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Spongy Moth Management for Homeowners
Spongy Moth Management for Homeowners
(PDF)
"Spongy moth (Lymantria dispar; formerly called gypsy moth), is an invasive pest of hardwood trees in forests and yards. The caterpillars prefer the foliage of oak and other shade trees, but also attack conifers. Spongy moth caterpillars can defoliate large trees during outbreaks, and most homeowners object to the numerous hairy caterpillars and their abundant droppings raining out of infested trees.
Since its introduction to Massachusetts in 1869, spongy moth has spread throughout the northeastern US, down in the mid-Atlantic, around the Great Lakes, and into Canada. Most of Virginia is generally infested with spongy moth, but it may not cause widespread defoliation every year."
Jun 4, 2024
2811-1021 (ENTO-594NP)
T.A. Dellinger
Andy Roberts
Greenhouse Heater Checklist
Jan 28, 2019
2906-1387 (SPES-97NP)
Chris Mullins
Pine Bark Adelgid
Pine Bark Adelgid
(PDF)
The pine bark adelgid was introduced from Europe and is now widely distributed in North America, occurring principally throughout the native range of eastern white pine. This insect is also found on Scots and Austrian pine.
Mar 30, 2023
2907-1402 (ENTO-544NP)
Scott M. Salom
Eric R. Day
Fungus Gnats
Fungus Gnats
(PDF)
Mar 4, 2021
3104-1579 (ENTO-442NP)
Eric R. Day
T.A. Dellinger
Lace Bugs
Lace Bugs
(PDF)
Apr 18, 2022
3104-1581 (ENTO-500NP)
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Obscure Scale
Obscure Scale
(PDF)
Heavily infested trees will have large numbers of scales on twigs and branches. Scales may also be found on exposed roots and on the trunk of young trees. Scale insects feed on plant sap with their long thread-like mouthparts (stylets), which are several times longer than the insect itself.
Apr 18, 2022
3104-1583 (ENTO-499NP)
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Care of Specialty Potted Plants
Care of Specialty Potted Plants
(PDF)
Dec 12, 2022
426-101 (SPES-449P)
P. Diane Relf
Elizabeth Ball
Mike Andruczyk
Sprouting Seeds for Food
Sprouting Seeds for Food
(PDF)
Seeds themselves are a very nutritious form of food because they contain proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and oils that a beginning plant needs to grow. Many of these nutritious components are increased greatly when the seeds are sprouted.
Apr 6, 2022
426-419 (SPES-394P)
P. Diane Relf
David Close
Getting Started in the Nursery Business: Nursery Production Options
The nursery industry in Virginia has enjoyed an extended period of growth and expansion. Consequently, there is considerable interest in and some potential for new business opportunities in the industry. Another consequence of this period of economic growth is an increase in competition within the industry to supply the growing demand for landscape plants. Those interested in getting into the nursery business are strongly encouraged to invest their time and energy into learning as much as they can about the modern nursery industry, and the many options now available in nursery production, before they invest any money in facilities and operations.
Apr 27, 2015
430-050 (HORT-89P)
Gregory K. Eaton
Bonnie L. Appleton
James Owen, Jr.
The Basics of Fertilizer Calculations for Greenhouse Crops
The Basics of Fertilizer Calculations for Greenhouse Crops
(PDF)
This guide outlines the principles of meeting plant nutrient needs through proper fertilizer selection, formulation, and application. Plants require 17 essential elements for growth, with fertilizers providing the mineral nutrients not derived from air or water. The document explains the differences among macronutrients, micronutrients, complete and incomplete fertilizers, and how fertilizer analyses indicate nutrient composition. It describes the use and calibration of fertilizer injectors, emphasizing the importance of injector ratios for accurate nutrient delivery. Methods for calculating fertilizer stock solutions are detailed, including examples for both complete and custom tank mixes. Finally, the guide highlights best practices for verifying fertilizer concentrations through electrical conductivity (EC) measurements and maintaining injector calibration to ensure consistent nutrient management in greenhouse crop production.
Oct 16, 2025
430-100 (SPES-744P)
Joyce Latimer
Eric Stallknecht
Dealing with the High Cost of Energy for Greenhouse Operations
Dealing with the High Cost of Energy for Greenhouse Operations
(PDF)
Increased fuel costs and colder than normal winters make heating costs a significant burden on many greenhouse operations. So, how can growers deal with high energy costs in the greenhouse? This publication covers energy conservation, alternative fuel choices, growing temperatures and production practices.
Aug 21, 2023
430-101 (HORT-284P)
Joyce Latimer
Eric Stallknecht
Using Plant Growth Regulators on Containerized Herbaceous Perennials
Aug 21, 2023
430-103 (HORT-281)
Joyce Latimer
Holly L. Scoggins
Eric Stallknecht
Mowing To Recycle Grass Clippings: Let the Clips Fall Where They May!
Mowing To Recycle Grass Clippings: Let the Clips Fall Where They May!
(PDF)
Jul 8, 2021
430-402 (SPES-337P)
David Chalmers
Judy Booze-Daniels
Michael Goatley
Black Vine Weevil in Virginia
Black Vine Weevil in Virginia
(PDF)
Adult black vine weevils (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) feed on a wide variety of evergreen, deciduous, and herbaceous plants. The larval stage is destructive on yew (taxus), hemlock, rhododendron, cherry laurel, and other broad-leaved evergreens. Both adults and larvae will sometimes feed on strawberry, impatiens, hostas, and other ornamental plants.
Sep 17, 2025
444-210 (ENTO-629NP)
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Aphids in Virginia
Aphids in Virginia
(PDF)
Aphids, also called plant lice, are small, soft-bodied insects. Aphids feed in clusters and generally prefer new, succulent shoots or young leaves. They produce honeydew that encourages the growth of sooty mold. Aphids are very common plant pests.
Aug 26, 2025
444-220 (ENTO-617NP)
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Spider Mites
Spider Mites
(PDF)
Spider mites (Family Tetranychidae, Order Acari) are not insects; they are closely related to spiders, harvestmen (daddy longlegs), and ticks. Unlike insects, which have six legs and three body parts, spider mites have eight legs and a one-part body. They also lack wings, antennae, and compound eyes. Individual spider mites are almost microscopic, yet when they occur in large numbers, they can cause serious damage. Dozens of species attack shade trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants.
Apr 22, 2022
444-221 (ENTO-502NP)
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Spruce Spider Mite
Spruce Spider Mite
(PDF)
The spruce spider mite (Acari: Tetranychidae, Oligonychus unuguis (Jacobi))
lives in all areas of Virginia and is widely distributed throughout the temperate regions of the United States and Canada. It attacks spruce, arborvitae, juniper, hemlock, pine, Douglas fir, Fraser fir, and larch, among others.
Apr 22, 2022
444-235 (ENTO-503NP)
Eric R. Day
T.A. Dellinger
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Euonymus Scale
Euonymus Scale
(PDF)
Apr 15, 2022
444-277 (ENTO-498NP)
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Verticillium Wilt of Shade Trees
Verticillium Wilt of Shade Trees and Woody Ornamentals
(PDF)
Verticillium wilt is a serious vascular wilt disease affecting many shade tree species and over 80 tree genera, as well as many woody ornamental landscape plants, and herbaceous and vegetable plants. Verticillium wilt most commonly occurs in nursery, orchard and landscape locations. Maple (Acer spp.) are a tree genus commonly associated with the disease, but Verticillium wilt occurs on many other trees and woody ornamentals used in landscapes. Verticillium wilt more commonly occurs in locations with colder climates than Virginia; however, Verticillium wilt does cause disease on trees and woody ornamentals in Virginia.
Feb 29, 2024
450-619 (SPES-571NP)
Mary Ann Hansen
Elizabeth Bush
Lina Rodriguez Salamanca
Spray Water Quality and Pesticide Characteristics
Spray Water Quality and Pesticide Characteristics
(PDF)
Pesticide sprays consist of at least 95% water. Water quality plays an important role in pesticide performance. The following issues may indicate a compatibility problem with pesticides and spray water quality:
- Pesticide does not work at labeled rates;
- Difficulty mixing sprays or clogging of nozzles;
- Inconsistent pest control observed in fields or plots;
- Pests seem resistant to a new pesticide active ingredient, or
- Crops are lower quality or lower yielding.
Understanding how water quality characteristics such as pH, water hardness, turbidity, and total suspended solids affect the adsorption and persistence (half-life, storage time) of a pesticide can help pesticide applicators reduce or eliminate compatibility issues and improve pesticide effectiveness
Feb 22, 2024
BSE-350P
Erin Ling
Rachel Parson
Daniel Frank
Donya Mohamed
Karen Kline
Asa Spiller
Doug Horn
Understanding Spray Tank Mixing Practices
Understanding Spray Tank Mixing Practices
(PDF)
Mixing two or more pesticide products can allow for the treatment of several pests at the same time, improve pesticide performance, and ultimately saving time and money. However, physical and chemical tank mix incompatibilities can occur when combining two or more pesticides. Physical incompatibility is the failure of pesticide products to stay uniformly mixed and can result in layering, products settling out of solution, or clumping. A chemical incompatibility is the result of a chemical reaction between pesticide products. A chemical incompatibility is less visible and can be harder to detect. This publication focuses on basic factors that influence product compatibility (agitation speed and method, water temperature, mixing order, carrier type, and chemical formulations) and summarizes best mixing practices to address these factors.
Feb 22, 2024
BSE-351P
Erin Ling
Rachel Parson
Daniel Frank
Donya Mohamed
Karen Kline
Doug Horn
Solving Spray Water Problems
Solving Spray Water Problems
(PDF)
Spray water problems may arise due to water quality and management decisions. Certain aspects of water quality can reduce the efficacy of the pesticide as well as affect how the pesticide interacts with the plant surface or targets pests. Evaluating and testing spray water chemistry can help identify water quality problems that might otherwise be overlooked. This publication will examine possible solutions to spray water problems, including the use of adjuvants and other additives to enhance pesticide performance.
Feb 15, 2024
BSE-352P
Erin Ling
Rachel Parson
Daniel Frank
Donya Mohamed
Karen Kline
Asa Spiller
Doug Horn
Native Plant Nurseries and Seed Suppliers for Streamside Conservation Buffers
Native Plant Nurseries and Seed Suppliers for Streamside Conservation Buffers
(PDF)
This fact sheet lists potential sources of native plant materials for reducing streambank erosion and establishing riparian buffers along streams and rivers. This list is created as a convenience for Virginia landowners and does not constitute commercial endorsement by Virginia Cooperative Extension of any organizations or businesses listed here.
Jan 9, 2026
BSE-378NP
Keegan O’Hara
Ryan Klopf
Tess Thompson
Sugarcane Beetle, Euetheola humilis
Sugarcane Beetle, Euetheola humilis
(PDF)
Sugarcane beetle is a sporadic but serious pest of several crops in Virginia. Although an occasional pest, outbreaks can lead to substantial losses in crops and property damage. It can cause significant damage to corn, sugarcane, rice, sweetpotato, and turfgrass, and has also been reported on strawberry, cotton, rose, and wild grasses. Populations in southern states may flare to levels that become a nuisance as it gathers at light sources. Its life cycle spans one generation per year, with adults becoming active in late spring. These beetles primarily feed on plant roots and management involves cultural practices and chemical control, focusing on targeting adult beetles to reduce crop damage. Further research is needed to develop effective pest management strategies that rely less on chemical control tactics.
Jun 6, 2024
ENTO-13NP (ENTO-595NP)
Ben Aigner
Katlyn Catron
Sudan Gyawaly
Curt Laub
Rod R. Youngman
Fall Cankerworm
Fall Cankerworm
(PDF)
Cankerworms are also known as inchworms, loop worms, and spanworms - this is credited to their distinctive way of moving. In order to travel, a cankerworm must grab leaves or
branches with its front legs and then pull the rest of its body forward.
This causes the abdomen area to contract and gives the worm the
appearance of arching its back.
Feb 5, 2021
ENTO-223NP (ENTO-404NP)
Eric R. Day
Scott Salom
Lori Chamberlin
Katlin DeWitt
Jumping Worms (Amynthas spp.)
Jumping Worms (Amynthas spp.)
(PDF)
May 24, 2023
ENTO-427NP (ENTO-559NP)
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Box Tree Moth
Box Tree Moth
(PDF)
Mar 10, 2021
ENTO-445NP
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Eric R. Day
T.A. Dellinger
Red Headed Flea Beetle in Virginia Nurseries
Red Headed Flea Beetle in Virginia Nurseries
(PDF)
Dec 21, 2021
ENTO-464NP
Eleanor Lane
Alejandro Del-Pozo
UPDATED List of Commercial Suppliers and Insectaries/Laboratories Selling Predators and Parasitoids for Augmentative Biocontrol
UPDATED List of Commercial Suppliers and Insectaries/Laboratories Selling Predators and Parasitoids for Augmentative Biocontrol
(PDF)
Feb 4, 2022
ENTO-480NP
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Identification and Life Cycle of Spotted Lanternfly in Virginia
Identification and Life Cycle of Spotted Lanternfly in Virginia
(PDF)
Mar 18, 2022
ENTO-268NP (ENTO-494NP)
Eric R. Day
T.A. Dellinger
Douglas G. Pfeiffer
Mark Sutphin
Box Tree Moth in the United States
Box Tree Moth in the United States
(PDF)
Oct 31, 2022
ENTO-525NP
Elidah Sisk
Julie Brindley
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Juniper and Cryptomeria Scales in Residential Landscapes
Juniper and Cryptomeria Scales in Landscapes
(PDF)
Nov 30, 2022
ENTO-533NP
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Japanese Maple and Oystershell Scales in Residential Landscapes
Japanese Maple and Oystershell Scales in Residential Landscapes
(PDF)
Mar 6, 2023
ENTO-550NP
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Cryptomeria Scale on Christmas Trees
Juniper and Cryptomeria Scales in Landscapes
(PDF)
Mar 13, 2023
ENTO-551NP
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Elongate Hemlock Scale on Christmas Trees
Elongate Hemlock Scale on Christmas Trees
(PDF)
Mar 17, 2023
ENTO-552NP
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Recognizing Asian Longhorned Beetle in Virginia
Recognizing Asian Longhorned Beetle in Virginia
(PDF)
Apr 25, 2023
ENTO-557NP
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Japanese Maple Scale: A Pictorial Guide for Identification
Japanese Maple Scale: A Pictorial Guide for Identification
(PDF)
The Japanese maple scale is an armored scale, considered a key pest, causing the nursey industry significant losses due to direct injury or plant rejection. Identify JMS can be difficult due to their biology. This factsheet serves as a pictorial guide to provide key features of this insect.
Aug 24, 2023
ENTO-572NP
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Mollie Wyatt
Broad Mite
Broad Mite
(PDF)
Mar 27, 2024
ENTO-587NP
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Recognizing Box Tree Moth in Virginia
Recognizing Box Tree Moth in Virginia
(PDF)
Box tree moth (BTM), Cydalima perspectalis (Walker), is a destructive pest of boxwood (Buxus spp.). Native to Asia, BTM spread to Europe in 2006 and into Canada in 2018. BTM was found in New York in 2021, Michigan in 2022, and Ohio in 2023. It has not yet been found in Virginia. BTM feeds on all species of Buxus. Boxwood is a favored ornamental and a staple evergreen shrub cultivated in the US horticultural trade. This fact sheet was developed to help you identify BTM and some of the insects that could be mistaken for it in Virginia.
Mar 29, 2024
ENTO-588NP
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Arborvitae Leafminer in Virginia
Arborvitae Leafminer in Virginia
(PDF)
Arborvitae leafminer (Argyresthia thuiella; Lepidoptera: Argyresthiidae) is a small moth that attacks arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis), its cultivars, and sometimes false cypress (Chamaecyparis sp.). Native to North America, it was originally found in the the native host range of arborvitae in the upper Midwest, northeastern US, and adjacent Canada. It has since spread, presumably through the horticultural trade, to other parts of the US, Canada, and Europe.
Apr 8, 2024
ENTO-589NP
T.A. Dellinger
Eric R. Day
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Accessing Virginia Market Sectors - Module 1
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Accessing Virginia Market Sectors - Module 1
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 18, 2023
FST-460NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Performing A Hazard Analysis - Module 2
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Performing A Hazard Analysis - Module 2
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 18, 2023
FST-461NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: General Practices - Module 3
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: General Practices - Module 3
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 18, 2023
FST-462NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Pre-Plant Stage - Module 4
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Pre-Plant Stage - Module 4
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 18, 2023
FST-463NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Production Stage - Module 5
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Production Stage - Module 5
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 19, 2023
FST-464NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Harvest Stage - Module 6
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Harvest Stage - Module 6
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 19, 2023
FST-465NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Post-Harvest Handling - Module 7
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: Post-Harvest Handling - Module 7
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 19, 2023
FST-466NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: The GAP Audit Process - Module 8
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: The GAP Audit Process - Module 8
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 19, 2023
FST-467NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: GAP Manual Preparation - Module 9
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks: GAP Manual Preparation - Module 9
(HTML)
Assessing On-Farm Produce Safety Risks Modules are a series of nine videos to assist you in creating a food safety program and preparing you for a GAP audit. These videos are based off of a series of seven factsheets (FST-400NP through 406NP) available through Virginia Cooperative Extension. In this module, we are going to explore how food safety can play into market access, the ways market sectors are similar and different from each other in terms of requirements, and why it is important to always recognize that there is not a ‘one size fits all’ for food safety standards across market sectors.
Sep 19, 2023
FST-468NP
Ashley Edwards
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Advanced Irrigation Management for Container-Grown Ornamental Crop Production
Container-grown plants are constrained with regard to root growth, and are affected by factors including container size, substrate, weather, nutrition, and irrigation. Typical soilless substrates will hold less plant-available water than a typical field soil, making water management a critical component of any container-grown plant production system. A well-designed and managed irrigation system, which works in concert with the aforementioned factors, can provide the necessary quantity of water to support plant growth in an efficient manner.
Sep 23, 2016
HORT-218P
Matthew Chappell
Tyler Hoskins
Anthony V. LeBude
James Owen, Jr.
GroZone Tracker
Sep 21, 2016
HORT-227P
Brian Krug
James Owen, Jr.
Brian Whipker
Sarah A. White
Guide to Identifying Food Safety Hazards in Greenhouse Systems
According to the United States Department of Agriculture 2012 Census of Agriculture, sales from greenhouse-grown food crops equaled around $800 million in the U.S. Crops grown included tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, peppers, and berries, with hydroponic production operations making up about 64% of the total production (cwt) (USDA Census of Agriculture, 2012). Demand for greenhouse-grown produce continues to increase, providing growers with unique opportunities to tap into this expanding market. Although greenhouse systems provide a more protected environment than field-grown systems, it is important to understand the unique food safety risks and possible sources of contamination when growing produce in these systems. Identifying food safety hazards are necessary to implementing practices that reduce the risk of contamination during the pre-plant, production, harvest, and post-harvest handling stages. Use the checklist below to guide you in asking important questions targeting possible risks at each of the greenhouse system stages.
Jul 10, 2017
HORT-254NP
Joyce Latimer
Laura K. Strawn
Amber Vallotton
Micro Tunnels in Vegetable Crops: Beyond Season Extension
Micro Tunnels in Vegetable Crops:
Beyond Season Extension Micro Tunnels in Vegetable Crops:
Beyond Season Extension
(PDF)
"Low Tunnels in Vegetable Crops: Beyond Season Extension" is a comprehensive document that delves into the multifaceted benefits of micro tunnels in vegetable cultivation, encompassing not only extended growing seasons but also improved yield, pest management, and resource efficiency, making it an essential resource for modern sustainable farming.
Nov 9, 2023
HORT-291 (SPES-524P)
Emmanuel Torres Quezada
Ramón A. Arancibia
Selecting and Using Plant Growth Regulators on Floricultural Crops
Selecting and Using Plant Growth Regulators on Floricultural Crops
(PDF)
Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are chemicals that are designed to affect plant growth and/or development (figure 1). They are applied for specific purposes to elicit specific plant responses. Although there is much scientific information on using PGRs in the greenhouse, it is not an exact science. Achieving the best results with PGRs is a combination of art and science — science tempered with a lot of trial and error and a good understanding of plant growth and development.
good understanding of plant growth and development.
Jan 10, 2025
430-102 (SPES-653P)
Joyce Latimer
Brian Whipker
Eric Stallknecht
Best Management Practices for Boxwood Blight in the Virginia Home Landscape
Best Management Practices for Boxwood Blight in the Virginia Home Landscape
(PDF)
Boxwood blight is a devastating disease of boxwood that results in defoliation and decline of susceptible boxwood. This best management practices factsheet provides guidelines for home growers of landscape boxwood to avoid introduction of the boxwood blight pathogen into a landscape or, if the disease is already present in a landscape, to manage to disease in the most effective manner and avoid spread of the disease to new locations.
Dec 19, 2023
PPWS-29NP (SPES-557NP)
Elizabeth Bush
Lina Rodriguez Salamanca
Chuan Hong
Adria Bordas
Mary Ann Hansen
T. Michael Likins
Virginia Boxwood Blight Task Force
Virginia Boxwood Blight Task Force
(HTML)
To provide leadership in safeguarding and protecting the ornamental horticulture industry, historical gardens and landscape plantings from boxwood blight.
Jul 1, 2019
PPWS-30
Herve Avenot
Anton Baudoin
Adria Bordas
Elizabeth Bush
Norm Dart
Mary Ann Hansen
Chuan Hong
T. Michael Likins
Debra Martin
Larry Nichols
Best Management Practices for Boxwood Blight in Virginia Production Nurseries WITH Boxwood Blight
This Best Management Practice document is a set of guidelines for home growers of landscape boxwood to avoid introduction of the boxwood blight pathogen into a landscape or, if the disease is already present in a landscape, to manage the disease in the most effective manner and avoid spread of the disease to new locations.
Feb 16, 2021
PPWS-32NP (PPWS-87NP)
Norm Dart
Chuan Hong
Adria Bordas
Elizabeth Bush
Mary Ann Hansen
T. Michael Likins
Best Management Practices for Boxwood Blight: Best Management Practices for Virginia Retail Nurseries WITH Boxwood Blight
Best Management Practices for Boxwood Blight: Best management practices for Virginia retail nurseries WITH boxwood blight
(PDF)
This Best Management Practice document is a set of guidelines for home growers of landscape
boxwood to avoid introduction of the boxwood blight pathogen into a landscape or, if the
disease is already present in a landscape, to manage the disease in the most effective
manner and avoid spread of the disease to new locations.
Jan 6, 2021
PPWS-34NP (PPWS-89NP)
Norm Dart
Chuan Hong
Adria Bordas
Elizabeth Bush
Mary Ann Hansen
T. Michael Likins
Best Management Practices for Boxwood Blight: Best management Practices for Virginia Retail Nurseries WITHOUT Boxwood Blight
Best Management Practices for Boxwood Blight: Best management practices for Virginia retail nurseries WITHOUT boxwood blight
(PDF)
This Best Management Practice document is a set of guidelines for home growers of landscape
boxwood to avoid introduction of the boxwood blight pathogen into a landscape or, if the
disease is already present in a landscape, to manage the disease in the most effective
manner and avoid spread of the disease to new locations.
Jan 6, 2021
PPWS-35NP (PPWS-88NP)
Norm Dart
Chuan Hong
Adria Bordas
Elizabeth Bush
Mary Ann Hansen
T. Michael Likins
Plant Injury From Herbicide Residue
Plant Injury From Herbicide Residue
(PDF)
Herbicides that are usually associated with contamination of straw/hay, turf clippings, manure, and composts are growth regulator herbicides or synthetic auxins, a group of herbicides that mimics plant hormones and regulates growth. These herbicides are labeled for control of broadleaf weeds in grass crops, such as pastures and corn; in turfgrass, including lawns, golf courses, parks, and highway turf; and in noncrop areas. Vegetable and fruit crops, as well as broadleaf ornamentals can inadvertently be injured by these chemicals through drift of spray droplets, volatilization, and spray tank contamination or by residues in straw, manure, turf clippings, or compost. Diagnosing the specific herbicide responsible for the plant damage can be difficult. This publication focuses on damage caused by herbicide residues.
PPWS-77P (SPES-565P)
Jeffrey Derr
Michael Flessner
Elizabeth Bush
Mary Ann Hansen
Lina Rodriguez Salamanca
“Lost in the Weeds” part 1
“Lost in the Weeds” part 1
(HTML)
Nov 28, 2022
SPES-441NP
Michael Goatley
Shawn Askew
Dan Sandor
David McCall
Whitnee Askew
“Lost in the Weeds” part 2
“Lost in the Weeds” part 2
(HTML)
Nov 28, 2022
SPES-442NP
Michael Goatley
Shawn Askew
Dan Sandor
David McCall
Whitnee Askew
“Let the Clips Fall Where they May”
“Let the Clips Fall Where they May”
(HTML)
Nov 28, 2022
SPES-443NP
Michael Goatley
Shawn Askew
Dan Sandor
David McCall
Whitnee Askew
"Don't Guess, Do the Test"
“Don’t Guess, Do the Test"
(HTML)
Nov 28, 2022
SPES-444NP
Michael Goatley
Shawn Askew
Dan Sandor
David McCall
Whitnee Askew
“Application Without Calibration"
“Application Without Calibration"
(HTML)
Nov 28, 2022
SPES-445NP
Michael Goatley
Shawn Askew
Dan Sandor
David McCall
Whitnee Askew
"Fungus Among Us"
“Fungus Among Us”
(HTML)
Nov 28, 2022
SPES-446NP
Michael Goatley
Shawn Askew
Dan Sandor
David McCall
Whitnee Askew
"PPE and Me"
"PPE and Me"
(HTML)
Nov 28, 2022
SPES-447NP
Michael Goatley
Shawn Askew
Dan Sandor
David McCall
Whitnee Askew
"Don't Waste Water"
"Don't Waste Water"
(HTML)
Nov 28, 2022
SPES-448NP
Michael Goatley
Shawn Askew
Dan Sandor
David McCall
Whitnee Askew
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Planning for the Market
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Planning for the Market
(PDF)
According to the 2017 Census of Agriculture, U.S. greenhouse vegetable farms more than doubled from 2012 (USDA 2019). Virginia fell within the top 10 states for acreage of vegetables and berry crops grown under protected culture. Protected culture includes greenhouses and structures like high tunnels. With close to two and a half million square feet devoted mostly to tomatoes, vegetables, herbs, and strawberries, the value of Virginia greenhouse sales in 2017 was over 31 million dollars! A lot of this increase in square footage was due to the addition of large operations coming into Virginia.
Jul 27, 2023
SPES-461NP
Amber Vallotton
Toni Sperry
Joyce Latimer
Chris Mullins
Holly L. Scoggins
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Management Basics
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Management Basics
(PDF)
Jul 21, 2023
SPES-462NP
Joyce Latimer
Amber Vallotton
Toni Sperry
Chris Mullins
Holly L. Scoggins
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) Systems
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) Systems
(PDF)
With the increasing number of controlled environment agriculture farms, Virginia Cooperative Extension is working closely with specialty crop growers to address the challenges of establishing and managing hydroponic greenhouse operations. Growers interested in producing food crops in controlled environments can use several different types of hydroponic systems. One of the most common types of hydroponic systems is called nutrient film technique (NFT).
Jul 24, 2023
SPES-463NP
Chris Mullins
Amber Vallotton
Joyce Latimer
Toni Sperry
Holly L. Scoggins
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Deep Water Culture (DWC) Systems
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Deep Water Culture (DWC) Systems
(PDF)
Jul 19, 2023
SPES-464NP
Chris Mullins
Amber Vallotton
Joyce Latimer
Toni Sperry
Holly L. Scoggins
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: System and Crop Comparisons
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: System and Crop Comparisons
(PDF)
This factsheet is part of a series of seven factsheets targeting beginning farmers growing edible crops using hydroponic greenhouse systems. There are also five videos that are related to the factsheets and included in the numbering sequence.
Jul 26, 2023
SPES-466NP
Toni Sperry
Amber Vallotton
Chris Mullins
Joyce Latimer
Holly L. Scoggins
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Food Safety Considerations
Hydroponic Production of Edible Crops: Food Safety Considerations
(PDF)
Jul 20, 2023
SPES-467NP
Amber Vallotton
Laura K. Strawn
Toni Sperry
Joyce Latimer
Chris Mullins
Holly L. Scoggins
Farming Foundations in Hydroponics: Targeting the Marketplace
Farming Foundations in Hydroponics: Targeting the Marketplace
(HTML)
Jul 12, 2023
SPES-468NP
Toni Sperry
Amber Vallotton
Joyce Latimer
Chris Mullins
Farming Foundations in Hydroponics: Crop and System Types
Farming Foundations in Hydroponics: Crop and System Types
(HTML)
Jul 12, 2023
SPES-469NP
Toni Sperry
Amber Vallotton
Joyce Latimer
Chris Mullins
Farming Foundations in Hydroponics: Planning Your Production
Farming Foundations in Hydroponics: Planning Your Production
(HTML)
Jul 12, 2023
SPES-470NP
Toni Sperry
Amber Vallotton
Joyce Latimer
Chris Mullins
Local, Community Focused Hydroponics: Endless Summer Harvest
Local, Community Focused Hydroponics: Endless Summer Harvest
(HTML)
Jul 12, 2023
SPES-471NP
Toni Sperry
Amber Vallotton
Joyce Latimer
Chris Mullins
High Tech for Small-Scale Hydroponics: Schuyler Greens Company
High Tech for Small-Scale Hydroponics: Schuyler Greens Company
(HTML)
Jul 12, 2023
SPES-472NP
Toni Sperry
Amber Vallotton
Joyce Latimer
Chris Mullins
Protective Agriculture Production Series: Plant density recommendations
Protective Agriculture Production Series: Plant density recommendations
(PDF)
Feb 2, 2023
SPES-474NP
Emmanuel Torres Quezada
Lorena Lopez
Vascular Streak Dieback: An Emerging Problem on Woody Ornamentals in the U.S.
Vascular Streak Dieback: An Emerging Problem on Woody
Ornamentals in the United States
(PDF)
Since 2022, nurseries in Virginia and other states have observed wilt and severe dieback on redbud, maple, and dogwood stock. In some cases, 90-100% of stock was unsellable due to the extent of damage. Early symptoms include leaf chlorosis, scorched leaf margins, and stunting and/or wilt of current year’s growth, eventually leading to death of individual branches and progression into the main stem. The fungus Ceratobasidium sp. has been consistently associated with vascular tissue of nursery stock showing the symptoms described above. This fungus has previously been reported as the cause of vascular streak dieback on cacao in Southeast Asia.
Mar 24, 2025
SPES-483P (SPES-666P)
Bily Devin
Lina Rodriguez Salamanca
Elizabeth Bush
Basic melon (Cucumis melo L.) physiology and morphology
Basic melon (Cucumis melo L.) physiology and morphology
(PDF)
Understanding the fundamental aspects of melon physiology and morphology is essential for optimizing its cultivation, improving yield, and enhancing fruit quality. This document provides a concise overview of the key physiological and morphological characteristics of the basic melon plant, highlighting its growth and development processes. The physiological aspects encompass various essential factors that influence melon growth, including photosynthesis, water relations, nutrient uptake and assimilation, and hormone regulation. Melon plants exhibit distinct physiological responses to environmental stimuli such as light, temperature, and water availability, which directly impact their growth, flowering, and fruiting. An understanding of these physiological processes aids in implementing appropriate cultivation practices and management strategies for maximizing melon productivity.
Jun 9, 2023
SPES-507NP
Emmanuel Torres Quezada
Cicada Killers in Managed Turf
Cicada Killers in Managed Turf
(PDF)
Cicada killers (Sphecius speciosus) are quite large and menacing-looking ground nesting wasps that look very menacing to the general public, but are actually quite docile insects unless disturbed. As their name implies, they are a beneficial predator of cicadas. This publication details their identification and management strategies.
Sep 13, 2024
SPES-621NP
Michael Goatley
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Eric R. Day
Mulching: Purpose, Benefits, and Essential Information
Mulching: Purpose, Benefits, and Essential Informatio
(PDF)
This document reviews the purpose and benefits of mulching in the landscape. The term “mulch” refers to materials spread or left on the soil surface as a protective layer (usually permeable), whether organic or inorganic, loose particles or sheets. We mulch to mimic the natural forest process. Mulches are used primarily as: Weed prevention, insulation, protection, erosion control etc. The publication goes in depth about the best practices to benefit plant and soil health.
Nov 24, 2025
SPES-661P
Meghan Garrity
Megan Tierney
Selecting Pesticides for Sports Fields
Selecting Pesticides for Sports Fields
(PDF)
This publication provides a comprehensive listing and a summary of the strengths and weaknesses of the pesticides labeled for pest management in cool-season and warm-season turfgrass sports fields.
Apr 28, 2025
SPES-668NP
Michael Goatley
David McCall
Shawn Askew
Alejandro Del-Pozo
Jeffrey Derr
Wendell Hutchens
Lime Calibration for Soilless Media- A Tool for Greenhouse and Nursery Producers
Lime Calibration for Soilless Media- A Tool for Greenhouse and Nursery Producers
(PDF)
Soilless substrates are inherently acidic and typically need to be corrected for pH prior to plant production. This is because mineral nutrients are most available within certain pH ranges (5.0 - 6.5). The primary method to increase pH values of soilless media is to apply some form of lime (calcium carbonate base). However, this can become complicated since different soilless media and lime material types will require different rates and activate at different durations. Conducting a lime calibration can be a powerful tool and enable producers to target specific pH values for their plants. This article will guide growers how to properly determine optimal lime rates.
Jul 23, 2025
SPES-718NP
Kristopher S. Criscione
Virginia Horticulture Production Trends: 2017-2022
Virginia Horticulture Production Trends: 2017-2022
(PDF)
The USDA agricultural census offers valuable insights into key agricultural commodities nationwide and by state. However, its data can be difficult to interpret directly. This publication provides a recent historical analysis of significant horticultural crops in Virginia, presenting USDA data in a more accessible, visual format for easier understanding and practical use.
Aug 15, 2025
SPES-723NP
Eric Stallknecht
Kaylee South
Identifying Water Stress in Container-Grown Plants
Identifying Water Stress in Container-Grown Plants
(PDF)
Nursery operations are diverse in that they produce a wide variety of species and cultivars. Despite this diversity, it is a standard practice for outdoor nurseries to use a single substrate composite or unique blend for most of their nursery stock grown. This can be problematic considering different nursery stock can contain a range of water-use requirements and are often placed within the same irrigation zone. Thus, water-related stress imposes challenges in production, resource use, and plant quality. Identifying water use and related stress across nursery stock is important in mitigating plant stress and to produce quality crops more efficiently.
Jan 13, 2026
SPES-749P
Kristopher S. Criscione
Measuring Nursery Plant Water Use in Containers
Measuring Nursery Plant Water Use in Containers
(PDF)
Nursery operations are diverse in that they produce a wide variety of species and cultivars. Despite this diversity, it is a standard practice for outdoor nurseries to use a single substrate composite or unique blend for most of their nursery stock grown. This can be problematic considering different nursery stock can contain a range of water-use requirements and are often placed within the same irrigation zone. Thus, water-related stress imposes challenges in production, resource use, and plant quality. Identifying water use and related stress across nursery stock is important in mitigating plant stress and to produce quality crops more efficiently.
Jan 13, 2026
SPES-750P
Kristopher S. Criscione
What is Controlled Environment Agriculture?
What is Controlled Environment Agriculture?
(PDF)
Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) is a multidisciplinary and technology-based approach to crop production under targeted environmental conditions to optimize plant growth, quality, and resource efficiency. This article introduces the fundamentals of CEA, including its historical development, common structures, and soilless systems such as hydroponics. It explores key environmental factors managed in CEA, including light, temperature, humidity, irrigation, and CO₂, and highlights the diverse crops grown, from food and ornamentals to medicinal plants. Readers will gain insight into the advantages of CEA, including climate resilience, sustainability, and market opportunities, as well as challenges such as energy demand and high start-up costs. Finally, the article discusses future directions, emphasizing innovation, workforce development, and collaboration to ensure profitability and environmental stewardship in CEA systems.
Feb 6, 2026
SPES-751NP
Mitchell Doss
Kaylee South
Michael R. Evans
Michael R. Evans
Introduction to Microgreen Production in Indoor Vertical Farms and Greenhouses
Introduction to Microgreen Production in Indoor Vertical Farms and Greenhouses
(PDF)
Microgreens are nutrient-dense, flavorful crops harvested between the sprout and baby green stages and are well-suited for production in controlled environment agriculture (CEA) systems such as indoor vertical farms and greenhouses. This publication outlines key production practices, including environmental management (light, temperature, humidity, CO₂), system and substrate selection, irrigation, fertilization, sanitation, and integrated pest management. It also provides a sowing-to-harvest, market considerations, economic planning for commercial production, and at-home gardening applications. Microgreens offer rapid crop cycles, high nutritional value, and diverse culinary applications, presenting opportunities for profitable production in CEA.
Jan 30, 2026
SPES-756NP
Kaylee South
Grayson Snead
John Roark
Michael R. Evans
Amy Turner
Tobacco Rattle Virus (TRV) on Ornamental Plants
Tobacco Rattle Virus (TRV) on Ornamental Plants
(PDF)
Tobacco rattle virus (TRV) is a plant virus with a large host range (>400 plant species), including many ornamental plants, vegetables, field crops and weed hosts (Table 1). TRV’s host range includes many popular ornamental plants, such as aster, bigleaf hydrangea, bleeding heart, hosta, peony, and petunia, which makes TRV a serious concern for ornamental plant growers and the horticulture industry.
Feb 16, 2026
SPES-774NP
Kameron Kilday
Lina Rodriguez Salamanca
Elizabeth Bush
Calonectria blight of containerized nandina nursery stock
Calonectria blight of containerized nandina nursery stock
(PDF)
Calonectria diseases cause significant economic losses in the ornamental horticultural industry worldwide (Aiello et al. 2022). In 2024 and 2025, Calonectria spp. were isolated from leaf spots, stem cankers, stem dieback, and necrotic roots of containerized Nandina domestica (nandina/heavenly bamboo) nursery stock from 11 nurseries in 11 Virginia counties. The fungus was confirmed from 7 N. domestica cultivars: Blush Pink, Fire Power, Gulf Stream, Harbour Dwarf, Lemon Lime, Moon Bay, and Obsession.
Mar 6, 2026
SPES-784NP
Bily Devin
Chuanxue Hong
Lina Rodriguez Salamanca
Kameron Kilday