Quebec - Wikipedia

Quebec - Wikipedia
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(Redirected from
Québec
Province of Canada
This article is about the Canadian province. For the province's capital city, see
Quebec City
. For the historical province, see
Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
. For other uses, see
Quebec (disambiguation)
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Province in Canada
Quebec
Québec
French
Province
Flag
Coat of arms
Motto(s):
Je me souviens
French
'I remember'
BC
AB
SK
MB
ON
QC
NB
PE
NS
NL
YT
NT
NU
Coordinates:
52°N
72°W
 / 
52°N 72°W
 /
52; -72
Country
Canada
Before confederation
Canada East
Confederation
July 1, 1867 (1st, with
New Brunswick
Nova Scotia
Ontario
Capital
Quebec City
Largest city
Montreal
Largest metro
Greater Montreal
Government
• Type
Parliamentary
constitutional monarchy
Lieutenant Governor
Manon Jeannotte
Premier
Christine Fréchette
Legislature
National Assembly of Quebec
Federal representation
Parliament of Canada
House seats
78 of 343 (22.7%)
Senate seats
24 of 105
(22.9%)
Area
• Total
1,542,057 km
(595,392 sq mi)
• Land
1,365,129 km
(527,079 sq mi)
• Water
176,928 km
(68,312 sq mi)  11.5%
• Rank
2nd
15.4% of Canada
Population
2021
• Total
8,501,840
• Estimate
(Q4 2025)
9,058,089
• Rank
2nd
• Density
6.23/km
(16.1/sq mi)
Demonym(s)
in English: Quebecer, Quebecker, Québécois
in French:
Québécois
),
Québécoise
Official languages
French
GDP
• Rank
2nd
• Total (2022)
C$552.737 billion
• Per capita
C$63,651 (9th)
HDI
• HDI (2023)
0.945—
Very high
2nd
Time zone
UTC−05:00
Eastern Time Zone
for most of the province
• Summer (
DST
UTC−04:00
Canadian postal abbr.
QC
Flower
Blue flag iris
Tree
Yellow birch
Bird
Snowy owl
Website
quebec.ca
Rankings include all
provinces and territories
Quebec
French
Québec
is
Canada
's
largest province by area
12
Located in
Central Canada
, it is the only
Francophone-majority
province in the country, being home to
Québécois French
. It shares borders with the provinces of
Ontario
to the west,
Newfoundland and Labrador
to the northeast,
New Brunswick
to the southeast and a coastal border with the territory of
Nunavut
. In the south, it shares a border with the
United States
Quebec has a population of around eight million, making it Canada's
second-most populous province
only behind
Ontario
Between 1534 and 1763, what is now Quebec was the
French colony
of
Canada
and was the most developed colony in
New France
. Following the
Seven Years' War
, Canada became a
British colony
, first as the
Province of Quebec
(1763–1791), then
Lower Canada
(1791–1841), and lastly part of the
Province of Canada
(1841–1867) as a result of the
Lower Canada Rebellion
. It was
confederated
with Ontario,
Nova Scotia
, and New Brunswick in 1867.
Until the early 1960s
, the
Catholic Church
played a large role in the social and cultural institutions in Quebec. However, the
Quiet Revolution
of the 1960s to 1980s increased the role of the
Government of Quebec
in
l'État québécois
(the public authority of Quebec).
The
Government of Quebec
functions within the context of a
Westminster system
and is both a
liberal democracy
and a
constitutional monarchy
. The
Premier of Quebec
acts as
head of government
Independence debates
have played a large role in
Quebec politics
. Quebec society's
cohesion
and
specificity
is based on three of its unique
statutory
documents: the
Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
, the
Charter of the French Language
, and the
Civil Code of Quebec
. Furthermore, unlike elsewhere in Canada which uses a purely
common-law
system,
law in Quebec
is mixed:
private law
is exercised under a
civil-law
system, while
public law
is exercised under a
common-law
system.
The
economy of Quebec
is mainly supported by its large service sector and varied industrial sector. For exports, it leans on the key industries of
aeronautics
hydroelectricity
, mining,
pharmaceuticals
, aluminum, wood, and paper. Quebec is well known for producing
maple syrup
, for
its comedy
, and for making
hockey
one of the most
popular sports in Canada
. Also renowned for its distinct
culture
, the province produces
literature
music
films
TV shows
festivals
, and more.
Etymology
The name
Québec
comes from an
Algonquin
word meaning 'narrow passage' or 'strait'.
13
The name originally referred to the area around
Quebec City
where the
Saint Lawrence River
narrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in the spelling included
Québecq
and
Kébec
14
French explorer
Samuel de Champlain
chose the name
Québec
in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the
administrative seat
for
New France
15
History
Main article:
History of Quebec
For a chronological guide, see
Timeline of Quebec history
Indigenous peoples and European expeditions (pre-1608)
Main articles:
Peopling of the Americas
Indigenous peoples in Quebec
, and
Exploration of North America
A depiction of
Jacques Cartier
by
Théophile Hamel
, 1844
The
Paleo-Indians
, theorized to have migrated from Asia to America between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, were the first people to establish themselves on the lands of Quebec, arriving after the
Laurentide Ice Sheet
melted roughly 11,000 years ago.
16
17
From them, many
ethnocultural groups
emerged. By the European explorations of the 1500s, there were eleven
Indigenous peoples
: the
Inuit
and ten
First Nations
– the
Abenaki
Algonquin
(or Anichinabés),
Atikamekw
Cree
Huron-Wendat
Wolastoqiyik
Miꞌkmaq
Iroquois
Innu
and
Naskapi
18
Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based on hunting, gathering, and fishing.
19
Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals along the coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bays.
20
In the 15th century, the
Byzantine Empire fell
, prompting Western Europeans to search for new
sea routes
to the
Far East
21
As such, around 1522–23,
Giovanni da Verrazzano
persuaded
King Francis I of France
to commission an expedition to find a western route to
Cathay
(China) via a
Northwest Passage
. Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name
New France
for northeast North America.
22
In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France,
Jacques Cartier
became the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed in
Gaspé
on July 24, 1534.
23
In the second expedition, in 1535, Cartier explored the lands of
Stadacona
and named the village and its surrounding territories
Canada
(from
kanata
, 'village' in
Iroquois
). Cartier returned to France with about 10
St. Lawrence Iroquoians
, including Chief
Donnacona
. In 1540, Donnacona told the legend of the
Kingdom of Saguenay
to the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led by
Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval
; it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom.
24
After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the
Italian Wars
and religious wars.
25
Around 1580, the rise of the
fur trade
reignited French interest; New France became a
colonial trading post
26
In 1603,
Samuel de Champlain
travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established a
defence pact
with the Innu, Wolastoqiyik and Mi'kmaq, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis the British".
27
Thus also began French military support to the
Algonquian
and Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as the
Iroquois Wars
and lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s.
28
New France (1608–1763)
Main articles:
Canada (New France)
and
New France
Three Huron-Wendat chiefs from
Wendake
. New France had largely peaceful relations with the Indigenous people, such as their allies the Huron. After the
defeat of the Huron
by their mutual enemy, the
Iroquois
, many fled from Ontario to Quebec.
In 1608, Samuel de Champlain
29
returned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of King
Henry IV
, he founded the
Habitation de Québec
(now Quebec City) and made it the capital of New France and its regions.
26
The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing.
30
Missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City.
Coureurs des bois
and
Catholic missionaries
used river
canoes
to explore the interior and establish fur trading forts.
31
32
The
Compagnie des Cent-Associés
, which had been granted a royal mandate to manage New France in 1627, introduced the
Custom of Paris
and the
seigneurial system
, and forbade settlement by anyone other than Catholics.
33
In 1629,
Quebec City surrendered
, without battle, to English
privateers
during the
Anglo-French War
; in 1632, the English king agreed to return it with the
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
Trois-Rivières
was founded at de Champlain's request in 1634.
34
Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve
founded
Ville-Marie
(now Montreal) in 1642.
In 1663, the Company of New France ceded Canada to
King Louis XIV
, who made New France into a royal province of France.
35
New France was now a
true colony
administered by the
Sovereign Council of New France
from Quebec City. A
governor-general
, governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia,
Louisiana
and Plaisance.
36
The French settlers were mostly farmers and known as "
Canadiens
" or "
Habitants
". Though there was little immigration,
37
the colony grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates.
38
39
In 1665, the
Carignan-Salières regiment
developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought with them 1,200 new men.
40
To redress the gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women (
King's Daughters
) to the colony.
35
In 1666, intendant
Jean Talon
organized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700.
41
New France's territory grew to extend from
Hudson Bay
to the
Gulf of Mexico
, and would encompass the
Great Lakes
42
In the early 1700s,
Governor Callières
concluded the
Great Peace of Montreal
, which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively ended the Iroquois Wars.
43
From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in four successive wars called the
French and Indian Wars
by Americans, and the Intercolonial Wars in Quebec.
44
The first three were
King William's War
(1688–1697),
Queen Anne's War
(1702–1713), and
King George's War
(1744–1748). In 1713, following the
Peace of Utrecht
, the
Duke of Orléans
ceded Acadia and
Plaisance Bay
to Great Britain, but retained
Île Saint-Jean
, and
Île-Royale
where the
Fortress of Louisbourg
was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000
Acadians
45
46
In the
siege of Louisbourg (1745)
, the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions.
47
Montcalm leading his troops into battle. Watercolour by
Charles William Jefferys
The last of the four French and Indian Wars was the
Seven Years' War
("The War of the
Conquest
" in Quebec) and lasted from 1754 to 1763.
48
49
In 1754, tensions escalated for control of the
Ohio Valley
, as authorities in New France became more aggressive in efforts to expel British traders and colonists.
50
In 1754,
George Washington
launched a surprise attack on a group of sleeping Canadien soldiers, known as the
Battle of Jumonville Glen
, the first battle of the war. In 1755, Governor
Charles Lawrence
and Officer
Robert Monckton
ordered the forceful
expulsion of the Acadians
. In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfe
besieged and captured
the Fortress of Louisbourg.
51
This allowed him to control access to the
Gulf of St. Lawrence
through the
Cabot Strait
. In 1759, he besieged Quebec for three months from
Île d'Orléans
52
Then, Wolfe stormed Quebec and fought against
Montcalm
for control of the city in the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham
. After a British victory, the
king's lieutenant
and
Lord of Ramezay
concluded the
Articles of Capitulation of Quebec
. During the spring of 1760, the
Chevalier de Lévis
besieged Quebec City and forced the British to entrench themselves during the
Battle of Sainte-Foy
. However, loss of French vessels sent to resupply New France after the fall of Quebec City during the
Battle of Restigouche
marked the end of France's efforts to retake the colony.
Governor Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial
signed the
Articles of Capitulation of Montreal
on September 8, 1760.
While awaiting the results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under a
British military regime
led by Governor
James Murray
53
In 1762, Commander
Jeffery Amherst
ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the
Battle of Signal Hill
. France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and the
Mississippi River Delta
to Spain via the
Treaty of Fontainebleau
. On February 10, 1763, the
Treaty of Paris
concluded the war. France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain.
54
Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholic
clergy
in refusing to take an oath to the
British Crown
55
The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the
descendants of the Canadiens
that would eventually result in the birth of a new
nation
56
British North America (1763–1867)
Main articles:
Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
Lower Canada
, and
Canada East
The
Province of Quebec
in 1774
After the British acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under the
Royal Proclamation
57
The Canadiens were subordinated to the government of the
British Empire
and circumscribed to a region of the
St. Lawrence Valley
and
Anticosti Island
called the
Province of Quebec
. With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that the Canadiens might support what would become the
American Revolution
. To secure allegiance to the British crown, Governor
James Murray
and later Governor
Guy Carleton
promoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of the
Quebec Act
58
of 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain their
civil customs
, return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights including use of French, and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador, the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley,
Illinois Country
and the
Indian Territory
59
As early as 1774, the
Continental Congress
of the separatist
Thirteen Colonies
attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However,
its military troops
failed to defeat the British counteroffensive during its
Invasion of Quebec
in 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, though some regiments allied themselves with the Americans in the
Saratoga campaign
of 1777. When the British recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of the
Treaty of Paris
of 1783, it ceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United States and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size.
Some
United Empire Loyalists
from the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions.
60
Dissatisfied with the legal rights under the French seigneurial regime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until the
Constitutional Act
of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from the
Ottawa River
Upper Canada
to the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and
Lower Canada
to the east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north to
Rupert's Land
, and south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on the north shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During the
War of 1812
Charles-Michel de Salaberry
became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at the
Battle of the Chateauguay
. This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada.
The
Battle of Saint-Eustache
was the final battle of the Lower Canada Rebellion.
61
Gradually, the
Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada
, who represented the people, came into conflict with the superior authority of
the Crown
and
its appointed representatives
. Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by the
Parti canadien
. In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its
92 resolutions
, political demands which expressed loss of confidence in the
British monarchy
. Discontentment intensified throughout the
public meetings
of 1837, and the
Lower Canada Rebellion
began in 1837.
62
In 1837,
Louis-Joseph Papineau
and
Robert Nelson
led residents of Lower Canada to form an armed group called the
Patriotes
They declared independence
in 1838, guaranteeing rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination.
63
Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and
Upper Canada
. The Patriotes were victorious in their first battle, the
Battle of Saint-Denis
. However, they were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the British army in the
Battle of Saint-Charles
, and defeat in the
Battle of Saint-Eustache
61
In response to the rebellions,
Lord Durham
was asked to undertake a study and prepare a
report offering a solution
to the British Parliament.
64
Durham recommended that Canadiens be
culturally assimilated
, with English as their only official language. To do this, the British passed the
Act of Union 1840
, which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: the
Province of Canada
. Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populated
Canada East
, and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populated
Canada West
. This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in the
Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada
, which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation, this meant it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were called into question by debates on "
representation by population
". Around this period, the
British population
appropriated the term
Canadian
to refer to themselves, referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far been "the Canadians", began to be identified with their
ethnic community
under the name "
French Canadian
" as they were a "French of Canada".
65
As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by the
Château Clique
, an exodus of Canadiens towards
New England
began and went on for the next hundred years. This phenomenon is known as the
Grande Hémorragie
and threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that followed the failed rebellion, compounded this. To combat it, the Church adopted the
revenge of the cradle
policy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from
Kingston
to Montreal.
66
During Ireland's
Great Potato Famine
(1845–1852), nearly 100,000 Irish refugees passed through
Grosse Isle
's quarantine station, with many settling in Quebec and integrating into French-Canadian society.
67
68
Political unrest came to a head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters
set fire to the Parliament Building in Montreal
following the enactment of the
Rebellion Losses Bill
, a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838.
69
This bill, resulting from the
Baldwin
La Fontaine
coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was important as it established the notion of
responsible government
70
In 1854, the seigneurial system was abolished, the
Grand Trunk Railway
was built, and the
Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty
was implemented. In 1866, the
Civil Code of Lower Canada
was adopted.
71
72
73
Traditional Quebec (1867–1960)
George-Étienne Cartier
, co-premier from
Canada East
and a Father of Confederation
In 1864, negotiations began for
Canadian Confederation
between the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia at the
Charlottetown Conference
and
Quebec Conference
After having fought as a Patriote,
George-Étienne Cartier
entered politics in the Province of Canada, becoming one of the co-premiers and advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became a leading figure at the Quebec Conference, which produced the
Quebec Resolutions
, the foundation for Canadian Confederation.
74
Recognized as a
Father of Confederation
, he successfully argued for the establishment of the province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status.
Following the
London Conference of 1866
, the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as the
British North America Act, 1867
, and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada, composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,
Ontario
and Quebec. These last two came from splitting the Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867,
Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau
became Quebec's
first premier
Between the late 19th and the late 20th century, Montreal was Canada's and Quebec's most populous city, including its economic and cultural centres. It was, as such, often among the first to adopt new technologies. It launched Canada's first public transit system in 1861 with horse-drawn streetcars,
75
started a telephone service in 1878,
76
and received electricity in 1885.
77
The new Dominion quickly became interested in
expansionism
, especially westward, purchasing
Rupert's Land
from the
Hudson's Bay Company
in 1870. In 1885, it fought against the francophone Métis in the
North-West Rebellion
, and did not grant
clemency
to
Louis Riel
, their leader, after he was sentenced to death. This caused several Quebec liberal and conservative MLAs to form the
Parti National
out of anger.
78
This, in combination with the
Manitoba Schools Question
, also helped turn the promotion and defence of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern. Gradually gaining in popularity, clerico-nationalists – who promoted the Triple Ideal of Catholicism, French, and rural life, alongside other traditional values (e.g., traditional gender roles, resistance to cultural assimilation, anti-
progressivism
, hierarchy) – went on to wield significant influence until the 1960s.
79
Montreal continued its expansions into new advances by introducing streetcars in 1892
80
and seeing bikes and automobiles populate its roads by the 1890s and 1900s respectively.
81
The Canadian Parliament, meanwhile, expanded Quebec in 1898 by enacting the
Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898
, which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land.
82
Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action of
Henri Bourassa
, symbols of French Canadian national pride were developed, like the
Flag of Carillon
, and "
O Canada
" – a patriotic song composed for
Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day
. Many organizations went on to consecrate the affirmation of the French-Canadian people, including the
caisses populaires Desjardins
in 1900, the
Club de hockey Canadien
in 1909,
Le Devoir
in 1910, the
Congress on the French language in Canada
in 1912, and
L'Action nationale
in 1917. In 1909, the Quebec government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow the Grande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to the US instead of its labourers.
83
In 1910,
Armand Lavergne
passed the
Lavergne Law
, the first language legislation in Quebec, which required the use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec.
84
This movement may be what ensured Ontario's
Regulation 17
(1912–1927) was fought against until its repeal.
In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted the
Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912
, which gave Quebec its final extension: another part of Rupert's Land called the
District of Ungava
85
Quebec's borders now met the
Hudson Strait
and vaguely interlapped with
Labrador
's.
When the
First World War
broke out in 1914, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel the same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, most French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties and waning numbers of volunteers were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because almost every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all English-speaking MPs supported it, the
Military Service Act, 1917
became law on August 29, 1917.
86
French Canadians protested in the
Conscription Crisis of 1917
, which led to the
Quebec riot
fr
87
In 1919, the
prohibition
of
spirits
was enacted following a
provincial referendum
88
In 1920, Montreal hosted Canada’s first public radio broadcast.
89
Then, in 1921, prohibition was abolished by the
Alcoholic Beverages Act,
which created the
SAQ
and allowed the government to control the sale of alcohol.
90
This resulted in Quebec having the shortest and lightest prohibition in North America, as well as reaping huge profits from the sale of booze to tourists.
91
Since the location of the border between Canada and Labrador had never been clear, in 1927, the British
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
gathered to draw one. However, the Quebec government did not recognize the ruling, resulting in a
boundary dispute
which
remains ongoing
In 1931, the
Statute of Westminster
was enacted, which confirmed the autonomy of the
Dominions
– including Canada and its provinces – from the UK, as well as their free association in the
Commonwealth of Nations
92
In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by the
Great Depression
because it greatly reduced US demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929 and 1932, the unemployment rate increased from 8% to 26%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions, financial assistance to farmers, and the
secours directs
– the ancestor to Canada's
Employment Insurance
93
The poor work opportunities in the US also finally ended the Grande Hémorragie.
Maurice Duplessis
, premier of Quebec from 1936 to 1939 and during the
Grande Noirceur
. He passed in 1959.
French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the
Second World War
. When Canada declared war in September 1939, the federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 73% of Quebec's residents were
against
conscription, while 80% or more were
for
conscription in every other province, the federal government passed Bill 80, which allowed conscription for overseas service. In the
Conscription Crisis of 1944
the
Bloc Populaire
emerged to fight conscription.
86
The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the "
Two Solitudes
".
In the wake of the conscription crisis,
Maurice Duplessis
of the
Union Nationale
rose to power once more. His government emphasized clerico-nationalist values and implemented conservative policies now known as the
Grande Noirceur
. These included defending
provincial autonomy
, promoting Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and favouring
laissez-faire
capitalism over the emerging
welfare state
94
However, with accelerating major changes such as the appearance of television,
baby boom
workers' conflicts
, electrification of the countryside, emergence of a
middle class
rural exodus
and
urbanization
, expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation of
motorways
, and renaissance of literature and poetry, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and aspirations.
Modern Quebec (1960–present)
Maîtres chez nous
" was the electoral slogan of the
Liberal Party
during the
1962 election
The
Quiet Revolution
was an intense period of modernization, secularization and social reform, where French Canadians strongly expressed their concern and dissatisfaction with their inferior
socioeconomic position
, and the cultural assimilation of francophone minorities in the English-majority provinces. It resulted in the formation of the modern Québécois identity and
Quebec nationalism
95
96
In 1960,
Jean Lesage
's Liberal Party was brought to power with a two-seat majority, having campaigned with the slogan "It's time for things to change".
This government fundamentally restructured Quebec's institutions, creating a modern welfare state through new ministries for education, social affairs, and economic development. It created the
CDPQ
Ministry of Education
OQLF
, Régie des rentes and
Société générale de financement
, and modernized the Labour Code and
Ministry of Social Affairs
. In 1962, the government dismantled the financial syndicates of Montreal's
Saint Jacques Street
to weaken the grip of the English-Canadian traditional economic elites. Also in 1962, Natural Resources Minister
René Lévesque
led the nationalization of Quebec's private electricity companies to
create a unified Hydro-Québec
. This massive project was estimated at over $600 million for the acquisition of eleven companies.
97
98
The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "Masters in our own house", which, to the Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people.
99
As a result of confrontations between the lower
clergy
and the
laity
, state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts of
civil society
began to be more secular. In 1965, the
Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism
100
wrote a preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec a minimum amount of consideration.
101
102
To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution,
Lester B. Pearson
adopted a policy of open federalism.
103
104
In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms.
105
Charles De Gaulle
, (1890–1970), on the occasion of
Expo 1967
Chemin du Roy
Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pérade
In 1967, René Lévesque introduced the concept of
sovereignty-association
in his manifesto
Option Quebec
, proposing political independence with economic partnership including a common currency, free trade, and joint institutions. It sparked a constitutional debate on the political future of the province by pitting
federalist
and
sovereignist
doctrines against each other. The meetings of the
Estates General of French Canada
in 1967 marked a tipping point where relations between Quebec and other francophones of Canada ruptured. This deeply affected both parties by fracturing the pan-Canadian French-Canadian identity that had existed before then into: Quebec nationalism, and several minority francophone groups elsewhere.
106
Also in 1967, President of France
Charles de Gaulle
visited Quebec, to attend
Expo 67
. There, he addressed a crowd of more than 100,000, making a speech ending with the exclamation: "Long live free Quebec". This declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modern
Quebec sovereignty movement
and resulting in a diplomatic crisis between France and Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed, sometimes confronting public authority, for example in the
October Crisis
of 1970.
107
In 1968,
class conflicts
and changes in mentalities intensified.
108
Quebec artists also started celebrating their distinct identity:
Michel Tremblay
's 1968 play
Les Belles-sœurs
legitimized
joual
(working-class Quebec French) as a literary language,
109
singer-songwriters like
Félix Leclerc
and
Gilles Vigneault
started a new style of Quebec popular music,
110
and many
local films
began to be produced.
111
In 1969, the federal
Official Languages Act
was passed to introduce a linguistic context conducive to Quebec's development.
112
113
In 1973, the liberal government of
Robert Bourassa
initiated the
James Bay Project
on
La Grande River
. In 1974, it enacted the
Official Language Act
, which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1975, it established the
Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
and the
James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement
René Lévesque
(1922–1987), one of the architects of the Quiet Revolution, and the Premier of Quebec's first modern sovereignist government
Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led by
René Lévesque
, materialized when the
Parti Québécois
was brought to power in the
1976 Quebec general election
114
The
Charter of the French Language
came into force the following year, which increased the use of French. Between 1966 and 1969, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed the
state of Quebec
to be the
nation's fundamental political milieu
and for it to have the right to
self-determination
115
116
In the
1980 referendum
on sovereignty-association, 40% were for and 60% were against.
117
After the referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to continue negotiating constitutional changes. On November 4, 1981, the
Kitchen Accord
took place. Delegations from the other nine provinces and the federal government reached an agreement in the absence of Quebec's delegation, which had left for the night.
118
Because of this, the
National Assembly
refused to recognize the new
Constitution Act, 1982
, which patriated the Canadian constitution and made modifications to it.
119
The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite Quebec never having consented to it.
120
Between 1982 and 1992, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. Attempts at constitutional amendments by the
Mulroney
and Bourassa governments ended in failure with the
Meech Lake Accord
of 1987 and the
Charlottetown Accord
of 1992, resulting in the creation of the
Bloc Québécois
121
122
The failures also led to the re-election of the Parti Québécois in 1994, and the return to power of
Jacques Parizeau
, who had promised to hold a sovereignty referendum within a year of election. In 1995, Parizeau called a
referendum on Quebec's independence
from Canada. This consultation ended in a close outcome: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes" (notably, over 60% of francophones voted "yes" and over 90% of anglophones voted "no").
123
124
125
In 1996, the federal government launched the Sponsorship Program to increase federal visibility in Quebec. In 2000, following the
Supreme Court of Canada
's decision on the
Reference Re Secession of Quebec
, the Parliament of Canada passed a legal framework, called the
Clarity Act
, within which governments would act in another referendum. In 2002, the
Gomery commission
and media revealed the Sponsorship Program, in which $539,000 was illegally spent and where well-connected agencies received millions for minimal work. This
scandal
contributed to the Liberals' defeat in the
2006 federal election
126
On October 30, 2003, the National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation".
127
On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons followed with a
symbolic motion
declaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada."
128
In 2007, the Parti Québécois was pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party leading. During the
2011 Canadian federal elections
, Quebec voters rejected the Bloc Québécois in favour of the previously minor
New Democratic Party (NDP)
. As the NDP's logo is orange, this was called the "orange wave".
129
In 2012, the Liberal party, led by
Jean Charest
, announced an increase in student tuition fees. This spawned months-long protests involving over 300,000 students known as the
Maple Spring
, ultimately leading to a rollback of the increases.
130
Also partially as a result, the Liberal party fell out of favour, letting the Parti Québécois regain power in 2012 and its leader,
Pauline Marois
, to become the first female premier of Quebec.
131
The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in 2014.
132
Then, in 2018, the
Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ)
won the
provincial general elections
133
Between 2020 and 2021, Quebec took measures against the
COVID-19 pandemic
134
In 2022, the CAQ, led by Quebec's premier
François Legault
, increased its parliamentary majority in the
provincial general elections
135
In 2025, following the
implementation of tariffs
and
aggressive rhetoric
by the United States president
Donald Trump
, Quebecers decreased their travel to the US,
136
banned the sale of American alcohol,
137
and slightly reduced personal purchases of US items.
138
Territorial evolution (1700s–present)
Territorial evolution of Quebec
Canada
in the 18th century
The
Province of Quebec
from 1763 to 1783
Lower Canada
from 1791 to 1841 (
Patriots' War
in 1837,
Canada East
in 1841)
Quebec from 1867 to 1927
Quebec today. Quebec (in blue) has a border dispute with
Labrador
(in red).
Geography
Main article:
Geography of Quebec
See also:
List of rivers of Quebec
and
List of lakes of Quebec
Map of Quebec
Located in the
eastern part
of Canada, Quebec occupies a territory nearly three times the size of
France
139
It holds an area of 1.5 million square kilometres (0.58 million square miles) and its borders are more than 12,000 km (7,500 mi) long.
140
141
Most of Quebec is very sparsely populated.
citation needed
The most populous
physiographic
region is the
Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands
. The combination of rich soils and the lowlands' relatively warm climate makes this valley the most prolific agricultural area of Quebec. The rural part of the landscape is divided into narrow rectangular tracts of land that extend from the river and date back to the seigneurial system.
Quebec's
topography
is very different from one region to another due to the varying composition of the ground, the climate, and the proximity to water. More than 95% of Quebec's territory, including the
Labrador Peninsula
, lies within the
Canadian Shield
142
It is generally a quite flat and exposed mountainous terrain interspersed with higher points such as the
Laurentian Mountains
in southern Quebec, the
Otish Mountains
in central Quebec and the
Torngat Mountains
near
Ungava Bay
. While low and medium altitude peaks extend from western Quebec to the far north, high altitudes mountains emerge in the
Capitale-Nationale
region to the extreme east. Quebec's highest point at 1,652 metres (5,420 ft) is Mont d'Iberville, known in English as
Mount Caubvick
143
In the Labrador Peninsula portion of the Shield, the far northern region of
Nunavik
includes the Ungava Peninsula and consists of flat Arctic
tundra
inhabited mostly by the Inuit. Further south is the
Eastern Canadian Shield taiga
ecoregion and the
Central Canadian Shield forests
. The
Appalachian
region has a narrow strip of ancient mountains along the southeastern border of Quebec.
144
Michel's falls on
Ashuapmushuan River
in
Saint-Félicien
Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean
Quebec has one of the world's largest reserves of
fresh water
145
occupying 12% of its surface
146
and representing 3% of the world's
renewable fresh water
147
More than half a million lakes and 4,500 rivers
145
empty into the
Atlantic Ocean
, through the
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
and the
Arctic Ocean
, by
James
Hudson
, and Ungava bays. The largest inland body of water is the
Caniapiscau Reservoir
Lake Mistassini
is the largest natural lake.
148
The
Saint Lawrence River
has some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic ports. Since 1959, the
Saint Lawrence Seaway
has provided a navigable link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes.
The
public lands
of Quebec cover approximately 92% of its territory, including almost all of the bodies of water.
Protected areas
can be classified into about twenty different legal designations (ex. exceptional forest ecosystem, protected marine environment,
national park
biodiversity reserve
, wildlife reserve,
zone d'exploitation contrôlée
(ZEC), etc.).
149
More than 2,500 sites in Quebec today are protected areas.
150
As of 2013, protected areas comprise 9.14% of Quebec's territory.
151
The ecological classification of Quebec territory established by the
Ministry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks
2021, is presented in nine levels, it includes the diversity of terrestrial
ecosystems
throughout Quebec while taking into account both the characteristics of the
vegetation
(physiognomy, structure and composition) and the physical environment (relief,
geology
geomorphology
hydrography
).
144
Climate
Main article:
Ecological regions of Quebec
Köppen climate types
of Quebec
In general, the climate of Quebec is cold and humid, with variations determined by latitude, maritime and elevation influences.
152
Because of the influence of both storm systems from the core of North America and the Atlantic Ocean, precipitation is abundant throughout the year, with most areas receiving more than 1,000 mm (39 in) of precipitation, including over 300 cm (120 in) of snow in many areas.
153
During the summer, severe weather patterns (such as
tornadoes
and severe
thunderstorms
) occur occasionally.
154
Baie-Saint-Paul
during winter
Quebec is divided into four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, humid continental and East maritime. From south to north, average temperatures range in summer between 25 and 5 °C (77 and 41 °F) and, in winter, between −10 and −25 °C (14 and −13 °F).
155
156
In periods of intense heat and cold, temperatures can reach 35 °C (95 °F) in the summer
157
and −40 °C (−40 °F) during the Quebec winter,
157
Most of central Quebec, ranging from 51 to 58 degrees North has a
subarctic climate
(Köppen
Dfc
).
152
Winters are long, very cold, and snowy, and among the coldest in eastern Canada, while summers are warm but very short due to the higher latitude and the greater influence of Arctic air masses. Precipitation is also somewhat less than farther south, except at some of the higher elevations. The northern regions of Quebec have an
arctic climate
(Köppen
ET
), with very cold winters and short, much cooler summers.
152
The primary influences in this region are the Arctic Ocean currents (such as the
Labrador Current
) and continental air masses from the High
Arctic
The all-time record high temperature was 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) and the all-time record low was −51.0 °C (−59.8 °F).
158
The all-time record of the greatest precipitation in winter was established in winter 2007–2008, with more than five metres of snow in the area of Quebec City.
159
March 1971, however, saw the "
Century's Snowstorm
" with more than 40 cm (16 in) in Montreal to 80 cm (31 in) in
Mont Apica
of snow within 24 hours in many regions of southern Quebec. The winter of 2010 was the warmest and driest recorded in more than 60 years.
160
Flora and fauna
See also:
List of mammals of Quebec
List of birds of Quebec
List of reptiles of Quebec
List of amphibians of Quebec
, and
List of trees of Quebec
Map of Quebec
Different forest areas of Quebec:
1. Middle Arctic Tundra
2. Low Arctic Tundra
3. Torngat Mountain Tundra
4. Eastern Canadian Shield Taiga
5. Southern Hudson Bay Taiga
6. Central Canadian Shield Forests
7. Eastern Canadian Forests
8. Eastern Forest/Boreal Transition
9. Eastern Great Lakes Lowland Forests
10. New England/Acadian Forests
11. Gulf of St. Lawrence Lowland Forests
Given the geology of the province and its different climates, there are a number of large areas of vegetation in Quebec. These areas, listed in order from the northernmost to the southernmost are: the
tundra
, the
taiga
, the
Canadian boreal forest
(coniferous),
mixed forest
and
deciduous
forest.
142
On the edge of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait is the tundra, whose flora is limited to
lichen
with less than 50 growing days per year. Further south, the climate is conducive to the growth of the
Canadian boreal forest
, bounded on the north by the taiga. Not as arid as the tundra, the taiga is associated with the subarctic regions of the Canadian Shield
161
and is characterized by a greater number of both plant (600) and animal (206) species. The taiga covers about 20% of the total area of Quebec.
142
The Canadian boreal forest is the northernmost and most abundant of the three forest areas in Quebec that straddle the Canadian Shield and the upper lowlands of the province. Given a warmer climate, the diversity of organisms is also higher: there are about 850 plant species and 280 vertebrate species. The
mixed forest
is a transition zone between the Canadian boreal forest and
deciduous forest
. This area contains a diversity of plant (1000) and
vertebrates
(350) species, despite relatively cool temperatures. The ecozone mixed forest is characteristic of the
Laurentians
, the
Appalachians
and the eastern lowland forests.
161
The third most northern forest area is characterized by
deciduous forests
. Because of its climate, this area has the greatest diversity of species, including more than 1600
vascular plants
and 440 vertebrates.
The total forest area of Quebec is estimated at 750,300 km
(289,700 sq mi).
162
From the
Abitibi-Témiscamingue
to the
North Shore
, the forest is composed primarily of conifers such as the
Abies balsamea
, the
jack pine
, the
white spruce
, the
black spruce
and the
tamarack
. The deciduous forest of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands is mostly composed of deciduous species such as the
sugar maple
, the
red maple
, the
white ash
, the
American beech
, the
butternut (white walnut)
, the
American elm
, the
basswood
, the
bitternut hickory
and the
northern red oak
as well as some conifers such as the
eastern white pine
and the
northern whitecedar
. The distribution areas of the
paper birch
, the
trembling aspen
and the
mountain ash
cover more than half of Quebec's territory.
163
Biodiversity of the estuary and gulf of Saint Lawrence River
164
includes aquatic mammal wildlife, such as the
blue whale
, the
beluga
, the
minke whale
and the
harp seal
(earless seal). The Nordic marine animals include the
walrus
and the
narwhal
165
Inland waters are populated by small to large freshwater fish, such as the
largemouth bass
, the
American pickerel
, the
walleye
, the
Acipenser oxyrinchus
, the
muskellunge
, the
Atlantic cod
, the
Arctic char
, the
brook trout
, the
Microgadus tomcod
(tomcod), the
Atlantic salmon
, and the
rainbow trout
166
Among the birds commonly seen in the southern part of Quebec are the
American robin
, the
house sparrow
, the
red-winged blackbird
, the
mallard
, the
common grackle
, the
blue jay
, the
American crow
, the
black-capped chickadee
, some
warblers
and
swallows
, the
starling
and the
rock pigeon
167
Avian fauna includes birds of prey like the
golden eagle
, the
peregrine falcon
, the
snowy owl
and the
bald eagle
. Sea and semi-aquatic birds seen in Quebec are mostly the
Canada goose
, the
double-crested cormorant
, the
northern gannet
, the
European herring gull
, the
great blue heron
, the
sandhill crane
, the
Atlantic puffin
and the
common loon
168
The large land wildlife includes the
white-tailed deer
, the
moose
, the
muskox
, the
caribou (reindeer)
, the
American black bear
and the
polar bear
. The medium-sized land wildlife includes the
cougar
, the
coyote
, the
eastern wolf
, the
bobcat
, the
Arctic fox
, the fox, etc. The small animals seen most commonly include the
eastern grey squirrel
, the
snowshoe hare
, the
groundhog
, the
skunk
, the
raccoon
, the
chipmunk
and the
Canadian beaver
Government and politics
Main articles:
Government of Quebec
and
Politics of Quebec
The
Parliament Building
in Quebec City
Quebec is founded on the
Westminster system
, and is both a
liberal democracy
and a
constitutional monarchy
with
parliamentary regime
. The head of government in Quebec is the
premier
(called
premier ministre
in French), who leads the largest party in the
unicameral
National Assembly (
Assemblée Nationale
) from which the
Executive Council of Quebec
is appointed. The
Conseil du trésor
supports the ministers of the Executive Council in their function of stewardship of the state. The
lieutenant governor
represents the
King of Canada
169
170
Quebec has 78
members of Parliament
(MPs) in the
House of Commons of Canada
171
They are elected in federal elections. At the level of the
Senate of Canada
, Quebec is represented by 24 senators, which are appointed on the advice of the
prime minister of Canada
172
The Quebec government holds
administrative
and
police
authority in its areas of
exclusive jurisdiction
. The Parliament of the
43rd legislature
is made up of the following parties:
Coalition Avenir Québec
(CAQ),
Parti libéral du Québec
(PLQ),
Québec solidaire
(QS) and
Parti Québécois
(PQ), as well as an
independent member
. There are
25 official political parties in Quebec
173
Quebec has a network of three offices for representing itself and defending its interests within Canada: one in Moncton for all provinces east, one in Toronto for all provinces west, and one in Ottawa for the federal government. These offices' mandate is to ensure an institutional presence of the Government of Quebec near other Canadian governments.
174
175
Subdivisions
Main article:
Administrative divisions of Quebec
The
seventeen administrative regions
of Quebec
Quebec's territory is divided into 17
administrative regions
as follows:
176
177
Bas-Saint-Laurent
Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean
Capitale-Nationale
Mauricie
Estrie
Montréal
Outaouais
Abitibi-Témiscamingue
Côte-Nord
Nord-du-Québec
Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine
Chaudière-Appalaches
Laval
Lanaudière
Laurentides
Montérégie
Centre-du-Québec
The province also has the following divisions:
4 territories (
Abitibi
Ashuanipi
Mistassini
and
Nunavik
) which group together the lands that once formed the
District of Ungava
36
judicial districts
73
circonscriptions foncières
125
electoral districts
fr
178
For municipal purposes, Quebec is composed of:
1,117
local municipalities
of various
types
11
agglomerations
agglomérations
) grouping 42 of these local municipalities
45
boroughs
arrondissements
) within 8 of these local municipalities
89
regional county municipalities
or RCMs (
municipalités régionales de comté, MRC
metropolitan communities
communautés métropolitaines
the regional
Kativik
administration
the
unorganised territories
179
Ministries and policies
Quebec's constitution is enshrined in a series of social and cultural traditions that are defined in a set of judicial judgments and legislative documents, including the
Loi sur l'Assemblée Nationale
("Law on the National Assembly"), the
Loi sur l'éxecutif
("Law on the Executive"), and the
Loi électorale du Québec
("Electoral Law of Quebec").
180
Other notable examples include the
Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
, the
Charter of the French language
, and the
Civil Code of Quebec
181
Quebec's international policy is founded upon the
Gérin-Lajoie doctrine
fr
182
formulated in 1965. While Quebec's
Ministry of International Relations
coordinates international policy,
Quebec's general delegations
are the main interlocutors in foreign countries. Quebec is the only Canadian province that has set up a ministry to exclusively embody the state's powers for international relations.
183
Since 2006, Quebec has adopted a green plan to meet the objectives of the
Kyoto Protocol
regarding climate change.
184
The
Ministry of Sustainable Development, Environment, and Fight Against Climate Change
(MELCC) is the primary entity responsible for the application of environmental policy. The
Société des établissements de plein air du Québec
(SEPAQ) is the main body responsible for the management of national parks and wildlife reserves.
185
Nearly 500,000 people took part in a climate protest on the streets of Montreal in 2019.
186
Agriculture in Quebec has been subject to
agricultural zoning
regulations since 1978.
187
Faced with the problem of expanding
urban sprawl
, agricultural zones were created to ensure the protection of fertile land, which make up 2% of Quebec's total area.
Quebec's forests
fr
are essentially public property. The calculation of annual cutting possibilities is the responsibility of the
Bureau du forestier en chef
188
The
Union des producteurs agricoles
(UPA) seeks to protect the interests of its members, including forestry workers, and works jointly with the
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
(MAPAQ) and the
Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources
The
Ministère de l'Emploi et de la Solidarité sociale du Québec
has the mandate to oversee social and workforce developments through Emploi-Québec and its local employment centres (CLE).
189
This ministry is also responsible for managing the
Régime québécois d'assurance parentale
(QPIP) as well as last-resort financial support for people in need. The
Commission des normes, de l'équité, de la santé et de la sécurité du travail
fr
(CNESST) is the main body responsible for labour laws in Quebec
190
and for enforcing agreements concluded between unions of employees and their employers.
191
Revenu Québec
is the body responsible for collecting taxes. It takes its revenue through a
progressive income tax
, a 9.975% sales tax,
192
various other provincial taxes (ex. carbon, corporate and capital gains taxes),
equalization payments
, transfer payments from other provinces, and direct payments.
193
By some measures Quebec residents are the most taxed;
194
a 2012 study indicated that "Quebec companies pay 26 per cent more in taxes than the Canadian average".
195
Quebec's immigration philosophy is based on the principles of pluralism and
interculturalism
.The
Ministère de l'Immigration et des Communautés culturelles du Québec
is responsible for the selection and integration of immigrants.
196
Programs favour immigrants who know French, have a low risk of becoming criminals and have in-demand skills.
Quebec's health and social services network is administered by the
Ministry of Health and Social Services
. It is composed of 95
réseaux locaux de services
(RLS; 'local service networks') and 18
agences de la santé et des services sociaux
(ASSS; 'health and social services agencies'). Quebec's health system is supported by the
Régie de l'assurance maladie du Québec
(RAMQ) which works to maintain the accessibility of services for all citizens of Quebec.
197
The
Ministère de la Famille et des Aînés du Québec
operate
centres de la petite enfance
fr
(CPEs; 'centres for young children'). Quebec
provides universal low-fee childcare
for all children under 12.
Quebec's education system
is administered by the
Ministry of Education and Higher Education
primary
and
secondary
schools), the
Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur
CEGEP
) and the
Conseil supérieure de l'Education du Québec
(universities and colleges).
198
In 2012, the annual cost for postsecondary
tuition
was CA$2,168 (€1,700) – less than half of Canada's average tuition. Part of the reason for this is that tuition fees were frozen to a relatively low level when CEGEPS were created during the Quiet Revolution. When Jean Charest's government decided in 2012 to sharply increase university fees,
students protests
erupted.
199
Because of these protests, Quebec's tuition fees remain relatively low.
External relationships
Quebec's closest international partner is the United States, with which it shares a long and positive history. Products of
American culture
like songs, movies, fashion and food strongly affect Québécois culture.
Quebec has a historied relationship with France, as Quebec was a part of the French Empire and both regions share a language. The
Fédération France-Québec
fr
and the
Francophonie
are a few of the tools used for relations between Quebec and France. In
Paris
, a
place du Québec
was inaugurated in 1980.
200
Quebec also has a historied relationship with the United Kingdom, having been a part of the British Empire. Quebec and the UK share the same head of state,
King Charles III
Quebec has a
network of 32 offices
in 18 countries. These offices serve the purpose of representing Quebec in foreign countries and are overseen by Quebec's
Ministry of International Relations
. Quebec, like other Canadian provinces, also maintains representatives in some Canadian embassies and consulates general. As of 2019
[update]
, the Government of Quebec had delegates-general (
agents-general
) in
Brussels
London
Mexico City
Munich
New York City
, Paris and
Tokyo
; delegates to
Atlanta
Boston
Chicago
Houston
Los Angeles
, and
Rome
; and offices headed by directors offering more limited services in
Barcelona
Beijing
Dakar
Hong Kong
Mumbai
São Paulo
Shanghai
Stockholm
, and
Washington
. In addition, there are the equivalent of
honorary consuls
, titled
antennes
, in
Berlin
Philadelphia
Qingdao
Seoul
, and
Silicon Valley
Quebec also has a representative to
UNESCO
and participates in the
Organization of American States
201
Quebec is a member of the
Assemblée parlementaire de la Francophonie
and of the
Organisation internationale de la francophonie
Law
Main articles:
Quebec law
and
Bar of Quebec
The
Édifice Ernest-Cormier
is the courthouse for the
Quebec Court of Appeal
in Montreal.
Quebec law is the shared responsibility of the
federal
and
provincial government
. The federal government is responsible for
criminal law
, foreign affairs and laws relating to the regulation of Canadian commerce, interprovincial transportation, and telecommunications.
202
The provincial government is responsible for
private law
, the administration of justice, and several social domains, such as social assistance, healthcare, education, and natural resources.
202
Quebec law is influenced by two judicial traditions (
civil law
and
common law
) and four classic
sources of law
legislation
case law
, doctrine and
customary law
).
203
Private law in Quebec affects all relationships between individuals (
natural
or
juridical
persons) and is largely under the jurisdiction of the
Parliament of Quebec
. The
Parliament of Canada
also influences Quebec private law, in particular through its power over banks, bankruptcy, marriage, divorce and
maritime law
204
The
Droit civil du Québec
fr
is the primary component of Quebec's private law and is
codified
in the
Civil Code of Quebec
205
Public law in Quebec is largely derived from the common law tradition.
206
Quebec
constitutional law
governs the rules surrounding the Quebec government, the Parliament of Quebec and Quebec's courts. Quebec
administrative law
governs relations between individuals and the Quebec public administration. Quebec also has some limited jurisdiction over criminal law. Finally, Quebec, like the federal government, has
tax law
power.
207
Certain portions of Quebec law are considered mixed. This is the case, for example, with
human rights and freedoms
which are governed by the
Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
, a Charter which applies to both government and citizens.
208
209
English is not an official language in
Quebec law
210
However, both English and French are required by the
Constitution Act, 1867
for the enactment of laws and regulations, and any person may use English or French in the National Assembly and the courts. The books and records of the National Assembly must also be kept in both languages.
211
212
Courts
Although Quebec is a civil law jurisdiction, it does not follow the pattern of other civil law systems which have court systems divided by subject matter. Instead, the court system follows the English model of unitary courts of general jurisdiction. The provincial courts have jurisdiction to decide matters under
provincial law
as well as
federal law
, including
civil
criminal
and
constitutional matters
213
The major exception to the principle of general jurisdiction is that the
Federal Court
and
Federal Court of Appeal
have exclusive jurisdiction over some areas of federal law, such as review of federal administrative bodies, federal taxes, and matters relating to national security.
214
The Quebec courts are organized in a pyramid. At the bottom, there are the
municipal courts
, the Professions Tribunal, the Human Rights Tribunal, and administrative tribunals. Decisions of those bodies can be reviewed by the two trial courts, the
Court of Quebec
the
Superior Court of Quebec
. The Court of Quebec is the main criminal trial court, and also a court for small civil claims. The Superior Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction, in both criminal and civil matters. The decisions of those courts can be appealed to the
Quebec Court of Appeal
. Finally, if the case is of great importance, it may be appealed to the
Supreme Court of Canada
The Court of Appeal serves two purposes. First, it is the general court of appeal for all legal issues from the lower courts. It hears appeals from the trial decisions of the Superior Court and the Quebec Court. It also can hear appeals from decisions rendered by those two courts on appeals or judicial review matters relating to the municipal courts and administrative tribunals.
215
Second, but much more rarely, the Court of Appeal possesses the power to respond to
reference questions
posed to it by the
Quebec Cabinet
. The Court of Appeal renders more than 1,500 judgments per year.
216
Law enforcement
The
Sûreté du Québec
is the main police force of Quebec. The Sûreté du Québec can also serve a support and coordination role with other police forces, such as with municipal police forces or with the
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
(RCMP).
217
218
The RCMP has the power to enforce certain federal laws in Quebec. However, given the existence of the Sûreté du Québec, its role is more limited than in the other provinces.
219
Municipal police, such as the
Service de police de la Ville de Montréal
and the
Service de police de la Ville de Québec
, are responsible for law enforcement in their municipalities. The Sûreté du Québec fulfils the role of municipal police in the 1038 municipalities that do not have a municipal police force.
220
The Indigenous communities of Quebec have their own police forces.
221
For offences against provincial or federal laws in Quebec (including the
Criminal Code
), the
Director of Criminal and Penal Prosecutions
is responsible for prosecuting offenders in court through
Crown attorneys
. The
Department of Justice of Canada
also has the power to prosecute offenders, but only for offences against specific federal laws (ex. selling
narcotics
). Quebec is responsible for operating the
prison system
for sentences of less than two years, and the federal government operates
penitentiaries
for sentences of two years or more.
222
Demographics
Main articles:
Demographics of Quebec
and
Demographic history of Quebec
Population density map of Quebec
In the
2021 census
, Quebec's population was determined to be 8,501,833, a 4.1% increase from its 2016 population of 8,164,361. With a land area of 1,356,625.27 km
(523,795.95 sq mi), it had a population density of
6.0/km
(15.6/sq mi) in 2016. Quebec accounted for a little under 23% of the Canadian population. The
largest cities in Quebec
are
Montreal
(1,762,976),
Quebec City
(538,738),
Laval
(431,208), and
Gatineau
(281,501).
223
In 2016, Quebec's median age was 41.2 years. As of 2020, 20.8% of the population was younger than 20, 59.5% was aged between 20 and 64, and 19.7% was 65 or older. In 2019, Quebec witnessed an increase in the number of births compared to the year before (84,200 vs 83,840) and had a
total fertility rate
of about 1.6 children born per woman. As of 2020, the average life expectancy was 82.3 years. Quebec in 2019 registered its highest rate of population growth since 1972, with an increase of 110,000 people, mostly because of the arrival of a high number of immigrants. As of 2019, most international immigrants were from China, India and France.
224
In 2016, 30% of the population possessed a
postsecondary
degree or diploma. Most residents, particularly couples, are
property owners
. In 2016, 80% of both property owners and renters considered their housing to be "unaffordable".
225
In the
2021 Canadian census
, 29.3% of Quebec's population stated their ancestry was of Canadian origin and 21.1% stated their ancestry was of French origin.
226
As of 2021, 18% of Quebec's population belonged to a
visible minority
group.
227
Religion
Main article:
Religion in Quebec
Religion in Quebec (
2021 census
228
Christianity
(64.8%)
No religion
(27.3%)
Islam
(5.10%)
Judaism
(1.00%)
Buddhism
(0.60%)
Hinduism
(0.60%)
Sikhism
(0.30%)
Other / Not stated (0.30%)
The
Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré
According to the
2021 census
, the most commonly cited religions in Quebec were:
228
Christianity
(5,385,240 residents, or 64.8%)
Irreligion
(2,267,720 or 27.3%)
Islam
(421,710 or 5.1%)
Judaism
(84,530 or 1.0%)
Buddhism
(48,365 or 0.6%)
Hinduism
(47,390 or 0.6%)
Sikhism
(23,345 or 0.3%)
Indigenous spirituality
(3,790 or <0.1%)
Other (26,385 or 0.3%)
The
Roman Catholic Church
has long occupied a central and integral place in Quebec society since the foundation of Quebec City in 1608. However, since the
Quiet Revolution
, which secularized Quebec, irreligion has been growing significantly.
229
In 2025, there was a reported rise in adult baptisms and an increased number of baptisms of people over the age of 7.
230
The Catholic Church of Quebec described the recent increase in baptisms among adults and adolescents as "surprising phenomenon has been gaining momentum" and that interest in baptism in the Catholic faith is "especially present" in young people and in adults from immigrant backgrounds.
231
Later on
Holy Saturday
in 2026, it was reported that young people in Quebec are joining the Quebec Catholic Church due to the presence of priests and young influencers on social media platforms such as
Tik Tok
and
232
Religions other than Christianity, Judaism and indigenous faiths were not present in Quebec before the 20th century. They started establishing a small presence following the passing of the
Immigration Act of 1962
. Islam in particular has grown rapidly since the 1990s due to high immigration levels. Its number of adherents increased from 44,930 (0.6% of the population) in 1991 to 421,715 (5.1%) in 2021.
233
234
The oldest
parish church
in North America is the
Cathedral-Basilica of Notre-Dame de Québec
. Its construction began in 1647, when it was known under the name
Notre-Dame-de-la-Paix
, and it was finished in 1664.
235
The most frequented place of worship in Quebec is the
Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré
. This basilica welcomes millions of visitors each year.
Saint Joseph's Oratory
is the largest place of worship in the world dedicated to
Saint Joseph
. Many pilgrimages include places such as
Saint Benedict Abbey
Sanctuaire Notre-Dame-du-Cap
fr
Notre-Dame de Montréal Basilica
Marie-Reine-du-Monde de Montréal Basilica-Cathedral
Saint-Michel Basilica-Cathedral
, and
Saint-Patrick's Basilica
. Another important place of worship in Quebec is the Anglican
Holy Trinity Cathedral
, which was erected between 1800 and 1804. It was the first Anglican cathedral built outside the British Isles.
236
Language
Main article:
Language demographics of Quebec
See also:
French language in Canada
Linguistic map of the province of Quebec (source: Statistics Canada, 2006 census)
Francophone majority, less than 33% Anglophone
Francophone majority, more than 33% Anglophone
Anglophone majority, more than 33% Francophone
Anglophone majority, less than 33% Francophone
Data not available
Quebec differs from other Canadian provinces in that
French
is its sole
official
language, while
predominates in the
rest of Canada
237
French is the
common language
, understood and spoken by 93.7% of the population according to the
2021 Census
238
and is the sole native language of 74.8% of the population (or slightly more than 6.5 million residents) and a native language (alone or in combination with others) of 77.8%.
239
This makes Quebec the only Canadian province whose population is mainly
Francophone
Quebec French
is the umbrella term for local
variants
of the language. Canada is estimated to be home to roughly 30 regional French accents,
240
241
17 of which can be found in Quebec.
242
42.2% of Quebec's population with a French mother tongue can converse in English, the predominant language of the rest of Canada.
243
The
Office québécois de la langue française
oversees the application of linguistic policies respecting French on the territory, jointly with the
Superior Council of the French Language
and the
Commission de toponymie du Québec
. The foundation for these linguistic policies was created in 1968 by the
Gendron Commission
and they have been accompanied the
Charter of the French language
("Bill 101") since 1977. The policies are in effect to protect Quebec from being assimilated by its English-speaking neighbours (the rest of Canada and the United States)
244
245
and were also created to rectify historical injustice between the Francophone majority and Anglophone minority, the latter of which were favoured since Quebec was a colony of the British Empire.
246
Quebec remains, alongside
Haiti
, the only major Francophone dominant regions in the
Americas
247
248
249
Anglo-Quebecers
, a name for residents whose main language is English, constitute the second largest linguistic group in Quebec. In 2021,
was the sole mother tongue of 7.6% of Quebec residents, and was a native language (alone or in combination with others) of 10.0%.
239
Anglo-Quebecers reside mainly in the west of the island of Montreal (
West Island
),
downtown Montreal
and the
Pontiac
Three families of Indigenous languages encompassing eleven languages exist in Quebec: the
Algonquian language family
Abenaki
Algonquin
Maliseet-passamaquoddy
Mi'kmaq
, and the
linguistic continuum
of
Atikamekw
Cree
Innu-aimun
, and
Naskapi
), the
Inuit–Aleut language family
(Nunavimmiutitut, an
Inuktitut dialect
spoken by the
Inuit
of
Nord-du-Québec
), and the
Iroquoian language family
Mohawk
and
Wendat
). In the 2016 census, 50,895 people said they knew at least one Indigenous language
250
and 45,570 people declared having an Indigenous language as their mother tongue.
251
In Quebec, most Indigenous languages are transmitted quite well from one generation to the next with a mother tongue retention rate of 92%.
252
As of the
2016 census
, the most common immigrant languages claimed as a native language were
Arabic
(2.5% of the total population),
Spanish
(1.9%),
Italian
(1.4%), Creole languages (mainly
Haitian Creole
) (0.8%), and
Mandarin
(0.6%).
253
As of the
2021 Canadian Census
, the ten most spoken languages in the province were
French
(spoken by 7,786,735 people, or 93.72% of the population),
(4,317,180 or 51.96%),
Spanish
(453,905 or 5.46%),
Arabic
(343,675 or 4.14%),
Italian
(168,040 or 2.02%),
Haitian Creole
(118,010 or 1.42%),
Mandarin
(80,520 or 0.97%),
Portuguese
(65,605 or 0.8%),
Russian
(55,485 or 0.7%), and
Greek
(50,375 or 0.6%).
238
The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.
Indigenous peoples
Main article:
Indigenous peoples in Quebec
Map of aboriginal communities in Quebec, this includes
reserves
settlements
and
northern villages
Algonquin
Attikameks
Abenaki
Cree
Wendat
Innu
Wolastoqiyik
Mi'kmaq
Mohawk
Naskapi
Inuit
In 2021, the Indigenous population of Quebec numbered 205,010 (2.5% of the population), including 15,800
Inuit
, 116,550
First Nations
people, and 61,010
Métis
254
There is an undercount, as some Indian bands regularly refuse to participate in Canadian censuses. In 2016, the
Mohawk
reserves of
Kahnawake
and
Doncaster 17
along with the
Indian settlement
of
Kanesatake
and
Lac-Rapide
, a reserve of the
Algonquins of Barriere Lake
, were not counted.
255
The Inuit of Quebec live mainly in
Nunavik
in
Nord-du-Québec
. They make up the majority of the population living north of the 55th parallel. There are ten First Nations ethnic groups in Quebec: the
Abenaki
, the
Algonquin
, the
Attikamek
, the
Cree
, the
Wolastoqiyik
, the
Mi'kmaq
, the
Innu
, the
Naskapi
, the
Wendat
and the
Mohawk
. The Mohawks were once part of the
Iroquois Confederacy
Aboriginal rights were enunciated in the
Indian Act
and adopted at the end of the 19th century. This act confines
First Nations
within the
reserves
created for them. The Indian Act is still in effect today.
256
In 1975, the
Cree
Inuit
and the Quebec government agreed to an agreement called the
James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement
that would extended indigenous rights beyond reserves, and to over two-thirds of Quebec's territory. Because this extension was enacted without the participation of the
federal government
, the extended indigenous rights only exist in Quebec. In 1978, the
Naskapis
joined the agreement when the
Northeastern Quebec Agreement
was signed. Discussions have been underway with the Innu of the
Côte-Nord
and
Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean
for the potential creation of a similar autonomy in two new distinct territories that would be called
Innu Assi
and
Nitassinan
257
A few political institutions have also been created over time:
The
Assembly of First Nations Quebec-Labrador
258
The
Grand Council of the Crees
259
The
Makivik Corporation
260
Acadians
The subject of
Acadians in Quebec
is an important one as more than a million people in Quebec are of
Acadian
descent, with roughly 4.8 million people possessing one or multiple Acadian ancestors in their genealogy tree, because a large number of Acadians had fled
Acadia
to take refuge in Quebec during the
Great Upheaval
. Furthermore, more than a million people have a
patronym
of Acadian origin.
261
262
263
264
Quebec houses Acadian communities. Acadians mainly live on the
Magdalen Islands
and in
Gaspesia
, but about thirty other communities are present elsewhere in Quebec, mostly in the
Côte-Nord
and
Centre-du-Québec
regions. An Acadian community in Quebec can be called a "Cadie", "Petite Cadie" or "Cadien".
265
Economy
Main article:
Economy of Quebec
Quebec has an
advanced
market-based
, and
open economy
. In 2022, its
gross domestic product
(GDP) was
US$50,000
per person at
purchasing power parity
266
The economy of Quebec is the
46th largest in the world
behind
Chile
and
29th
for GDP per person.
267
268
Quebec represents 19% of the
GDP of Canada
. The provincial
debt-to-GDP ratio
peaked at 51% in 2012–2013, and declined to 43% in 2021.
269
Like most
industrialized countries
, the economy is based mainly on the
services sector
. Quebec's economy has traditionally been fuelled by abundant natural resources and a well-developed infrastructure, but has undergone significant change over the past decade.
270
Firmly grounded in the
knowledge economy
, Quebec has one of the highest growth rates of GDP in Canada. The knowledge sector represents about 31% of Quebec's GDP.
271
In 2011, Quebec experienced faster growth of its
research-and-development
(R&D) spending than other Canadian provinces.
272
Quebec's spending in R&D in 2011 was equal to 2.63% of GDP, above the
European Union
average of 1.8%.
273
The percentage spent on research and technology is the highest in Canada and higher than the averages for the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
and the
G7
countries.
274
Some of the most important companies from Quebec are:
Bombardier
Desjardins
, the
National Bank of Canada
, the
Jean Coutu Group
Transcontinental média
Quebecor
, the
Métro Inc.
food retailers,
Hydro-Québec
, the
Société des alcools du Québec
, the
Bank of Montreal
Saputo
, the
Cirque du Soleil
, the
Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec
, the Normandin restaurants, and
Vidéotron
Exports and imports
Quebec's exports to the international market. The United States is the country which buys the most exports from Quebec by far. (2011)
Thanks to the
World Trade Organization
(WTO) and the
North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), Quebec had, as of 2009
[update]
, experienced an increase in its exports and in its ability to compete on the international market. International exchanges contribute to the strength of the Quebec economy.
275
NAFTA is especially advantageous as it gives Quebec, among other things, access to a market of 130 million consumers within a radius of 1,000 kilometres.
In 2008, Quebec's exports to other provinces in Canada and abroad totalled 157.3 billion
CND$
, or 51.8% of Quebec's
gross domestic product
(GDP). Of this total, 60.4% were international exports, and 39.6% were interprovincial exports. The breakdown by destination of international merchandise exports is: United States (72.2%), Europe (14.4%), Asia (5.1%), Middle East (2.7%), Central America (2.3%), South America (1.9%), Africa (0.8%) and Oceania (0.7%).
275
In 2008, Quebec imported $178 billion worth of goods and services, or 58.6% of its GDP. Of this total, 62.9% of goods were imported from international markets, while 37.1% of goods were interprovincial imports. The breakdown by origin of international merchandise imports is as follows: United States (31.1%), Europe (28.7%), Asia (17.1%), Africa (11.7%), South America (4.5%), Central America (3.7%), Middle East (1.3%) and Oceania (0.7%).
275
Primary sector
The
Beauharnois generating station
, operated by
Hydro-Québec
Quebec produces most of Canada's
hydroelectricity
and is the second biggest hydroelectricity producer in the world (2019).
276
Because of this, Quebec has been described as a potential
clean energy
superpower.
277
In 2019, Quebec's electricity production amounted to 214
terawatt
-hours (TWh), 95% of which comes from hydroelectric power stations, and 4.7% of which come from
wind energy
. The public company
Hydro-Québec
occupies a dominant position in the production, transmission and distribution of electricity in Quebec. Hydro-Québec operates 63 hydroelectric power stations and 28 large reservoirs.
278
Because of the remoteness of Hydro-Québec's
TransÉnergie
division, it operates the largest electricity transmission network in North America. Quebec stands out for its use of
renewable energy
. In 2008, electricity ranked as the main form of energy used in Quebec (41.6%), followed by
oil
(38.2%) and
natural gas
(10.7%).
279
In 2017, 47% of all energy came from renewable sources.
280
The Quebec government's energy policy seeks to build, by 2030, a
low carbon economy
In 2011, the
mining industry
accounted for 6.3% of Quebec's GDP
281
and it employed about 50,000 people in 158 companies.
282
It has around 30 mines, 158 exploration companies and 15 primary processing industries. While many metallic and industrial minerals are exploited, the main ones are gold, iron, copper and
zinc
. Others include:
titanium
asbestos
, silver,
magnesium
and nickel, among many others.
283
Quebec is also as a major source of diamonds.
284
Since 2002, Quebec has seen an increase in its mineral explorations. In 2003, the value of mineral exploitation reached $3.7 billion.
285
The
agri-food industry
plays an important role in the economy of Quebec, with meat and
dairy products
being the two main sectors. It accounts for 8% of the Quebec's GDP and generate $19.2 billion. In 2010, this industry generated 487,000 jobs in agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing of food, beverages and tobacco and food distribution.
286
Secondary sector
A mockup of the
Airbus A220
(formerly the Bombardier CSeries), originally developed by
Bombardier Aerospace
In 2021, Quebec's
aerospace industry
employed 35,000 people and its sales totalled C$15.2 billion – the world's 6th largest.
287
Many aerospace companies are active here, including
CMC Electronics
Bombardier
Pratt & Whitney Canada
Héroux-Devtek
Rolls-Royce
General Electric
Bell Textron
L3Harris
Safran
SONACA
CAE Inc.
, and
Airbus
, among others. Montreal is globally considered one of the aerospace industry's great centres, and several international aviation organisations seat here.
288
Both Aéro Montréal and the CRIAQ were created to assist aerospace companies.
289
290
The
pulp and paper industry
accounted for 3.1% of Quebec's GDP in 2007
291
and generated annual shipments valued at more than $14 billion.
292
This industry employs 68,000 people in several regions of Quebec.
293
It is also the main -and in some circumstances only- source of manufacturing activity in more than 250 municipalities in the province. The forest industry has slowed in recent years because of the
softwood lumber dispute
294
In 2020, this industry represented 8% of Quebec's exports.
295
As Quebec has few significant deposits of
fossil fuels
296
all
hydrocarbons
are imported.
Refiners'
sourcing strategies have varied over time and have depended on market conditions. In the 1990s, Quebec purchased much of its oil from the
North Sea
. Since 2015, it now consumes almost exclusively the crude produced in
western Canada
and the United States.
297
Quebec's two active refineries have a total capacity of 402,000 barrels per day, greater than local needs which stood at 365,000 barrels per day in 2018.
296
Thanks to hydroelectricity, Quebec is the world's fourth largest
aluminum
producer and creates 90% of Canadian aluminum. Three companies make aluminum here:
Rio Tinto
Alcoa
and Aluminium Alouette. Their 9
alumineries
produce 2,9 million tons of aluminum annually and employ 30,000 workers.
298
Tertiary sector
The
finance and insurance
sector employs more than 168,000 people. Of this number, 78,000 are employed by the banking sector, 53,000 by the insurance sector and 20,000 by the securities and investment sector.
299
The
Bank of Montreal
, founded in 1817 in Montreal, was Quebec's first bank but, like many other large banks, its central branch is now in Toronto. Several banks remain based in Quebec
National Bank of Canada
, the
Desjardins Group
and the
Laurentian Bank
The
Château Frontenac
is the most photographed hotel in the world.
The
tourism industry
is a major sector in Quebec. The
Ministry of Tourism
ensures the development of this industry under the commercial name "Bonjour Québec".
300
Quebec is the second most important province for tourism in Canada, receiving 21.5% of tourists' spending (2021).
301
The industry provides employment to over 400,000 people.
302
These employees work in the more than 29,000 tourism-related businesses in Quebec, most of which are restaurants or hotels. 70% of tourism-related businesses are located in or close to Montreal or Quebec City. It is estimated that, in 2010, Quebec welcomed 25.8 million tourists. Of these, 76.1% came from Quebec, 12.2% from the
rest of Canada
, 7.7% from the United States and 4.1% from other countries. Annually, tourists spend more than $6.7 billion in Quebec's tourism industry.
303
Approximately 1.1 million Quebecers work in the field of science and technology.
304
In 2007, the
Government of Quebec
launched the Stratégie québécoise de la recherche et de l'innovation (SQRI) aiming to promote development through research, science and technology. The government hoped to create a strong culture of innovation in Quebec for the next decades and to create a
sustainable economy
305
Quebec's
IT
sector has 7,600 businesses and employs 140,000 people.
306
307
308
Its most developed sectors are
telecommunications
, multimedia and video game software, computer services, microelectronics, and the components sector. There are currently 115 telecommunications companies established in the province, including
Motorola
Ericsson
and Mitec.
309
The multimedia and video game sector has been growing fast since the early 2000s. The Digital Alliance, which claims 191 active members in video games, online education, mobility and Internet services, estimates the annual revenue of the sector at $827 million in 2014.
310
The microelectronics sector is made up of more than 100 companies employing 13,000 people. Computer services, software development, and consulting engineering employ 60,000 skilled workers. While the largest IT employers are
CMC Electronics
IBM
, and
Matrox
, many other tech companies are present here, including
Ubisoft
Electronic Arts
Microids
Strategy First
Eidos
Activision
A2M
Frima Studio
, etc.
311
Montreal is ranked fourth in North America for the number of jobs in the pharmaceutical sector.
312
313
Education
Main article:
Education in Quebec
See also:
List of universities in Quebec
List of colleges in Quebec
, and
List of schools in Quebec
The
Institut national de la recherche scientifique
helps to advance scientific knowledge and to train a new generation of students in various scientific and technological sectors.
The education system of Quebec, administered by the government of Quebec's
Ministry of Education and Higher Education
, differs from those of other Canadian provinces. The province has five levels of education: first
preschool, then primary school, then secondary school
fr
; then
CEGEP
(see
College education in Quebec
); and finally
university or college
. Attached to these levels are the options to also attend
professional development
opportunities,
classes for adults
, and
continuing education
. For every level of teaching, there exists a public network and private network: the public network is financed by taxes while the private options must be paid for by the student. In 2020,
school boards
were replaced by
school service centres
314
All universities in Quebec exist by virtue of laws adopted by the
National Assembly of Quebec
in 1967 during the
Quiet Revolution
. Their financing mostly comes from public taxes, but the laws under which they operate grants them more autonomy than other levels of education.
315
Research
In 1969,
Héroux-Devtek
designed and manufactured the
undercarriage
of the
Apollo Lunar Module
Quebec is considered one of world leaders in
fundamental scientific research
, having produced ten
Nobel laureates
in either physics, chemistry, or medicine.
316
It is also considered one of the world leaders in sectors such as aerospace, information technology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, and therefore plays a significant role in the world's scientific and technological communities.
317
Between 2000 and 2011, Quebec had over 9,469 scientific publications in biomedical research and engineering.
318
The contribution of Quebec in science and technology represented approximately 1% of the research worldwide between the 1980s and 2009.
319
The province is one of the world leaders in the field of
space science
and contributed to important discoveries in this field.
320
The
Canadian Space Agency
was established in Quebec due to its major role in this research field. A total of four Quebecers have been in space since the creation of the CSA:
Marc Garneau
Julie Payette
, and
David Saint-Jacques
as CSA astronauts, plus
Guy Laliberté
as a private citizen who paid for his trip. Quebec has also contributed to the creation of some Canadian
artificial satellites
including
SCISAT-1
ISIS
Radarsat-1
and
Radarsat-2
321
322
323
Quebec ranks among the world leaders in the field of
life science
312
Quebec has more than 450 biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies which together employ more than 25,000 people and 10,000 highly qualified researchers.
312
Infrastructure
Transportation
Main articles:
List of airports in Quebec
List of Quebec railways
, and
List of Quebec provincial highways
The ferry N.M.
Camille-Marcoux
, of the
Société des traversiers du Québec
Development and security of land transportation in Canada are provided by
Transports Québec
324
Other organizations, such as the
Canadian Coast Guard
and
Nav Canada
, provide the same service for the sea and air transportation. The
Commission des transports du Québec
works with the freight carriers and the public transport.
The
réseau routier québécois
(Quebec road network) is managed by the
Société de l'assurance automobile du Québec
(SAAQ; Quebec Automobile Insurance Corporation) and consists of about 185,000 km (115,000 mi) of highways and national, regional, local, collector and forest roads. In addition, Quebec has almost 12,000 bridges, tunnels, retaining walls, culverts and other structures
325
such as the
Quebec Bridge
, the
Laviolette Bridge
and the
Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Bridge–Tunnel
In the waters of the Saint Lawrence there are eight deep-water ports for the transhipment of goods. In 2003, 3886 cargo and 9.7 million tonnes of goods transited the Quebec portion of the
Saint Lawrence Seaway
326
Concerning rail transport, Quebec has 6,678 km (4,150 mi) of railways
327
integrated in the large North American network. Although primarily intended for the transport of goods through companies such as the
Canadian National
(CN) and the
Canadian Pacific
(CP), the Quebec railway network is also used by inter-city passengers via
Via Rail Canada
and
Amtrak
. In April 2012, plans were unveiled for the construction of an 800 km (497 mi) railway running north from
Sept-Îles
, to support mining and other resource extraction in the Labrador Trough.
328
Quebec's air network includes 43 airports that offer scheduled services on a daily basis.
326
In addition, the Government of Quebec owns airports and heliports to increase the accessibility of local services to communities in the
Basse-Côte-Nord
and northern regions.
329
Various other transport networks crisscross the province of Quebec, including hiking trails, snowmobile trails and bike paths. The
Green Road
is the largest at nearly 4,000 km (2,500 mi) in length.
330
Healthcare
Quebec has a health policy that emphasizes prevention, is based on the analysis of health-related data, and evolves with the needs of the population. Similar to other developed economies, the public health policies implemented in Quebec have extended the life expectancy of its population since the mid-20th century.
331
Health and social services are part of the same administration. The Quebec health system is also public, which means that the
government
acts as the main insurer and administrator, that funding is provided by general taxation, and that patients have access to care regardless of their income level.
There are 34 health establishments in Quebec, 22 of which are an
Integrated Health and Social Services Centre
fr
(CISSS). They ensure the distribution of different services on the territories they are assigned to. Quebec has approximately 140 hospitals for general or specialised care (CHSGS). Quebec also has other types of establishments in its healthcare system, such as
Centre local de services communautaires
(CLSC),
Centre d'hébergement et de soins de longue durée
(CHSLD),
Centre de réadaptation
and
Centre de protection de l'enfance et de la jeunesse
. Finally, there are private healthcare establishments (paid for directly by the patient) like
Groupe de médecine de famille
fr
, pharmacies, private clinics, dentists, community organisations and retirement homes.
332
A 2021 Ipsos poll found that 85% of Quebecers agree that their health care system is too bureaucratic to respond to the needs of the population
333
and in 2023 found that less than half of Quebecers are satisfied with the provincial health care system.
334
Housing
Main article:
Housing crisis in Quebec
In 2021, 59.9% of Quebec's residents were property owners.
335
In 2019, among property owners, 34% were couples with kids, 33% were couples without children, 22% lived alone, 8% were single parents, and 3% were something else. Among renters, 16% were couples with kids, 13% were couples without children, 51% lived alone, 13% were single parents, and 7% were something else.
225
Since the 1980s, the average price of a single-family home has doubled every 10 years, going from $48,715 in 1980 to $424,844 in 2021. Since the average salary did not follow these increases, Quebec homes are 10 times more expensive than they were 40 years ago.
336
In 2022, the cities with the most severe housing shortages were
Granby
, with a vacancy rate of 0,1%, followed by
Marieville
(0,1%),
Rimouski
(0,2%),
Drummondville
(0,2%) and
Rouyn-Noranda
(0,3%).
337
Culture
Main article:
Culture of Quebec
Quebec has developed its own unique culture from its historic
New France
roots. Its culture also symbolizes a distinct perspective: being a French-speaking nation surrounded by a bigger English-speaking culture.
The
Quartier Latin
(English: Latin Quarter) of Montreal, and Vieux-Québec (English:
Old Quebec
) in Quebec City are two hubs of metropolitan cultural activity. Life in the cafés and "terrasses" (outdoor restaurant terraces) reveals a Latin influence in Quebec's culture, with the
théâtre Saint-Denis
in Montreal and the
Capitole de Québec
theatre in Quebec City being among the principal attractions.
A number of governmental and non-government organizations support cultural activity in Quebec. The
Conseil des arts et des lettres du Québec
(CALQ) is an initiative of the
Ministry of Culture and Communications (Quebec)
. It supports creation, innovation, production, and international exhibits for all cultural fields of Quebec. The
Société de développement des entreprises culturelles
(SODEC) works to promote and fund individuals working in the cultural industry. The
Prix du Québec
is an award given by the government to confer the highest distinction and honour to individuals demonstrating exceptional achievement in their respective cultural field. Other awards include the Athanase David Awards (Literature),
Félix Awards
(Music),
Gémeaux Awards
(Television and film),
Jutra Awards
(Cinema), Masques Awards (Theatre),
Olivier Guimond
Awards (Humour) and the Opus Awards (Concert music).
Performing arts
Main articles:
Music of Quebec
Dance in Quebec
, and
Comedy in Quebec
Traditional music is imbued with many dances, such as the
jig
, the
quadrille
, the
reel
and
line dancing
. Traditional instruments include harmonica,
fiddle
spoons
jaw harp
and
accordion
. The
First Nations
and the
Inuit
of Quebec also have their own traditional music. Quebec's most popular artists of the last century include the singers
Félix Leclerc
Gilles Vigneault
Kate and Anna McGarrigle
and
Céline Dion
338
The
Association québécoise de l'industrie du disque, du spectacle et de la vidéo
(ADISQ) was created in 1978 to promote the music industry in Quebec.
339
The
Orchestre symphonique de Québec
and the
Montreal Symphony Orchestra
are respectively associated with the Opéra de Québec and the Opéra de Montreal whose performances are presented at the
Grand Théâtre de Québec
and at
Place des Arts
. The
Ballets Jazz de Montreal
, the
Grands Ballets
and
La La La Human Steps
are three important professional troupes of
contemporary dance
Among the theatre troupes are the
Compagnie Jean-Duceppe
, the
Théâtre La Rubrique
, and the Théâtre Le Grenier. In addition to the network of cultural centres in Quebec,
340
the venues include the
Monument-National
and the
Rideau Vert
(green curtain) Theatre in Montreal, and the
Trident
Theatre in
Quebec City
. The
National Theatre School of Canada
and the
Conservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique du Québec
form the future players.
The show
Dralion
, Cirque du Soleil, introduced in 2004
Several circus troupes were created in recent decades, the most important being the
Cirque du Soleil
341
Among these troops are contemporary, travelling and on-horseback circuses, such as
Les 7 Doigts de la Main
Cirque Éloize
Cavalia
Kosmogonia
Saka
and Cirque
Akya
342
The
National Circus School
and the
École de cirque de Québec
were created to train future
Contemporary circus
artists.
Tohu, la Cité des Arts du Cirque
was founded in 2004 to disseminate the circus arts.
343
Comedy is a vast
cultural sector
. Quebec has created and is home to several different comedy festivals, including the
Just for Laughs
festival in Montreal, as well as the Grand Rire festivals of Quebec, Gatineau and Sherbrooke.
344
The
Association des professionnels de l'industrie de l'humour
(APIH) is the main organization for the promotion and development of the cultural sector of humour in Quebec and the
National School of Humour
fr
, created in 1988, trains future humorists in Quebec.
Media
Main articles:
Cinema of Quebec
and
Television in Quebec
The
Cinémathèque québécoise
has a mandate to promote the film and television heritage of Quebec. The
National Film Board of Canada
(NFB), a federal Crown corporation, provides for the same mission in Canada. The Association of Film and Television in Quebec (APFTQ) promotes independent production in film and television.
345
While the Association of Producers and Directors of Quebec (APDQ) represents the business of filmmaking and television, the Association of Community Radio Broadcasters of Quebec (ARCQ) (French acronym) represents the independent radio stations.
346
Several movie theatres across Quebec ensure the dissemination of Quebec cinema. With its cinematic installations, such as the
Cité du cinéma
and
Mel's
studios, the city of Montreal is home to the filming of various productions.
347
The state corporation
Télé-Québec
, the federal Crown corporation
CBC
, general and specialized private channels, networks, independent and community radio stations broadcast the various
Quebec téléromans
, the national and regional news, and other programming.
348
349
Les Rendez-vous du cinéma québécois
is a festival surrounding the ceremony of the
Jutra Awards
Night that rewards work and personalities of Quebec cinema.
350
The Artis and the
Gemini Awards
gala recognize the personalities of television and radio industry in Quebec and French Canada. The
Film Festival of the 3 Americas
, the
Festival of International Short Film
, the
World Film Festival
and the
Festival of New Cinema
are other annual events surrounding the film industry in Quebec.
In the realm of literature and international publishing, the
Québec Édition
group is a committee created by the National Association of Book Editors dedicated to the international influence of French-language publishings from Quebec and Canada.
351
Literature and folklore
Main articles:
Quebec literature
and
Folklore of Quebec
La
chasse-galerie
(1906) by
Henri Julien
, showing a scene from a popular Quebec folk legend
Quebec's French-speaking populace has the second largest body of folktales in Canada (the first being
First Nations
).
352
When the early settlers arrived from France in the 17th century, they brought with them popular tales from their homeland, which were adapted to the local context. Many were passed on through generations by
raconteurs
, or storytellers.
353
Almost all of the stories native to Quebec were influenced by Christian
dogma
and
superstitions
. The
Devil
, for instance, appears often as either a person, an animal or monster, or indirectly through Demonic acts.
354
Various tales and stories are told through oral tradition, such as, among many others, the legends of the
Bogeyman
, the
Chasse-galerie
, the
Black Horse of Trois-Pistoles
, the
Complainte de Cadieux
, the
Corriveau
, the
dancing devil of Saint-Ambroise
, the
Giant Beaupré
, the
monsters of the lakes
Pohénégamook
and
Memphremagog
, of
Quebec Bridge
(called the Devil's Bridge), the
Rocher Percé
and of
Rose Latulipe
, for example.
355
From New France, Quebec literature was first developed in the travel accounts of explorers. The
Moulin à paroles
traces the great texts that have shaped the history of Quebec. The first to write the history of Quebec, since its discovery, was the historian
François-Xavier Garneau
. Many
Quebec poets
and prominent authors marked their era and today remain anchored in the collective imagination, like, among others, Philippe Aubert de Gaspé,
Octave Crémazie
Honoré Beaugrand
Émile Nelligan
Lionel Groulx
Gabrielle Roy
Hubert Aquin
Michel Tremblay
Marie Laberge
, Fred Pellerin and
Gaston Miron
. The
regional novel
from Quebec is called
Terroir
novel and is a literary tradition
356
specific to the province.
Art and architecture
Main article:
Architecture of Quebec
See also:
List of art schools in Quebec
La Cavalière
by
Charles Daudelin
, 1963, installed in front of the pavilion Gérard Morisset of the Quebec National Museum of Fine Arts in
Quebec City
The art of Quebec has developed around the specific characteristics of its landscapes and cultural, historical, social and political representations. The development of Quebec masterpieces in painting, printmaking and sculpture is marked by the contribution of artists such as
Louis-Philippe Hébert
Cornelius Krieghoff
Alfred Laliberté
Marc-Aurèle Fortin
Marc-Aurèle de Foy Suzor-Coté
Jean Paul Lemieux
Clarence Gagnon
, Adrien Dufresne,
Alfred Pellan
Jean-Philippe Dallaire
Charles Daudelin
Arthur Villeneuve
Jean-Paul Riopelle
Paul-Émile Borduas
and
Marcelle Ferron
The fine arts of Quebec are displayed at the
Quebec National Museum of Fine Arts
, the
Montreal Museum of Contemporary Art
, the
Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
, the Quebec
Salon des métiers d'art
and in many art galleries. The
Montreal School of Fine Arts
forms the
painters, printmakers and sculptors of Quebec
Maison Routhier
in
Sainte-Foy
, a
Canadien
-style house
Quebec's architecture is characterized by its unique
Canadien
-style buildings as well as the juxtaposition of a variety of styles reflective of Quebec's history. When walking in any city or town, one can come across buildings with styles congruent to
Classical
Neo-Gothic
Roman
Neo-Renaissance
Greek Revival
Neo-Classical
, Québécois Neo-Classical,
Victorian
Second Empire
Modern
Post-modern
or
Skyscrapers
Canadien-style houses and barns were developed by the first settlers of New France along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. These buildings are rectangular one-storey structures with an extremely tall and steep roof, sometimes almost twice as tall as the house below. Canadien-style churches also developed and served as landmarks while traversing rural Quebec.
Heritage
Main articles:
Quebec Cultural Heritage Directory
and
Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec
See also:
List of museums in Quebec
Johan Beetz
House,
357
Second Empire-inspired
rural residence at
Baie-Johan-Beetz
Minganie
Several sites, houses and historical works reflect the cultural heritage of Quebec, such as the
Village Québécois d'Antan
, the historical village of
Val-Jalbert
, the
Fort Chambly
, the national home of the Patriots, the Chicoutimi pulp mill (Pulperie de Chicoutimi), the
Lachine Canal
and the
Victoria Bridge
. As of December 2011, there are 198
National Historic Sites of Canada
in Quebec.
358
These sites were designated as being of national historic significance.
359
Various museums tell the cultural history of Quebec, like the
Museum of Civilization
, the
Museum of French America
, the
McCord Museum
or the Montreal Museum of Archaeology and History in
Pointe-à-Callière
, displaying artifacts, paintings and other remains from the past of Quebec. Notable schools include the
Conservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique du Québec
, the
École nationale de théâtre du Canada
and the
École nationale de cirque
. Notable public agencies to catalogue and further develop Quebec's culture include the
Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec
, the
Conseil des arts et des lettres du Québec
and
Télé-Québec
. The
Association Quebecoise des Loisirs Folkloriques
is an organization committed to preserving and disseminating Quebec's folklore heritage.
360
Cuisine
Main article:
Cuisine of Quebec
A classic
poutine
The traditional Quebecois cuisine descends from 16th-century
French cuisine
, the
fur trade
and a history of
hunting
. Quebec's cuisine has also been influenced by learning from
First Nation
, by
English cuisine
and by
American cuisine
. Quebec is most famous for its
tourtière
pâté chinois
poutine
, and
St. Catherine's taffy
among others. "Le temps des sucres" is a period during springtime when many Quebecers go to the
sugar shack
cabane à sucre
) for a traditional meal.
Quebec is the world's biggest
maple syrup
producer.
361
The province has a long history of producing maple syrup, and creating new
maple-derived products
. Other major food products include beer, wine (including
ice wine
and
ice cider
), and cheese.
Sports
The
Montreal Canadiens
at the
Bell Centre
Sports in Quebec constitutes an essential dimension of Quebec culture.
Ice hockey
remains the national sport. This sport was played for the first time on March 3, 1875, in Montreal and has been promoted over the years by numerous achievements, including the centenary of the
Montreal Canadiens
362
Other major sports include
Canadian football
with the
Montreal Alouettes
, soccer with
Club de Foot Montréal
, the
Grand Prix du Canada
Formula 1 racing with drivers such as
Gilles Villeneuve
and
Jacques Villeneuve
, and professional baseball with the former
Montreal Expos
. Quebec has hosted several major sporting events, including the
1976 Summer Olympics
, the Fencing World Championships in 1967, track cycling in 1974, and the
Transat Québec-Saint-Malo
race created in 1984.
Quebec athletes have performed well at the
Winter Olympics
over recent years. They won 12 of
Canada's 29 medals
at the most recent
Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang (2018)
; they won 12 of the
27 Canadian medals
in
Sochi (2014)
; and 9 of the
26 Canadian medals
in
Vancouver (2010)
363
Holidays and symbols
Main article:
Symbols of Quebec
St-Jean-Baptiste Day
is one of Quebec's biggest holidays. In 1977, the
Quebec Parliament
declared June 24, the day of
La Saint-Jean-Baptiste
, to be
Quebec's National Holiday
La Saint-Jean-Baptiste
, or
La St-Jean
, honours
French Canada
's patron saint,
John the Baptist
. On this day, the song "
Gens du pays
", by
Gilles Vigneault
, is often heard. The song
À la claire fontaine
364
was the anthem of the
New France
Patriots
and
French Canadian
, then replaced by
O Canada
, but "Gens du pays" is preferred by many Quebecers to be the national anthem of Quebec.
National Patriots' Day
, a statutory holiday in Quebec, is also a unique public holiday, which honours the
patriotes
with displays of the
patriote flag
, music, public speeches, and ceremonies.
365
Le Vieux de '37
("The Old Man of '37"), an illustration by
Henri Julien
that depicts a patriot of this rebellion,
366
is sometimes added at the centre of
Patriote flags
Moving Day
is a tradition where leases terminate on July 1. This creates a
social phenomenon
where everyone seems to be moving out at the same time.
367
Other distinct holiday traditions include the
Réveillon
, a giant feast and party which takes place during
Christmas Eve
and
New Year's Eve
and goes on until midnight. Traditional dishes like
tourtière
or
cipâte
are offered, and
rigaudon
spoon
or
violin
may be played.
368
Finally,
April Fools' Day
is called
Poisson d'Avril
("April's Fish") because while pulling pranks is still important, there is another major tradition: sticking fish-shaped paper cutouts to people's backs without them noticing.
369
In 1939, the
government of Quebec
unilaterally ratified its
coat of arms
to reflect
Quebec's political history
: French rule (gold lily on blue background), followed by British rule (lion on red background), followed by Canadian rule (maple leaves).
370
Je me souviens
("I remember") is an official part of the coat of arms and has been the official licence plate motto since 1978, replacing the previous motto:
La belle province
("the beautiful province"), still used as a nickname for the province. The
fleur-de-lis
, one of Quebec's most common symbols, is an ancient symbol of the
French monarchy
. Finally, the
Great Seal of Quebec
is used to authenticate documents issued by the government of Quebec.
The first members of the
Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society
created the
Carillon Sacré-Coeur
flag, which consisted of a white cross on an azure background with white fleur-de-lis in each corner and a
Sacred Heart
surrounded by
maple leaves
in the centre; it was based on the French merchant flag flown by Champlain and the
Flag of Carillon
. The
Carillon Sacré-Coeur
and French merchant flag went on to be the major inspirations for creating Quebec's current flag in 1903, called the
Fleurdelisé
. The
Fleurdelisé
replaced the
Union Jack
on Quebec's
Parliament Building
on January 21, 1948.
Iris versicolor
floral emblem of Quebec
Three new official emblems in were adopted in the late 20th century: the
Snowy owl
in 1987 to symbolize the whiteness of Quebec's semi-northern climate, the
Yellow birch
in 1993 for the variety of its uses and by its commercial value, and the
Iris versicolor
in 1999 to illustrate the cultural diversity of Quebec and the importance of water and wetlands for the balance of nature.
371
372
Quebec's diaspora
Main article:
Quebec diaspora
The earliest immigrants to the
Canadian prairies
were
French Canadians
from Quebec. Many
Franco-Albertans
Fransaskois
and
Franco-Manitobans
are descended from them.
From the mid-1800s to the
Great Depression
, Quebec experienced the
Grande Hémorragie
("Great Hemorrhaging"), a massive emigration of 900,000 people from Quebec to
New England
373
French Canadians often established themselves in
Little Canadas
in many industrial New England centres. Of the 900,000 Québécois who emigrated, about half returned at some point before settling permanently.
374
Most of the descendants of those who stayed are now
assimilated
, though a few
Franco-Americans
remain, speaking
New England French
Some tried to slow the Grande Hémorragie by redirecting people north, which resulted in the founding of many regions in Quebec (ex.
Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean
Val-d'Or
) but also in
Northeastern Ontario
. The northeastern
Franco-Ontarians
of today, who live in
Timmins
Hearst
Moosonee
and
Sault Sainte Marie
, among others, are the descendants of emigrants from Quebec who worked in the mines of the area.
375
In recent times,
snowbirds
often migrate to southern
Florida
during the winter, resulting in the emergence of temporary "Québécois regions," such as in
Hollywood
376
See also
Canada portal
Index of Quebec-related articles
Outline of Quebec
Notes
Pronunciation varies in English:
k(w)ih-
BEK
keh-
BEK
eɪ
kay-
BEK
10
French pronunciation:
[kebɛk]
11
The territory of
Nunavut
is larger.
Quebec borders the states of
Vermont
New York
New Hampshire
and
Maine
References
Fee, Margery; McAlpine, Janice (2001).
Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage
. Oxford University Press. p. 335.
ISBN
0-1954-1619-8
"Status of the French language"
. Government of Quebec.
Archived
from the original on May 14, 2011
. Retrieved
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ignored (
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Sources
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L'interatlas: Ressources du Québec et du Canada
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ISBN
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Droit constitutionnel
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OCLC
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Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada
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État de llénergie au Québec 2020
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Further reading
Anderson, Fred (2000).
Crucible of Wars: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766
. Knopf.
ISBN
978-0-375-40642-3
Bergeron, Léandre (1974).
Why There Must Be a Revolution in Québec
. New Canada Publications.
ISBN
0-9196-0016-6
Cave, Alfred A. (2004).
The French and Indian War
. Greenwood Press.
ISBN
978-0-3133-2168-9
Courville, Serge; Howard, Richard (2009).
Quebec: A Historical Geography
. UBC Press.
ISBN
978-0-7748-1426-3
Dickinson, John Alexander; Young, Brian J. (2003).
A short history of Quebec
. McGill-Queen's University Press.
ISBN
978-0-7735-2393-7
Gairdner, William D (1994).
Constitutional Crack-up: Canada and the Coming Showdown with Québec
. Stoddart Publishing Co.
ISBN
0-7737-5658-2
Gauvreau, Michael (2005).
The Catholic origins of Quebec's Quiet Revolution, 1931–1970
. McGill-Queen's University Press.
ISBN
978-0-7735-2874-1
Grenon, Jean-Yves (2000).
Pierre Dugua De Mons: Founder of Acadie (1604–5), Co-Founder of Quebec (1608)
. Translated by Phil Roberts. Annapolis Royal, NS: Peninsular Press.
ISBN
978-0-9682-0162-6
Kokker, Steve (2002).
Québec
. Lonely Planet.
ISBN
978-1-7405-9024-2
Lefkowitz, Arthur S. (2008).
Benedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American Invasion of Canada during the Revolutionary War
. Savas Beatie.
ISBN
978-1-9327-1403-6
Maclure, Jocelyn (2003).
Quebec identity: the challenge of pluralism
. McGill-Queen's University Press.
ISBN
978-0-7735-2553-5
McRoberts, Kenneth; Posgate, Dale (1984).
Québec: Social Change and Political Crisis
(Rev. and updated ed.). McClelland and Stewart.
ISBN
0-7710-7185-X
Merriam; Webster (2003).
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
(11th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Inc.
ISBN
978-0-8777-9809-5
Roussopoulos, Dimitrios I, ed. (1974).
Québec and Radical Social Change
. Black Rose Books.
ISBN
0-9196-1851-0
Scott, Colin (2001).
Aboriginal autonomy and development in northern Quebec and Labrador
. UBC Press.
ISBN
978-0-7748-0844-6
Taucar, Christopher Edward (2002).
Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty
. Peter Lang.
ISBN
978-0-8204-6242-4
Webb Hodge, Frederick (1912).
American Indians North of Mexico, Volume 4, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Handbook
. Digital Scanning Inc.
ISBN
978-1-5821-8751-8
{{
cite book
}}
ISBN / Date incompatibility (
help
French
Armony, Victor (2007).
Le Québec expliqué aux immigrants
. VLB Éditeur.
ISBN
978-2-8900-5985-6
Bergeron, Léandre; Landry, Pierre (2008).
Petit manuel d'histoire du Québec, 1534–2008
. Éditions Trois-Pistoles.
ISBN
978-2-8958-3183-9
Binot, Guy (2004).
Pierre Dugua de Mons: gentilhomme royannais, premier colonisateur du Canada, lieutenant général de la Nouvelle-France de 1603 à 1612
. Bonne anse.
ISBN
978-2-9144-6313-3
Institut de la statistique du Québec (2010).
Le Québec chiffres en main
(PDF)
. Government of Quebec.
ISBN
978-2-5504-9444-7
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on August 27, 2010.
Lacoursière, Jacques; Provencher, Jean; Vaugeois, Denis (2000).
Canada-Québec 1534–2000
. Septentrion.
ISBN
978-2-8944-8156-1
Lacoursière, Jacques (2005).
Histoire du Québec, Des origines à nos jours
. Édition Nouveau Monde.
ISBN
978-2-8473-6113-1
La Rochelle, Louis (1982).
En flagrant délit de pouvoir: chroniques des événements poliltiques, de Maurice Duplessis à René Lévesque
. Boreal Express.
ISBN
2-8905-2058-7
Liebel, Jean (1999).
Pierre Dugua, sieur de Mons, fondateur de Québec
. Le Croît vif.
ISBN
978-2-9079-6748-8
Linteau, Paul-André (1989).
Histoire du Québec contemporain; Volume 1; De la Confédération à la crise (1867–1929)
. Les Éditions du Boréal.
ISBN
978-2-8905-2297-8
Linteau, Paul-André (1989).
Histoire du Québec contemporain; Volume 2; Le Québec depuis 1930
. Les Éditions du Boréal.
ISBN
978-2-8905-2298-5
Morf, Gustave (1970).
Le Terrorisme québécois
. Éditions de l'Homme.
Parizeau, Jacques (1997).
Pour un Québec souverain
. V.L.B. éditeur.
ISBN
2-8900-5655-4
Pelletier, Réal, ed. (1975).
Une Certaine Révolution tranquille: 22 juin [19]60–[19]75
. La Presse.
Venne, Michel (2006).
L'annuaire du Québec 2007
. Fides.
ISBN
978-2-7621-2746-1
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Quebec
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