Slovene language - Wikipedia

Slovene language - Wikipedia
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(Redirected from
Slovenian language
South Slavic language, mainly spoken in Slovenia
"Slovenščina" redirects here. For the West Slavic language spoken in Slovakia, see
Slovak language
Slovene
Slovenian
slovenščina
slovenski jezik
Pronunciation
[slɔˈʋèːnʃtʃina]
[slɔˈʋèːnski
ˈjɛ̀ːzik]
Native to
Slovenia
Italy
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Austria
Carinthia
and
Styria
Hungary
Vas County
Ethnicity
Slovenes
Native speakers
2.5 million (2010)
Language family
Indo-European
Balto-Slavic
Slavic
South Slavic
Western South Slavic
Slovene
Dialects
Prekmurje
Resian
approx.
48 unstandardised dialects
Writing system
Latin
Slovene alphabet
Slovene Braille
Official status
Official language in
Slovenia
European Union
Recognised minority
language in
Austria
Hungary
Italy
Regulated by
Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Language codes
ISO 639-1
sl
ISO 639-2
slv
ISO 639-3
slv
Glottolog
slov1268
Linguasphere
(51 varieties) 53-AAA-f (51 varieties)
Slovene-speaking areas
This article contains
IPA
phonetic symbols.
Without proper
rendering support
, you may see
question marks, boxes, or other symbols
instead of
Unicode
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
Help:IPA
South Slavic languages
and dialects
Western South Slavic
Serbo-Croatian
Standard languages
Bosnian
Croatian
Montenegrin
Serbian
Slavonic-Serbian
Dialects
Shtokavian
Younger Ikavian
Bunjevac
Slavonian
Šokac
Dubrovnik
Eastern Herzegovinian
Užice
Zeta–Raška
Kosovo–Resava
Smederevo–Vršac
Šumadija–Vojvodina
Prizren–Timok
Prizren–South Morava
Gorani
Janjevo–Letnica
Svrljig–Zaplanje
Timok–Lužnica
))
Chakavian
Burgenland
Molise
Kajkavian
Torlakian
Prizren–South Morava
Gorani
Janjevo–Letnica
Svrljig–Zaplanje
Timok–Lužnica
Accents
Ekavian
Ijekavian
Ikavian
Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian
Slovene
Dialects
Prekmurje Slovene
Resian
Eastern South Slavic
Church Slavonic
Old
Bulgarian
Dialects
Banat
Torlakian
Meshterski
Macedonian
Dialects
Western
Southeastern
Northern
Torlakian
Spoken Macedonian
Standard Macedonian
Transitional dialects
Serbian–Bulgarian–Macedonian
Transitional Bulgarian dialects
Torlakian
Gorani
Croatian–Slovenian
Kajkavian
Bulgarian–Macedonian
Slavic dialects of Greece
Alphabets
Modern
Gaj's Latin
Serbian Cyrillic
Bulgarian Cyrillic
Macedonian Cyrillic
Montenegrin
Slovene
Historical
Bohoričica
Dajnčica
Metelčica
Arebica
Bosnian Cyrillic
Glagolitic
Serbian Cyrillic
Early Cyrillic
Includes
Banat Bulgarian alphabet
Slovene
oʊ
iː
SLOH
-veen
or
oʊ
iː
-/
sloh-
VEEN
, slə-
) or
Slovenian
oʊ
iː
-/
sloh-
VEE
-nee-ən, slə-
10
slovenščina
[slɔˈʋèːnʃtʃina]
) is a
South Slavic
language of the
Balto-Slavic
branch of the
Indo-European language family
. Most of its 2.5 million speakers are the inhabitants of
Slovenia
, the majority of them ethnic
Slovenes
. As Slovenia is part of the
European Union
, Slovene is also one of its 24
official and working languages
. Its grammar is highly
fusional
, and it has a
dual grammatical number
, an archaic feature shared with some other Indo-European languages. Two accentual norms (one characterized by
pitch accent
) are used. Its flexible
word order
is often adjusted for emphasis or stylistic reasons, although basically it is an
SVO
language. It has a
T–V distinction
: the use of the V-form demonstrates a respectful attitude towards superiors and the elderly, while it can be sidestepped through the passive form.
11
Standard Slovene
edit
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Standard Slovene is the national
standard language
that was formed in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on the
Upper
and
Lower Carniolan dialect groups
, more specifically on the language of
Ljubljana
and adjacent areas. The Lower Carniolan dialect group was the dialect used in the 16th century by
Primož Trubar
for his writings, while he also used Slovene as spoken in Ljubljana,
12
since he lived in the city for more than 20 years. It was the speech of Ljubljana that Trubar took as a foundation of what later became standard Slovene, with small addition of his native speech, the Lower Carniolan dialect.
13
14
Trubar's choice was also later adopted by other
Protestant
writers in the 16th century, and ultimately led to the formation of a more standard language. The Upper dialect was also used by most authors during the language revival in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and was also the language spoken by
France Prešeren
, who, like most Slovene writers and poets, lived and worked in Ljubljana, where the speech was growing closer to the Upper Carniolan dialect group.
13
Unstandardized dialects are better preserved in regions of the
Slovene Lands
where compulsory schooling was in languages other than Standard Slovene, as was the case with the
Carinthian Slovenes
in
Austria
, and the
Slovene minority in Italy
. For example, the
Resian
and
Torre
(Ter) dialects in the Italian
Province of Udine
differ most from other Slovene dialects.
citation needed
Classification
edit
Slovene is an
Indo-European language
belonging to the Western subgroup of the
South Slavic
branch of the
Slavic languages
, together with
Serbo-Croatian
. It is close to the
Chakavian
and especially
Kajkavian dialects
of Serbo-Croatian, but genealogically more distant from the
Shtokavian dialect
, the basis for the
Bosnian
Croatian
Montenegrin
, and
Serbian
standard languages. Slovene in general, and
Prekmurje Slovene
in particular, shares the highest level of
mutual intelligibility
with transitional Kajkavian dialects of
Hrvatsko Zagorje
and
Međimurje
15
Furthermore, Slovene shares certain linguistic characteristics with all South Slavic languages, including those of the Eastern subgroup, namely
Bulgarian
Macedonian
, and
Torlakian dialects
Mutual intelligibility with varieties of Serbo-Croatian is hindered by differences in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation,
16
Kajkavian
being firmly the most mutually intelligible. Slovene has some commonalities with the
West Slavic languages
that are not found in other South Slavic languages.
17
18
History
edit
Early history
edit
The
Freising manuscripts
, dating from the late 10th or the early 11th century, are considered the oldest documents in Slovene.
Like all
Slavic languages
, Slovene traces its roots to the same proto-Slavic group of languages that produced
Old Church Slavonic
. The earliest known examples of a distinct, written dialect connected to Slovene are from the
Freising manuscripts
, known in Slovene as
Brižinski spomeniki
. The consensus estimate of their date of origin is between 972 and 1039 CE (most likely before 1000). These religious writings are among the oldest surviving manuscripts in any Slavic language.
The
Freising manuscripts
are a record of a proto-Slovene that was spoken in a more scattered territory than modern Slovene, which included most of the present-day Austrian states of
Carinthia
and
Styria
, as well as
East Tyrol
, the
Val Pusteria
in
South Tyrol
, and some areas of
Upper
and
Lower Austria
19
Between the 9th and 12th century, proto-Slovene spread into northern
Istria
and in the areas around
Trieste
. By the 15th century, most of the northern areas were gradually
Germanized
: The northern border of the Slovene-speaking territory stabilized on the line going from north of
Klagenfurt
to south of
Villach
and east of
Hermagor
in Carinthia, while in Styria it was more or less identical with the current Austrian-Slovenian border. This linguistic border remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century, when a second process of Germanization took place, mostly in Carinthia.
During most of the Middle Ages, Slovene was a vernacular language of the peasantry, although it was also spoken in most of the towns on Slovenian territory, together with German or Italian. Although during this time German emerged as the spoken language of the nobility, Slovene had some role in the courtly life of the Carinthian, Carniolan, and Styrian nobility as well. This is proved by the survival of certain ritual formulas in Slovene (such as the ritual installation of the Dukes of Carinthia). The words
Buge waz primi, gralva Venus!
('God be With You, Queen Venus!'), with which
Bernhard von Spanheim
greeted the poet
Ulrich von Liechtenstein
, who was travelling around Europe in guise of Venus, upon his arrival in Carinthia in 1227 (or 1238),
20
is another example of some level of Slovene knowledge among high nobility in the region.
21
The first printed Slovene words,
stara pravda
(meaning 'old justice' or 'old laws'), appeared in 1515 in
Vienna
in a poem of the German mercenaries who suppressed the
Slovene peasant revolt
: the term was presented as the peasants' motto and battle cry.
22
Standard Slovene emerged in the second half of the 16th century, thanks to the works of Slovene Lutheran authors, who were active during the
Protestant Reformation
. The most prominent authors from this period are
Primož Trubar
, who wrote the first books in Slovene;
Adam Bohorič
, the author of the first Slovene grammar; and
Jurij Dalmatin
, who translated the entire
Bible
into Slovene.
From the high Middle Ages up to the dissolution of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire
in 1918, in the territory of present-day Slovenia,
German
was the language of the elite, and Slovene was the language of the common people. During this period, German had a strong influence on Slovene; many
Germanisms
are preserved in contemporary colloquial Slovene. Many Slovene
scientists
before the 1920s also wrote in foreign languages, mostly German, which was the
lingua franca
of science throughout
Central Europe
at the time.
Recent history
edit
During the rise of
Romantic nationalism
in the 19th century, the cultural movements of
Illyrism
and
Pan-Slavism
brought words from
Serbo-Croatian
, specifically Croatian dialects, and
Czech
into standard Slovene, mostly to replace words previously borrowed from
German
. Most of these innovations have remained, although some were dropped in later development. In the second half of the 19th century, many nationalist authors made an abundant use of Serbo-Croatian vocabulary but adapted it to Slovene orthography: among them were
Fran Levstik
and
Josip Jurčič
, who wrote the first novel in Slovene in 1866. This tendency was reversed in the
Fin de siècle
period by the first generation of modernist Slovene authors (most notably the writer
Ivan Cankar
), who resorted to a more purist and locally derived language without excessive Serbo-Croatian borrowings.
During the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
in the 1920s and 1930s, the influence of Serbo-Croatian increased again. This was opposed by the younger generations of Slovene authors and intellectuals; among the fiercest opponents of an excessive Serbo-Croatian influence on Slovene were the intellectuals associated with the leftist journal
Sodobnost
, as well as some younger
Catholic
activists and authors. After 1945, numerous Serbo-Croatian words that had been used in the previous decades were dropped. The result was that a Slovene text from the 1910s is frequently closer to modern Slovene than a text from the 1920s and 1930s.
Between 1920 and 1941, the official language of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was defined as "Serbo-Croato-Slovene", which was in practice merely Serbo-Croatian. In Slovenia, however, Slovene remained in use in education and administration. Many state institutions used only Serbo-Croatian, and a Slovene–Serbo-Croatian bilingualism was applied in many spheres of public life in Slovenia. For example, at post offices, on railways, and in administrative offices, Serbo-Croatian was used alongside Slovene. However, state employees were expected to be able to speak Slovene in Slovenia.
During the same time, western Slovenia (the
Slovenian Littoral
and the western districts of
Inner Carniola
) was under Italian administration and subjected to a violent policy of
Fascist Italianization
; the same policy was applied to Slovene speakers in
Venetian Slovenia
Gorizia
, and
Trieste
. Between 1923 and 1943, all public use of Slovene in these territories was strictly prohibited, and Slovene-language activists were persecuted by the state.
After the
Carinthian Plebiscite
of 1920, a less severe policy of
Germanization
took place in the Slovene-speaking areas of southern
Carinthia
which remained under Austrian administration. After the
Anschluss
of 1938, the use of Slovene was strictly forbidden in Carinthia as well. This accelerated a process of
language shift
in Carinthia, which continued throughout the second half of the 20th century: according to the Austro-Hungarian census of 1910, around 21% of inhabitants of Carinthia spoke Slovene in their daily communication; by 1951, this figure had dropped to less than 10%, and by 2001 to a mere 2.8%.
During
World War II
, Slovenia was divided among the
Axis powers
of
Fascist Italy
Nazi Germany
, and
Hungary
. Each of the occupying powers tried to either discourage or entirely suppress Slovene.
Following World War II, Slovenia became part of the
Federal Yugoslavia
. While there was no official language at federal level, Serbo-Croatian dominated as prestige dialect in all aspects whereas Slovene remained confined to now
federal Slovenia
where it was made an official language recognized once again. In the territory of Slovenia, it was commonly used in almost all areas of public life. One important exception was the
Yugoslav army
, where Serbo-Croatian was used exclusively, even in Slovenia.
National independence has further fortified the language: since 1991, when Slovenia gained independence, Slovene has been used as an official language in all areas of public life. In 2004, it became one of the official languages of the European Union upon the admission of Slovenia.
Nonetheless, the post-breakup influence of Serbo-Croatian on Slovene continued to a lesser extent, most prominently in
slang
in
colloquial language
23
Joža Mahnič
, a literary historian and president of the publishing house
Slovenska matica
, said in February 2008 that Slovene is a language rich enough to express everything, including the most sophisticated and specialised texts.
24
In February 2010,
Janez Dular
, a prominent Slovene linguist, commented that, although Slovene is not an endangered language, its scope has been shrinking, especially in science and higher education.
25
26
Geographic distribution
edit
The language is spoken by about 2.5 million people,
27
mainly in Slovenia, but also by
Slovene
ethnolinguistic minorities in
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Italy
(around 60,000 in
Venetian Slovenia
Resia Valley
Canale Valley
Province of Trieste
, and in those municipalities of the
Province of Gorizia
bordering Slovenia), in southern
Carinthia
, some parts of
Styria
in
Austria
28
29
30
31
(25,000), and in the western part of Croatian
Istria
bordering Slovenia. It is also spoken in
Rijeka
and
Zagreb
(11,800-13,100), in southwestern
Hungary
(3–4,000), in
Serbia
(5,000), and by the Slovene diaspora throughout
Europe
and the rest of the world (around 300,000), particularly in the
United States
(most notably
Ohio
, home to an estimated 3,400 speakers),
32
Canada
Argentina
Australia
, and
South Africa
15
Dialects
edit
A schematic map of Slovene dialects, based on the map by
Tine Logar
Jakob Rigler
, and other sources
Main article:
Slovene dialects
Slovene is sometimes characterized as the most diverse Slavic language in terms of
its dialects
33
with different degrees of mutual intelligibility.
34
35
Accounts of the number of dialects range from as few as seven
36
37
38
dialects, often considered dialect groups or dialect bases that are further subdivided into as many as 50 dialects.
39
Other sources characterize the number of dialects as nine
40
or eight.
41
The Slovene proverb "Every village has its own voice" (
Vsaka vas ima svoj glas
) depicts the differences in dialects.
The
Prekmurje
dialect used to have a written norm of its own at one point.
42
The
Resian
dialects have an independent written norm that is used by their regional state institutions.
43
Speakers of those two dialects have considerable difficulties with being understood by speakers of other varieties of Slovene, needing to
code-switch
to Standard Slovene. Other dialects are mutually intelligible when speakers avoid the excessive usage of regionalisms.
Regionalisms are mostly limited to culinary and agricultural expressions, although there are many exceptions.
citation needed
Some
loanwords
have become so deeply rooted in the local language that people have considerable difficulties in finding a standard expression for the dialect term (for instance,
kremšnita
meaning
a type of custard cake
is
kremna rezina
in Standard Slovene, but the latter term is very rarely used in speech, being considered inappropriate for non-literary registers
where?
). Southwestern dialects incorporate many
calques
and
loanwords
from
Italian
, whereas eastern and northwestern dialects are replete with lexemes of German origin. Usage of such words hinders intelligibility between dialects and is greatly discouraged in formal situations.
citation needed
Phonology
edit
Main article:
Slovene phonology
Slovene has a
phoneme
set consisting of 21
consonants
and 8
vowels
44
Consonants
edit
Slovene has 21 distinctive consonant phonemes.
Slovene consonant phonemes
45
Labial
Dental
Alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Nasal
Plosive
voiceless
voiced
Affricate
voiceless
t͡s
t͡ʃ
voiced
d͡ʒ
Fricative
voiceless
voiced
Approximant
Rhotic
All voiced
obstruents
are devoiced at the end of words unless immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel or a
voiced consonant
. In consonant clusters, the
voicing
distinction is neutralized and all consonants assimilate the voicing of the rightmost segment, i.e., the final consonant in the cluster. In this context,
[v]
[ɣ]
, and
[d͡z]
may occur as voiced allophones of
/f/
/x/
, and
/t͡s/
, respectively (e.g.,
vŕh drevésa
[ʋrɣ
dreˈʋesa]
).
46
/ʋ/
has several
allophones
depending on context.
Before a vowel, pronunciation is labiodental,
47
(also described as
).
48
After a vowel, pronunciation is bilabial
and forms a diphthong.
47
48
At the beginning of a syllable, before a consonant (e.g., in
vsi
"all"), the pronunciation varies more widely by speaker and area. Many speakers convert
/ʋ/
into a full vowel
[u]
in this position.
47
48
For those speakers who retain a consonantal pronunciation, it is pronounced
before a voiced consonant and
before a voiceless consonant.
47
48
Thus,
vsi
may be pronounced as disyllabic
[uˈsi]
or monosyllabic
[ʍsi]
The sequences
/lj/
/nj/
, and
/rj/
occur only before a vowel. Before a consonant or word-finally, they are reduced to
/l/
/n/
, and
/r/
, respectively. This is reflected in the spelling in the case of
/rj/
, but not for
/lj/
and
/nj/
Under certain (somewhat unpredictable) circumstances,
/l/
at the end of a syllable may become
[w]
, merging with the allophone of
/ʋ/
in that position.
Vowels
edit
Vowels of Slovene, from
Šuštaršič, Komar & Petek (1999
:137).
/ɐ/
is not shown.
Slovene has an eight-vowel
49
50
(or, according to Peter Jurgec, nine-vowel)
51
52
system, in comparison to the five-vowel system of Serbo-Croatian.
Slovene vowels
Front
Central
Back
Close
Close-mid
Open-mid
Near-open
Open
Grammar
edit
Main article:
Slovene grammar
Nouns
edit
Main article:
Slovene declension
Slovene nouns retain six of the seven Slavic
noun cases
nominative
accusative
genitive
dative
locative
, and
instrumental
. There is no distinct
vocative
; the nominative is used in that role. Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns have three numbers: singular, dual, and plural.
Nouns in Slovene are either masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. In addition, there is a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. This is only relevant for masculine nouns and only in the singular, at odds with some other Slavic languages, e.g.,
Russian
, for which it is also relevant in the plural for all genders. Animate nouns have an accusative singular form that is identical to the genitive, while for inanimate nouns the accusative singular is the same as the nominative. Animacy is based mostly on semantics and is less rigid than gender. Generally speaking, a noun is animate if it refers to something that is generally thought to have free will or the ability to move of its own accord. This includes all nouns for people and animals. All other nouns are inanimate, including plants and other non-moving life forms, and also groups of people or animals. However, there are some nouns for inanimate objects that are generally animate, which mostly include inanimate objects that are named after people or animals. This includes:
53
Dead people or animals
Makes of cars
Certain diseases (named after animals)
Certain devices (named after animals or people)
Works of art (named after their creator)
Chess pieces and playing cards (named for the people they represent)
Wines and mushrooms (named as
demonyms
Definiteness
edit
There are no
definite
or
indefinite articles
as in English (
the
an
) or
German
der, die, das, ein, eine
). A noun is described without articles; the
grammatical gender
is shown by the ending of the word. It is enough to say
barka
('a' or 'the barge'),
Noetova barka
('Noah's ark'). The gender is known in this case to be feminine. In
declensions
, endings are normally changed; see below. If one would like to somehow distinguish between the definiteness or indefiniteness of a noun, one would say
(prav/natanko/ravno) tista barka
('that/precise/exact barge') for 'the barge' and
neka/ena barka
('some/a barge') for 'a barge'.
The definiteness of a noun phrase can also be discerned through the ending of the accompanying adjective. One should say
rdeči šotor
('[exactly that] red tent') or
rdeč šotor
('[a] red tent'). This difference is observable only for masculine nouns in nominative or accusative case. Because of the lack of article in Slovene and audibly insignificant difference between the masculine adjective forms, most dialects do not distinguish between definite and indefinite variants of the adjective, leading to
hypercorrection
when speakers try to use Standard Slovene.
54
T–V distinction
edit
Tombstone of
Jožef Nahtigal
in
Dobrova
with archaic Slovene
onikanje
in indirect reference. Literal translation "Here lie [
počivajo
] the honorable Jožef Nahtigal ... they were born [
rojeni
] ... they died [
umerli
] ... God grant them [
jim
] eternal peace and rest."
Slovene, like most other European languages, has a
T–V distinction
, or two forms of 'you' for formal and informal situations. Although informal address using the 2nd person singular
ti
form (known as
tikanje
) is officially limited to friends and family, talk among children, and addressing animals, it is increasingly used among the middle generation to signal a relaxed attitude or lifestyle instead of its polite or formal counterpart using the 2nd person plural
vi
form (known as
vikanje
).
An additional nonstandard but widespread use of a singular participle combined with a plural auxiliary verb (known as
polvikanje
) signals a somewhat more friendly and less formal attitude while maintaining politeness:
Vi ga niste videli.
('You did not see him': both the auxiliary verb
niste
and the participle
videli
are plural masculine. Standard usage.)
Vi ga niste videl/videla.
('You did not see him': the auxiliary verb
niste
is plural but the participle
videl/videla
is singular masculine/feminine. Nonstandard usage.)
The use of nonstandard forms (
polvikanje
) might be frowned upon by many people and would not likely be used in a formal setting.
The use of the 3rd person plural
oni
('they') form (known as
onikanje
in both direct address and indirect reference; this is similar to using
Sie
in German) as an ultra-polite form is now archaic or dialectal. It is associated with servant-master relationships in older literature, the child-parent relationship in certain conservative rural communities, and parishioner-priest relationships.
Vocabulary
edit
Numbers
edit
Main article:
Slovene numerals
Foreign words
edit
Foreign words used in Slovene are of various types depending on the assimilation they have undergone. The types are:
sposojenka
(loanword) – fully assimilated; e.g.,
pica
('pizza').
tujka
(foreign word) – partly assimilated, either in writing and syntax or in pronunciation; e.g.,
jazz
wiki
polcitatna beseda ali besedna zveza
(half-quoted word or phrase) – partly assimilated, either in writing and syntax or in pronunciation; e.g.,
Shakespeare
, but
Shakespearja
in genitive case.
citatna beseda ali besedna zveza
(quoted word or phrase) – kept as in original, although pronunciation may be altered to fit into speech flow; e.g.,
first lady
in all cases.
The loanwords are mostly from
German
and
Italian
, while the more recently borrowed and less assimilated words are typically from
citation needed
Among the earliest borrowings in Slovene vocabulary are Romanisms, which began to enter the Slovene language with the settlement of Slovenia by the
Slavs
and continued during the Middle Ages. These are primarily toponyms: Latin
Capris / Caprae
Koper
, Latin
Sontius
Soča
. In addition, there are words such as
jambor
'mast' < Latin
arbor
'tree',
golida
'milking pail' <
Vulgar Latin
galeda
hlače
'trousers' <
Medieval Latin
calcae
fant
'boy, lad' < Italian
fante
Slovene vocabulary also contains a large number of
Germanisms
, borrowed from the 8th to the 19th centuries:
flinta
'rifle' < German
Flinte
gmajna
'community, common land' <
Middle High German
gemeine
krompir
'potato' < German
Grundbirne
. Through German mediation, vocabulary of Latin and Greek origin also entered Slovene:
klošter
'monastery',
škrinja
'chest',
špital
'hospital'.
Writing system
edit
Main articles:
Slovene alphabet
and
Slovene braille
See also:
Bohorič alphabet
Metelko alphabet
, and
Dajnko alphabet
This alphabet (
abeceda
) was derived in the mid-1840s from
the system
created by the
Croatian
linguist
Ljudevit Gaj
. Intended for the
Serbo-Croatian
language (in all its varieties), it was patterned on the
Czech
alphabet of the 1830s. Before that
/s/
was, for example, written as
⟨ʃʃ⟩
, or
⟨ſ⟩
/tʃ/
as
⟨tʃch⟩
⟨cz⟩
⟨tʃcz⟩
, or
⟨tcz⟩
/i/
sometimes as
⟨y⟩
/j/
as
⟨y⟩
/l/
as
⟨ll⟩
/ʋ/
as
⟨w⟩
/ʒ/
as
⟨ʃ⟩
⟨ʃʃ⟩
, or
⟨ʃz⟩
The standard Slovene orthography, employed in almost all situations, uses only the letters of the
ISO basic Latin alphabet
plus
⟨č⟩
⟨š⟩
, and
⟨ž⟩
. The letters
⟨q⟩
⟨w⟩
⟨x⟩
, and
⟨y⟩
are not included:
letter
phoneme
example word
word pronunciation
A a
/aː/
/a/
dan
"day"
abeceda
"alphabet"
/ˈdáːn/
, dȃn
/abɛˈtséːda/
, abecẹ̑da
B b
/b/
beseda
"word"
/bɛˈséːda/
, besẹ̑da
C c
/t͡s/
cvet
"bloom"
/ˈtsʋéːt/
, cvẹ̑t
Č č
/t͡ʃ/
časopis
"newspaper"
/tʃasɔˈpíːs/
, časopı̑s
D d
/d/
danes
"today"
/ˈdàːnəs/
, dánəs
E e
/eː/
/ɛː/
/ɛ/
/ə/
sedem
"seven"
reči
"to say"
medved
"bear"
sem
"I am"
/ˈsèːdəm/
, sẹ́dəm
/ˈrɛ̀ːtʃi/
, réči
/ˈmɛ̀ːdʋɛt/
, médved
/ˈsə́m/
, sə̏m
F f
/f/
fant
"boy"
/ˈfánt/
, fȁnt
G g
/ɡ/
grad
"castle"
/ˈɡráːt/
, grȃd
H h
/x/
hiša
"house"
/ˈxìːʃa/
, híša
I i
/iː/
/i/
biti
"to be"
imeti
"to have"
/ˈbìːti/
, bíti
/iˈmèːti/
, imẹ́ti
J j
/j/
jabolko
"apple"
/ˈjàːbɔwkɔ/
, jábołko
K k
/k/
kmet
"peasant"
/ˈkmɛ́t/
, kmȅt
L l
/l/
/uʷ/
letalo
"airplane"
zrel
"mature"
/lɛˈtàːlɔ/
, letálo
/ˈzrɛ́uʷ/
, zrȅł
M m
/m/
misliti
"to think"
/ˈmìːsliti/
, mísliti
N n
/n/
novice
"news"
/nɔˈʋìːtsɛ/
, novíce
O o
/oː/
/ɔː/
/ɔ/
opica
"monkey"
okno
"window"
gospa
"lady"
/ˈóːpitsa/
, ọ̑pica
/ˈɔ̀ːknɔ/
, ókno
/ɡɔˈspàː/
, gospá
P p
/p/
pomoč
"help"
/pɔˈmóːtʃ/
, pomọ̑č
R r
/r/
/ər/
riž
"rice"
trg
"square"
/ˈríːʃ/
, rȋž
/ˈtə́rk/
, tȓg
S s
/s/
svet
"world"
/ˈsʋéːt/
, svẹ̑t
Š š
/ʃ/
šola
"school"
/ˈʃóːla/
, šọ̑la
T t
/t/
tip
"type"
/ˈtíːp/
, tȋp
U u
/uː/
/u/
ulica
"street"
mamut
"mammoth"
/ˈùːlitsa/
, úlica
/ˈmáːmut/
, mȃmut
V v
/ʋ/
/ʍ/
/w/
/uʷ/
voda
"water"
vsebina
"content"
vzeti
"take"
lev
"lion"
/ˈʋɔ̀ːda/
, vóda
/ʍsɛˈbiːna/
/ˈwzéːti/
/ˈlɛ́uʷ/
, lȅv
Z z
/z/
zima
"winter"
/ˈzìːma/
, zíma
Ž ž
/ʒ/
življenje
"life"
/ʒiwˈljɛ̀ːnjɛ/
, življénje
The orthography thus underdifferentiates several phonemic distinctions:
Stress, vowel length and tone are not distinguished, except with optional diacritics when it is necessary to distinguish between similar words with a different meaning.
The two distinct mid-vowels are also not distinguished, both written as simply
⟨e⟩
and
⟨o⟩
The schwa
/ə/
is also written as
⟨e⟩
. However, the combination
/ər/
is written as simply
⟨r⟩
between consonants and is thus distinguishable.
Vocalized
/uʷ/
is written also as
⟨l⟩
, but cannot be predictably distinguished from
/l/
in that position.
In the tonemic varieties of Slovene, the ambiguity is even greater:
⟨e⟩
in a final syllable can stand for any of
/éː/
/èː/
/ɛ́ː/
/ɛ̀ː/
/ɛ/
/ə/
(although
/ɛ̀ː/
is rare; and Slovene, except in some dialects, does not distinguish tonemic accentuation).
The reader is expected to gather the interpretation of the word from the context, as in these examples:
gol
/ˈɡɔ́w/
gȍł "naked"
/ˈɡóːl/
gọ̑l "goal"
jesen
/ˈjɛ̀ːsɛn/
jésen "ash tree"
/jɛˈséːn/
jesẹ̑n "autumn"
kot
/ˈkòːt/
kọ́t "angle"
/kɔt/
kot "as"
med
/mɛt/
med "between"
/ˈméːt/
mẹ̑d "honey"
pol
/ˈpóːl/
pọ̑l "pole"
/ˈpóːw/
pọ̑ł "half"
precej
/ˈprɛ́tsɛj/
prȅcej "at once" (archaic)
/prɛˈtséːj/
precẹ̑j or
/prɛˈtsɛ́j/
precȅj "a great deal (of)"
Diacritics
edit
To compensate for the shortcomings of the standard orthography, Slovene also uses standardized
diacritics
or accent marks to denote
stress
vowel length
, and
pitch accent
, much like the closely related
Serbo-Croatian
. However, as in Serbo-Croatian, use of such accent marks is restricted to dictionaries, language textbooks, and linguistic publications. In normal writing, the diacritics are almost never used, except in a few minimal pairs where real ambiguity could arise.
Two different and mutually-incompatible systems of diacritics are used. The first is the simpler non-tonemic system, which can be applied to all Slovene dialects. It is more widely used and is the standard representation in dictionaries such as SSKJ. The tonemic system also includes tone as part of the representation. However, neither system reliably distinguishes schwa
/ə/
from the front mid-vowels, nor vocalised l
/w/
from regular l
/l/
. Some sources, such as
Maks Pleteršnik
's 1894/95 dictionary, write these as
and
, respectively, but this is not as common.
Non-tonemic diacritics
edit
In the non-tonemic system, the distinction between the two mid-vowels is indicated, as well as the placement of stress and the length of vowels:
Long stressed vowels are notated with an acute diacritic:
⟨á é í ó ú ŕ⟩
(IPA:
/aː
eː
iː
oː
uː
ər/
).
However, the rarer long stressed low-mid vowels
/ɛː/
and
/ɔː/
are notated with a circumflex:
⟨ê ô⟩
Short stressed vowels are notated with a grave:
⟨à è ì ò ù⟩
(IPA:
/a
u/
). Some systems may also include
⟨ə̀⟩
for
/ə/
Tonemic diacritics
edit
The tonemic system uses the diacritics somewhat differently from the non-tonemic system. The high-mid vowels
/eː/
and
/oː/
are written
⟨ẹ ọ⟩
with a subscript dot, while the low-mid vowels
/ɛː/
and
/ɔː/
are written as plain
⟨e o⟩
Pitch accent and vowel length is indicated by four diacritical marks:
The
acute
( ´ ) indicates
long and low
pitch:
á é ẹ́ í ó ọ́ ú ŕ
(IPA:
/àː
ɛ̀ː
èː
ìː
ɔ̀ː
òː
ùː
ə̀r/
).
The
inverted breve
(  ̑ ) indicates
long and high
pitch:
ȃ ȇ ẹ̑ ȋ ȏ ọ̑ ȗ ȓ
(IPA:
/áː
ɛ́ː
éː
íː
ɔ́ː
óː
úː
ə́r/
).
The
grave
( ` ) indicates
short and low
pitch. This occurs only on
⟨è⟩
(IPA:
/ə̀/
), optionally written as
⟨ə̀⟩
The
double grave
(  ̏ ) indicates
short and high
pitch:
⟨ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȕ⟩
(IPA:
ɛ́
ɔ́
).
⟨ȅ⟩
is also used for
/ə́/
, optionally written as
⟨ə̏⟩
The schwa vowel
/ə/
is written ambiguously as
⟨e⟩
, but its accentuation will sometimes distinguish it: a long vowel mark can never appear on a schwa, while a grave accent can appear only on a schwa. Thus, only
⟨ȅ⟩
and unstressed
⟨e⟩
are truly ambiguous.
Regulation
edit
Standard Slovene spelling and grammar are defined by the Orthographic Committee and the Fran Ramovš Institute of the Slovene Language, which are both part of the
Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti
, SAZU). The newest reference book of standard Slovene spelling (and to some extent also grammar) is the
Slovenski pravopis
SP2001
; Slovene Normative Guide). The latest printed edition was published in 2001 (reprinted in 2003 with some corrections) and contains more than 130,000 dictionary entries. In 2003, an electronic version was published.
The official dictionary of modern Slovene, which was also prepared by SAZU, is
Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika
SSKJ
; Standard Slovene Dictionary). It was published in five volumes by Državna Založba Slovenije between 1970 and 1991 and contains more than 100,000 entries and subentries with accentuation, part-of-speech labels, common collocations, and various qualifiers. In the 1990s, an electronic version of the dictionary was published and is available online.
55
56
The SAZU considers SP2001 to be the normative source on Slovene. When dictionary entries in SP2001 and SSKJ differ, the SP2001 entry takes precedence. SP2001 is called a Spelling Dictionary by the European Network of e-Lexicography.
56
Sample text
edit
Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in Slovene and English.
57
58
Slovene:
Vsi ljudje se rodijo svobodni ter imajo enako dostojanstvo in pravice. Dana sta jim razum in vest, in bi morali drug z drugim ravnati v duhu bratstva.
English:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
References
edit
"Slovenski pravopis 2001: slovenščina"
"Slovenski pravopis 2001: slovenski"
"Slovenski pravopis 2001: jezik"
"International Mother Language Day 2010"
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. Retrieved
29 January
2011
"Österreichischer Staatsvertrag"
"Hungary: demographic situation, languages and religions"
. Archived from
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29 May
2023
"Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche"
(in Italian).
Jones, Daniel
(2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),
English Pronouncing Dictionary
, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
ISBN
3-12-539683-2
Cf.
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in
Jones, Daniel
(2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),
English Pronouncing Dictionary
, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
ISBN
3-12-539683-2
"Slovenian"
Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
. Merriam-Webster.
OCLC
1032680871
"TIkanje, VIkanje, (na) polVIkanje in ONIkanje"
(in Slovenian). MMC RTV Slovenia. 4 January 2017.
Trubar, Primož,
Slovenski Biografski Leksikon
Rigler, Jakob (1965). "Osnove Trubarjevega jezika".
Jezik in slovstvo
10
6–
7).
Rigler, Jakob (1965). "Nekdanja ljubljanščina kot osnova Trubarjevega jezika".
Začetki Slovenskega Knjižnega Jezika
100–
110.
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A Short Reference Grammar of Slovene,
LINCOM Studies in Slavic Linguistics
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ISBN
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Kordić, Snježana
(2024).
"Ideology Against Language: The Current Situation in South Slavic Countries"
(PDF)
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Nomachi, Motoki
Kamusella, Tomasz
(eds.).
Languages and Nationalism Instead of Empires
. Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe. London:
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doi
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ISBN
978-0-367-47191-0
OCLC
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SSRN
4680766
COBISS.SR
125229577
COBISS
171014403
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Dular, Janez
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[Language Situation] (in Slovenian). Government of the Republic of Slovenia. Archived from
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. Retrieved
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"Similar languages to Slovenian"
. EZ Glot. Archived from
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on 2 March 2023
. Retrieved
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2022
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Karantanija: izbrane razprave in članki
(Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 2000)
Matičetov, Milko (1993).
"Od koroskega gralva 1238 do rezijanskega krajaua 1986"
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(in Slovenian) (5). Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Archived from
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. Retrieved
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2015
Štih, Peter (2000). "Slovenski kmečki upor" [The Slovene Peasant Revolt]. In Vidic, Marko (ed.).
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The Illustrated History of the Slovenes
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The Balkans in Focus: Cultural Boundaries in Europe
. Lund, Sweden: Nordic Academic Press. p. 199.
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"Družina: Slovenščina se siromaši "v ustih domišljavih bedakov"
[Slovene Is Impoverished "In the Mouths of Conceited Fools"] (in Slovenian). Družina. 24 August 2008.
"Linguist Says Slovenian Language Not Endangered"
. Slovenian Press Agency. 21 February 2010.
"Bo slovenščina nekoč le orodje preprostega sporazumevanja?"
[Will Slovene Some Day Be Only The Language of Simple Communication] (in Slovenian). MMC RTV Slovenia. 21 February 2010.
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"Tanja Fajon: We seek intensive cooperation with Styria and support for the Slovenian minority"
GOV.SI
. 10 January 2024
. Retrieved
9 August
2024
"Statement by the Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs on the 69th anniversary of the signing of the Austrian State Treaty"
GOV.SI
. 15 May 2024
. Retrieved
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Machreich, Wolfgang (19 May 2005).
"Steirische Slowenen: immer brav und ruhig"
Die Furche
. Retrieved
9 August
2024
Narodoslawsky, Benedikt (29 April 2011).
"Die vergessenen Steirer"
Der Standard
. Retrieved
10 August
2024
"Many Languages, One America"
. Usefoundation.org. Archived from
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on 25 May 2009
. Retrieved
14 July
2014
"International Mother Language Day"
. Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. 19 February 2009. Archived from
the original
on 13 November 2010
. Retrieved
3 February
2011
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. Multilingual Matters. p. 56.
ISBN
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A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification
. Stanford University Press. p. 60.
ISBN
978-0-8047-1894-3
McDonald, Gordon C. 1979.
Yugoslavia: A Country Study
. Washington, DC: American University, p. 93
Greenberg, Marc L. 2009. "Slovene." In Keith Brown & Sarah Ogilvie (eds.),
Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World
, pp. 981–984. Oxford: Elsevier, p. 981.
Brown, E. K. & Anne Anderson. 2006.
Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics: Sca-Spe
. Oxford: Elsevier, p. 424
Sussex, Roland, & Paul V. Cubberley. 2006.
The Slavic languages
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 502.
Sławski, Franciszek. 1962. Zarys dialektologii południowosłowiańskiej. Warsaw: PAN.
Priestly, Tom M. S. (1993). "On 'Drift' in Indo-European Gender Systems.'
".
Journal of Indo-European Studies
11
339–
363.
Zoltan Jan (2000).
Slovensko jezikoslovje danes in jutri
. Zavod Republike Slovenije za Šolstvo. p. 175.
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Dapit, Roberto.
"IDENTITÀ RESIANA FRA "MITO" E IDEOLOGIA: GLI EFFETTI SULLA LINGUA"
(PDF)
(in Italian and Slovenian). p. 19.
Herrity (2000
:6ff.)
Herrity (2000
:15–16)
Herrity (2000
:16)
Šuštaršič, Komar & Petek (1999
:136)
Greenberg (2006
:18)
Šuštaršič, Komar & Petek (1999
:136–137)
Toporišič (2001
:69)
Jurgec (2007
:1–2). He transcribes it as
/ʌ/
, but the vowel chart on page 2 shows that the phonetically correct symbol is
/ɐ/
Jurgec (2005
:9 and 12)
Herrity (2000
:34–35)
"Kako uporabljati določne pridevnike"
. ŠUSS. 2 June 2005
. Retrieved
30 January
2011
"Searching the Dictionary of Standard Slovenian"
. Fran Ramovš Institute of Slovenian Language, ZRC SAZU. 10 March 2008
. Retrieved
7 January
2018
"European Dictionary Portal: Slovene"
. European Network of e-Lexicography
. Retrieved
7 January
2018
"Official Slovene Translation (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia – International Treaties, No. 3/18)"
(PDF)
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Archived
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. Retrieved
16 July
2020
"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"
un.org
Bibliography
edit
Greenberg, Marc L. (2006),
A Short Reference Grammar of Standard Slovene
, Kansas: University of Kansas
Herrity, Peter (2000),
Slovene: A Comprehensive Grammar
, London: Routledge,
ISBN
0-415-23148-5
Jurgec, Peter (2005),
"Formant frequencies of standard Slovene vowels"
Govor
22
(2):
127–
144
Jurgec, Peter (2007),
"Schwa in Slovenian is Epenthetic"
ResearchGate
dead link
Šolar, Jakob (1950),
Slovenski pravopis
(in Slovenian), Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenije
Šuštaršič, Rastislav; Komar, Smiljana; Petek, Bojan (1999),
"Slovene"
Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet
, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.
135–
139,
doi
10.1017/S0025100300004874
ISBN
0-521-65236-7
S2CID
249404451
Toporišič, Jože (2001),
Slovenski pravopis
, Ljubljana: SAZU
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Venetian is either grouped with the rest of the Italo-Dalmatian or the Gallo-Italic languages, depending on the linguist, but the major consensus among linguists is that in the dialectal landscape of northern Italy, Veneto dialects are clearly distinguished from Gallo-Italic dialects.
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