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Philo- Last presentation
Nikos Telan
January 14, 2021
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Abstract
With analysis of Giver
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The psychology of giving behavior in islam
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INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY WITH
LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING
Cynicism
-attitude or state of mind characterized by a general distrust of others'
motives believing that humans are selfish by nature, ruled by emotion,
and heavily influenced by the same primitive instincts that helped
humans survive in the wild before agriculture and civilization became
established.
A cynic may have a general lack of faith or hope in the human
species or people motivated by ambition, desire, greed,
gratification, materialism, goals, and opinions that a cynic
perceives as vain, unobtainable, or ultimately meaningless and
therefore deserving of ridicule or admonishment.
Cynicism is a school of ancient Greek philosophy as practiced by the Cynics . For the
Cynics, the purpose of life was to live in virtue, in agreement with nature. As reasoning
creatures, people could gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which
was natural for humans, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, sex, and
fame. Instead, they were to lead a simple life free from all possessions.
Epicureanism
. It propounded an ethic of individual pleasure as
the sole or chief good in life.
Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure
possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering
incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure.
Epicurus was an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He
defined justice as an agreement "neither to harm nor be harmed". The point of living in
a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to
pursue happiness. Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human
happiness are not just.
epicureanism incorporated a
relatively full account of the
social contract theory
Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a
means of overcoming destructive emotions;
the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to
understand the universal reason (logos). A primary aspect of Stoicism involves
improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being:
"Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature. This principle also
applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy,
and jealousy," and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all
men alike are products of nature.
An important part of the therapy of Stoicism was to remind yourself at all times of
what you can and what you can’t. We can’t control geopolitics, we can’t control
the weather, we can’t control the economy, we can’t control other people, we
can’t even control our own bodies, not entirely anyway. The world is beyond our
control. It’s a rough and unpredictable environment that is constantly changing.
The only thing we can really control are our own thoughts and beliefs. If we
remind ourselves of that, and focus our energy and attention on our own beliefs
and opinions, then we can learn to cope wisely with whatever the world throws at
us.
St. Thomas Aquinas
Faith and reason are the two primary tools which are both necessary
together for processing data in order to obtain true knowledge of God. He
believed that God reveals himself through nature, so that rational thinking
and the study of nature is also the study of God (a blend of Aristotelian
Greek philosophy with Christian doctrine).
five positive statements about the divine qualities or the nature of God:
God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.
God is perfect, lacking nothing.
God is infinite, and not limited in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually,
and emotionally limited.
God is immutable, incapable of change in respect of essence and character.
God is one, such that God's essence is the same as God's existence.
Aquinas defined the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, justice and fortitude,
which he held are natural (revealed in nature) and binding on everyone. In addition, there are
three theological virtues, described as faith, hope and charity, which are supernatural and are
distinct from other virtues in that their object is God. Furthermore, he distinguished four kinds
of law: eternal law (the decree of God that governs all creation), natural law (human
"participation" in eternal law, which is discovered by reason), human law (the natural law
applied by governments to societies) and divine law (the specially revealed law in the
St. Augustine
Augustine believed in a hierarchy of being in which God was the Supreme Being on
whom all other beings, that is, all other links in the great chain of being, were totally
dependent.
All beings were good because they tended back toward their creator who had made
them from nothing. Humans, however, possess free will, and can only tend back to
God by an act of the will.
Man's refusal to turn to God is, in this way of thinking, nonbeing, or evil, so although
the whole of creation is good, evil comes into the world through man's rejection of the
good, the true, and the beautiful, that is, God.
The ultimate purpose of education, then, is turning toward God, and Augustine thought
the way to God was to look into oneself. It is here one finds an essential distinction
Augustine makes between knowing about something (cogitare), and understanding
(scire). One can know about oneself, but it is through understanding the mystery of
oneself that one can come to understand the mystery of God. Thus the restless pursuit
of God is always a pursuit of a goal that recedes from the seeker. As humans are
mysteries to themselves, God is understood as wholly mysterious.
Knowledge
Epistemology - episteme-knowledge, understanding; logos-study of) is the
branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge and is also
referred to as "theory of knowledge". Put concisely, it is the study of knowledge and
justified belief.
A priori knowledge or justification- is independent of experience (for
example "All bachelors are unmarried"). a priori argument is one in
which "you can see that it is true just lying on your couch. You don't
have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way
things are in the physical world. You don't have to do any science.“
A posteriori knowledge or justification- is dependent on experience
or empirical evidence (for example "Some bachelors I have met are
very happy").
Innate Ideas
RATIONALISM Vs. Empiricism
Innate Ideas Induction
Reason Sense of Perception
Decduction No innate ideas
Dualism the belief that something is composed of two fundamentally
different components, and it was around long before Descartes put pen to page.
Cartesian Dualism deals specifically with the dual existence of man.
Descartes believed that a man consisted ofI think, therefore I am
Matter: The physical stuff that walks, talks, and plays the accordion.
Mind: The nonphysical substance (sometimes equated with the soul) that thinks, doubts, and
remembers.
Descartes believed in a mechanistic view of the material world — that matter goes about its
business and follows its own laws, except when it is interfered with by the mind. Man's mind,
then, simply "pulls the levers" of the body to do its bidding. Exactly how the nonphysical mind
interacts with the physical body is a point of contention. Descartes believed that the pineal
gland in the brain was the locus of interaction between the mind and body because he
believed that this gland was the only part of the brain that wasn't a duplicate.
It's important to remember that, for Descartes, the brain and the mind are not the same thing.
The brain serves, in part, as a connection between the mind and the body, but because it is a
physical, changeable thing, it is not the actual mind. Man's mind is whole and indivisible,
whereas his body can be changed. You can cut your hair, remove your appendix, or even lose
DUALISM
Descartes also believed that man was the only
dualistic creature. He placed animals in the realm
of the purely physical, mechanistic world, acting
purely on instinct and on the laws of nature.
Descartes was led to his dualistic theories in part
from his most famous philosophical endeavor — to
place into doubt all that could be doubted in the
hope of arriving at a basic, undeniable truth. That
resulted in his famous Cogito ergo sum — I think,
therefore I am. Descartes could doubt the
existence of the physical world and that even his
own body actually existed, but he could not doubt
the idea that his mind existed because doubting is
a thought process. The very act of doubting one's
existence proves that one actually exists;
otherwise, who is doing the doubting?
Through his process of doubting, he recognized
that, regardless of what the changeable physical
world was really like, his mind was still whole and
unchanged, and therefore somehow separate from
Thomas Hobbes
Human beings are physical objects, according to Hobbes, sophisticated machines
all of whose functions and activities can be described and explained in purely
mechanistic terms. Even thought itself, therefore, must be understood as an
instance of the physical operation of the human body. Sensation, for example,
involves a series of mechanical processes operating within the human nervous
system, by means of which the sensible features of material things produce ideas
in the brains of the human beings who perceive them. (Leviathan I 1)
Human action is similarly to be explained on Hobbes's view. Specific desires and
appetites arise in the human body and are experienced as discomforts or pains
which must be overcome. Thus, each of us is motivated to act in such ways as we
believe likely to relieve our discomfort, to preserve and promote our own well-
being. (Leviathan I 6) Everything we choose to do is strictly determined by this
natural inclination to relieve the physical pressures that impinge upon our bodies.
Human volition is nothing but the determination of the will by the strongest present
desire.
Hobbes nevertheless supposed that human agents are free in the sense
that their activities are not under constraint from anyone else. On this
compatibilist view, we have no reason to complain about the strict
determination of the will so long as we are not subject to interference
from outside ourselves. (Leviathan II 21)
As Hobbes acknowledged, this account of human nature emphasizes our
animal nature, leaving each of us to live independently of everyone
else, acting only in his or her own self-interest, without regard for
others. This produces what he called the "state of war," a way of life
that is certain to prove "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
(Leviathan I 13) The only escape is by entering into contracts with each
other—mutually beneficial agreements to surrender our individual
interests in order to achieve the advantages of security that only a
social existence can provide. (Leviathan I 14)
THE RATIONALISM OF SPINOZA AND LEIBNIZ
The tradition of Continental rationalism was carried on by two
philosophers of genius: the Dutch Jewish philosopher Benedict de
Spinoza (1632–77) and his younger contemporary Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (1646–1716), a Leipzig scholar and polymath. Whereas Bacon’s
philosophy had been a search for method in science and Descartes’s
basic aim had been the achievement of scientific certainty, Spinoza’s
speculative system was one of the most comprehensive of the early
modern period. In certain respects Spinoza had much in common with
Hobbes: a mechanistic worldview and even a political philosophy that
sought political stability in centralized power. Yet Spinoza introduced a
conception of philosophizing that was new to the Renaissance;
philosophy became a personal and moral quest for wisdom and the
achievement of human perfection.
Spinoza’s magnum opus, the Ethics, borrowed much from
Descartes: the goal of a rational understanding of principles, the
terminology of “substance” and “clear and distinct ideas,” and the
expression of philosophical knowledge in a complete deductive
system using the geometric model of the Elements of Euclid
(flourished c. 300 bc). Spinoza conceived of the universe
pantheistically as a single infinite substance, which he called
“God,” with the dual attributes (or aspects) of thought and
extension.
Extension is differentiated into plural “modes,” or particular
things, and the world as a whole possesses the properties of a
timeless logical system—a complex of completely determined
causes and effects. For Spinoza, the wisdom that philosophy seeks
is ultimately achieved when one perceives the universe in its
wholeness through the “intellectual love of God,” which merges
Leibniz conceived of logic as a mathematical calculus. He
was the first to distinguish “truths of reason” from “truths
of fact” and to contrast the necessary propositions of logic
and mathematics, which hold in all “possible worlds,” with
the contingent propositions of science, which hold only in
some possible worlds (including the actual world).
He saw clearly that, as the first kind of proposition is
governed by the principle of contradiction (a proposition
and its negation cannot both be true), the second is
governed by the principle of sufficient reason (nothing
exists or is the case without a sufficient reason).
In metaphysics, Leibniz’s pluralism contrasted with Descartes’s
dualism and Spinoza’s monism. Leibniz posited the existence of
an infinite number of spiritual substances, which he called
“monads,” each different, each a percipient of the universe
around it, and each mirroring that universe from its own point
of view.
The differences between Leibniz’s philosophy and that of
Descartes and Spinoza are less significant than their
similarities, in particular their extreme rationalism.
True reasoning depends upon necessary or eternal truths, such
as those of logic, numbers, geometry, which establish an
indubitable connection of ideas and unfailing consequences.
Nikos Telan
University of the Philippines, Alumnus
Post Graduate:
1. Master of Arts in History- University of the Philippines-Diliman
2. Master of Arts in Education Specialized in Social Science Teaching-Philippine Normal University
Work Experienced
TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES-Cubao Assistant Professor, Sociology, Logic, Philosophy & Psychology -College of Arts/Humanities & Social Science Department
FAR EASTERN UNIVERSITY- EAST ASIA COLLEGE
Professor / History and Economics with Introduction of Taxation -Humanities, Social Science & Communications Department
SAN BEDA HIGH SCHOOL
High School Department Faculty Member – Social Studies Teacher
Motto: Hope sees the invisible, feels the intangible and achieves the impossible.
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) made the case (following Mauss, / 1925) that the 'pure gift' is impossible. Because of the element of obligation and reciprocity involved, gift relationships are inevitably reduced to relationships of economic exchange. This position echoes the exchange theory of the social behaviourists, the costbenefit analyses of evolutionary psychology, and other reductionist conjectures. In this paper, 18 written accounts of gifting are analysed using established phenomenological tools of reflection. It is shown that the dynamics of the gift relationship are complex (for example the statuses of giver and recipient are problematical, as is the expression of gratitude) and, specifically, reciprocation in gifting is not akin to 'repaying' the gift, but should rather be seen as a response to the gift as an expression of affective affirmation, rendering this mutual. Gift giving is in the expressive realm rather than the practical . This was, intriguingly, known explicitly by Adam Smith (2006 / 1790).
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The Cambridge Companion to Philo Cambridge University Press
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The works of Philo of Alexandria, a slightly older contemporary of Jesus and Paul, constitute an essential source for the study of Judaism at the turn of the eras and of the rise of Christianity. They are also of extreme importance for understanding the Greek philosophy of the time, and they help to explain the onset of new forms of spirituality that would dominate the following centuries. This handbook presents, in an unassuming format, an account of Philo's achievements. It contains a profi le of his life and times, a systematic overview of his many writings, and survey chapters of the key features of his thought, as seen from the perspectives of Judaism and Greek philosophy. The volume concludes with chapters devoted to Philo's infl uence and signifi cance. Composed by an international team of experts, The Cambridge Companion to Philo gives readers a sense of the current state of scholarship and provides depth of vision in key areas of Philonic studies.
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Is Love a Gift? A Philosophical Inquiry About Givenness
Wellington Santana
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The contemporary philosophical debate about "gift" brought into light above all by French philosophers Jacques Derrida and Jean-Luc Marion, brought about new and live discussions regarding what gift is and what is its nature. The present article analyses whether or not love can be regarded as a gift or, rather, follow the same problem showed by Derrida. According to him, every gift carries an internal contradiction and can never be and, therefore, will never be gift. A gift is impossible. What is as gift to people (someone freely gives something to someone), is, actually a commodity, an economical circle for Derrida. This article seeks to inquire whether can or cannot love follow the same gift pattern or if it, rather, builds his own path and follows its own internal logic. Is it possible to analyze love following on the footsteps of phenomenology? If love can be analyzed in a phenomenological fashion - reduction of love - then a new horizon will be opened.
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The Gift as “Deep Play”. A ‘Note’ on Performance and Paradox in the Theatrics of Public Giving
Ilana F Silber
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