond to the the Iron Age communities (Teržan, 1978; Teržan, 1985; Teržan,1992; Dular, phases Ljubljana II and IIIa. Tecco Hvala, 2007, pp. 237–252; Dular, 2008a; Dular, 2016). 146 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 - At the same time, pieces of attire could serve as an expression of local 2x amorphous pieces identity within the wider (trans)regional communication networks. In addition to the information regarding the compositions of grave- Iron items goods, which have been classified into separate pieces of attire, of crucial importance when discussing the sex and the age of buried persons has also been the conducted anthropological analysis.19 The distribution of single graves on the cemetery in relation to the described parameters, such as sex, age or type of attire, is, however, relevant in the re- construction of social relations among the Late Bronze Age population in Metallurgical tools in Ljubljana. Graves from the Dvorišče SAZU cemetery in Ljubljana were secondary position miniature bowls more or less clustered into larger or smaller groups (Figs. 7 and 8), which could be explained as cemetery parts, pertaining to individual groups within the community. The spatially delimited clusters of interments, mould containing the deceased of various sexes and ages, leads us to suppose that certain groups of graves can, in fact, be interpreted as family/kin burial plots. We can observe, therefore, a cemetery structure that gen- 2 x miniature bowls erally corresponds well to the composition of nuclear or extended fa- 2x miniature bowls Metallurgical tools milies.20 These grave groups could then be understood as a result of either blacksmithing 1x iron slag/ separate nuclear/extended families21 or, as we will try to show below, as 2 x mould iron slag, entities that were not family-related but connected among themselves iron slag nozzle through their role, or possibly even their occupation within the society. pins Indicative is also the distribution of single attire types on the cem- etery, as (to a certain extent) it can reflect the position and role ob- Weaving tools/loom weight in tained within the discussed families or groups (Fig. 8). On the basis of the Iron Age attire analysis and its distribution on the cemetery, it has even been argued that in diverse attire, especially those whose dis- secondary position tribution is clearly limited to particular groups, a certain hierarchical relation within separate nuclear or extended families could be seen (Teržan, 1992, pp. 458–460). 1x stone It should be stressed, however, that the graves that contained no metal grave-goods were not part of the attire classification. Consequently, we present in our contribution only one segment of Weaving tools/loom graves, that is, only a segment of the population buried in the cemetery. Other cemetery details, such as the presence of non-metal grave-goods (vessels, animal bones, etc.) or grave structures and grave marks, which 1x stone also represent a significant source of information, are therefore not part weight of the present study.22 This fact should be kept in mind, especially as regards the premise that the sex and age of the deceased, as well as their position and social role, could also be reflected in other cemetery as- whorls in fireplace pects. It was even argued that in the Late Bronze Age period social Spinning tool/ differentiation and identities were not expressed with funeral attire but within other spheres (Sørensen, 2013, p. 231), which in our case seems spindle to hold true only in part. One of those spheres, with the help of which 1x 1x the prehistoric community of the Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana appar- ently wanted to identify, or better, to differ or agree between each Spinning tool/spindle Tools and implements of Building Phase 2 at Tribuna in Ljubljana. whorls in secondary other, is the mode of the burial and the related funeral customs. Therefore, we think it is relevant for the present discussion on social relations and (in)equalities that we present in short also the main position characteristics of burial practices on the discussed cemetery. We already mentioned that the practice of cremation had been the Spinning tool/spindle 19 The anthropological analysis of the cremated human bones from the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana has been carried out by Tatjana Tomazo-Ravnik, for which we wish to sincerely thank her on this occasion. whorls 20 DNA analysis has not been conducted on the human bone material. New 1x 1x 1x 4x 2x 2x studies on structure and characteristics of the family in the Late Bronze Age that would be based on the interpretation of both biological and archaeological information remain rare, see e.g. Rittershofer (1997); Rebay Salisbury (2017), 10 11 17 Building 18 Building 3 5 7 8 pp. 177–180. For the “ancient Celtic” social structures, see Karl (2006). P. Street Location Building Building Building Building Building Building Building Building Building 12 = 13 14 = 16 21 The nuclear/extended families could contain also members, which were not kin-related to family, such as for example servants, maids, labourers etc. see 12 Karl (2006), pp. 83–89. 22 For more detailed discussion on possible criteria and facts that enable the W part Table 4 E part estimation of social identity of buried persons, see e.g. Bösel (2008), pp. 50–51, Abb. 3. 147 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Fig. 7. Plan of the graves on the cemetery Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana from the Ha A2/B1 and Ha B1–B2 periods with indicated presence/absence of urns and/or vessel fragments. U = urn; FR = fragment; No = without. norm both in the Late Bronze Age as well as in the Iron Age period on the the same period, the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana also un- cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana. This is all the more significant, derwent change within the frame of the funeral ritual. For the first time, as inhumation burial appears with the beginning of the Iron Age period graves without urns appear, in which the cremated remains and in some and later gradually becomes the prevalent burial practice in the neigh- cases also charcoal, are placed directly in the grave pits. In contrast, the bouring region of Dolenjska (Gabrovec, 1999, pp. 153–154). Even graves from previous periods (Br D and Ha A) contained, as a rule, the though cremation burial persisted throughout several generations on the urn. Interestingly, these graves with new burial practices appeared ex- Ljubljana cemetery, the burial rituals and specific funerary practices clusively in the eastern part of the cemetery (Fig. 7) (Škvor Jernejčič, changed fundamentally during this time (Škvor Jernejčič, Vinazza, 2016, Vinazza, 2016, Fig. 4; Škvor Jernejčič, 2018, Fig. 1). Moreover, in the pp. 41–49, Table 1; Škvor Jernejčič, 2018). In the period between the end same period of Ha A2/B1 and within the same, eastern part of the of the 2nd and the beginning of the 1st millennium (Ha A2/B1 period), cemetery, the introduction of the practice of including vessel fragments the number of the graves increased substantially, predominantly in the in the graves can be observed. Both the graves with and without an urn eastern part of the cemetery. Such a development is most obvious in the now contain separate fragments of – in our opinion intentionally – case of the so-called grave group no. 4 where interments appear in a broken and in cases even secondary burnt vessels. This practice also re- hitherto empty area (Figs. 7 and 8). Similar tendencies can also be ob- mained in use in the following periods of Ha B1–B2, while it disappeared served in the surrounding regions, where several contemporaneous ce- meteries comprising over hundreds of burials are attested for the first time (Teržan, 1999, p. 111; Škvor Jernejčič, Vinazza, 2016, p. 41).23 In (footnote continued) equalities, as it considers the question of who actually had access to burial and to whom the latter was denied. However, the topic clearly exceeds the set frame 23 This observation is undoubtedly important for the discussion on social (in) of present discussion, focused on the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana. 148 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Fig. 8. Distribution of separate funeral attire variants on the cemetery Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana in the graves from Ha A2/B1 and Ha B1-B2 periods. completely with the start of the early Iron Age. The presence of separate beginning of the Early Iron Age, in our opinion, indicates the intention of vessel fragments can be interpreted as remnants of the ritual breaking of individuals and their nuclear/extended families to manifest their iden- vessels, which in some cases were even secondarily burnt, whereas only tity, among other ways, through the practice of particular funeral cus- chosen vessel fragments have subsequently been placed in either grave toms as well as through their choice of particular areas within the pits or their fill-layers (Škvor Jernejčič, 2018; Figs. 6, 8). However, the cemetery precincts. Nevertheless, the fact remains that they had all been selected ceramic vessels were not the only ones to be broken and de- united in the practice of burning their dead on a pyre, that is, in the use stroyed, as the majority of the bronze grave-goods likewise had been of cremation. subjected to similar practices, showing heavy fragmentation and frequent In the burial practices of Late Bronze Age communities, which signs of burning. In contrast, in the western part of the cemetery, burial cremated their relatives and buried them in flat cemetery grounds, the with urns and without the presence of fragments has been preserved, social role of individuals was reflected in a rather specific manner and which was, as already mentioned, characteristic of older graves from the only in part. Here we should especially bear in mind that with the Br D and Ha A periods. It is interesting to note that with the beginning of cremation not only the corpse but also the funeral attire has been burnt. the Iron Age once again burial in urns becomes the predominant rite on Nevertheless, the attested grave-goods, either burnt totally or only in the entire cemetery, even though we should point out that the number of part or not burnt at all, apparently must have been chosen according to graves in the eastern part of the cemetery is considerably lower than in a certain code and then placed in the grave. Therefore, in our opinion, the western half. These varieties of burial practices on the cemetery of the social roles of individuals could also be expressed through the Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana at the end of the Late Bronze Age and at the funeral attire. Taking into account the various combinations of 149 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Table 5 Combination table of graves from the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana, dating to the late Urnfield period (Ha A2/B1 and Ha B1–B2) and comprising the funeral attire group I. Br = bronze; FR = fragment; BB = bone beads. Attire type/ Grave no. Anthropological analysis Pin Razor Knife Button Fibula Torques Bracelet (Hair-) Stone tool Other variant ring I/1 156 Adultus ♂ 1 318 Adultus ♂ 1 9 / 2 1 1 I/2 3 / 1 2 1 1?(or bracelet?) 1 Pendant?. Br wire, br sheet 56 / 1 1 FR(BB) 41 / 1 1 1 Needle 311 / 1 2 28 / 2 1 Double-cross belt buckle 126 Adultus ♀ 1 1 Glass beads I/3 320 Adultus 1 1 11 / 1 Bone bead, small br nail 10 / 1 1 I/4 312 Infans II? 2 Pin? 292 / 1 Fig. 9. Cremation grave 41 from Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana. 1 pottery; 2-4 bronze; 5 stone. Scale 1 = 1:4; 2-5 = 1:2 (2-5 after Stare 1954; 1 drawing I. Murgelj). individual grave-goods, which were present in the graves of the such as fibula, torques, bracelets, glass-beads, double-cross belt buckles Dvorišče SAZU cemetery in Ljubljana and date to the Ha A2/B1 and Ha and the like. The anthropological analysis of the burnt bones from grave B1–B2 periods, we can differentiate eight varieties of attire types within 126 indicates that such attire sets should be seen as female. Moreover, five main groups (Tables 5 and 6; Fig. 8). both archaeological, as well as anthropological data from several con- The attire group I, characterised by the presence of pins, razors, and temporaneous cemeteries, also confirm such a determination.25 Graves knives, contains both male and female graves, which was also con- of the sub-group I/3 are defined by the presence of razors, which in the firmed by the anthropological analysis, and is composed of four sub- Late Bronze Age period are generally seen as a male grave-good groups (Table 5). The sub-group I/1 comprises graves containing pri- (Teržan, 1999, p. 115; Weber, 1996, pp. 180–181, Table. 11; Harding, marily pins, whereas one grave contains both a pair of pins and a razor. 2008). In the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana, the razors were The anthropological analysis showed that such type of attire belonged mostly found within graves, in which the bone remains have not been to adult male persons, which also accords with the otherwise common preserved, and consequently, anthropological analysis is not possible. designation of the pin as a distinguishable element of male attire They can appear together either with pins or with ring-shaped jew- (Teržan, 1999, p. 119). It is interesting that, in contrast, some of the pin ellery, which could potentially indicate double graves (Table 5: grave types clearly are part of female attire – either to fasten clothes or as a 320). The only case within the group I for which the anthropological part of a headdress (e.g. pins with spirally-bent heads and pins with analysis revealed an infant, or alternatively, a younger adolescent (age vase-shaped heads) (Fig. 9: 3).24 The sub-group I/2 consists of graves class Infans II), is grave 312. The latter contained two knives, while it is that contain pins in combination with other elements of female attire, 25 See e.g. the sites Franzhausen-Kokoron and Budapest-Békásmegyer, where 24 For a more detailed discussion of these problems, see Škvor Jernejčič pins, according to the anthropological analysis, likewise appear as a part of (2018). female attire (Lochner, Hellerschmidt, 2016; Kalicz Schreiber, 2010). 150 Table 6 Combination table of graves from the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana, dating to the younger Urnfield period and comprising funeral attire groups II to V. Br = bronze; FR = fragment; BB = bone beads; * = items are lost. Attire type/variant Grave no. Anthropological analysis Torques Bracelet Fibula Glass bead Ring Hair-ring Button Br spiral wire Pendant Double-cross belt buckle Stone tool Other II/1 54 / 1 6+1+1+1 1 1 14 / 1 1? 1 Br sheet 322 Infans II? 1 1 1 Small br tube, br wire, br circular plate 301 Adultus 1 1 1 Part of neckless, br wire B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković 308 Infans II - Juvenis 1 7+1 25 / 1 FR II/2 317 Infans II? 1 1 30 / 1 1? 62 / 1 Br sheet, br pin/torques?* 17 / 1 II/3 67 / 1 III 23 / FR FR FR (BB) 1 Br wire, br cylindrical object 35 / FR FR 1 1 1 Br coils, br nails, Br part of a handle?, Other br FR 258 Adultus ♀ 3+1 Bimetallic object, possibly ornament 53 / 3 Br awl, br knife 36 / 3 Br phalera 32 / 1 2 Br small tubes, br coil, br sheet 151 IV 316 / 1 1 1+1 1 Small chisel, 2 finger-rings, br wire 59 / 1 FR FR (BB) Nail, br wire, br cylindrical object? 319 / 1 1 several 1 Neckless 34 / 1 FR (BB) 43 / 1 FR (BB) 50 / 1 FR (BB) 44 / ? 1+1? 1 18 1 1 Br FR 310 Adultus 1? 1? 1? 323 Adultus ♀ 1+1 1 306 Maturus 1 1 Br wire 305 Juvenis 3+1? Spindle-whorl 55 / 2 49 / 1 1 1 / 1? Br wires 57 / 1? 2 19 / 1? 166 / 1? V 31 / 1 1 1 Br wire 42 / 1 1 2 65 / 1 Br wire 51 / 1 178 Adultus 2 6 / FR (BB) 8 / 1 Br sheet, br wire 172 Adultus ♀ Br wire Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Table 7 Attributes of female funeral attire juxtaposed with the anthropological data about the age of deceased. Age Object Torques Bracelet (number) Pendant Saltaleone/Small br tube Button Fibula Spindle-whorl Double-cross belt buckle Hair-ring Stone tool Infans x x (odd) x x x Infans-Juvenis x x (odd) Juvenis x x Adultus x x (odd + even) x? x x x x x Maturus x not entirely clear whether the pin also makes up part of the grave as- Jernejčič, 2014a, pp. 136–137).32 Unfortunately, the burnt bones from semblage (Puš, 1982, T. 21: 10–13). grave 54 have not been preserved, and thus the anthropological ana- The attire group II is characterised by the presence of torques lysis is not possible. However, judging by the jewellery size, we could (Table 6: II). On the basis of new anthropological analyses, it appears suppose that in the grave a juvenile person had been buried.33 that torques comprised part of the attire in the Late Bronze Age graves In the attire group III, the graves with bracelets are categorised, of both girls and young females as well as adult women (Table 6: graves which as a rule appear in odd numbers (Table 6: III) (Škvor Jernejčič, 301, 308, 317, 322; Table 7).26 This means that the presence of torques 2018, Table. 2: III). Interesting is the distribution of these graves, as does not necessarily indicate the age of the buried female, although the they appear just in the central-eastern part of the cemetery (Fig. 8). The analysis of the Early Iron Age graves showed that torques supposedly only exception is the grave 258 in the utmost northern part, which belonged to the attire of children, i.e. girls (Teržan, 1978, p. 60; Teržan, contained, in addition to fragments of various bracelets, a fragment of 1985, pp. 83, 92). We are rather inclined to believe that the presence of an object, made both of bronze and iron (Fig. 10: 3–6). In the view of torques points to a specific social role of the buried, regardless of their the analogies for the ring-shaped jewellery,34 the grave should be age (Škvor Jernejčič, 2018). In the most elaborate attire with torques placed in the transition between the 11th and 10th century BC and together with other jewellery grave-goods, which is attested in the ce- consequently represents, together with the iron twisted torques from meteries from Posavje and Štajerska region in eastern Slovenia – Do- grave 54, which can be dated to the end of the 10th or in the 9th bova, Ruše, and Pobrežje, we could discern “married woman”, “first century BC, one of the earliest graves containing iron objects. In the wife” or even so-called mater familias (Teržan, 1999, p. 119, graves with the attire consisting of bracelets in odd numbers, we could Figs. 11–13).27 With regard to their age, we could state at least for the recognise, above all, girls and young females (Teržan, 1985, pp. 83, 92), infant graves with torques from Pobrežje and Brinjeva gora, that these which obviously had a different role in comparison to female in- girls could not have offspring yet, while it is possible that they had been dividuals buried with torques. engaged or married.28 Consequently, we cannot speak merely of the Especially significant are the graves with the attire of group IV, “first wife” – mater familias – housewife, but of female individuals, characterised by the presence of fibula (Table 6: IV). The latter can which possessed a distinct role within society, supposedly fulfilling appear together with hair-rings/circlets, bronze spiral-wires or salt- even ritual tasks.29 The special position of some women from Dobova aleoni, pendants, belt with double-cross shaped buckles, etc. In contrast, with the attire also containing torques is further indicated by pendants the fibulae are attested only exceptionally within the frame of other and amulets, which stand out as visual messages of the particular role of attire types. From the anthropological analysis, it is apparent that in their bearers in the ritually performed actions of single communities group IV both adolescents and adults as well as older persons (age class (Teržan, 1999, p. 119).30 At the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubl- Maturus = 40–60 years) can be found (Tables 6 and 7) (Škvor Jernejčič, jana, the most prominent example in this regard is certainly grave 54, 2018; Table 2). By no means, however, can it be excluded that in these which is exceptional both in its composition and in the number of its graves girls were also buried, as for example in the case of grave 59, in grave-goods. It contained two vessels in the form of a bird, which can be which the bronze grave-goods have been found within the cup, which likewise interpreted as objects with special functions (Stare, 1954, T. was the practice characteristic exclusively of children's graves on the 46: 6–8; 47–48; 49: 1–3),31 while on the other hand it included a grave- cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana (Stare, 1954, T. 51: 5–8; 52: good combination unique in the cemetery, which consisted of torques, 1–3; Škvor Jernejčič, 2018). The attire group IV with fibula should single-looped bow fibula and of as much as nine bracelets (Table 6: therefore not be understood as reflecting the age of the females, as is the grave 54). What is more, it represents one of the oldest graves with iron case above all in attire group III, but more often than not as indicating jewellery – a twisted torques – dating to the late Ha B period in the the affiliation of the deceased to a particular nuclear/extended family entire south-eastern Alpine area and neighbouring regions (Škvor or to a wider local/regional community (Teržan, 1992, p. 468). Or, if we express it differently, such personal belongings were readable in regional terms (Sørensen, 1997, pp. 108–109). 26 For the attire analysis confronted with the anthropological information, see The last attire group V is defined by the graves containing circlets and also Črešnar and Thomas (2013), Fig. 11. hair-rings (Table 6: V). The absence of other ring-shaped jewellery or 27 About the significance and role of the first wife – “housewife or lady of the fibulae clearly testifies that in this case, it indicates attire with different house” (Hausfrau or *kintumoniterā) – within the household, see e.g. Karl (2006), p. 73. 28 32 For the grave from Pobrežje, see Črešnar and Thomas (2013), Fig. 11: grave For the first iron objects in the south-eastern Alpine area, see most recently 70; for the grave from Brinjeva gora, see Pahič (1987), T. 33; Thomas (2011), Trampuž Orel (2012); Pare (2017) and in the present contribution (Figs. 3, 5 Table 7. and 6; Tables 2 and 4). 29 33 The same can be presumed for graves 317 and 322 from the cemetery of For the comparison of anthropological analysis and the size of ring-shaped Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana, in which girls aged between 7 and 14 years had jewellery, see e.g. Falkenstein (2005). 34 been buried. At the latter age, though, the female is already sexually mature. Analogies for the bracelets with rhombic cross-section can be found in the 30 For pendants see also Turk (2001). cemetery of Dobova, in Istria as well as in the northern Apennine Peninsula and 31 For the new drawings, see Škvor Jernejčič (2018), Figs. 3 and 4. About the date both to the Ha A and Ha B1 periods. The bracelets with spirally-wound meaning and function of vessels shaped as birds in the Bronze Age period from endings appear among also other within hoards (Turk, 2001, p. 257). For a the Carpathian Basin, see Guba, Szeverényi (2007), pp. 85–95. more detailed discussion, see Škvor Jernejčič (2014a), p. 123. 152 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 Fig. 10. Cremation grave 258 from Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana. 1,2 pottery; 3-5 bronze, 6 iron and bronze. Scale 1,2 = 1:4; 3-6 = 1:2 (after Puš 1971). visual communication. Given the fact that these rings occasionally re- found on the eastern coast of the Apennine Peninsula, in the region of present hair-rings, we could see in this type of attire mostly head Marche (Bergonzi, Ritrecina, 2010, pp. 25–26). adornments or headdresses. In what way then did the women endowed The area of grave group no. 4 is especially significant as it represents with such funeral outfits differ from other females? On the basis of the the only part of the cemetery where all attire defined as female, that is, analysis of graves from Pobrežje, it has been ascertained that rings with a attire groups from II to V as well as the attire from I/2, are attested.36 In smaller diameter are characteristic of adult graves, while those with a contrast, male graves appear to be completely absent in this grave larger diameter are typical for graves of younger deceased. The varia- group if we take into consideration the metal grave-goods (Fig. 8). At tions in the ring sizes according to the age could also be potentially re- the same time, relatively few are also the graves containing only lated to diverse hairstyles, denoting various positions or classes of the ceramic grave-goods. Interesting is the distribution of separate pieces of deceased (Črešnar, Thomas, 2013, p. 94). At the cemetery of Dvorišče female attire, which are arranged rather equally.37 In view of the ab- SAZU in Ljubljana, the anthropological information is available only for sence of male graves, the interments from this part of the cemetery, two graves with such attire, both of which contained the remains of an therefore, do not represent a structure that would correspond to nu- adult person (Table 6). Grave 178 is the grave of an adult woman, in clear/extended family or families. Could we presume that the area in which, though, the pair of hair rings with larger diameter has been found the central-eastern part of the cemetery had been reserved for female (Puš, 1971, 51, T. 30: 8–9). These examples, therefore, although modest, individuals, which due to their particular social role had to be buried on lead us to suppose that the hairstyles of adult women from Ljubljana a specifically defined place within the necropolis? Another possible possibly differed from those that contained rings with smaller diameters explanation could be that female members of individual families had and likewise pertained to adult women at the cemetery of Pobrežje. been buried in this part of the cemetery, which encouraged contacts In the periods of Ha A2/B1 and Ha B1–B2, the women from the with various communities on a supra-regional level. We are of the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana were adorned with different opinion that the attributes of attire had been chosen intentionally. types of fibulae, such as various spectacle fibulae, saddle-shaped and Variously formed fibulae supposedly also conveyed the visual in- harp fibulae as well as, in rare cases, single-looped bow fibulae. Separate formation to which family the female individuals belonged. On the fibula types enable us not only to accurately date the graves but also to basis of distribution maps for individual fibulae,38 we could infer that infer their potential regions of origin and subsequent diffusion. women buried on the eastern part of the cemetery and their families Therefore, a transmission of particular goods can be observed, which fostered direct or indirect contacts with populations from northeastern indirectly point to connections of inhabitants from various regions and lying regions, while still others had connections with communities from lands or imply different spheres of interactions. The graves of attire the Apennine Peninsula. These differences could then indicate varia- group IV containing fibula were documented only on the eastern half of tions in relational wealth among separate families.39 the researched cemetery (Fig. 8). Spectacle fibulae have been found in Lastly, we should also mention the rather unassuming grave-goods, graves distributed over the entire eastern half of the cemetery. A different which can be related to handicrafts. The most obvious is the case of grave picture emerges when observing the graves with harp and saddle-shaped 305, which contained at least three, if not four, spectacle fibulae together fibulae, which appear only in the area of grave group no. 4 and mostly at with a spindle-whorl and in which a juvenile person has been buried its extreme eastern part. In view of the fact that Ljubljana represents one (Puš, 1982, T. 18). It represents the only example of the grave with a of the most western-lying sites with such fibula types,35 we are inclined spindle-whorl on the entire cemetery from the period of Ha B1–B2, to believe that women and/or their families buried in this part of the which could point to a certain status, position or even “occupation” of cemetery had been in contact with the communities from the north- the deceased.40 The high number of fibulae together with a handicraft eastern regions. Completely exclusive to the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana are single-looped bow fibulae. One example has been found 36 in grave 306, which is in the area of grave group no. 3 at the north Here it should be taken into account that graves both from periods of Ha eastern part of the cemetery and contained cremated remains of an older A2/B1 and Ha B1–B2 are mapped, thus presenting graves of several genera- woman (Maturus) inside the urn, whose form is rather untypical for the tions. 37 cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU (Puš, 1982, T. 19). The second single-looped Slight concentrations can be noticed only in the case of attire I/2, which contains pins, at the north eastern part of the grave group no. 4 as well as in the bow fibula appears in the already mentioned grave 54 that stands out case of attire V with (hair-)rings in the central part of the group. due to its grave-goods and was discovered in the very centre of grave 38 For the harp/saddle-shaped fibulae, see above; for the spectacle fibulae see group no. 4. The best comparison for the fibula from grave 54 can be Pabst (2012); for the single-looped bow fibulae from the Apennine Peninsula, see e.g. von Eles Masi (1986); Lo Schiavo (2010); Savella (2015). 39 On different classes of wealth as e.g. material wealth, relational wealth or 35 For the saddle-shaped fibulae of the type Ruše see Pabst (2012), Karte 34; embodied wealth, see Bowles et al. (2010); Smith et al. (2010); see also Price, for the harp fibulae see Teržan (1994), Abb. 85. Gebauer (2017). 153 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 utensil – spindle-whorl – could imply that within the funeral sphere burial rituals.45 The small number of graves with male attributes from particular skills and expertise had been accessible or intended only for the younger Urnfield period is in clear contrast to the number of male certain female individuals. Also other grave-goods, which can be asso- graves from the Early Iron Age period, when the considerable increase of ciated with handicrafts, are attested only exceptionally in this period at graves containing pins can be observed, even though they are almost the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana. Besides the already men- exclusively limited to the western part of the cemetery (Gabrovec, 1973, tioned spindle-whorl (grave 305), we could define as handicraft tools Fig. 2; Škvor Jernejčič, 2014a, Figs. 5.1 and 5.4). This fact indicates the also the small chisel (grave 316), the needle (grave 41; Fig. 9: 4) and the modifications in the representation of male attire or their grave outfit awl (grave 53). To these, we can potentially add knives as well, although within the burial ritual, which became established with the beginning of the latter indubitably had a more extensive range of use. Further, the so- the Iron Age period. The male attire did not change substantially in its called stone tools should also be mentioned, which, however, are in the composition; the only major change with the arrival of Iron Age is the majority represented by unusable stone shatters, either flakes or cores. cessation of the practice of placing razors in graves, while weapons re- Their repeated presence in graves of both Late Bronze Age and Early Iron mained absent (Škvor Jernejčič, 2014a, pp. 226, 233; Škvor Jernejčič, Age, therefore cannot be explained in a functional sense, but more likely 2014c, p. 145, Table 1).46 A different situation can be observed in the in their symbolic or figurative meaning. Late Bronze Age female attire, which show a fundamentally more varied All the above-stated examples of handicraft implements have been picture and contain considerably more numerous basic female attributes. found in female graves. In a way, this is not surprising, as the male However, in view of the anthropological data, we can state that, with the funeral attire appears almost completely indistinct or not articulated as exception of attire group III, individual pieces of attire do not primarily regards the position, status or the role of the deceased. It is worth noting, reflect the age of the deceased, but their affiliation to nuclear/extended though, that the handicraft implements appear in female graves, which families, and their position or social roles.47 According to Teržan, dif- stand out due to their special combinations of jewellery grave-goods.41 ferent female attire could even reflect the social stratification of the fe- All these graves were positioned on the eastern part of the cemetery, two male population (Teržan, 1999, p. 119), which also seems to hold true in the area of grave group no. 3 and two within grave group no. 4, in the for the Dvorišče SAZU cemetery in Ljubljana, especially in the case of immediate vicinity of the exceptional grave 54. Similarly, the graves with grave Group no. 4. Could we recognise in the elaborate funeral attire handicraft utensils represent quite an exception also in the cemeteries of indications for “matrilineal” and political roles of these women within Dobova, Ruše and Pobrežje.42 Especially rare as grave-goods are awls, their community? Alternatively, and as a testimony to the local identity which appear in grave 112 from Pobrežje and possibly in grave 9 from of female individuals, the social position of which depended above all on Dobova (Teržan, 1999, Figs. 11–12).43 The grave from Pobrežje com- the status of their husbands/men (Metzner-Nebelsick, 2015, p. 50)? prises a “complete” set of female attire with torques, two bracelets, and The exclusive grave-goods in the Dvorišče SAZU cemetery in circlets. A similar awl, although made out of iron, appears in the male Ljubljana from the Late Bronze Age period, such as the first iron jew- grave 186 at Mestne njive in Novo mesto (Dolenjska region) (Knez, 1984, ellery or the vessels in the form of a bird and the like, suggest a specific T. 5: 6; Križ et al., 2009, Fig. 4.2: 7,9; 4.4: 10; Gabrovec, 1999, p. 166). It role of their female owners, which could even be related to ritually should be emphasised that the latter represents one of the rare graves performed actions within the frame of that wider, local community. from the Late Bronze Age in which a weapon has been discovered, in the Similar roles can otherwise also be presumed for the male part of the form of a bronze spearhead, intentionally broken in two.44 Exceptional in population, only that their position, status or class was not displayed in this case is also the number of handicraft tools, consisting of a small the period of the Late Bronze Age through their funeral attire. chisel, an awl, and several fragments of objects, made from either bronze Consequently, these male individuals appear nearly “faceless” or bone. Given the above-stated examples, we can, therefore, conclude (Renfrew, 1974). The presence of weapons had clearly been tabooed, that in the Late Bronze Age period, handicraft implements had been allowing exceptions only in truly extraordinary cases of graves known placed into graves of only rare individuals. from other Late Bronze Age urnfield cemeteries, which contained In what way then does the different female attire contraposed with bronze spearheads.48 In contrast, weapons are well-attested from the the uniform male apparel inform us of social relations within the Late very beginning of the Late Bronze Age in the hoards, in which, if we Bronze Age community buried at the Dvorišče SAZU cemetery of consider the presence of single objects, emphasis is placed particularly Ljubljana? The analysis of separate types of attire in combination with on the male – martial – component (Čerče, Turk, 1996; Turk, 1996; anthropological data showed that attire reflect sex differences. Potential Teržan, 1999, pp. 119–124). male attributes in graves are pins, razors and knives. The extremely low number of these graves leads us to infer that the position of males had been almost wholly obscured in their funeral outfit through the frame of 45 This fact has been already discussed by Teržan (1999), p. 139. 46 Here it should be pointed out that from the period of the Early Iron Age only one grave containing a weapon – a bronze winged axe – is known from the 40 On the role of females buried with spindle-whorls, see Primas (2007). Dvorišče SAZU cemetery in Ljubljana. This situation is in sharp contrast with 41 The already mentioned grave 305 contained the largest number of fibulae the contemporaneous appearance of the first skeletal graves under the tumulus and can be placed within attire group IV. To the same group, we can classify from Pusti Gradac and Črnomelj within the Bela Krajina (White Carniola) re- grave 316 containing, in addition to the fibula and small chisel, two finger gion in the south-eastern part of Slovenia, which contained horse-gear and rings, glass bead and a double-cross belt buckle, which all represent rare or weapons, such as machaira, a bimetallic sword, and iron spearheads, dated to exclusive grave-goods on the cemetery of Dvorišče SAZU in Ljubljana. Grave 41 the end of the 9th century BC (Dular, 1983, T. 12: 1–3; Dular, 2003, T. 42: 3–5). is likewise special, as it features a combination of pin and torques (Fig. 9), Other graves, containing weapons, are either cremations (e.g. Podzemelj, whereas grave 53 can be placed among attire group III and contained as many Šmarjeta etc.), or they are slightly later (e.g. Novo mesto – Kapiteljska njiva). 47 as three bracelets in addition to an awl. The position of children remains unanswered to a large extent, also due to 42 For a condensed overview, see Teržan (1999), Figs. 10–13. the small number of graves, in which children had been buried, according to the 43 Pahič, however, interprets the object in the grave 112 from Pobrežje as anthropological analysis. In contrast, it should be stressed that, for example, pincers (Pahič, 1972, p. 61, T. 22: 9–17). certain graves, which appear exceptional according to its composition as well as 44 It is otherwise interesting that on the Urnfield period cemeteries the their grave-goods, could be attributed, on the basis of the jewellery size, to spearheads appear only in one of the graves on the entire cemetery. On the children or juvenile persons (girls, young females). Likewise, the graves of phenomenon of single graves with spearhead within the Urnfield period ce- children (Infans II) are attested as well in the attire with torques, which in our meteries, see Teržan (1999), p. 115, Fig. 10. One spearhead can be found, for opinion indicates a special social position of the buried (Table 6). 48 example, also at the cemeteries of Ormož and Tolmin (Tomanič-Jevremov, See above; this situation clearly does not hold true for the graves from the 1988–1989, T. 19: 9; Svoljšak, Pogačnik, 2001, T. 27: 10; 99: 19). western part of Slovenia (Teržan, 1999, pp. 112–113). 154 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 4. Concluding remarks making them parallel with the buildings in the eastern part. These changes are ascribable to an increase in economic activities, also me- The archaeological records from the area of Ljubljana witnessed tallurgy, and mirrored in the use of space or of certain buildings. This is marked changes at the transition from the Early to the Late Urnfield also the period when pieces of iron slag first appear at Tribuna (Fig. 6). period, i.e. in Ha A/B roughly in the mid-11th century BC. These changes The Phase 2 changes at Tribuna were presumably brought on by have been observed both in the settlement and cemetery records. The increased economic activities and the construction of new facilities or number of burials in the Ljubljana cemetery (Dvorišče SAZU), which had workshops. They do not, however, seem to be reflected in the associated been in use from the beginning of the Late Bronze Age, increased sig- cemetery, which revealed no major changes in either attire, funerary nificantly at this time (Figs. 7 and 8). Apart from Ljubljana, such an ritual, or grave construction/markers between the mid-11th and the first increase has been noted not only in the contemporary Urnfield culture half of the 9th century BC. Furthermore, the number of grave-goods cemeteries in the Podravje and Posavje regions in Slovenia, but much associated with various crafts remained very low. This shows that the wider. In view of this broad occurrence, it is possible that the custom of status of a craftsman was not recognisable in the funerary attire, though not burying larger parts of the population was abandoned (e. g. Metzner- it is also true that men in general were completely concealed in the fu- Nebelsick, 2017, p. 352). Concurrently with the increased number of nerary attire as far as their image, status and identity were concerned; burials, the Ljubljana cemetery also witnessed a change in the burial they were “faceless”. The rare graves with tools and implements held the ritual. Graves without urns first appeared, with the cremated bones burials of girls and women (Graves 41, 53, 305, and 316; Fig. 9). These simply laid onto the bottom of the grave pit, though these were limited to rank among those graves that stand apart from others in the combination the eastern part of the investigated cemetery (Fig. 7). In the western part, of grave-goods. A similar observation can be made for the graves 54 and cremated remains continued to be inurned. It is also interesting that most 258 with the earliest iron artefacts in the cemetery – both were burials of of the pottery from the graves in the eastern part was intentionally women (Fig. 10). The size of the jewellery in these graves suggests that broken prior to deposition and some of the sherds show traces of sec- the iron artefacts belong to young individuals, i.e. girls. ondary exposure to fire. Of the broken pots, only select sherds were laid The analysis of the attire from the Ljubljana cemetery has shown that it into graves, for example handles, decorated sherds, and so forth. There certainly reflects gender differences, as recently confirmed by the results of was also an increase in the number of grave-goods of bronze, which were the anthropological analysis. The combination of grave-goods also shows a fragmented and some burnt, presumably on the pyre. This funerary ri- “stratification” of the female attire as markers of sex, age, social standing, tual, without an urn and with pottery sherds as grave-goods, was prac- and membership of a family/clan. The attire was also a visual expression tised to the end of the Late Bronze Age; with the onset of the Iron Age, of the material, relational, and embodied wealth of an individual or his/ inurned burial again prevailed. her family or clan. As mentioned above, the male members of the popu- Also in Ha A/B, the recent investigations of the settlement at lation were almost completely concealed. The differences in the funerary Tribuna have shown the first expansion of settlement outside the hill of rituals and practices (inurned burial, burial without an urn, pottery sherds Grajski hrib (Fig. 1). The causes for this expansion are as yet unclear. in the grave, fragmentation of goods and so forth) were not associated What is certain is that a settlement in Tribuna was established at the with a particular sex, but rather with the position within the burial foot of the Grajski hrib, on the right bank of the Ljubljanica River, in a grounds. The presumably demographic characteristics of individual clus- single campaign, practically in the span of “only one generation” and ters of graves as revealed by the results of the anthropological analyses and according to a preconceived and well-organised plan (Fig. 2). The main the distribution of individual pieces of attire suggest that they can be seen road through the settlement formed the spine of the settlement grid, to represent nuclear or extended families. This interpretation, however, with a network of perpendicular and parallel streets leading off it, as cannot be extended to all the spatial groups of graves. Standing apart in well as open spaces or squares and variously-sized buildings of rec- this sense is grave group no. 4 in the central-eastern part of the in- tangular plans filling the spaces in between. This was a feat of con- vestigated cemetery (Fig. 8), which has been discussed above. The dif- struction and organisation that certainly required a high level of or- ferences between the eastern and western parts of the cemetery, dis- ganisation, coordination, and management of the work. The clear cernible in the burial ritual, attire, and number/density of graves are, differentiation between the size and function of individual buildings – therefore, interpreted as the intent on the part of certain individuals and interpreted as houses and as houses with associated workshops – with a their families/clans to use the practice of certain rituals, the structure of distinction between those in the eastern and those in the western parts, grave markers and the choice of location within the burial grounds to the preconceived settlement grid and the public spaces, such as squares, assert their position and identity within the local and regional community. streets, and roads, reveal the remains excavated at Tribuna in Ljubljana The presence of extremely rare iron artefacts in the 11th/10th as a proto-urban settlement (e.g. Hänsel, 1996; Hänsel, 2000). There centuries BC both in the cemetery and the settlement at Ljubljana shows are only rare parallels for such a settlement from the mid-11th century that only individuals had access to this extremely precious metal BC. Similar characteristics have been observed in the settlement at (Figs. 5: 12,23–24,26–27; 6 and 10: 6). Crielaard put forward an in- Ormož, which was established slightly later, in Ha B1–B2 (Dular, teresting hypothesis that iron was employed as a powerful means of Tomanič Jevremov, 2010, p. 81). Analysing the remains from Ormož, social distinction in 11th- and 10th-century Greece. In his opinion, some authors have suggested that the differences in the building size especially high-ranking individuals had preferential access to these reflected social stratification (Lamut, 1987, p. 49; Teržan, 1999, p. scarce resources of novel Cypriot know-how (Crielaard, 1998, p. 191). 106). The settlement features and small finds from Ormož reveal that The discussion on whence the first iron artefacts came to the south- casting was limited to certain buildings and was, therefore, a specia- eastern Alpine area and how they may be interpreted certainly goes lised craft that played a significant role for the settlement as a whole. beyond the scope of this contribution.49 Here we should note that all The remains from Tribuna allow similar observations. Moreover, there known artefacts of iron from the 11th/10th centuries BC recovered in appears to have been a clear division between the western and eastern the cemeteries at Brežec near Škocjan and Tolmin, located in Primorska parts of the Tribuna settlement, with the former mainly residential and region (W Slovenia) (Trampuž Orel, 2012, Fig. 3), as well as the items the latter largely reserved for crafts, metallurgy, and other activities. from Tribuna are mainly tools or weapons (axe, small knives, awl/ One of the main differences between the settlements at Ormož and chisel, and nails). Only Grave 258 from the Dvorišče SAZU cemetery in Tribuna is that metallurgy at Ljubljana was not limited to casting, as in Ljubljana yielded a bimetal piece of jewellery. The early iron jewellery the case of Ormož, but extended to include ironworking/blacksmithing. The settlement at Tribuna saw major changes in Phase 2, during the 10th century BC, that pertained to the settlement grid, but only in the 49 Recently on the first iron artefacts in the south-eastern Alpine region see (north)western part (Fig. 3). The orientation of buildings shifted by 90°, Trampuž Orel (2012); Pare (2017), with references. 155 B. Škvor Jernejčič, and P. Vojaković Quaternary International 539 (2020) 138–157 includes a twisted iron torque from Grave 54 in Ljubljana, though it is Slovenia. In: In: Lochner, M., Ruppenstein, F. (Eds.), Brandbestattungen von der more recent, dated to the 9th century BC. Also of the late 10th and 9th mittleren Donau bis zur Ägäis zwischen 1300 und 750 v. Chr, Akten des inter- nationalen Symposiums an der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in century, the appearance of the first iron jewellery (exclusively torques) Wien, 11.–12. Februar 2010. Mitteilungen der Prähistorischen Kommission 77 = has been documented on sites such as Brežec near Škocjan, Zidanica Veröffentlichungen der Mykenischen Kommission, vol 32. pp. 79–97. near Podnanos, Miklavž near Maribor, Ormož and Budinjak (Ruaro Crielaard, J.P., 1998. Surfing on the mediterranean web: Cypriot long-distance commu- nications during the eleventh and tenth centuries B.C. In: Karageorghis, V., Loseri et al., 1977, pp. 93–94, Figs. 13: 15; 14: 15; Pl. XXXIII: T. 165; Stampolidis, N. (Eds.), Eastern Mediterranean: Cyprus-Dodecanese-Crete, 16th-6th Škvor Jernejčič, 2017, pp. 100–103, Fig. 91; Bratina, 2014, Figs. 34.5: Cent. B.C. Proceedings of the International Symposium, Rethymnon 13-16 May 1997. 1; 34.6; Črešnar, Murko, 2014, Figs. 10.4: 1; 10.5; Jevremov, University of Crete, Athen, pp. 187–204. Dular, J., 1983. Die Hügelgräbernekropole in Loka bei Črnomelj. Arheol. Vestn. 34, 1988–1989, Pl. 13: 1; Škoberne, Bugar, 2016, Pl. 1: 3). Apart from these 219–244. sites, iron torques of such an early date have only been found in eastern Dular, J., 2003. Die Hallstattzeitlichen Nekropolen in Dolenjsko. Opera Instituti Turkey, in the Urartian settlement at Toprak Kale near Lake Van, and in Archaeologici Sloveniae 6. Inštitut za arheologijo ZRC SAZU, Založba ZRC, Ljubljana. Dular, J., 2008a. Pogled na družbeno strukturo železnodobne Dolenjske. Kronika 56, the Caucasus (Okropiridze, Baramidze, 1979, Pl. XIX: 397; Teržan, 425–434. 1995, Fig. 20, List 15; Reinhold, 2007, pp. 79–81, 521, Fig. 32: B1B, Dular, J., 2008b. Prehistoric building techniques and their terminology. Ann. Ser. Hist. Liste 346), which raises intriguing questions as to the appearance of the Sociol. 18/2, 337–348. first iron artefacts southeast of the Alps. As we have shown in the Dular, J., 2013. Nordostslowenien in der späten Bronzezeit. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae, vol 27 Inštitut za arheologijo ZRC SAZU, Založba ZRC, Ljubljana. chapter on cemetery records, bronze torques formed part of the Dular, J., 2016. Der eisenzeitliche Zentralort Vače und seine kriegerische Elite. Arheol. “richest” female attire, both at Ljubljana and at other contemporary Vestn. 67, 73–104. sites; we may, therefore, argue that the first iron jewellery – iron tor- Dular, J., Tecco Hvala, S., 2007. South-Eastern Slovenia in the Early Iron Age: Settlement, Economy, Society. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae, vol. 12 Inštitut za ar- ques – was the mark of the select few. heologijo ZRC SAZU, Založba ZRC, Ljubljana. The individuals living in Ljubljana that had the possession of these Dular, J., Tomanič Jevremov, M., 2010. Ormož. Befestigte Siedlung aus der späten first iron artefacts and possibly even had access to or control of the raw Bronze- und älteren Eisenzeit. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 18. Inštitut za arheologijo ZRC SAZU, Založba ZRC, Ljubljana. material and the know-how associated with ferrous metallurgy during Falkenstein, F., 2005. Aspekte von Alter und Geschlecht im Bestattungsbrauchtum der the 10th century BC may be seen as differing in their material, rela- nordalpinen Bronzezeit. In: In: Müller, J. (Ed.), Alter und Geschlecht in ur- und tional, and embodied wealth from other members of the local com- frühgeschichtlichen Gesellschaften, vol 126. Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie, Bonn, pp. 73–90. munity and the communities in the wider region. Control of the metal Gabrovec, S., 1973. Začetek halštatskega obdobja v Sloveniji. Arheol. Vestn. 24, 338–385. technology and of the resources, in this case, iron ore and ironworking/ Gabrovec, S., 1983. Jugoistočnoalpska regija. Kasno brončano doba (kultura polja sa blacksmithing, may also have been contributing factors in the process žarama). In: Benac, A. (Ed.), Praistorija Jugoslavenskih Zemalja IV – Brončano Doba, pp. 52–96 Sarajevo. of emerging Bronze Age elites (Shennan, 1986; Harding, 2000, p. 391). Gabrovec, S., 1999. 50 Jahre Archäologie der älteren Eisenzeit in Slowenien. Arheol. Vestn. 50, 145–188. Acknowledgement Gilman, A., 1981. The development of social stratification in bronze age Europe. Curr. Anthropol. 22/1, 1–23 (Feb., 1981). Grahek, L., 2015. Orehova Vas. Zbirka Arheologija Na Avtocestah Slovenije 46. Zavod za The following research has been undertaken as a part of a Post- varstvo kulturne dediščine Slovenije, Ljubljana. Doctoral Research "Project Beyond materiality: prehistoric communities Guba, S., Szeverényi, V., 2007. Bronze age bird representations from the Carpathian and their burial customs in the light of new scientific analyses" (Z6- Basin. Commun. Archaeol. Hung. 75–110 2007. Hänsel, B., 1996. Bronzezeitliche Siedlungssysteme und Gesellschaftsformen in 8252), funded by the Slovenian Research Agency. We are grateful to Südosteuropa: vorstädtische Entwicklungen und Ansätze zur Stadtwerdung. The Irena Šinkovec for giving us full access to the archeological material Bronze Age in Europe and the Mediterranean. The Colloquia of the XIII International held in City museum of Ljubljana, Tatjana Tomazo Ravnik for the an- Congress of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences, vol 11. pp. 241–251 Forlì 1996), Forlì. thropological analysis, Borut Toškan for the archeozoological analysis Hänsel, B., 2000. Stationen der Bronzezeit zwischen Griechenland und Mitteleuropa. and to two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on the Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission 83, 69–98. earlier draft of this paper. Many thanks are addressed to Andreja Maver Harding, A.F., 2000. European Societies in the Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. and Miha Kunstelj for English translation as well as Terry Troy Jackson Harding, A.F., 2008. Razors and male identity in the bronze age. 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