Persian alphabet - Wikipedia

Persian alphabet - Wikipedia
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Writing system used for the Persian language
For other scripts that have been used to write the Persian language, see
Persian language § Orthography
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Persian alphabet
الفبای فارسی
Alefbâ-ye Fârsi
A page from a 12th century manuscript of "Kitab al-Abniya 'an Haqa'iq al-Adwiya" by
Abu Mansur Muwaffaq
with special Persian letters p (پ), ch (چ) and g (گ = ڭـ).
Script type
Abjad
Period
c.
7th century CE
– present
Direction
Right-to-left script
Languages
Persian
(including Iranian and Dari dialects),
Mazanderani
Qashqai
Luri
Gilaki
Kurdish
(excluding Kurds in Turkey),
Talysh
Azerbaijani
(in Iran),
Pamir languages
Pashto
Urdu
Balochi
Sindhi
(in Pakistan),
Punjabi
(in Pakistan),
Uzbek
(in Afghanistan),
Turkmen
(in Afghanistan),
Saraiki
Hindko
Brahui
, languages spoken in
Kashmir
Related scripts
Parent systems
Egyptian hieroglyphs
Proto-Sinaitic
Phoenician
Aramaic
Nabataean
Arabic
Persian alphabet
Child systems
Adyghe Arabic
Arabi Malayalam
(indirectly)
Arabic Afrikaans
Arwi
(indirectly)
Avar Arabic
Azerbaijani Arabic
Belarusian Arabic
Chagatai
Dobrujan Tatar Arabic
Karachay-Balkar Arabic
Karakalpak Arabic
Kazakh Arabic
Kumyk Arabic
Kyrgyz Arabic
İske imlâ
Yaña imlâ
Uyghur
Sarikoli
(with some influence from Pashto orthography)
Chechen Arabic
(indirectly)
Gilaki
Indo-Persian
Aer
Kashmiri
Marwari Arabic
Shahmukhi
Punjabi
Hindko
Saraiki
Urdu
Balochi
(indirectly)
Balti
Bangladeshi Arabic alphabet
Brahui
Burushaski
Gawar-Bati
Khowar
Kohistani Shina
Palula
Rohingya Arabic
Shina
Torwali
Wakhi
(in Pakistan)
Jawi
(indirectly)
Kabardian Arabic
Khorasani Turkic
Kurdo-Arabic
Lak Arabic
Lezgin Arabic
Luri
Northern Luri
Bakhtiari
Southern Luri
Pashto
Munji
Ormuri
Shughni Arabic
Wakhi
(in Afghanistan)
Sindhi
Parkari Koli
Ottoman Turkish
Arebica
Albanian Arabic
Crimean Tatar Arabic
(could instead be a descendant of Chagatai)
Greek Aljamiado
Turkmen Arabic
Xiao'erjing
This article contains
phonetic transcriptions
in the
International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA)
. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
Help:IPA
. For the distinction between
[ ]
/ /
and ⟨
⟩, see
IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
This article contains
Persian text
Without proper
rendering support
, you may see
question marks, boxes, or other symbols
Persian alphabet
Perso-Arabic script
Transliteration
Diacritics
Hamza
Numerals
Numeration
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The
Persian alphabet
Persian
الفبای فارسی
romanized
Alefbâ-ye Fârsi
), also known as the
Perso-Arabic script
, is the
right-to-left
alphabet
used for the
Persian language
An
Arabic-based alphabet
, it is largely identical to the
Arabic alphabet
with four additional letters:
پ چ ژ گ
(the sounds 'g', 'zh', 'ch', and 'p', respectively), in addition to the obsolete
that was used for the sound
. This letter is no longer used in Persian, as the
-sound changed to
, e.g. archaic
زڤان
/zaβɑn/
زبان
/zæbɒn/
'language'.
Although the sound
) is written as "
" nowadays in
Farsi
(Dari-Parsi/
New Persian
), it is different to the Arabic
) sound, which uses the same letter.
It was the basis of many
Arabic-based scripts
used in Central and South Asia. It is used for both
Iranian
and
Dari
, which are
standard varieties
of Persian, and is one of two
official
writing systems
for the Persian language, alongside the
Cyrillic
-based
Tajik alphabet
The script is mostly but not exclusively
right-to-left
; mathematical expressions, numeric dates and numbers bearing units are embedded from left to right. The script is
cursive
, meaning most letters in a word connect to each other; when they are typed, contemporary
word processors
automatically join adjacent letter forms. Persian is unusual among Arabic scripts because a
zero-width non-joiner
is sometimes entered in a word, causing a letter to become disconnected from others in the same word.
History
edit
The Persian alphabet is directly derived and developed from the
Arabic alphabet
. The Arabic alphabet was introduced to the Persian-speaking world after the
Muslim conquest of Persia
and the fall of the
Sasanian Empire
in the 7th century. Following this, the
Arabic
language became the principal language of government and religious institutions in
Persia
, which led to the widespread usage of the Arabic script. Classical
Persian literature
and poetry were affected by this simultaneous usage of
Arabic
and
Persian
. A new influx of
Arabic
vocabulary soon entered the
Persian
language.
In the 8th century, the
Tahirid dynasty
and
Samanid dynasty
officially adopted the Arabic script for writing Persian, followed by the
Saffarid dynasty
in the 9th century, gradually displacing the various
Pahlavi scripts
used for the Persian language earlier. By the 9th-century, the Perso-Arabic alphabet became the dominant form of writing in
Greater Khorasan
Under the influence of various Persian Empires, many languages in Central and South Asia that adopted the Arabic script use the Persian Alphabet as the basis of their writing systems. Today, extended versions of the Persian alphabet are used to write a wide variety of
Indo-Iranian languages
, including
Kurdish
Balochi
Pashto
Urdu
(from
Classical Hindustani
),
Saraiki
Panjabi
Sindhi
and
Kashmiri
. In the past the use of the Persian alphabet was common among
Turkic languages
, but today is relegated to those spoken within Iran, such as
Azerbaijani
Turkmen
Qashqai
Chaharmahali
and
Khalaj
. The
Uyghur language
in western China is the most notable exception to this.
During the
Soviet
period many languages in Central Asia, including Persian, were reformed by the government. This ultimately resulted in the Cyrillic-based alphabet used in Tajikistan today. See:
Tajik alphabet § History
Letters
edit
Example showing the
Nastaʿlīq
calligraphic style's proportion rules
Below are the 32 letters of the modern Persian alphabet. Since the script is cursive, the appearance of a letter changes depending on its position: isolated, initial (joined on the left), medial (joined on both sides) and final (joined on the right) of a word.
These include 28 letters of the
Arabic alphabet
, in addition to 4 other letters.
The names of the letters are mostly the ones used in Arabic except for the Persian pronunciation. The only ambiguous name is
he
, which is used for both
and
. For clarification, they are often called
hâ-ye jimi
(literally "
jim
-like
he
" after
jim
, the name for the letter
that uses the same base form) and
hâ-ye do-češm
(literally "two-eyed
he
", after the contextual middle letterform
ـهـ
), respectively. There are nine Persian letters that are mainly used in Arabic or foreign loanwords and not in native words:
and
. These nine letters are also commonly used only in proper names. Unlike Arabic, the Persian language does not have
pharyngealization
at all. Although the letter
is mainly used in Arabic loanwords, there are some native Persian words with this letter:
آغاز
زغال
, etc. The pronunciation of these letters in Persian can differ from their pronunciation in Arabic. For example, the letter ث is pronounced as
in Persian, while it is pronounced as
in Arabic.
Letter
Persian
Arabic
/s/
/θ/
/h/
/ħ/
/z/
/ð/
/s/
/sˤ/
/z/
/dˤ/
/t/
/tˤ/
/z/
/ðˤ/
/ʔ/
/ʕ/
or
/ɣ/
Overview table
edit
Name
(in Persian)
Name
(transliterated)
Transliteration
IPA
Unicode
Contextual forms
Final
Medial
Initial
Isolated
همزه
hamze
Glottal stop
U+0621
N/a
N/a
N/a
U+0623
ـأ
U+0626
ـئ
ـئـ
ئـ
U+0624
ـؤ
الف
alef
U+0627
ـا
be
U+0628
ـب
ـبـ
بـ
pe
U+067E
ـپ
ـپـ
پـ
te
U+062A
ـت
ـتـ
تـ
se
s̱
U+062B
ـث
ـثـ
ثـ
جیم
jim
d͡ʒ
U+062C
ـج
ـجـ
جـ
če
t͡ʃ
U+0686
ـچ
ـچـ
چـ
he
hâ-ye jimi
U+062D
ـح
ـحـ
حـ
xe
U+062E
ـخ
ـخـ
خـ
10
دال
dâl
U+062F
ـد
11
ذال
zâl
U+0630
ـذ
12
re
U+0631
ـر
13
ze
U+0632
ـز
14
že
U+0698
ـژ
15
سین
sin
U+0633
ـس
ـسـ
سـ
16
شین
šin
U+0634
ـش
ـشـ
شـ
17
صاد
sâd
U+0635
ـص
ـصـ
صـ
18
ضاد
zâd
U+0636
ـض
ـضـ
ضـ
19
طا
tâ
U+0637
ـط
ـطـ
طـ
20
ظا
zâ
U+0638
ـظ
ـظـ
ظـ
21
عین
ʿeyn
U+0639
ـع
ـعـ
عـ
22
غین
ġeyn
U+063A
ـغ
ـغـ
غـ
23
fe
U+0641
ـف
ـفـ
فـ
24
قاف
qâf
U+0642
ـق
ـقـ
قـ
25
کاف
kâf
U+06A9
ـک
ـکـ
کـ
26
گاف
gâf
U+06AF
ـگ
ـگـ
گـ
27
لام
lâm
U+0644
ـل
ـلـ
لـ
28
میم
mim
U+0645
ـم
ـمـ
مـ
29
نون
nun
U+0646
ـن
ـنـ
نـ
30
واو
vâv
(in Farsi)
ow
uː
(only word-finally)
U+0648
ـو
wâw
(in Dari)
aw
uː
oː
31
he
hā-ye do-češm
, or
and
(word-finally)
U+0647
ـه
ـهـ
هـ
32
ye
/ (Also
ay
in Dari)
ɒː
eː
in Dari)
U+06CC
ـی
ـیـ
یـ
Historically, in
Early New Persian
, there was a special letter for the sound
. This letter is no longer used, as the
/β/
-sound changed to
, e.g. archaic
زڤان
/zaβān/ >
زبان
/zæbɒːn/
'language'.
10
Name
(in Persian)
Name
(transliterated)
Transliteration
Sound
Isolated form
Final form
Medial form
Initial form
ve
ـڤ
ـڤـ
ڤـ
Another obsolete variant of the twenty-sixth letter
is
ݣ‎
which used to appear in old manuscripts.
Sound
Isolated form
Final form
Medial form
Initial form
Name
ݣ‎
ـݣ‎
ـݣـ‎
ڭـ
gâf
Another obsolete variant of the twenty-fifth letter
is
ك‎
which used to appear in old manuscripts.
Sound
Isolated form
Final form
Medial form
Initial form
Name
ك‎
‎ـك
ـكـ‎
كـ
kâf
The archaic letter
was also used as a substitute for the twenty-sixth letter of the Persian alphabet,
, which was used to appear in the older manuscripts of Persian in the late 18th century to the early 19th century.
Sound
Isolated form
Final form
Medial form
Initial form
Name
ݿ‎
‎ـݿ
ـݿـ‎
ݿـ
gâf
Variants
edit
Noto Nastaliq Urdu
Scheherazade
Lateef
Noto Naskh Arabic
Markazi Text
Noto Sans Arabic
Baloo Bhaijaan
El Messiri SemiBold
Lemonada Medium
Changa Medium
Mada
Noto Kufi Arabic
Reem Kufi
Lalezar
Jomhuria
Rakkas
The alphabet in 16 fonts:
Noto Nastaliq Urdu, Scheherazade, Lateef, Noto Naskh Arabic, Markazi Text, Noto Sans Arabic, Baloo Bhaijaan, El Messiri SemiBold, Lemonada Medium, Changa Medium, Mada, Noto Kufi Arabic, Reem Kufi, Lalezar, Jomhuria, and Rakkas.
Letter construction
edit
forms
(i)
isolated
start
ٮـ
حـ
سـ
صـ
طـ
عـ
ڡـ
کـ
لـ
مـ
هـ
mid
ـا
ـٮـ
ـحـ
ـسـ
ـصـ
ـطـ
ـعـ
ـڡـ
ـکـ
ـلـ
ـمـ
ـد
ـر
ـو
ـهـ
end
ـا
ـى
ـں
ـٮ
ـح
ـس
ـص
ـط
ـع
ـڡ
ـٯ
ـک
ـل
ـم
ـد
ـر
ـو
ـه
i'jam
(i)
Unicode
0621 .
0627 .
0649 .
06BA .
066E .
062D .
0633 .
0635 .
0637 .
0639 .
06A1 .
066F .
066F .
0644 .
0645 .
062F .
0631 .
0648. .
0647 .
1 dot below
Unicode
FBB3
0628 .
062C .
1 dot above
Unicode
FBB2
0646 .
062E .
0636 .
0638 .
063A .
0641 .
0630 .
0632 .
2 dots below
(ii)
Unicode
FBB5
06CC .
2 dots above
Unicode
FBB4
062A .
0642 .
0629 .
3 dots below
Unicode
FBB9
FBB7
067E .
0686 .
3 dots above
Unicode
FBB6
062B .
0634 .
0698 .
line above
Unicode
203E
06AF .
none
Unicode
0621 .
0627 .
0649 .
06BA .
062D .
0633 .
0635 .
0637 .
0639 .
066F .
0644 .
0645 .
062F .
0631 .
0648. .
0647 .
madda
above
Unicode
06E4
0653
0622 .
Hamza
below
ــٕـ
Unicode
0655
0625 .
Hamza
above
ــٔـ
Unicode
0674
0654
0623 .
0626 .
0624 .
06C0 .
^i.
The
i'jam
diacritic characters are illustrative only; in most typesetting the combined characters in the middle of the table are used.
^ii.
Persian
yē
has 2 dots below in the initial and middle positions only. The
standard Arabic
version
ي يـ ـيـ ـي
always has 2 dots below.
Letters that do not link to a following letter
edit
Seven letters (
) do not connect to the following letter, unlike the rest of the letters of the alphabet. The seven letters have the same form in isolated and initial position and a second form in medial and final position. For example, when the letter
alef
is at the beginning of a word such as
اینجا
injâ
("here"), the same form is used as in an isolated
alef
. In the case of
امروز
emruz
("today"), the letter
re
takes the final form and the letter
vâv
takes the isolated form, but they are in the middle of the word, and
also has its isolated form, but it occurs at the end of the word.
Diacritics
edit
Persian script has adopted a subset of
Arabic diacritics
zabar
fatḥah
in Arabic),
zēr
kasrah
in Arabic), and
pēš
ou̯
or
ḍammah
in Arabic, pronounced
zamme
in
Western Persian
),
tanwīne nasb
and
šaddah
gemination
). Other Arabic diacritics may be seen in Arabic loanwords in Persian.
Nastaliq
Persian Calligram
the Persian letter
Mem
Short vowels
edit
Of the four Arabic diacritics, the Persian language has adopted the following three for short vowels.
Short vowels
(fully
vocalized
text)
Name
(in Persian)
Name
(transliterated)
Trans.
(a)
Value
(b)
(Farsi/Dari)
064E
◌َ
زبر
(فتحه)
zebar
zibar
0650
◌ِ
زیر
(کسره)
zer
zir
064F
◌ُ
پیش
(ضمّه)
peš
piš
^a.
There is no standard transliteration for Persian. The letters 'i' and 'u' are only ever used as short vowels when transliterating Dari or Tajik Persian. See
Persian Phonology
^b.
Diacritics differ by dialect, due to Dari having 8 distinct vowels compared to the 6 vowels of Farsi. See
Persian Phonology
In Farsi, none of these short vowels may be the initial or final grapheme in an isolated word, although they may appear in the final position as an
inflection
, when the word is part of a noun group. In a word that starts with a vowel, the first grapheme is a silent
alef
which carries the short vowel, e.g.
اُمید
omid
, meaning "hope"). In a word that ends with a vowel, letters
and
respectively become the proxy letters for
zebar
zir
and
piš
, e.g.
نو
now
, meaning "new") or
بسته
bast-e
, meaning "package").
Tanvin (nunation)
edit
Main article:
Nunation
Nunation (
Persian
تنوین
tanvin
) is the addition of one of three vowel diacritics to a noun or adjective to indicate that the word ends in an alveolar nasal sound without the addition of the letter nun.
Nunation
(fully
vocalized
text)
Name
(in Persian)
Name
(transliterated)
Notes
064B
َاً، ـاً، ءً
تنوین نَصْبْ
Tanvine nasb
064D
ٍِ
تنوین جَرّ
Tanvine jarr
Never used in the Persian language.
Taught in
Islamic
nations to complement
Quran
education.
064C
تنوین رَفْعْ
Tanvine rafʿ
Tašdid
edit
Main article:
Shadda
Symbol
Name
(in Persian)
Name
(transliteration)
0651
تشدید
tašdid
Other characters
edit
The following are not actual letters but different orthographical shapes for letters, a ligature in the case of the
lâm alef
. As to
hamza
), it has only one graphical form since it is never tied to a preceding or following letter. However, it is sometimes 'seated' on a
vâv
ye
or
alef
, and in that case, the seat behaves like an ordinary
vâv
ye
or
alef
respectively. Technically,
hamza
is not a letter but a diacritic.
Name
Pronunciation
IPA
Unicode
Final
Medial
Initial
Stand-alone
Notes
alef madde
U+0622
ـآ
The final form is very rare and is freely replaced with ordinary
alef
he ye
-eye
or
-eyeh
U+06C0
ـۀ
Validity of this form depends on region and dialect. Some may use the two-letter
ـه‌ی
or
ه‌ی
combinations instead.
lām alef
lā
U+0644 (lām) and U+0627 (alef)
ـلا
لا
kašida
U+0640
This is the medial character which connects other characters
Although at first glance, they may seem similar, there are many differences in the way the different languages use the alphabets. For example, similar words are written differently in Persian and Arabic, as they are used differently.
Unicode has accepted
U+262B
FARSI SYMBOL
in the
Miscellaneous Symbols
range.
11
In Unicode 1.0 this symbol was known as
SYMBOL OF IRAN
12
It is a stylization of
الله
Allah
) used as the
emblem of Iran
. It is also a part of the
flag of Iran
The Unicode Standard has a compatibility character defined
U+FDFC
RIAL SIGN
that can represent
ریال
, the Persian name of the
currency of Iran
13
Novel letters
edit
The Persian alphabet has four extra letters that are not in the Arabic alphabet:
t͡ʃ
ch
in
chair
),
in
measure
),
. An additional fifth letter
was used for
/β/
v in
Spanish
huevo
) but it is no longer used.
Sound
Shape
Name
Unicode code point
pe
U+067E
t͡ʃ
(ch)
če
U+0686
(zh)
že
U+0698
gâf
U+06AF
Deviations from the Arabic script
edit
Persian uses the
Eastern Arabic numerals
, but the shapes of the digits 'four' (
), 'five' (
), and 'six' (
) are different from the shapes used in Arabic. All the digits also have different codepoints in
Unicode
14
Hindu-Arabic
Persian
Name
Unicode
Arabic
Unicode
صفر
sefr
U+06F0
U+0660
يک
yek
U+06F1
U+0661
دو
do
U+06F2
U+0662
سه
se
U+06F3
U+0663
چهار
čahâr
U+06F4
U+0664
پنج
panj
U+06F5
U+0665
شش
šeš
U+06F6
U+0666
هفت
haft
U+06F7
U+0667
هشت
hašt
U+06F8
U+0668
نه
no
U+06F9
U+0669
ye
U+06CC
U+064A
kâf
U+06A9
U+0643
Many Perso-Arabic scripts in South Asia share close similarities (use of Nastaliq, use of superscript ط to represent retroflex consonants, etc.) due to mutual contact during development. It is inaccurate to say that one Indo-Persian script directly descends from another, and instead, they are best seen as a cluster of scripts with common origin.
However, the Arabic variant continues to be used in its traditional style in the
Nile Valley
, similarly as it is used in Persian and Ottoman Turkish.
Comparison of different numerals
edit
See also:
Eastern Arabic numerals § Numerals
Western Arabic
10
Eastern Arabic
١٠
Persian
۱۰
Urdu
۱۰
Abjad numerals
U+0660 through U+0669
U+06F0 through U+06F9
. The numbers 4, 5, and 6 are different from Eastern Arabic.
Same Unicode characters as the Persian, but language is set to Urdu. The numerals 4, 6 and 7 are different from Persian. On some devices, this row may appear identical to Persian.
Word boundaries
edit
Typically, words are separated from each other by a space. Certain morphemes (such as the plural ending '-hâ'), however, are written without a space. On a computer, they are separated from the word using the zero-width non-joiner.
Cyrillic Persian alphabet in Tajikistan
edit
As part of the
russification
of
Central Asia
, the Cyrillic script was introduced in the late 1930s.
15
16
17
18
The alphabet has remained Cyrillic since then. In 1989, with the growth in
Tajik
nationalism, a law was enacted declaring Tajik the
state language
. In addition, the law officially equated Tajik with
Persian
, placing the word
Farsi
(the endonym for the Persian language) after Tajik. The law also called for a gradual reintroduction of the Perso-Arabic alphabet.
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
excessive citations
The Persian alphabet was introduced into
education
and public life, although the banning of the
Islamic Renaissance Party
in 1993 slowed adoption. In 1999, the word
Farsi
was removed from the state-language law, reverting the name to simply
Tajik
[1]
As of 2004
[update]
the
de facto
standard in use is the
Tajik Cyrillic alphabet
[2]
and as of 1996
[update]
only a very small part of the population can read the Persian alphabet.
[3]
See also
edit
Scripts used for Persian
Romanization of Persian
Persian braille
Persian phonology
Abjad numerals
Nastaʿlīq
, the calligraphy used to write Persian before the 20th century
References
edit
"THE ARABI - MALAYALAM SCRIPTURE"
. 2008-03-18. Archived from
the original
on 18 March 2008
. Retrieved
2023-01-11
Paper, Herbert H.; Jazayery, Mohammad Ali (1955).
The Writing System of Modern Persian
(PDF)
. American Council of Learned Societies. p. 1.
"PERSIAN LANGUAGE i. Early New Persian"
Iranica Online
. Retrieved
2 January
2026
Orsatti, Paola (2019).
"Persian Language in Arabic Script: The Formation of the Orthographic Standard and the Different Graphic Traditions of Iran in the First Centuries of the Islamic Era"
Creating Standards (Book)
Lapidus, Ira M. (2012).
Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History
Cambridge University Press
. p. 256.
ISBN
978-0-521-51441-5
Lapidus, Ira M. (2002).
A History of Islamic Societies
Cambridge University Press
. p. 127.
ISBN
978-0-521-77933-3
Ager, Simon.
"Persian (Fārsī / فارسی)"
Omniglot
"ویژگى‌هاى خطّ فارسى"
Academy of Persian Language and Literature
. Archived from
the original
on 2017-09-07
. Retrieved
2017-08-05
"??"
(PDF)
. Persianacademy.ir. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2015-09-24
. Retrieved
2015-09-05
"PERSIAN LANGUAGE i. Early New Persian"
Iranica Online
. Retrieved
18 March
2019
"Miscellaneous Symbols"
. p. 4.
The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0
. Unicode.org
"3.8 Block-by-block Charts"
§ Miscellaneous Dingbats p. 325 (155 electronically).
The Unicode Standard Version 1.0
. Unicode.org
For the proposal, see
Pournader, Roozbeh (2001-09-20).
"Proposal to add Arabic Currency Sign Rial to the UCS"
(PDF)
It proposes the character under the name of
ARABIC CURRENCY SIGN RIAL
, which was changed by the standard committees to
RIAL SIGN
"Unicode Characters in the 'Number, Decimal Digit' Category"
Hämmerle, Christa (2008).
Gender Politics in Central Asia: Historical Perspectives and Current Living Conditions of Women
. Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar.
ISBN
978-3-412-20140-1
Cavendish, Marshall (September 2006).
World and Its Peoples
. Marshall Cavendish.
ISBN
978-0-7614-7571-2
Landau, Jacob M.; Landau, Yaʿaqov M.; Kellner-Heinkele, Barbara (2001).
Politics of Language in the Ex-Soviet Muslim States: Azerbayjan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan
. University of Michigan Press.
ISBN
978-0-472-11226-5
Buyers, Lydia M. (2003).
Central Asia in Focus: Political and Economic Issues
. Nova Publishers.
ISBN
978-1-59033-153-8
Ehteshami, Anoushiravan (1994).
From the Gulf to Central Asia: Players in the New Great Game
. University of Exeter Press.
ISBN
978-0-85989-451-7
Malik, Hafeez (1996).
Central Asia: Its Strategic Importance and Future Prospects
. St. Martin's Press.
ISBN
978-0-312-16452-2
Banuazizi, Ali; Weiner, Myron (1994).
The New Geopolitics of Central Asia and Its Borderlands
. Indiana University Press.
ISBN
978-0-253-20918-4
Westerlund, David; Svanberg, Ingvar (1999).
Islam Outside the Arab World
. St. Martin's Press.
ISBN
978-0-312-22691-6
Gillespie, Kate; Henry, Clement M. (1995).
Oil in the New World Order
. University Press of Florida.
ISBN
978-0-8130-1367-1
Badan, Phool (2001).
Dynamics of Political Development in Central Asia
. Lancers' Books.
Winrow, Gareth M. (1995).
Turkey in Post-Soviet Central Asia
. Royal Institute of International Affairs.
ISBN
978-0-905031-99-6
Parsons, Anthony (1993).
Central Asia, the Last Decolonization
. David Davies Memorial Institute.
Report on the USSR
. RFE/RL, Incorporated. 1990.
Middle East Monitor
. Middle East Institute. 1990.
Ochsenwald, William; Fisher, Sydney Nettleton (2010-01-06).
The Middle East: A History
. McGraw-Hill Education.
ISBN
978-0-07-338562-4
Gall, Timothy L.; Hobby, Jeneen (2009).
Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life
. Gale.
ISBN
978-1-4144-4892-3
External links
edit
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Persian alphabet
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