Quakers - Wikipedia

Quakers - Wikipedia
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(Redirected from
Religious Society of Friends
Christian religious movement
"Quaker" redirects here. For other uses, see
Quaker (disambiguation)
"Society of Friends" redirects here. For the Greek movement for independence, see
Filiki Eteria
. For the followers of the Public Universal Friend, see
Public Universal Friend
. For the associations known as Friendly Societies, see
Friendly Society
For the sect that broke off from the Quakers in the mid-18th century, see
Shakers
Religious Society of Friends
George Fox
, the principal early leader of the Quakers
Theology
Variable; depends on meeting
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Friends World Committee for Consultation
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Founder
George Fox
Margaret Fell
Origin
Mid-17th century
England
Separated from
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Shakers
Part of
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on
Quakerism
George Fox
, founder of the Quakers
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Susan B. Anthony
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Quakers
are people who belong to the
Religious Society of Friends
, originally known as simply the
Society of Friends
, a historically
Protestant Christian
set of
denominations
. Members refer to each other as Friends after
John 15:14
in the Bible. Originally, others referred to them as Quakers because the founder of the movement,
George Fox
, told a judge to "quake before the authority of God".
The Friends are generally united by a belief in each human's ability to be guided by the
inward light
to "make the witness of God" known to everyone.
Quakers have traditionally professed a
priesthood of all believers
inspired by the
First Epistle of Peter
To differing extents, the Friends avoid
creeds
and
hierarchical structures
They include those with
evangelical
holiness
liberal
orthodox
universalist
independent
, and
traditional Quaker
understandings of Christianity. Especially since the 1960s, some Friends have approached spirituality from a universalist perspective rooted in
religious pluralism
, occasionally practicing
multiple religious belonging
10
while others have approached the faith from
nontheist
perspectives.
11
In 2017, there were an estimated 377,557 adult Quakers, 49% of them in
Africa
followed by 22% in
North America
12
Some 11% of Quakers worldwide practice
waiting worship
or
unprogrammed worship
(commonly
Meeting for Worship
),
13
where the unplanned order of service is mainly silent and may include unprepared vocal ministry from those present. This form of worship originated with the practices of George Fox and the early Friends, and is the dominant form in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Southern Africa and parts of the United States. Some 40% of Quakers worldwide belong to the
evangelical
branch, which holds services with singing and a prepared
Bible
message coordinated by a pastor, with or without some period of silence. Their theology is largely consistent with evangelicalism framed in a Quaker context, and theirs is the dominant form of worship in most of Africa and parts of the United States, where it developed during the 19th Century in the context of the wider
Second Great Awakening
. Additionally, some 49% of worldwide Friends hold
programmed
or
semi-programmed
worship, which mix programmed elements such as hymns and readings with unprogrammed silence to varying degrees, but do not necessarily identify as evangelical.
14
15
The Christian movement dubbed
Quakerism
arose in mid-17th-century England from the
Legatine-Arians
and other
dissenting Protestant groups
breaking with the
established
Church of England
(Anglicanism).
16
17
The Quakers, especially the
Valiant Sixty
, sought to
convert
others by travelling through Britain and overseas preaching the Gospel; some early Quaker ministers were women.
18
They based their message on a belief that "Christ has come to teach his people himself", stressing direct relations with God through
Jesus Christ
and belief in the universal priesthood of all believers.
19
20
This personal religious experience of Christ was acquired by direct experience, as well as by reading and studying the Bible.
21
20
Friends focused their private lives on behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity and the light of God, with a goal of
Christian perfection
22
23
A prominent theological text of the Religious Society of Friends is
A Catechism and Confession of Faith
(1673), published by Quaker divine
Robert Barclay
24
25
The
Richmond Declaration of Faith
(1887) was adopted by many
Orthodox Friends
and continues to serve as a doctrinal statement of many yearly meetings.
26
27
Quakers were known to use
thee
as an ordinary pronoun, to wear
plain dress
, and to practice
teetotalism
. They refused to
swear oaths
or to
participate in war
, and they
opposed slavery
28
Some Quakers founded banks and financial institutions, including
Barclays
Lloyds
, and
Friends Provident
; manufacturers including the footwear firm of
C. & J. Clark
and the big three British
confectionery
makers
Cadbury
Rowntree
and
Fry
; and philanthropic efforts, including
abolition of slavery
prison reform
, and
social justice
29
In 1947, in recognition of their dedication to peace and the common good, Quakers represented by the British
Friends Service Council
and the
American Friends Service Committee
were awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize
30
31
History
edit
Main article:
History of the Quakers
Beginnings in England
edit
See also:
Britain Yearly Meeting § History
George Fox, a leading early Quaker
Religious strife in the
Kingdom of England
had existed for centuries, with
proto-Protestant
groups (mainly the
Lollards
) emerging before the
English Reformation
brought radical ideas to the mainstream. During and after the
English Civil War
(1642–1651) many
dissenting Christian groups
emerged, including the
Seekers
and others. A young man,
George Fox
, was dissatisfied with the teachings of the
Church of England
and
nonconformists
. Whilst living in
Mansfield
Nottinghamshire
in 1647, he claimed to have received a revelation that "there is one, even Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition",
32
and became convinced that it was possible to have a direct experience of Christ without the aid of ordained clergy. In 1652 he had a
vision
on
Pendle Hill
in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that "the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered".
32
Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands,
33
and
Barbados
34
preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith. The central theme of his Gospel message was that Jesus Christ was alive and has come to teach his people himself.
32
Fox considered himself to be restoring a true, "pure" Christian church.
35
In 1650, Fox was brought before the
magistrates
Gervase Bennet
and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious
blasphemy
. According to Fox's autobiography, Bennet "was the first that called us Quakers, because I bade them tremble at the word of the Lord".
32
: 125
It is thought that Fox was referring to
Isaiah 66:2
or
Ezra 9:4
. Thus the name
Quaker
began as a way of ridiculing Fox's admonition, but became widely accepted and used by some Quakers.
36
Quakers also described themselves using terms such as true Christianity, Saints, Children of the Light, and Friends of Truth, reflecting terms used in the New Testament by members of the early Christian church.
James Nayler
, a prominent Quaker leader, being pilloried and whipped
Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, not least among women. An address "To the Reader" by
Mary Forster
accompanied a Petition to the
Parliament of England
presented on 20 May 1659, expressing the opposition of over 7000 women to "the oppression of Tithes".
37
The overall number of Quakers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680
38
(1.15% of the population of England and Wales).
38
But the dominant discourse of Protestantism viewed the Quakers as a blasphemous challenge to social and political order,
39
leading to official persecution in England and Wales under the
Quaker Act 1662
and the
Conventicle Act 1664
. This persecution of dissenters was relaxed after the
Declaration of Indulgence
(1687–1688) and stopped under the
Act of Toleration 1689
One modern view of Quakerism at this time was that the direct relationship with Christ was encouraged through spiritualisation of human relations, and "the redefinition of the Quakers as a holy tribe, 'the family and household of God
".
40
Together with
Margaret Fell
, the wife of
Thomas Fell
, who was the vice-chancellor of the
Duchy of Lancaster
and an eminent judge, Fox developed new conceptions of family and community that emphasised "holy conversation": speech and behaviour that reflected piety, faith, and love.
41
With the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women; Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing "holy conversation" in her children and husband.
40
Quaker women were also responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in "meetings" that regulated marriage and domestic behaviour.
42
Migration to North America
edit
See also:
History of the Quakers § William Penn and settlement in colonial Pennsylvania
The persecution of Quakers in North America began in July 1656 when English Quaker missionaries
Mary Fisher
and
Ann Austin
began preaching in Boston.
43
They were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the
Inward light
. They were imprisoned in harsh conditions for five weeks and banished by the
Massachusetts Bay Colony
43
44
Their books were burned, and most of their property confiscated.
43
Quaker Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660.
In 1660, English Quaker
Mary Dyer
was hanged near
45
Boston Common
for repeatedly defying a
Puritan
law banning Quakers from the colony.
46
She was one of the four executed Quakers known as the
Boston martyrs
. In 1661,
King Charles II
forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism.
47
In 1684, England
revoked the Massachusetts charter
, sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws in 1686 and, in 1689, passed a broad Toleration Act.
47
William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania and West Jersey, as a young man
Some Friends migrated to what is now the north-eastern region of the United States in the 1660s in search of economic opportunities and a more tolerant environment in which to build communities of "holy conversation".
48
In 1665 Quakers established a meeting in
Shrewsbury, New Jersey
(now Monmouth County), and built a meeting house in 1672 that was visited by George Fox in the same year.
49
They were able to establish thriving communities in the
Delaware Valley
, although they continued to experience persecution in some areas, such as
New England
. The three colonies that tolerated Quakers at this time were
West Jersey
Rhode Island
, and
Pennsylvania
, where Quakers established themselves politically. In Rhode Island, 36 governors in the first 100 years were Quakers. West Jersey and Pennsylvania were established by affluent Quaker
William Penn
in 1676 and 1682 respectively, with Pennsylvania as an American commonwealth run under Quaker principles. William Penn signed a peace treaty with
Tamanend
, leader of the
Lenape
50
and other treaties followed between Quakers and Native Americans.
35
This peace endured almost a century, until the
Penn's Creek Massacre
of 1755.
51
Early colonial Quakers also established communities and meeting houses in North Carolina and Maryland, after fleeing persecution by the Anglican Church in Virginia.
52
In a 2007 interview, author David Yount (
How the Quakers Invented America
) said that Quakers first introduced many ideas from England that later became mainstream, such as democracy in the Pennsylvania legislature, the
Bill of Rights
to the
U.S. Constitution
from Rhode Island Quakers, trial by jury, equal rights for men and women, and public education. The
Liberty Bell
was cast by Quakers in
Philadelphia
, Pennsylvania.
53
Quietism
edit
See also:
Quietism (Christian philosophy)
Early Quakerism tolerated boisterous behaviour that challenged conventional etiquette; however, by 1700, its adherents no longer supported disruptive and unruly behaviour.
54
During the 18th century, Quakers entered the
Quietist
period in the history of their church, becoming more inward-looking spiritually and less active in converting others. Marrying outside the Society was cause for having one's membership revoked. Numbers dwindled, dropping to 19,800 in England and Wales by 1800 (0.21% of the population),
38
and 13,859 by 1860 (0.07% of population).
38
The formal name "Religious Society of Friends" dates from this period and was probably derived from the appellations "Friends of the Light" and "Friends of Truth".
55
Splits
edit
Divisions of the Religious Society of Friends
Orthodox
Gurneyite
Orthodox
Programmed
Friends United Meeting
1902 (US 25K, world 170K)
(Pastoral)
Evangelical
Evangelical Friends Church International
1947 (US 34K, world 200K)
1924 (Pastoral)
Beanite
. Independent (US 3K)
unaffiliated (US 1K)
(Unprogrammed)
1889
Wilburite
.             Conservative
Conservative Friends
1842 (US 2K)
(Unprogrammed)
1842
Beaconite (1836–1850s)
Hicksite (Liberal)
(2019 + Beanite US 2K) . Unprogrammed
Friends General Conference
1900 (US 22K, world 32K)
1827
The divisions of Quakers 1800–1900s. Orthodox adopt "mainstream
Protestant orthodoxy
". Liberals value the
Inner Light
over the Bible. Conservatives want to conserve the Inner Light over outward
evangelicalism
. Late 1800s many meetings became programmed (
pastoral
) with splits by unprogrammed meetings. 2019
Beanite
- 2 Yearly Meetings joined FGC, 1 YM remained unaffiliated. (US and world membership K=1,000. 49% in Africa)
WWI
peace work
brought the diverse Friends together in followship formalized with the
Friends World Committee for Consultation
in 1937.
Around the time of the
American Revolutionary War
, some American Quakers split from the main Society of Friends over issues such as support for the war, forming groups such as the
Free Quakers
and the
Universal Friends
56
Later, in the 19th century, there was a diversification of theological beliefs in the Religious Society of Friends, and this led to several larger splits within the movement.
Hicksite–Orthodox split
edit
The Hicksite–Orthodox split arose out of both ideological and socioeconomic tensions. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Hicksites tended to be agrarian and poorer than the more urban, wealthier, Orthodox Quakers. With increasing financial success, Orthodox Quakers wanted to "make the Society a more respectable body – to transform their sect into a church – by adopting mainstream Protestant orthodoxy".
57
Hicksites, though they held a variety of views, generally saw the market economy as corrupting, and believed Orthodox Quakers had sacrificed their orthodox Christian spirituality for material success. Hicksites viewed the Bible as secondary to the individual cultivation of God's light within.
58
With Gurneyite Quakers' shift toward Protestant principles and away from the spiritualisation of human relations, women's role as promoters of "holy conversation" started to decrease. Conversely, within the Hicksite movement the rejection of the market economy and the continuing focus on community and family bonds tended to encourage women to retain their role as powerful arbiters.
Elias Hicks
's religious views were claimed to be
universalist
and to contradict Quakers' historical orthodox Christian beliefs and practices. Hicks' Gospel preaching and teaching precipitated the
Great Separation
of 1827, which resulted in a parallel system of Yearly Meetings in America, joined by Friends from Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore. They were referred to by opponents as Hicksites and by others and sometimes themselves as Orthodox. Quakers in Britain recognised only the Orthodox Quakers and refused to correspond with the Hicksites.
Beaconite controversy
edit
Isaac Crewdson
was a
Recorded Minister
in
Manchester
. His 1835 book
A Beacon to the Society of Friends
insisted that the inner light was at odds with a religious belief in
salvation
by the
atonement
of Christ.
59
: 155
This Christian controversy led to Crewdson's resignation from the Religious Society of Friends, along with 48 fellow members of Manchester Meeting and about 250 other British Quakers in 1836–1837. Some of these joined the
Plymouth Brethren
Rise of Gurneyite Quakerism, and the Gurneyite–Conservative split
edit
Joseph John Gurney was a prominent 19th-century British Friend and a strong proponent of evangelical views.
Orthodox
Friends became more
evangelical
during the 19th century
60
and were influenced by the
Second Great Awakening
. This movement was led by British Quaker
Joseph John Gurney
. Christian Friends held
Revival meetings
in America and became involved in the
Holiness movement
of churches. Quakers such as
Hannah Whitall Smith
and
Robert Pearsall Smith
became speakers in the religious movement and introduced Quaker phrases and practices to it.
59
: 157
British Friends became involved with the
Higher Life movement
, with Robert Wilson from the
Cockermouth
meeting founding the
Keswick Convention
59
: 157
From the 1870s it became common in Britain to have "home mission meetings" on Sunday evening with Christian hymns and a Bible-based sermon, alongside the silent meetings for worship on Sunday morning.
59
: 155
The Quaker Yearly Meetings supporting the religious beliefs of Joseph John Gurney were known as
Gurneyite
yearly meetings. Many eventually collectively became the Five Years Meeting (FYM) and then the
Friends United Meeting
, although
London Yearly Meeting
, which had been strongly Gurneyite in the 19th century, did not join either of these. In 1924, the
Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
, a Gurneyite yearly meeting, was started by some Friends who left the Five Years Meeting due to a concern of what they saw as the allowance of modernism in the FYM.
61
Some Orthodox Quakers in America disliked the move towards evangelical Christianity and saw it as a dilution of Friends' traditional orthodox Christian belief in being inwardly led by the
Holy Spirit
. These Friends were headed by
John Wilbur
, who was expelled from his yearly meeting in 1842. He and his supporters formed their own Conservative Friends Yearly Meeting. Some UK Friends broke away from the
London Yearly Meeting
for the same reason in 1865. They formed a separate body of Friends called
Fritchley General Meeting
, which remained distinct and separate from London Yearly Meeting until 1968. Similar splits took place in Canada. The Yearly Meetings that supported John Wilbur's religious beliefs became known as
Conservative Friends
Beanite purge
edit
Main article:
Beanite Quakerism
Richmond Declaration
edit
In 1887, a Gurneyite Quaker of British descent,
Joseph Bevan Braithwaite
, proposed to Friends a statement of faith known as the
Richmond Declaration
. Supported by many of the older, longstanding members in the London Yearly Meeting, Braithwaite saw the Richmond Declaration of Faith as being a bulwark against "unsound and dangerous doctrine" in times when Friends were "in a state of discipline and warfare".
62
This statement of faith was agreed to by 95 of the representatives at a meeting of
Five Years Meeting
Friends, but unexpectedly the Richmond Declaration was not adopted by London Yearly Meeting because a vocal minority, including
Edward Grubb
, opposed it.
63
Fifteen years after the signing on the Richmond Declaration, Five Years Meeting was established in 1902 by a collection of orthodox yearly meetings. In 1963 Five Years Meeting was renamed
Friends United Meeting
Missions to Asia and Africa
edit
Friends' Syrian Mission, 1874, built this mission house in
Ramallah
Following the
Christian revivals
in the mid-19th century, Friends in Great Britain sought also to start missionary activity overseas. The first missionaries were sent to
Benares
Varanasi
), in India, in 1866. The Friends Foreign Mission Association was formed in 1868 and sent missionaries to
Madhya Pradesh
, India, forming what is now the Mid-India Yearly Meeting. Later it spread to
Madagascar
from 1867, China from 1896,
Sri Lanka
from 1896, and
Pemba Island
from 1897.
64
After the
1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus
between Christians and Druze, many missionaries flocked to
Ottoman Syria
. These missionaries included Friends from several nations.
65
The Friends Syrian Mission was established in 1874, which among other institutions ran the
Ramallah Friends School
in the West Bank, which still exist today and is affiliated with the
Friends United Meeting
66
The Swiss missionary
Theophilus Waldmeier
founded
Brummana High School
in
Lebanon
in 1873.
64
Evangelical Friends Churches from
Ohio Yearly Meeting
sent missionaries to India in 1896,
67
forming what is now
Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting
Cleveland Friends went to
Mombasa
, Kenya, and started what became the most successful Friends' mission. Their Quakerism spread within
Kenya
and to
Uganda
Tanzania
Burundi
, and
Rwanda
Theory of evolution
edit
Main article:
Quakers in science
The
theory of evolution
as described in
Charles Darwin
's
On the Origin of Species
(1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the 19th century,
68
particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These older Quakers were suspicious of Darwin's theory and believed that
natural selection
could not explain life on its own.
69
The influential Quaker scientist
Edward Newman
70
said that the theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator".
However, some young Friends such as
John Wilhelm Rowntree
and
Edward Grubb
supported Darwin's theories, using the doctrine of progressive revelation.
69
In the United States, Joseph Moore taught the theory of evolution at the Quaker
Earlham College
as early as 1861.
71
This made him one of the first teachers to do so in the Midwest.
72
Acceptance of the theory of evolution became more widespread in Yearly Meetings who moved toward liberal Christianity in the 19th and 20th centuries.
73
However,
creationism
predominates within evangelical Friends Churches, particularly in East Africa and parts of the United States.
Quaker Renaissance
edit
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the so-called Quaker Renaissance movement began within London Yearly Meeting. Young Friends in London Yearly Meeting at this time moved away from evangelicalism and towards liberal Christianity.
74
This movement was particularly influenced by Rowntree, Grubb, and
Rufus Jones
. Such Liberal Friends promoted the theory of evolution, modern
biblical criticism
, and the social meaning of Christ's teaching – encouraging Friends to follow the New Testament example of Christ by performing good works. These men downplayed the evangelical Quaker belief in the
atonement
of Christ on the Cross at
Calvary
74
After the Manchester Conference in England in 1895, one thousand British Friends met to consider the future of British Quakerism, and as a result, Liberal Quaker thought gradually increased within the London Yearly Meeting.
75
Conscientious objection
edit
Friends' Ambulance Unit
(FAU), a volunteer service founded by British Quakers, with a FAU ambulance and driver pictured in Germany in 1945
Formal legislation to exempt
conscientious objectors
from fighting was first granted in Great Britain in 1757 when Quakers were given exemption from military service, which was a milestone in
freedom of conscience
76
During
World War I
and
World War II
, Friends' opposition to war was put to the test. Many Friends became conscientious objectors and some in Britain formed the
Friends Ambulance Unit
, aiming at "co-operating with others to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old", as did the
American Friends Service Committee
Birmingham
in England had a strong Quaker community during the war.
77
Many British Quakers were conscripted into the
Non-Combatant Corps
during both world wars.
World Committee for Consultation
edit
After the two world wars had brought the different Quaker strands closer together, Friends from different yearly meetings – many having served together in the Friends Ambulance Unit or the American Friends Service Committee, or in other relief work – later held several Quaker World Conferences. This brought about a standing body of Friends: the
Friends World Committee for Consultation
Evangelical Friends
edit
A growing desire for a more fundamentalist approach among some Friends after the First World War began a split among
Five Years Meetings
. In 1924, the
Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
was started by some Friends who left the Five Years Meeting.
61
In 1926, Oregon Yearly Meeting seceded from the Five Years Meeting, bringing together several other yearly meetings and scattered monthly meetings.
In 1947, the
Association of Evangelical Friends
was formed, with triennial meetings until 1970. In 1965, this was replaced by the Evangelical Friends Alliance, which in 1989 became
Evangelical Friends Church International
78
Role of women
edit
Main article:
Quaker views on women
Sugar Grove Conservative Friends Meeting House
, built in 1870 in
Indiana
, with an openable partition between male and female sections
In the 1650s, individual Quaker women prophesied and preached publicly, developing charismatic personae and spreading the sect. This practice was bolstered by the movement's firm concept of spiritual equality for men and women.
79
Moreover, Quakerism initially was propelled by the nonconformist behaviours of its followers, especially women who broke from social norms.
80
By the 1660s, the movement had gained a more structured organisation, which led to separate women's meetings.
81
Through the women's meetings, women oversaw domestic and community life, including marriage.
42
From the beginning, Quaker women, notably
Margaret Fell
, played an important role in defining Quakerism.
82
83
They were involved in missionary work in various ways and places. Early Quaker women missionaries included Sarah Cheevers and Katharine Evans. Others active in proselytising included
Mary Penington
Mary Mollineux
and
Barbara Blaugdone
84
Quaker women published at least 220 texts during the 17th century.
85
However, some Quakers resented the power of women in the community.
In the early years of Quakerism, George Fox faced resistance in developing and establishing women's meetings. As controversy increased, Fox did not fully adhere to his agenda. For example, he established the London Six Weeks Meeting in 1671 as a regulatory body, led by 35 women and 49 men.
86
Even so, conflict culminated in the Wilkinson–Story split, in which a portion of the Quaker community left to worship independently in protest at women's meetings.
87
After several years, this schism became largely resolved, testifying to the resistance of some within the Quaker community and to the spiritual role of women that Fox and Margaret Fell had encouraged. Particularly within the relatively prosperous Quaker communities of the eastern United States, the focus on the child and "holy conversation" gave women unusual community power, although they were largely excluded from the market economy. With the Hicksite–Orthodox split of 1827–1828, Orthodox women found their spiritual role decreased, while Hicksite women retained greater influence.
According to
Quakers In The World
, "The Women's Suffrage Movement in the USA is widely considered to date from the First Women's Rights Convention, held in Seneca Falls, New York State in 1848. This meeting was instigated by five women who had been closely involved in the abolition of slavery, all but one of whom were Quakers."
88
Friends in business and education
edit
See also:
List of Quaker businesses, organizations and charities
and
List of Friends schools
English Quaker
John Cadbury
founded Cadbury in
Birmingham
, England, in 1824, selling tea, coffee and drinking chocolate.
Described as "natural capitalists" by the
BBC
, many Quakers were successful in a variety of industries.
29
89
Two notable examples were
Abraham Darby I
and
Edward Pease
. Darby and his family played an important role in the British
Industrial Revolution
with their innovations in ironmaking.
90
91
Pease, a
Darlington
manufacturer, was the main promoter of the
Stockton and Darlington Railway
, which was the world's first public railway to use steam locomotives.
89
Other industries with prominent Quaker businesses included banking (
Lloyds Banking Group
and
Barclays PLC
), pharmaceuticals (
Allen & Hanburys
), chocolate (
Cadbury
and
Fry's
), confectionery
(Rowntree
), shoe manufacturing (
Clarks
), and biscuit manufacturing (
Huntley & Palmers
).
29
91
92
Voltaire
's
Letters on the English
(1733) included the spirit of commerce and religious diversity in Great Britain, with the first four letters based on the Quakers.
93
Quakers have a long history of establishing educational institutions. Initially, Quakers had no ordained
clergy
, and therefore needed no
seminaries
for theological training. In England, Quaker schools sprang up soon after the movement emerged, with
Friends School Saffron Walden
being the most prominent.
94
Quaker schools in the UK and Ireland are supported by The Friends' Schools' Council.
95
In Australia,
Friends' School, Hobart
, founded in 1887, has grown into the largest Quaker school in the world. In Britain and the United States, friends have established a variety of institutions at a variety of
educational levels
. In Kenya, Quakers founded several primary and secondary schools in the first half of the 20th century before
the country's independence
in 1963.
96
International development
edit
International volunteering organisations such as
Service Civil International
and
International Voluntary Service
were founded by leading Quakers.
Eric Baker
, a prominent Quaker, was one of the founders of
Amnesty International
and of the
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
97
The Quaker
Edith Pye
established a national Famine Relief Committee in May 1942, encouraging a network of local famine relief committees, among the most energetic of which was the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief,
Oxfam
98
Irving
and
Dorothy Stowe
co-founded
Greenpeace
with many other environmental activists in 1971, shortly after becoming Quakers.
99
Friends and slavery
edit
See also:
Abolitionism in the United Kingdom
and
Abolitionism in the United States
Some Quakers in America and Britain became known for their involvement in the abolitionist movement. In the early history of
Colonial America
, it was fairly common for Friends to own slaves,
e.g. in Pennsylvania
. Following moves by Britain Yearly Meeting to pursue an agenda leading to reparations for Quaker involvement in slavery, Ann Morgan published in 2024 her study of the involvement of Lancaster Quakers in the enslavement economy.
100
101
During the early to mid-1700s, disquiet about this practice arose among Friends, best exemplified by the testimonies of
Benjamin Lay
Anthony Benezet
and
John Woolman
, and this resulted in an abolition movement among Friends.
Nine of the twelve founding members of the
Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade
, or The Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, were Quakers:
102
John Barton
(1755–1789);
William Dillwyn
(1743–1824); George Harrison (1747–1827);
Samuel Hoare Jr
(1751–1825); Joseph Hooper (1732–1789); John Lloyd;
Joseph Woods
Sr (1738–1812); James Phillips (1745–1799); and Richard Phillips.
103
Five of the Quakers had been amongst the informal group of six Quakers who had pioneered the movement in 1783, when the first petition against the slave trade was presented to Parliament. As Quakers could not serve as Members of Parliament, they relied on the help of Anglican men who could, such as
William Wilberforce
and his brother-in-law
James Stephen
By the beginning of the
American Revolutionary War
, few Friends owned slaves. At the war's end in 1783, Yarnall family members along with fellow Meeting House Friends made a failed petition to the
Continental Congress
to abolish
slavery in the United States
. In 1790, the Society of Friends petitioned the
United States Congress
to abolish slavery.
104
One example of a reversal in sentiment about slavery took place in the life of
Moses Brown
, one of four Rhode Island brothers who, in 1764, organized and funded the tragic and fateful voyage of the
slave ship
Sally
105
Brown broke away from his three brothers, became an abolitionist, and converted to Christian Quakerism. During the 19th century, Quakers such as
Levi Coffin
and
Isaac Hopper
played a major role in helping enslaved people escape through the
Underground Railroad
106
Black Quaker
Paul Cuffe
, a sea captain and businessman, was active in the abolitionist and
resettlement movement
in the early part of that century.
107
Quaker
Laura Smith Haviland
, with her husband, established the first station on the Underground Railroad in Michigan. Later, Haviland befriended
Sojourner Truth
, who called her the Superintendent of the Underground Railroad.
108
However, in the 1830s, the abolitionist
Grimké sisters
dissociated themselves from the Quakers "when they saw that Negro Quakers were segregated in separate pews in the Philadelphia meeting house".
109
Theology
edit
See also:
Friends United Meeting
Evangelical Friends Church International
, and
Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
Quakers' theological beliefs vary considerably. Tolerance of dissent widely varies among yearly meetings.
110
Most Friends believe in
continuing revelation
: that God continuously reveals truth directly to individuals. George Fox, an "
early Friend
", said, "Christ has come to teach His people Himself".
32
Friends often focus on trying to feel the presence of God. As
Isaac Penington
wrote in 1670, "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing – to feel him to be my root, my life, and my foundation..."
111
Quakers reject the idea of
priests
, believing in the
priesthood of all believers
. Some express their concept of God using phrases such as "the inner light", "inward light of Christ", or "Holy Spirit".
112
Diverse theological beliefs, understandings of the "leading of the Holy Spirit", and statements of "faith and practice" have always existed among Friends.
113
Due in part to the emphasis on immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, Quaker doctrines have only at times been codified as statements of faith, confessions or theological texts. Those that exist include the
Letter to the Governor of Barbados
Fox
, 1671),
114
An Apology for the True Christian Divinity
Barclay
, 1678),
115
A Catechism and Confession of Faith
Barclay
, 1690),
116
The Testimony of the Society of Friends on the Continent of America
(adopted jointly by all
Orthodox yearly meetings
in the United States, 1830),
117
the
Richmond Declaration of Faith
(adopted by
Five Years Meeting
, 1887),
118
and
Essential Truths
Jones
and Wood, adopted by
Five Years Meeting
, 1922).
119
Most yearly meetings make a public statement of faith in their own
Book of Discipline
, expressing Christian discipleship within the experience of Friends in that yearly meeting.
Conservatives
edit
Main article:
Conservative Friends
Conservative Friends worshipping in London in 1809. Friends are in traditional
plain dress
. At the front of the meeting house, the
Recorded Ministers
sit on a raised
ministers' gallery
facing the rest of the meeting, with the elders sitting on the bench in front of them, also facing the meeting. Men and women are segregated, but both are able to minister.
Conservative Friends
(also known as "Wilburites" after their founder,
John Wilbur
), share some of the beliefs of Fox and the Early Friends. Many Wilburites see themselves as the Quakers whose beliefs are truest to original Quaker doctrine, arguing that the majority of Friends "broke away" from the Wilburites in the 19th and 20th centuries (rather than vice versa). Conservative Friends place their trust in the immediate guidance of God.
120
They reject all forms of
religious symbolism
and outward
sacraments
, such as the
Eucharist
and
water baptism
. Conservative Friends do not rely on the practice of outward rites and sacraments in their living relationship with God through Christ, believing that holiness can exist in all of the activities of one's daily life – and that all of life is sacred in God. Many believe that a meal held with others can become a form of
communion
with God and with one another.
Conservative Friends in the United States are part of three small Quaker Yearly Meetings in Ohio, North Carolina, and Iowa. Ohio Yearly Meeting (Conservative) is generally considered the most Bible-centred of the three, retaining Christian Quakers who use plain language, wear plain dress, and are more likely to live in villages or rural areas than the Conservative Friends from their other two Yearly Meetings.
121
In 2007, total membership of such Yearly Meetings was around 1,642,
122
making them around 0.4% of the world family of Quakers.
Evangelical
edit
See also:
Evangelical Friends Church International
Sign at entrance of
Phoenix
Friends Church
Evangelical Friends regard Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Saviour,
120
and have similar religious beliefs to other
evangelical
Christians. They believe in and hold high regard for
penal substitution
of the
atonement
of Christ on the Cross at Calvary,
biblical infallibility
, and the need for all to experience a relationship with God personally.
123
They believe that the Evangelical Friends Church is intended to evangelise the unsaved of the world, to transform them spiritually through God's love and through social service to others.
123
They regard the Bible as God's infallible, self-authenticating Word. The statement of faith of
Evangelical Friends International
is comparable to that of other Evangelical churches. Those who are members of Evangelical Friends International are mainly located in the United States, Central America, and Asia.
Beginning in the 1880s, some Friends began using outward sacraments in their Sunday services, first in Evangelical Friends Church–Eastern Region (then known as Ohio Yearly Meeting [Damascus]). Friends Church–Southwest Region also approved such a practice. In places where Evangelical Friends engage in missionary work, such as Africa, Latin America, and Asia, adult baptism by immersion in water occurs. They differ from most other branches of the Religious Society of Friends. EFCI in 2014 was claiming to represent more than 140,000 Friends,
124
some 39% of the total number of Friends worldwide.
Gurneyites
edit
See also:
Friends United Meeting
Gurneyite Friends (also known as Friends United Meeting Friends) are modern followers of the Evangelical Quaker theology specified by
Joseph John Gurney
, a 19th-century British Friend. They make up 49% of the total number of Quakers worldwide.
110
They see Jesus Christ as their Teacher and Lord
120
and favour close work with other Protestant Christian churches. Gurneyite Friends balance the Bible's authority as inspired words of God with personal, direct experience of God in their lives. Both children and adults participate in religious education, which emphasises orthodox Christian teaching from the Bible in relation to both orthodox Christian Quaker history and Quaker testimonies. Gurneyite Friends subscribe to a set of orthodox Christian doctrines, such as those found in the
Richmond Declaration
of faith. In later years, conflict arose among Gurneyite Friends over the Richmond Declaration of Faith, but after a while, it was adopted by nearly all of Gurneyite's yearly meetings. The Five Years Meeting of Friends reaffirmed its loyalty to the Richmond Declaration of Faith in 1912 but specified that it was not to constitute a Christian creed. Although Gurneyism was the main form of Quakerism in 19th-century Britain, Gurneyite Friends today are also found in America, Ireland, Africa, and India. Many Gurneyite Friends combine "waiting" (unprogrammed) worship with practices commonly found in other Protestant Christian churches, such as readings from the Bible and singing hymns. A small minority of Gurneyite Friends practice wholly unprogrammed worship.
125
Holiness
edit
See also:
Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
Holiness Friends are Quakers of the Gurneyite branch who are heavily influenced by the
Holiness movement
, in particular, the doctrine of
Christian perfection
, also called "entire sanctification". This states that loving God and humanity totally, as exemplified by Christ, enables believers to rid themselves of voluntary sin. This dominant view within Quakerism in the United Kingdom and the United States in the 19th century influenced other branches of Quakerism. Holiness Friends argue, leaning on writings that include
George Fox
's message of
perfection
, that the early Friends had this understanding of holiness.
126
Today, many Friends hold holiness beliefs within most yearly meetings, but it is the predominant theological view of
Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
, (founded in 1926 specifically to promote holiness theology) and the Holiness Mission of the Bolivian Evangelical Friends Church (founded by missionaries from that meeting in 1919, the largest group of Friends in Bolivia).
127
Liberal
edit
See also:
Friends General Conference
Britain Yearly Meeting
, and
Beanite Quakerism
Liberal Quakerism generally refers to Friends who take ideas from
liberal Christianity
, often sharing a similar mix of ideas, such as more critical Biblical
hermeneutics
, often with a focus on the
social gospel
. The ideas of
that of God in everyone
and the
inner light
were popularised by the American Friend
Rufus Jones
in the early 20th century, he and
John Wilhelm Rowntree
originating the movement. Liberal Friends predominated in Britain in the 20th century, among US meetings affiliated to
Friends General Conference
, and some meetings in Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Southern Africa.
These ideas remain important in Liberal Friends' understanding of God. They highlight the importance of good works, particularly living a life that upholds the virtues preached by Jesus. They often emphasise pacifism, treating others equally, living simply, and telling the truth.
110
Like Conservative Friends, Liberal Friends reject
religious symbolism
and sacraments such as water baptism and the Eucharist. While Liberal Friends recognise the potential of these outward forms for awakening experiences of the Inward
Light
of Christ, they are not part of their worship and are thought unnecessary to authentic Christian spirituality.
The Bible remains central to most Liberal Friends' worship. Almost all meetings make it available in the
meeting house
according to whom?
often on a table in the centre of the room, which attendees may read privately or publicly during worship. But Liberal Friends decided that the Scriptures should give way to God's lead if God leads them in a way contrary to the Bible. Many Friends are also influenced by liberal Christian theologians and modern
Biblical criticism
. They often adopt non-propositional Biblical hermeneutics, such as believing that the Bible is an anthology of human authors' beliefs and feelings about God rather than the Holy Writ and that multiple interpretations of the Scriptures are acceptable.
Liberal Friends believe that a corporate confession of faith would be an obstacle to authentic listening and new insight. As a non-creed form of Christianity, Liberal Quakerism is receptive to a wide range of understandings of religion. Most Liberal Quaker Yearly Meetings publish a
Faith and Practice
containing a range of religious experiences of what it means to be a Friend in that Yearly Meeting.
Universalist
edit
Main article:
Quaker Universalist Fellowship
Some Friends are Universalist Friends and affirm
religious pluralism
: there are many different paths to God and understandings of the divine reached through non-Christian religious experiences, which are as valid as Christian understandings. The group was founded in the late 1970s by John Linton, who had worshipped with the Delhi Worship Group in India (an independent meeting unaffiliated to any yearly meeting or wider Quaker group) with Christians, Muslims, and Hindus worshipping together.
128
After moving to Britain, Linton founded the
Quaker Universalist Fellowship
in 1978. Later, his views spread to the United States, where the Quaker Universalist Fellowship was founded in 1983.
128
Most of the Friends who joined these two fellowships were Liberal Friends from the Britain Yearly Meeting in the United Kingdom and Friends General Conference in the United States. Interest in Quaker Universalism is low among Friends from other Yearly meetings. The views of the Universalists provoked controversy in the 1980s
129
among themselves and Christian Quakers within the Britain Yearly Meeting and within the Friends General Conference. Despite the label, Quaker Universalists are not necessarily
Christian Universalists
, embracing the doctrine of
universal reconciliation
130
Non-theists
edit
Main article:
Nontheist Quakers
A minority of Friends have views similar to post-Christian non-theists in other churches, such as the
Sea of Faith
, which emerged from the
Anglican
church. They are predominantly atheists, agnostics, and humanists who still value membership in a religious organization. The first organisation for non-theist Friends was the Humanistic Society of Friends, founded in Los Angeles in 1939. This remained small and was absorbed into the
American Humanist Association
131
Interest in non-theism resurfaced, particularly under the British Friend David Boulton, who founded the 40-member Nontheist Friends Network in 2011.
132
Non-theism is controversial, leading some Christian Quakers from within Britain Yearly Meeting to call for non-theists to be denied membership.
133
In one study of Friends in the
Britain Yearly Meeting
, some 30% of Quakers had views described as
non-theistic
agnostic
, or
atheist
134
135
Another study found that 75.1% of the 727 members of the Religious Society of Friends who completed the survey said that they consider themselves to be Christian and 17.6% that they did not, while 7.3% either did not answer or circled both answers.
136
: p.41
A further 22% of Quakers did not consider themselves Christian but fulfilled a definition of being a Christian in that they said that they devoutly followed the teachings and example of Jesus Christ.
136
: p.52
In the same survey, 86.9% said they believed in God.
136
Practical theology
edit
In 1688, at this table in
Germantown, Philadelphia
, Quakers and
Mennonites
signed a common declaration denouncing slavery.
Quakers bear witness or "
testify
" to their religious beliefs in their spiritual lives,
137
drawing on the
Epistle of James
exhortation that "faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead".
138
This religious witness is rooted in their immediate experience of God and verified by the Bible, especially in Jesus Christ's life and teachings. They may bear witness in many ways, according to how they believe God is leading them. Although Quakers share how they relate to God and the world, mirroring Christian ethical codes, for example the
Sermon on the Mount
or the
Sermon on the Plain
, Friends argue that they feel personally moved by God rather than following an ethical code.
Some theologians classify Friends' religious witness into categories, known by some Friends as "testimonies". These Friends believe these principles and practices testify to, witness to, or provide evidence for God's truth. No categorisation is universally accepted.
139
In the United Kingdom, the acronym STEPS is sometimes used (simplicity, truth, equality, peace, and sustainability) to help remember the testimonies, although most Quakers just use the full words.
citation needed
In his book
Quaker Speak
, British Friend
Alastair Heron
, lists the following testimonies of common practical values in Quaker belief:
140
integrity
(or truth),
peace
, penal reform, plain language, relief of suffering,
simplicity
, social order, Sunday observance,
sustainability
, temperance and moderation; and opposition to the following: betting and gambling,
capital punishment
, conscription, hat-honour (the largely historical practice of dipping one's hat toward social superiors),
oaths
slavery
times and seasons
, and
tithing
In East Africa, Friends teach peace and
nonviolence
, simplicity, honesty, equality, humility, marriage and sexual ethics (defining marriage as lifelong between one man and one woman), sanctity of life (opposition to abortion), cultural conflicts and Christian life.
141
In the United States, the acronym SPICES is often used in many yearly meetings (simplicity, peace, integrity, community, equality, and stewardship). Stewardship is not recognised as a testimony in all yearly meetings. Rocky Mountain Yearly Meeting Friends put their faith in action through living their lives by the following principles: prayer, personal integrity, stewardship (which includes giving away minimum of 10% income and refraining from lotteries), marriage and family (lifelong commitment), regard for mind and body (refraining from certain amusements, propriety and modesty of dress, abstinence from alcohol, tobacco and drugs), peace and nonviolence (including refusing to participate in war), abortion (opposition to abortion, practical ministry to women with unwanted pregnancy and promotion of adoption), human sexuality, the Christian and state (look to God for authority, not the government), capital punishment (find alternatives), human equality, women in ministry (recognising women and men have an equal part to play in ministry).
142
The Southern Appalachian Yearly Meeting and Association lists as testimonies integrity, peace, simplicity, equality, and community; areas of witness include children, education, government, sexuality, and harmony with nature.
143
Calendar and church holidays
edit
Former Friends Meeting House, Coanwood, Northumberland, England, dating from 1720
Quakers traditionally use numbers for referencing the months and days of the week, something they call the plain calendar. This does not use names of calendar units derived from the names of pagan deities. The week begins with First Day (Sunday) and ends with Seventh Day (Saturday).
144
Months run from First (January) to Twelfth (December). This rests on the terms used in the Bible, e.g. that Jesus Christ's followers went to the tomb early on the First Day.
145
The plain calendar emerged in the 17th century in England in the
Puritan
movement, but became closely identified with Friends by the end of the 1650s, and was commonly employed into the 20th century. It is less commonly found today. The term "First Day school" is commonly used for what is referred to by other churches as "Sunday school".
citation needed
From 1155 to 1751, the English calendar (and that of Wales, Ireland and the British colonies overseas) marked March 25 as the first day of the year. For this reason, Quaker records of the 17th and early 18th centuries usually referred to March as First Month and February as Twelfth Month.
146
Like other Christian denominations derived from 16th-century
Puritanism
, many Friends eschew religious festivals (e.g.
Christmas
Lent
, or
Easter
), and believe that Christ's birth,
crucifixion
and
resurrection
, should be marked every day of the year. For example, many Quakers feel that
fasting
in Lent, but then eating in excess at other times of the year is
hypocrisy
. Many Quakers, rather than observing Lent, live a simple lifestyle all the year round (see
Testimony of simplicity
). Such practices are called the
testimony against times and seasons
147
The
Richmond Declaration
, affirmed by the Orthodox branch of Quakerism, teaches the importance of the observance of the
Lord's Day
consistent with
First-day Sabbatarian
principles, though some Friends are non-Sabbatarians, holding that "every day is the Lord's day", and that what should be done on a First Day should be done every day of the week, although Meeting for Worship is usually held on a First Day, after the advice first issued by the elders of
Balby
in 1656.
148
Worship
edit
See also:
Meeting for worship
Most groups of Quakers meet for regular worship. There are two main types of worship worldwide: programmed worship and waiting worship.
Programmed worship
edit
See also:
Friends United Meeting
Evangelical Friends Church International
, and
Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
West Mansfield Friends Church, Ohio, affiliated with the
Evangelical Friends Church International
In
programmed worship
there is often a prepared Biblical message, which may be delivered by an individual with theological training from a Bible College. There may be hymns, a sermon, Bible readings, joint prayers and a period of silent worship. The worship resembles the
church services
of other
Protestant
denominations, although in most cases does not include the Eucharist. A paid pastor may be responsible for
pastoral care
. Worship of this kind is celebrated by about 89% of Friends worldwide.
110
: 5–6
It is found in many Yearly Meetings in Africa, Asia and parts of the US (central and southern), and is common in programmed meetings affiliated to
Friends United Meeting
(who make up around 49% of worldwide membership
110
: 5
), and evangelical meetings, including those affiliated to
Evangelical Friends International
(who make up at least 40% of Friends worldwide
110
: 5–6
). The religious event is sometimes called a Quaker
meeting for worship
or sometimes a Friends church service. This tradition arose among Friends in the United States in the 19th century, and in response to many converts to Christian Quakerism during the national
spiritual revival
of the time. Friends meetings in Africa and Latin America were generally started by Orthodox Friends from programmed elements of the Society, so that most African and Latin American Friends worship in a programmed style.
Some Friends hold Semi-Programmed Worship, which brings programmed elements such as hymns and readings into an otherwise unprogrammed service of worship.
Unprogrammed worship
edit
See also:
Conservative Friends
Friends General Conference
Britain Yearly Meeting
Ireland Yearly Meeting
, and
Beanite Quakerism
External videos
What to Expect in Quaker Meeting for Worship
, QuakerSpeak
149
Unprogrammed worship
(also known as
waiting worship
silent worship
, or
holy communion in the manner of Friends
) rests on the practices of George Fox and early Friends, who based their beliefs and practices on their interpretation of how early Christians worshipped God their Heavenly Father. Friends gather together in "expectant waiting upon God" to experience his still small voice leading them from within. There is no plan on how the meeting will proceed, and practice varies widely between Meetings and individual worship services. Friends believe that God plans what will happen, with his spirit leading people to speak. A participant who feels led to speak will stand and share a spoken ministry in front of others. When this happens, Quakers believe that the spirit of God is speaking through the speaker. After someone has spoken, it is customary to allow a few minutes to pass in silence for reflection on what was said, before further vocal ministry is given. Sometimes a meeting is quite silent, sometimes many speak. These meetings lasted for several hours in George Fox's day.
Modern meetings are often limited to an hour, ending when two people (usually the
elders
) exchange the
sign of peace
by a
handshake
. This handshake is often shared by the others. This style of worship is the norm in Britain, Ireland, the continent of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Southern Africa, Canada, and parts of the United States (particularly yearly meetings associated with
Friends General Conference
and
Beanite Quakerism
)—constituting about 11%
110
: 5
of Quakers. Those who worship in this way hold each person to be equal before God and capable of knowing
the light
of God directly. Anyone present may speak if feeling led to do so. Traditionally,
Recorded Ministers
were recognised for their particular gift in vocal ministry. This practice continues among
Conservative
Friends and
Liberal Friends
(e.g.
New York Yearly Meeting
150
), but many meetings where Liberal Friends predominate abolished this practice.
London Yearly Meeting
of Friends abolished the acknowledging and recording of Recorded Ministers in 1924.
Governance and organisation
edit
Organisational government and polity
edit
Main article:
Quaker decision-making
Quaker business meeting in
York
Governance
and decision-making are conducted at a special meeting for worship – often called a
meeting for worship with a concern for business
or
meeting for worship for church affairs
, where all members can attend, as in a
Congregational
church. Quakers consider this a form of worship, conducted in the manner of meeting for worship. They believe it is a gathering of believers who
wait upon the Lord
to discover God's will, believing they are not making their own decisions. They seek to understand God's will for the religious community, via the actions of the Holy Spirit within the meeting.
151
As in a meeting for worship, each member is expected to listen to God, and if led by Him, stand up and contribute. In some business meetings, Friends wait for the
clerk
to acknowledge them before speaking. Direct replies to someone's contribution are not permitted, with an aim of seeking truth rather than debate. A decision is reached when the meeting as a whole feels that the "way forward" has been discerned (also called "coming to unity"). There is no voting. On some occasions Friends may delay a decision because they feel the meeting is not following God's will. Others (especially non-Friends) may describe this as
consensus decision-making
; however, Friends in general continue to seek God's will. It is assumed that if everyone is attuned to God's spirit, the way forward becomes clear.
International organization
edit
Main article:
Friends World Committee for Consultation
Friends World Committee for Consultation
(FWCC) is the international Quaker organization that loosely unifies the different religious traditions of Quakers; FWCC brings together the largest variety of Friends in the world. Friends World Committee for Consultation is divided into four sections to represent different regions of the world: Africa, Asia West Pacific, Europe and Middle East, and the Americas.
152
Various organizations associated with Friends include a United States' lobbying organization based in
Washington, D.C.
called the
Friends Committee on National Legislation
(FCNL); service organizations such as the
American Friends Service Committee
(AFSC), the
Quaker United Nations Offices
Quaker Peace and Social Witness
, Friends Committee on Scouting, the Quaker Peace Centre in Cape Town, South Africa, and the
Alternatives to Violence Project
Yearly meetings
edit
Main article:
Yearly Meeting
Quakers today are organised into independent and regional, national bodies called
Yearly Meetings
, which have often split from one another over
doctrinal
differences. Several of such unite Quakers who share similar religious beliefs – for example
Evangelical Friends Church International
unites
evangelical Christian Friends
153
Friends United Meeting
unites Friends into "fellowships where Jesus Christ is known, loved and obeyed as Teacher and Lord;"
154
and
Friends General Conference
links Quakers with non-creed, liberal religious beliefs. Many Quaker
Yearly Meetings
also belong to the
Friends World Committee for Consultation
, an international fellowship of Yearly Meetings from different Quaker traditions.
Membership
edit
A Friend is a member of a Yearly Meeting, usually beginning with membership in a local monthly meeting. Means of acquiring membership vary. For example, in most Kenyan yearly meetings, attenders who wish to become members must take part in some two years' adult education, memorising key Bible passages, and learning about the history of orthodox Christianity and of Christian Quakerism. Within the Britain Yearly Meeting, membership is acquired through a process of
peer review
, where a potential member is visited by several members, who report to the other members before a decision is reached.
Within some Friends Churches in the Evangelical Friends Church – in particular in Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of the United States – an adult believer's baptism by immersion in water is optional. Within Liberal Friends, Conservative Friends, and Pastoral Friends Churches, Friends do not practise
water baptism
Christening
, or other initiation ceremonies to admit a new member or a newborn baby. Children are often welcomed into the meeting at their first attendance. Formerly, children born to Quaker parents automatically became members (sometimes called birthright membership), but this no longer applies in many areas. Some parents apply for membership on behalf of their children, while others allow children to decide whether to be a member when they are ready and older in age. Some meetings adopt a policy that children, some time after becoming young adults, must apply independently for membership.
Worship for specific tasks
edit
Memorial services
edit
The Quaker testimony of simplicity extends to memorialisation. Founder
George Fox
is remembered with a simple grave marker at
Quaker Gardens, Islington
, London.
Traditional Quaker memorial services are held as a form of worship and known as memorial meetings. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances of the deceased. In some Quaker traditions, the coffin or ashes are not present. Memorial meetings may be held many weeks after the death, which can enable wider attendance, replacement of grief with spiritual reflection, and celebration of life to dominate. Memorial meetings can last over an hour, particularly if many people attend. Memorial services give all a chance to remember the lost individual in their own way, comforting those present and re-affirming the love of the people in the wider community.
citation needed
Marriage
edit
Main article:
Quaker wedding
A meeting for worship for the solemnisation of marriage in an unprogrammed Friends meeting is similar to any other unprogrammed meeting for worship.
155
The pair exchange declarations before God and gathered witnesses, and the meeting returns to open worship. (Declarations are used as typically Friends do not swear oaths or make vows). At the rise of meeting, the witnesses, including the youngest children, are asked to sign the wedding certificate as a record. In Britain, Quakers keep a separate record of the union and notify the
General Register Office
156
In the early days of the United States, there was doubt whether a marriage solemnised in that way was entitled to legal recognition. Over the years, each state has set rules for the procedure. Most states expect the marriage document to be signed by a single officiant (a priest, rabbi, minister, Justice of the Peace, etc.) Quakers routinely modify the document to allow three or four Friends to sign as officiant. Often these are the members of a committee of ministry and oversight, who have helped the couple to plan their marriage. Usually, a separate document containing the vows and signatures of all present is kept by the couple and often displayed prominently in their home.
In many Friends meetings, the couple meet with a
clearness committee
before the wedding. Its purpose is to discuss with the couple the many aspects of marriage and life as a couple. If the couple seem ready, the marriage is recommended to the meeting.
As in wider society, there is a diversity of views among Friends on the issue of
same-sex marriage
. Various Friends meetings around the world have voiced support for and recognised same-sex marriages. In 1986, Hartford Friends Meeting in Connecticut reached a decision that "the Meeting recognised a committed union in a celebration of marriage, under the care of the Meeting. The same loving care and consideration should be given to both homosexual and heterosexual applicants as outlined in Faith and Practice."
157
Since then, other meetings of liberal and progressive Friends from Australia, Britain, New Zealand, parts of North America, and other countries have recognised marriage between partners of the same sex. In jurisdictions where same-sex marriage is not recognised by civil authorities, some meetings follow the practice of early Quakers in overseeing the union without reference to the state. There are also Friends who do not support same-sex marriage. Some Evangelical and Pastoral yearly meetings in the United States have issued public statements stating that homosexuality is a sin.
157
National and international divisions and organisation
edit
By country
edit
Worldwide distribution of Quakers by country in 2017 according to the
Friends World Committee for Consultation
No data
1–99
100–999
1,000–3,999
4,000–9,999
10,000–119,285
Like many religious movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into sub-groups.
Quakerism started in England and Wales, and quickly spread to Ireland, the Netherlands,
33
Barbados
34
and North America. In 2017, there were 119,200 Quakers in Kenya, 80,000 in the United States, 47,600 in Burundi and 28,500 in Bolivia. Other countries with over 5,000 Quakers were Guatemala, the United Kingdom, Nepal, Taiwan and Uganda.
158
Although the total number of Quakers is around 377,500 worldwide,
158
Quaker influence is concentrated in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Kaimosi
, Kenya;
Newberg, Oregon
Greenleaf, Idaho
Whittier, California
Richmond, Indiana
Friendswood, Texas
Birmingham
, England;
Ramallah
, Palestine, and
Greensboro, North Carolina
Africa
edit
Main article:
Religious Society of Friends in Africa
The highest concentration of Quakers is in Africa.
159
The Friends of East Africa were at one time part of a single East Africa Yearly Meeting, then the world's largest. Today, the region is served by several distinct yearly meetings. Most are affiliated with the
Friends United Meeting
, practice programmed worship and employ pastors. Friends meet in Rwanda and Burundi; new work is beginning in North Africa. Small unprogrammed meetings exist also in Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa and Zimbabwe.
In 2017, there were around 181,000 adult Quakers in Africa.
158
Australia and New Zealand
edit
Friends in Australia and New Zealand follow the unprogrammed tradition, similar to that of the
Britain Yearly Meeting
. Considerable distances between the colonies and small numbers of Quakers meant that Australia Friends were dependent on London until the 20th century. The Society remained unprogrammed and is named Australia Yearly Meeting, with local organizations around seven Regional Meetings: Canberra (which extends into southern New South Wales), New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (which extends into Northern Territory), Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia.
160
The Friends' School
is found in
Hobart
. An annual meeting each January, is hosted by a different Regional Meeting over a seven-year cycle, with a Standing Committee each July or August. The Australia Yearly Meeting published
This We Can Say: Australian Quaker Life, Faith and Thought
in 2003.
Meetings for worship in New Zealand started in
Nelson
in 1842 and in
Auckland
in 1885. In 1889 it was estimated that there were about 30 Quakers in Auckland.
161
The New Zealand Yearly Meeting, today consists of nine monthly meetings.
162
The Yearly Meeting published
On These Islands I runga i ngā motu nei Quaker Faith and Practice in Aotearoa New Zealand
, in 2003, and a revised edition in 2024.
163
Asia
edit
Quaker meetings occur in India, Cambodia, Indonesia, Hong Kong, South Korea, Philippines, Japan, Bhutan and Nepal. There are also Quaker worship houses in other Asian nations such as Myanmar and Singapore as of 2017.
India has four yearly meetings: the unprogrammed
Mid-India Yearly Meeting
, programmed Bhopal Yearly Meeting, and the Mahoba Yearly Meeting.
Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting
is an evangelical Friends Church affiliated to Evangelical Friends International. Other programmed and unprogrammed worship groups are not affiliated to any yearly meeting.
Evangelical Friends Churches exist in the Philippines and Nepal and are affiliated to
Evangelical Friends Church International
Europe
edit
Main article:
Quakers in Europe
In the United Kingdom, the predominantly liberal and unprogrammed
Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain
, has 478 local meetings, and 14,260 adult members, with an additional 8,560 non-member adults who attend worship and 2,251 children.
164
The number has declined steadily since the mid-20th century.
164
Programmed meetings occur, including in
Wem
165
and
London
166
Small groups of Conservative Friends meet in Ripley and Greenwich in England, and Arbroath in Scotland,
167
who follow the
Ohio Yearly Meeting
's
Book of Discipline
168
Evangelical Friends Central Europe Yearly Meeting has 4,306 members
158
across six nations,
169
including Albania, Hungary and Romania.
158
Ireland Yearly Meeting
is unprogrammed and more conservative than Britain Yearly Meeting. It has 1,591 members
158
in 28 meetings
170
across the Republic of Ireland, and in Northern Ireland.
German Yearly Meeting is unprogrammed and liberal and has 453 members,
158
worshipping in 31 meetings in Germany and Austria.
Small groups of Friends in Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Portugal, and Ukraine attend meetings for worship there.
158
Middle East
edit
Middle East Yearly Meeting has meetings in
Lebanon
(Brummana Monthly Meeting) and
Palestine
(Ramallah Monthly Meeting).
171
The Ramallah Friends Meeting is in association with the
Friends World Committee for Consultation
and is affiliated with the
Friends United Meeting
172
There has been an active and vibrant Palestinian Quaker community in
Ramallah
since the late 1800s. In 1910 this community built the Ramallah Friends Meetinghouse and later added another building that was used for community outreach. The Ramallah Friends Meeting has always played a vital role in the community. In 1948 the buildings and grounds became home to many Palestinian refugees. Throughout the years, the members of the Ramallah Friends Meeting organised numerous community programs such as the Children's Play Centre, the First Day School, and women's activities.
By the early 1990s the Meetinghouse and Annex, which housed meeting rooms and bathroom facilities, fell into disrepair as a result of damage inflicted by time and the impact of conflict. So serious was the deterioration of the meetinghouse that by the middle 1990s it was impossible to use the building at all. A further blow to the Friends and the wider Palestinian community was the high level of emigration brought on by the economic situation and the hardships arising from continuing Israeli military occupation. The Meetinghouse, which had served as a place of worship for the Friends in Ramallah could no longer be used as such and the Annex could no longer be used for community outreach.
In 2002 a committee consisting of members of the Religious Society of Friends in the US and the Clerk of the Ramallah Meeting began to raise funds for the renovations of the buildings and grounds of the Meetinghouse. By November 2004 the renovations were complete, and on 6 March 2005, exactly 95 years to the day after the dedication, the Meetinghouse and Annex were rededicated as a Quaker and community resource. Friends meet every Sunday for unprogrammed Meeting for Worship. The meeting is open to Quakers and non-Quakers, including Muslims.
The Brummana Monthly meeting in Lebanon was founded in 1868. It is closely associated with the Brummana High School, which was founded by Quakers in 1873. Conflict and economic conditions have caused the meeting to drop in membership. There are presently around 35 attendees which meet every Sunday.
173
North and South America
edit
See also:
Quakers in North America
and
Quakers in Latin America
Quakers can be found throughout the Americas. Friends in the United States in particular have diverse worship styles and differences of theology, vocabulary, and practice.
A local
congregation
in the unprogrammed tradition is called a
meeting
, or a
monthly meeting
(e.g.,
Smalltown Meeting
or
Smalltown Monthly Meeting
). The reference to "monthly" is because the meeting meets monthly to conduct the group's business. Most "monthly meetings" meet for worship at least once a week; some meetings have several worship meetings during the week. In programmed traditions, local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches" or "Meetings".
Monthly meetings are often part of a regional group called a
quarterly meeting
, which is usually part of an even larger group called a
yearly meeting;
with the adjectives "quarterly" and "yearly" referring specifically to the frequency of
meetings for worship with a concern for business
Some yearly meetings, like Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, belong to larger organisations to help maintain order and communication within the Society. The three chief ones are
Friends General Conference
(FGC),
Friends United Meeting
(FUM), and
Evangelical Friends Church International
(EFCI). In all three groups, most member organisations, though not necessarily members, are from the United States. FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while EFCI is the most evangelical. FUM is the largest; it was originally known as "Five Years Meeting". Some monthly meetings belong to more than one larger organisation, while others are fully independent.
Service organisations
edit
Star symbol used by many service organisations of the Religious Society of Friends
There are many Quaker service organizations dedicated to peace and humanitarian activities overseas. The first, the British
Friends Service Council
(FSC), was founded in Great Britain in 1927 and shared the 1947
Nobel Prize for Peace
with the
American Friends Service Committee
(AFSC).
174
The Quaker star is used by many Quaker service organizations, such as The American Friends Service Committee, Canadian Friends Service Committee and
Quaker Peace and Social Witness
(previously Friends Service Council). It was originally used by British Quakers performing
war relief
efforts during the
Franco-Prussian War
to distinguish themselves from the
Red Cross
175
Today the star is used by multiple Quaker organizations as their symbol to represent "a common commitment to service and the spirit in which it is provided."
176
Relations with other churches and faiths
edit
Ecumenical relations
edit
Prior to the 20th century Quakers considered the Religious Society of Friends to be a Christian movement, but many did not feel that their religious faith fit within the categories of
Catholic
Orthodox
, or
Protestant
35
Many Conservative Friends, while fully seeing themselves as orthodox Christians, choose to remain separate from other Christian groups.
Many Friends in Liberal Friends' meetings are actively involved in the
ecumenical movement
, often working closely with other
Mainline Protestant
and liberal Christian churches, with whom they share common religious ground. A concern for peace and social justice often brings Friends together with other Christian churches and other Christian groups. Some Liberal Quaker yearly meetings are members of ecumenical pan-Christian organisations, which include Protestant and Orthodox churches—for example
Philadelphia Yearly Meeting
is a member of the
National Council of Churches
177
The
Britain Yearly Meeting
is a member of
Churches Together in Britain and Ireland
, and
Friends General Conference
is a member of the
World Council of Churches
178
Gurneyite Friends would typically see themselves as part of an orthodox Christian movement and work closely with other Christian denominations.
Friends United Meeting
(the international organisation of Gurneyite yearly meetings) is a member of the
National Council of Churches
177
and the
World Council of Churches
178
which are pan-Christian organisations that include Lutheran, Orthodox, Reformed, Anglican and Baptist Churches, among others.
179
180
Evangelical Friends work closely with other
evangelical churches
from other Christian traditions. The North American branch of
Evangelical Friends Church International
is a member church of the
National Association of Evangelicals
. Evangelical Friends tend to be less involved with non-evangelical churches and are not members of the
World Council of Churches
or
National Council of Churches
The majority of other Christian groups recognise Friends among their fellow-Christians.
35
Some people who attend Quaker Meetings assume that Quakers are not Christians, when they do not hear overtly Christian language during the meeting for worship.
181
Relations with other faiths
edit
Relationships between Quakers and non-Christians vary considerably, according to sect, geography, and history.
Early Quakers distanced themselves from practices that they saw as
pagan
. For instance, they refused to use the usual names of the days of the week, since they were derived from the names of pagan deities.
182
They refused to celebrate
Christmas
because they believed it was based on pagan festivities.
183
Early Friends called on adherents of other world religions to turn to the 'Light of Christ within' that they believed was present in all people born into the world.
184
For example, George Fox wrote a number of open letters to
Jews
and
Muslims
, in which he encouraged them to turn to Jesus Christ as the only path to salvation (e.g.,
A Visitation to the Jews
185
To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, and all that are under his authority, to read this over, which concerns their salvation
186
187
and
To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria
).
188
In the letters to Muslim readers, Fox is exceptional for his time in his sympathetic and wide-ranging use of the
Qur'an
, and his belief that its contents were consistent with Christian scripture.
189
190
Mary Fisher
probably preached the same message when she appeared before the Muslim
Mehmed IV
(the Sultan of the
Ottoman Empire
) in 1658.
191
In 1870, Richard Price Hallowell argued that the logical extension of Christian Quakerism is a universal Church, which "demands a religion which embraces Jew, Pagan and Christian, and which cannot be limited by the dogmas of one or the other".
192
Since the late 20th century, in part due to the allowance of
Religious pluralism
Universalism
, some attenders at Liberal Quaker Meetings have actively identified with world faiths other than Christianity, such as
Judaism
, and
Islam
193
See also
edit
The Light upon the Candlestick
– a 17th-century tract which was popular among English Quakers
List of Christian denominations
Peace Testimony
Shakers
Testimony of equality
Testimony of integrity
– Behavioural code of Quakers
Testimony of simplicity
– Behavioural practice of Quakers
References
edit
Michael Bjerknes Aune; Valerie M. DeMarinis (1996).
Religious and Social Ritual: Interdisciplinary Explorations
. SUNY Press. p. 105.
ISBN
978-0-7914-2825-2
"Where Did the Names "Quaker" and "Friends" Come From?"
. Walnut Creek Friends Church
. Retrieved
21 June
2024
They called themselves 'Friends' because of the words of Jesus recorded in John 15:14, 'You are my friends, if you do what I command you.' The early Friends were Christians who believed they could live like Jesus because Jesus lived in them. The name 'Quaker' was applied to the early Friends by their critics. The early Friends were so aware of the presence of God among them that they sometimes trembled with excitement. Upon being threatened by a judge to 'quake' before the authority of his court, George Fox told him to quake before the authority of God.
Fox, George (1903).
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215–
216.
This is the word of the Lord God to you all, and a charge to you all in the presence of the living God; be patterns, be examples in all your countries, places, islands, nations, wherever you come; that your carriage and life may preach among all sorts of people and to them: then you will come to walk cheerfully over the world, answering that of God in every one; whereby in them ye may be a blessing, and make the witness of God in them to bless you: then to the Lord God you will be a sweet savour, and a blessing.
Hodge, Charles (12 March 2015).
Systematic Theology
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This spiritual illumination is peculiar to the true people of God; the inward light, in which the Quakers believe, is common to all men. The design and effect of the "inward light" are the communication of new truth, or of truth not objectively revealed, as well as the spiritual discernment of the truths of Scripture. The design and effect of spiritual illumination are the proper apprehension of truth already speculatively known. Secondly. By the inner light the orthodox Quakers understand the supernatural influence of the Holy Spirit, concerning which they teach, – (1.) That it is given to all men. (2.) That it not only convinces of sin, and enables the soul to apprehend aright the truths of Scripture, but also communicates a knowledge of 'the mysteries of salvation.' ... The orthodox Friends teach concerning this inward light, as has been already shown, that it is subordinate to the Holy Scriptures, inasmuch as the Scriptures are the infallible rule of faith and practice, and everything contrary thereto is to be rejected as false and destructive.
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ISBN
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Contemporary Quakers worldwide are predominately evangelical and are often referred to as the Friends Church.
Christian Scholar's Review, Volume 27
Hope College
. 1997. p. 205.
This was especially true of proto-evangelical movements like the Quakers, organized as the Religious Society of Friends by George Fox in 1668 as a group of Christians who rejected clerical authority and taught that the Holy Spirit guided
Punshon, John (1996).
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Quakerism began as a great revival of evangelism in the seventeenth century.
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These Quakers attempted to convert others to their understanding of Christianity, travelling throughtout Great Britain and overseas, preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ. Some of the early Quaker ministers were even women, and this in itself was an anathema to the deeply entrenched patriarchal society of the seventeenth century. The Quaker message was simple and based upon the belief that 'Christ has come to teach his people himself', the pivotal factor being that of a direct relationship with God through Jesus Christ, and a personal and direct religious experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible.
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From time to time, over the three centuries of their history, Friends have issued longer or shorter statements of belief. They earnestly seek to base these declarations of the essential truths of Christianity upon the clear teaching of the Holy Scriptures. The most detailed of these statements commonly held by orthodox Friends is known as the Richmond Declaration of Faith. This instrument was drawn up by ninety-nine representatives of ten American yearly meetings and of London and Dublin yearly meetings, assembled at Richmond, Indiana, in 1887.
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A conference of 95 delegates appointed by 12 Friends (Quaker) yearly meetings representing the Orthodox branch of Friends across the world met in Richmond, Indiana in September 1887. This conference issued a Declaration of Faith, which has been widely used by Orthodox Friends ever since.
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John 20:1
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Since its creation, it has also established a cordial cooperation with the World Council of Churches and regularly names Catholic observers at various ecumenical gatherings and invites observers of 'fraternal delegates' of other churches or ecclesial communities to major events of the Catholic Church. The PCPCU publishes a journal called
Information Service
four times a year, in English and French. The WCC is the broadest and most inclusive among the many organized expressions of the modern ecumenical movement. It brings together 349 churches, denominations and church fellowships in more than 100 countries and territories throughout the world, representing over 560 million Christians and including most of the world's Orthodox churches, scores of Anglican, Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist and Reformed churches, as well as many United and Independent churches. ... It describes itself as a fellowship of churches which confess the Lord Jesus Christ as God and Savior according to the Scriptures and therefore seek to fulfill together their common calling to the glory of the one God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, with the goal of visible unity in one faith and one Eucharistic fellowship, expressed in worship and in common life in Christ.
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These Churches are the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Syrian Orthodox Church, and the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church in India. In addition, an independent Orthodox Church of Eritrea was established following that country's independence from Ethiopia in 1993. All are members of the World Council of Churches and have committed themselves to the contemporary ecumenical movement. In total, there are probably about thirty million Oriental Orthodox faithful in the world today.
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Yount, David (2007).
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Frost, Jerry William (1968).
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For example, George Fox,
Turcae, et omnibus sub ejus ditione, ut hoc perlegant quod ad salvationem eorum spectat
(1660), pp. 10, 11, 13; cf. John 1:9)
Fox, George.
"A Visitation to the Jews. From Them Whom The Lord Hath Visited From on High, Among Whom He Hath Performed His Promise Made To Abraham, Isaac, And Jacob. The Mighty Day of the Lord Is Come, And Coming, Who Dwells Not in Temples Made With Hands, Nor Is He Worshipped With Men's Hands, But in the Spirit, From Whom The Scripture Was Given Forth"
Works of George Fox
Fox, George (1821). "To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, and all that are under his Authority, to read this over, which concerns their Salvation".
The Works of George Fox: Gospel truth demonstrated, in a collection of doctrinal books, given forth by that faithful minister of Jesus Christ, George Fox: containing principles essential to Christianity and salvation, held among the people called Quakers
. Marcus T. C. Gould. pp.
216–
221.
Fox, George.
To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, And All That Are Under His Authority, To Read This Over, Which Concerns Their Salvation (in: "Works of George Fox" (volume 4)
Fox, George.
"To The Great Turk And King at Algiers in Algeria"
Works of George Fox (volume 6)
Matar, Nabil. 1989. 'Some Notes on George Fox and Islam'.
Journal of the Friends' Historical Society
55: 271–76
Meggitt, Justin J. 2016. 'Islam and Christianity in the Works of George Fox'. In
Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 8. Northern and Eastern Europe (1600–1700)
, edited by David Thomas and John Chesworth, 527–34. Leiden: Brill.
Meggitt, Justin J. (2016). "Mary Fisher". In Thomas, David; Chesworth, John (eds.).
Christian-Muslim Relations: A Bibliographical History
. Vol. 8. Northern and Eastern Europe (1600–1700). Leiden: Brill. pp.
367–
74.
ISBN
9789004326637
Hollowell, Richard Price (1870).
The Quakers in New England: An Essay
. Merrihew & Son, Printers. p. 26.
Miller-White, Brett (2004).
"The Journeyman – The Making of a Muslim Quaker"
Quaker Theology
. Vol. 10. Archived from
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on 18 July 2007.
Further reading
edit
Abbott, Margery; Chijioke, Mary Ellen; Dandelion, Pink; Oliver, John William, eds. (June 2003).
Historical Dictionary of The Friends (Quakers)
. Scarecrow Press.
ISBN
978-0-8108-4483-4
Anderson, Verily
(1980).
Friends and Relations: Three Centuries of Quaker Families
. Hodder & Stoughton.
Bacon, Margaret Hope (April 2000).
The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the Quakers in America
. Pendle Hill Publications. p. 249.
ISBN
978-0-87574-935-8
Margaret Hope Bacon, "Quakers and Colonization"
Quaker History
. 95 (Spring 2006), 26–43
Hugh Barbour and J. William Frost,
The Quakers
. (1988), 412 pp.; historical survey, including many capsule biographies
online edition
Archived
27 June 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
Barbour, Hugh (October 1985).
The Quakers in Puritan England
. Friends United Press. p. 272.
ISBN
978-0-913408-87-2
Philip Benjamin,
Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870–1920
(1976)
J. Brent Bill,
Holy Silence: The Gift of Quaker Spirituality
(2005),
ISBN
1-55725-420-6
David Boulton, ed., 2006,
Godless for God's Sake: Nontheism in Contemporary Quakerism.
Dales Historical Monographs.
ISBN
0-9511578-6-8
Michael L. Birkel,
Silence and Witness: The Quaker Tradition
(2004),
ISBN
1-57075-518-3
(in the UK,
ISBN
0-232-52448-3
William C. Braithwaite,
The Beginnings of Quakerism
. (1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955)
online edition
Archived
21 July 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
William C. Braithwaite,
Second Period of Quakerism
. (1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain
Howard H. Brinton,
Friends for 350 Years
(1965),
ISBN
0-87574-903-8
Peter Brock,
Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom
. (1968) on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900
Edwin B. Bronner,
William Penn's Holy Experiment
(1962)
G. B. Burnet,
Story of Quakerism in Scotland
. The Lutterworth Press (2007), Cambridge,
ISBN
978-0-7188-9176-3
Jennifer Connerley,
Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850–1920
PhD dissertation University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (2006). 277 pp. Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363 online at
ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Wilmer A. Cooper,
A Living Faith: An Historical and Comparative Study of Quaker Beliefs
2nd ed. (2000),
ISBN
0-944350-53-4
A. Glenn Crothers,
Quakers Living in the Lion's Mouth: The Society of Friends in Northern Virginia, 1730–1865
. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2012
Pink Dandelion,
A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of the Quakers: The Silent Revolution
Lewiston, New York
Edwin Mellen Press
, 1996),
ISBN
0-7734-8807-3
Pink Dandelion,
The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction
(2008),
ISBN
978-0-19-920679-7
Adrian Davies,
The Quakers in English Society, 1655–1725
(2000) 261 pp.
Robert Doherty,
The Hicksite Separation
. (1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side
Mary Maples Dunn,
William Penn: Politics and Conscience
(1967)
J. William Frost,
The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends
. (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life
J. William Frost, "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature",
Quaker History
67 (1978): 42–58.
JSTOR
41946850
Jonathan Fryer, ed.,
George Fox and the Children of the Light
(London: Kyle Cathie, 1991),
ISBN
1-85626-024-0
Harvey Gillman,
A Light that is Shining: Introduction to the Quakers
(1988),
ISBN
0-85245-213-6
George H. Gorman,
Introducing Quakers
(3rd revised reprint) (London: Quaker Home Service, 1981),
ISBN
0-85245-005-2
Gerard Guiton,
The Growth and Development of Quaker Testimony
(2005),
ISBN
0-7734-6002-0
Thomas Hamm,
The Quakers in America
. (2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history
Thomas Hamm,
The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907
. (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction
Thomas D. Hamm,
Earlham College: A History, 1847–1997
. (1997) 448 pp.
Jean Hatton,
Betsy: The Dramatic Biography of Prison Reformer Elizabeth Fry
(2005),
ISBN
1-85424-705-0
and
ISBN
0-8254-6092-1
Jean Hatton,
George Fox: Founder of the Quakers
(2007),
ISBN
1854247530
and
ISBN
978-0-8254-6106-4
Hubbard, Geoffrey,
Quaker by Convincement
. (1985),
ISBN
0-85245-189-X
and (1974),
ISBN
0-14-021663-4
Joseph E. Illick,
Colonial Pennsylvania: A History
(1976).
online edition
Archived
29 May 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
H. Larry Ingle,
First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism
(1994),
ISBN
0-19-507803-9
and (1996),
ISBN
0-19-510117-0
H. Larry Ingle,
Nixon's First Cover-up: The Religious Life of a Quaker President
(2015),
ISBN
978-0-8262-2042-4
H. Larry Ingle,
Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation
(1998),
ISBN
0-87574-926-7
Sydney James,
A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America
. (1963), broad-ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800
Rufus M. Jones, Amelia M. Gummere and Isaac Sharpless.
Quakers in the American Colonies
(1911), history to 1775
online edition
Archived
26 June 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
Rufus M. Jones,
Later Periods of Quakerism
. 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.
Rufus M. Jones,
The Story of George Fox
. (1919) 169 pp.
online edition
Rufus M. Jones,
A Service of Love in War Time: American Friends Relief Work in Europe, 1917–1919
(1922)
online edition
Ryan Jordan, "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833–1865",
Civil War History
Vol. 53, (2007)
online edition
Archived
29 July 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
Ryan Jordan,
Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865
. (2007) 191 pp.
Thomas C. Kennedy,
British Quakerism, 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community
. (2001). 477 pp.
Rebecca Larson,
Daughters of Light
: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700–1775
(1999) 399 pp.
James David LeShana,
'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: University of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp. DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014 Fulltext:
ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Mark Minear,
Richmond, 1887: A Quaker Drama Unfolds
(1987),
ISBN
9780913408988
Rosemary Moore,
The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain 1646–1666
(2000) 314 pp.
ISBN
0-271-01989-1
John A. Moretta,
William Penn and the Quaker Legacy
(2007),
ISBN
0-321-16392-3
Michael Mullet, ed.,
New Light on George Fox (1624 to 1691)
(1994),
ISBN
1-85072-142-4
Gary Nash,
Quakers and Politis: Pennsylvania, 1680–1726
(1968)
John Punshon,
Portrait in Grey : A Short History of the Quakers
(2nd ed.) (London: Quaker Books, 2006),
ISBN
0-85245-399-X
Ane Marie Bak Rasmussen,
A History of the Quaker Movement in Africa
(1994) 168 pp.
Elbert Russell,
The History of Quakerism
(1942)
online edition
Archived
15 September 2011 at the
Wayback Machine
Harold Smuck,
Friends in East Africa
(Richmond, Indiana: 1987)
Douglas Steere, (1967)
On Being Present Where You Are
Archived
14 December 2007 at the
Wayback Machine
Wallingford, Pa: Pendle Hill Pamphlet No. 151
Frederick B. Tolles,
Meeting House and Counting House
(1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia
Frederick B. Tolles,
Quakers and the Atlantic Culture
(1960)
D. Elton Trueblood
The People Called Quakers
(1966)
John Michael Vlach, "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art",
Journal of American Folklore
Vol. 94 (1981)
doi
10.2307/540122
JSTOR
540122
Karen Anna Vogel,
Christmas Union: Quaker Abolitionists of Chester County, PA
(2014) ,Murray Pura's Cry of Freedom Series, Volume 5
James Walvin,
The Quakers: Money and Morals
(1997) 243 pp.
Clarence H. Yarrow,
The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation
(1979) for post-1945
Primary sources
edit
J. Brent Bill,
Imagination and Spirit: A Contemporary Quaker Reader
(2002)
ISBN
0-944350-61-5
Amelia Gummere, ed.
The Journal and Essays of John Woolman
(1922)
online edition
Rufus M. Jones, ed.
The Journal of George Fox: An Autobiography
online edition
Lucretia Coffin Mott, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer,
Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott
, U. of Illinois Press, (2002) 580 pp.
Robert Lawrence Smith,
A Quaker Book of Wisdom
(1999)
ISBN
0-688-17233-4
Jessamyn West
, ed.
The Quaker Reader
(1962)
ISBN
0-87574-916-X
collection of essays by Fox, Penn and other notable Quakers
Children's books
edit
Marguerite De Angeli,
Thee, Hannah!
ISBN
0-8361-9106-4
Katherine Milhous
The Egg Tree
ISBN
978-0-689-71568-6
Appolonia's Valentine
ISBN
978-0-684-92306-2
Brinton Turkle
The Adventures of Obadiah
ISBN
0-670-10614-3
Obadiah the Bold
ISBN
1-893103-19-6
Rachel and Obadiah
ISBN
1-893103-18-8
Thy Friend, Obadiah
ISBN
0-14-050393-5
External links
edit
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