Translation - Wikipedia

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Transfer of the meaning of something in one language into another
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This article is about language translation. For other uses, see
Translation (disambiguation)
"Translator" redirects here. For other uses, see
Translator (disambiguation)
Not to be confused with
Transliteration
or
Word-sense disambiguation
King
Charles V
the Wise commissions a translation of
Aristotle
. First square shows his ordering the translation; second square, the translation being made. Third and fourth squares show the finished translation being brought to, and then presented to, the King.
Part of
a series
on
Translation
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Untranslatability
Transcription
Transliteration
Video relay service
(VRS)
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of video games
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Books and magazines on translation
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Translation
in the field of
language
is the
communication
of the
meaning
of a
source-language
text by means of an
equivalent
target-language
text (also called the 'receptor language').
The English language draws a
terminological
distinction (which does not exist in every language) between
translating
, which refers to written texts, and
interpreting
, which denotes the oral or
signed
rendering of speech between languages.
A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words,
grammar
, or
syntax
into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language
calques
and
loanwords
that have enriched target languages.
Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to
automate translation
or to
mechanically aid the human translator
More recently, the rise of the
Internet
has fostered a
world-wide market
for
translation services
and has facilitated "
language localisation
".
Etymology
edit
The
Rosetta Stone
, a symbol of the art of translation
The word for the
concept
of "translation", in English and some other European languages, stems from the Latin
noun
translatio
formed from the
adverb
trans
, "across", and
-latio
, derived from
latus
, the
past participle
of the
verb
ferre
, to "carry" or "bring". Thus, the Latin noun
translatio
and its
cognate
modern derivatives mean the "bringing across" (i.e., the
transferring
) of a text from one language to another.
In some other European languages, the word for the
concept
of "translation" stems from another Latin
noun
trāductiō
, derived from the
verb
trādūcō
, "bring across", formed from the
adverb
trans
, "across", and
dūcō
, to "lead" or "bring".
The
Ancient Greek
term for "translation" (
metaphrasis
, "a speaking across") has supplied English with "
metaphrase
" (word-for-word translation), as contrasted with "
paraphrase
" (rephrasing in other words, from
paraphrasis
).
"Metaphrase" corresponds in one of the more recent terminologies to
formal equivalence
, and "paraphrase" to
dynamic equivalence
The concept of metaphrase (i.e., word-for-word translation) is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning, and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, metaphrase and paraphrase may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.
See also the entry for
translation
at Wiktionary.
Theories
edit
Western theory
edit
Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into
antiquity
and show remarkable continuities. The
ancient Greeks
distinguished between
metaphrase
(literal translation) and
paraphrase
. This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator
John Dryden
(1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or
equivalents
, for the expressions used in the source language:
When [words] appear... literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.
Dryden cautioned, however, against the licence of "imitation", i.e. of adapted translation: "When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..."
This general formulation of the central concept of translation—
equivalence
—is as adequate as any that has been proposed since
Cicero
and
Horace
, who, in 1st-century-BCE
Rome
, famously and literally cautioned against translating word for word (
verbum pro verbo
).
Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual
practice
of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the
Middle Ages
and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking
equivalents
—"literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary—for the original
meaning
and other crucial "values" (e.g.,
style
verse form
, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech
articulatory
movements) as determined from context.
In general translators have sought to preserve the
context
itself by reproducing the original order of
sememes
, and hence
word order
—when necessary, reinterpreting the actual
grammatical
structure, for example, by shifting from
active
to
passive voice
, or
vice versa
. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order"
languages
(e.g. English,
French
German
) and "free-word-order" languages
10
(e.g.,
Greek
Latin
Polish
Russian
) have been no impediment in this regard.
The particular syntax (sentence-structure) characteristics of the text of a source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language.
When a target language has lacked
that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few
concepts
that are "
untranslatable
" among the modern European languages.
A greater problem, however, is translating terms relating to cultural concepts that have no equivalent in the target language.
11
For full comprehension, such situations require the provision of a
gloss
Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of
metaphrase
to
paraphrase
that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in
ecological niches
of words, a common
etymology
is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English
actual
should not be confused with the
cognate
French
actuel
("present", "current"), the Polish
aktualny
("present", "current," "topical", "timely", "feasible"),
12
the Swedish
aktuell
("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian
актуальный
("urgent", "topical") or the Dutch
actueel
("current").
The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since
Terence
, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an
artist
. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as
Cicero
. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to
Samuel Johnson
's remark about
Alexander Pope
playing
Homer
on a
flageolet
, while Homer himself used a
bassoon
12
The translator of the
Bible
into German,
Martin Luther
(1483–1546), is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since
Johann Gottfried Herder
in the 18th century "it has been axiomatic" that one translates only toward his own language.
13
Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no
dictionary
or
thesaurus
can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The Scottish historian
Alexander Tytler
, in his
Essay on the Principles of Translation
(1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the
spoken
language
, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and
grammarian
Onufry Kopczyński
14
Other traditions
edit
Due to
Western colonialism
and cultural dominance in recent centuries, Western translation traditions have largely replaced other traditions. The Western traditions draw on both ancient and medieval traditions, and on more recent European innovations.
Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piece together events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories and philosophies unique to the Chinese tradition.
Near East
edit
This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
adding missing information
March 2012
Traditions of translating material among the languages of ancient
Egypt
Mesopotamia
Assyria
Syriac language
),
Anatolia
, and
Israel
Hebrew language
) go back several millennia. There exist partial translations of the Sumerian
Epic of Gilgamesh
c.
2000 BCE
) into
Southwest Asian
languages of the second millennium BCE.
15
An early example of a
bilingual
document is the 1274 BCE
Treaty of Kadesh
between the
ancient Egyptian
and
Hittie empires
The
Babylonians
were the first to establish translation as a profession.
16
The first translations of Greek and Coptic texts into Arabic, possibly indirectly from Syriac translations,
17
seem to have been undertaken as early as the late seventh century CE.
18
The second Abbasid Caliph funded a translation bureau in Baghdad in the eighth century.
19
Bayt al-Hikma, the famous library in Baghdad, was generously endowed and the collection included books in many languages, and it became a leading centre for the translation of works from antiquity into Arabic, with its own Translation Department.
20
Translations into European languages from Arabic versions of lost Greek and Roman texts began in the middle of the eleventh century, when the benefits to be gained from the Arabs’ knowledge of the classical texts were recognised by European scholars, particularly after the establishment of the Escuela de Traductores de Toledo in Spain.
William Caxton
’s
Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres
(Sayings of the Philosophers, 1477) was a translation into English of an eleventh-century Egyptian text which reached English via translation into Latin and then French.
The translation of foreign works for publishing in Arabic was revived by the establishment of the
Madrasat al-Alsun
(School of Tongues) in Egypt in 1813.
21
Asia
edit
Further information:
Chinese translation theory
Buddhist
Diamond Sutra
, translated into
Chinese
by
Kumārajīva
– world's oldest known dated printed book (868 CE)
There is a separate tradition of translation in
South
Southeast
and
East Asia
(primarily of texts from the
Indian
and
Chinese
civilizations), connected especially with the rendering of religious, particularly
Buddhist
, texts and with the governance of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe; and
Chinese translation theory
identifies various criteria and limitations in translation.
In the East Asian sphere of Chinese cultural influence, more important than translation
per se
has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial
borrowings of Chinese vocabulary
and writing system. Notable is the Japanese
kanbun
, a system for
glossing
Chinese texts for Japanese speakers.
Though Indianized states in Southeast Asia often translated
Sanskrit
material into the local languages, the literate elites and scribes more commonly used Sanskrit as their primary language of culture and government.
Perry Link
Some special aspects of translating from
Chinese
are illustrated in
Perry Link
's discussion of translating the work of the
Tang dynasty
poet
Wang Wei
(699–759 CE).
22
Some of the art of classical
Chinese poetry
[writes Link] must simply be set aside as
untranslatable
. The internal structure of
Chinese characters
has a beauty of its own, and the
calligraphy
in which classical poems were written is another important but untranslatable dimension. Since Chinese characters do not vary in length, and because there are exactly five characters per line in a poem like [the one that
Eliot Weinberger
discusses in
19 Ways of Looking at
Wang Wei
(with More Ways)
], another untranslatable feature is that the written result, hung on a wall, presents a rectangle. Translators into languages whose word lengths vary can reproduce such an effect only at the risk of fatal awkwardness....
Another imponderable is how to imitate the 1-2, 1-2-3
rhythm
in which five-
syllable
lines in classical Chinese poems normally are read. Chinese characters are pronounced in one syllable apiece, so producing such rhythms in Chinese is not hard and the results are unobtrusive; but any imitation in a Western language is almost inevitably stilted and distracting. Even less translatable are the patterns of
tone
arrangement in classical Chinese poetry. Each syllable (character) belongs to one of two categories determined by the
pitch contour
in which it is read; in a classical Chinese poem the patterns of alternation of the two categories exhibit
parallelism
and mirroring.
23
Most of the difficulties, according to Link, arise in addressing the second problem, "where the impossibility of perfect answers spawns endless debate." Almost always at the center is the letter-versus-spirit
dilemma
. At the literalist extreme, efforts are made to dissect every conceivable detail about the language of the original Chinese poem. "The dissection, though," writes Link, "normally does to the art of a poem approximately what the
scalpel
of an
anatomy
instructor does to the life of a frog."
23
Chinese characters, in avoiding
grammatical
specificity, offer advantages to poets (and, simultaneously, challenges to poetry translators) that are associated primarily with absences of
subject
number
, and
tense
24
It is the norm in classical
Chinese poetry
, and common even in modern Chinese prose, to omit subjects; the reader or listener infers a subject. The grammars of some Western languages, however, require that a subject be stated (although this is often avoided by using a passive or impersonal construction). Most of the translators cited in Eliot Weinberger's
19 Ways of Looking at
Wang Wei
supply a subject. Weinberger points out, however, that when an "I" as a subject is inserted, a "controlling individual mind of the poet" enters and destroys the effect of the Chinese line. Without a subject, he writes, "the experience becomes both universal and immediate to the reader." Another approach to the subjectlessness is to use the target language's
passive voice
; but this again particularizes the experience too much.
24
Nouns
have no
number
in Chinese. "If," writes Link, "you want to talk in Chinese about one rose, you may, but then you use a "
measure word
" to say "one blossom-of roseness."
24
Chinese
verbs
are
tense
-less: there are several ways to specify when something happened or will happen, but
verb tense
is not one of them. For poets, this creates the great advantage of
ambiguity
. According to Link, Weinberger's insight about subjectlessness—that it produces an effect "both universal and immediate"—applies to timelessness as well.
24
Link proposes a kind of uncertainty principle that may be applicable not only to translation from the Chinese language, but to all translation:
Dilemmas about translation do not have definitive right answers (although there can be unambiguously wrong ones if misreadings of the original are involved). Any translation (except machine translation, a different case) must pass through the mind of a translator, and that mind inevitably contains its own store of perceptions, memories, and values.
Weinberger [...] pushes this insight further when he writes that "every reading of every poem, regardless of language, is an act of translation: translation into the reader's intellectual and emotional life." Then he goes still further: because a reader's mental life shifts over time, there is a sense in which "the same poem cannot be read twice."
24
Islamic world
edit
Qur'an
in
tawqi
, with
Persian
translation (smaller words) in
naskh
(14th century)
Translation of material into
Arabic
expanded after the creation of
Arabic script
in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of
Islam
and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as the
Al-Karaouine
Fes
Morocco
),
Al-Azhar
Cairo
Egypt
), and the
Nizamiyya of Baghdad
. In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions.
Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after the
Renaissance
, Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic, and to a lesser degree Persian, became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions.
In the 19th century, after the
Middle East
's
Islamic
clerics and copyists
had conceded defeat in their centuries-old battle to contain the corrupting effects of the
printing press
, [an] explosion in publishing ... ensued. Along with expanding secular education, printing transformed an overwhelmingly illiterate society into a partly literate one.
In the past, the
sheikhs
and the government had exercised a monopoly over knowledge. Now an expanding elite benefitted from a stream of information on virtually anything that interested them. Between 1880 and 1908... more than six hundred newspapers and periodicals were founded in Egypt alone.
The most prominent among them was
al-Muqtataf
... [It] was the popular expression of a
translation movement
that had begun earlier in the century with military and medical manuals and highlights from the
Enlightenment
canon. (
Montesquieu
's
Considerations on the Romans
and
Fénelon
's
Telemachus
had been favorites.)
25
A translator who contributed mightily to the advance of the Islamic Enlightenment was the Egyptian cleric Rifaa al-Tahtawi (1801–73), who had spent five years in
Paris
in the late 1820s, teaching religion to
Muslim
students. After returning to Cairo with the encouragement of
Muhammad Ali
(1769–1849), the
Ottoman
viceroy of Egypt, al–Tahtawi became head of the new school of languages and embarked on an intellectual revolution by initiating a program to translate some two thousand European and Turkish volumes, ranging from ancient texts on geography and geometry to
Voltaire
's biography of
Peter the Great
, along with the
Marseillaise
and the entire
Code Napoléon
. This was the biggest, most meaningful importation of foreign thought into Arabic since
Abbasid
times (750–1258).
26
In France al-Tahtawi had been struck by the way the French language... was constantly renewing itself to fit modern ways of living. Yet
Arabic
has its own sources of reinvention. The root system that Arabic shares with other
Semitic
tongues such as Hebrew is capable of expanding the meanings of words using structured
consonantal
variations: the word for airplane, for example, has the same root as the word for bird.
27
Muhammad Abduh
The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and
Ottoman
Turkish
languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized
civil service
expressed
skepticism
, writes
Christopher de Bellaigue
, "with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today ... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world." One of the
neologisms
that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was
"darwiniya"
, or "
Darwinism
".
25
One of the most influential liberal Islamic thinkers of the time was
Muhammad Abduh
(1849–1905), Egypt's senior judicial authority—its chief
mufti
—at the turn of the 20th century and an admirer of
Darwin
who in 1903 visited Darwin's exponent
Herbert Spencer
at his home in
Brighton
. Spencer's view of
society as an organism
with its own laws of evolution paralleled Abduh's ideas.
28
After
World War I
, when Britain and France divided up the Middle East's countries, apart from Turkey, between them, pursuant to the
Sykes-Picot agreement
—in violation of solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy—there came an immediate reaction: the
Muslim Brotherhood
emerged in Egypt, the
House of Saud
took over the
Hijaz
, and regimes led by army officers came to power in
Iran
and Turkey. "[B]oth illiberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes
de Bellaigue
, "Islamism and militarism, received a major impetus from Western
empire-builders
." As often happens in countries undergoing social crisis, the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators and modernizers, such as Muhammad Abduh, largely had to yield to retrograde currents.
29
Fidelity and transparency
edit
Dryden
Fidelity
(or "faithfulness") and felicity
30
(or
transparency
), also known singularly as
equivalence
, are often (though not always) at odds. A 17th-century French critic coined the phrase "
les belles infidèles
" to suggest that translations can be either faithful or beautiful, but not both.
Fidelity is the extent to which a translation accurately renders the
meaning
of the
source text
, without distortion. Transparency is the extent to which a translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to have originally been written in that language, and conforms to its grammar, syntax and idiom. John Dryden (1631–1700) wrote in his preface to the translation anthology
Sylvae
Where I have taken away some of [the original authors'] Expressions, and cut them shorter, it may possibly be on this consideration, that what was beautiful in the Greek or Latin, would not appear so shining in the English; and where I have enlarg'd them, I desire the false Criticks would not always think that those thoughts are wholly mine, but that either they are secretly in the Poet, or may be fairly deduc'd from him; or at least, if both those considerations should fail, that my own is of a piece with his, and that if he were living, and an Englishman, they are such as he wou'd probably have written.
32
A translation that meets the criterion of fidelity (faithfulness) is said to be "faithful"; a translation that meets the criterion of transparency, "
idiomatic
". Depending on the given translation, the two qualities may not be mutually exclusive. The criteria for judging the fidelity of a translation vary according to the subject, type and use of the text, its literary qualities, its social or historical context, etc. The criteria for judging the transparency of a translation appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic translation "sounds wrong" and, in extreme cases of word-for-word translation, often results in patent nonsense.
Schleiermacher
Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously seek to produce a literal translation. Translators of literary, religious, or historic texts often adhere as closely as possible to the source text, stretching the limits of the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. Also, a translator may adopt expressions from the source language in order to provide "local color".
Venuti
While current Western translation practice is dominated by the dual concepts of "fidelity" and "transparency", this has not always been the case. There have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century, when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of translation proper into the realm of
adaptation
Adapted translation
retains currency in some non-Western traditions. The
Indian
epic, the
Ramayana
, appears in many versions in the various
Indian languages
, and the stories are different in each. Similar examples are to be found in
medieval Christian
literature, which adjusted the text to local customs and mores.
Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from
German Romanticism
, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and philosopher
Friedrich Schleiermacher
. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher favored the latter approach; he was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote
German literature
citation needed
In recent decades, prominent advocates of such "non-transparent" translation have included the French scholar
Antoine Berman
, who identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent in most prose translations,
33
and the American theorist
Lawrence Venuti
, who has called on translators to apply "foreignizing" rather than domesticating translation strategies.
34
Dynamic and formal equivalence
edit
Main article:
Dynamic and formal equivalence
The question of
fidelity
vs.
transparency
has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "
formal
equivalence" and "
dynamic
[or
functional
] equivalence" – expressions associated with the translator
Eugene Nida
and originally coined to describe ways of translating the
Bible
; but the two approaches are applicable to any translation. "Formal equivalence" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic equivalence" to "paraphrase". "Formal equivalence" (sought via "literal" translation) attempts to render the text literally, or "word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the
classical Latin
verbum pro verbo
) – if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target language. By contrast, "dynamic equivalence" (or "
functional
equivalence") conveys the essential thoughts expressed in a source text—if necessary, at the expense of literality, original
sememe
and
word order
, the source text's active vs. passive
voice
, etc.
There is, however, no sharp boundary between formal and functional equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and at various points within the same text – sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation entails the judicious blending of formal and functional
equivalents
35
Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents such as "
false friends
36
and
false cognates
Source and target languages
edit
In the practice of translation, the
source language
is the language being translated from, while the
target language
– also called the
receptor language
37
38
– is the language being translated into.
39
Difficulties in translating can arise from
lexical
and
syntactical
differences between the source language and the target language, which differences tend to be greater between two languages belonging to different
language families
40
Often the source language is the translator's
second language
, while the target language is the translator's
first language
41
In some geographical settings, however, the source language is the translator's first language because not enough people speak the source language as a second language.
42
For instance, a 2005 survey found that 89% of professional Slovene translators translate into their second language, usually English.
42
In cases where the source language is the translator's first language, the translation process has been referred to by various terms, including "translating into a non-mother tongue", "translating into a second language", "inverse translation", "reverse translation", "service translation", and "translation from A to B".
42
The process typically begins with a full and in-depth analysis of the original text in the source language, ensuring full comprehension and understanding before the actual act of translating is approached.
43
Translation for specialized or professional fields requires a working knowledge, as well, of the pertinent terminology in the field. For example, translation of a legal text requires not only fluency in the respective languages but also familiarity with the terminology specific to the legal field in each language.
44
While the form and style of the source language often cannot be reproduced in the target language, the meaning and content can. Linguist
Roman Jakobson
went so far as to assert that all cognitive experience can be classified and expressed in any living language.
45
Linguist
Ghil'ad Zuckermann
suggests that the limits are not of translation
per se
but rather of
elegant
translation.
46
: 219
Source and target texts
edit
See also:
Source text
In translation, a
source text
ST
) is a text written in a given source language which is to be, or has been, translated into another language, while a
target text
TT
) is a translated text written in the intended target language, which is the result of a translation from a given source text. According to
Jeremy Munday
's definition of translation, "the process of translation between two different written languages involves the changing of an original written text (the source text or ST) in the original verbal language (the source language or SL) into a written text (the target text or TT) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL)".
47
The terms 'source text' and 'target text' are preferred over 'original' and 'translation' because they do not have the same positive vs. negative value judgment.
Translation scholars including
Eugene Nida
and
Peter Newmark
have represented the different approaches to translation as falling broadly into source-text-oriented or target-text-oriented categories.
48
Back-translation
edit
A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation.
49
But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.
50
Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because
linguistic
symbols (
words
) are often
ambiguous
, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal.
In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material used in medical
clinical trials
, such as
informed-consent forms
, a back-translation is often required by the
ethics committee
or
institutional review board
51
In 1903,
Mark Twain
back-translated his own
short story
, "
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County
".
Mark Twain
provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his
short story
, "
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County
". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter volume included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor
Sidgwick
's
Greek Prose Composition
(p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent
ancient Greek
precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.
52
When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel
The Saragossa Manuscript
by the Polish aristocrat
Jan Potocki
(1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by
Edmund Chojecki
in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete
Saragossa Manuscript
have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.
53
Many works by the influential
Classical
physician
Galen
survive only in medieval
Arabic
translation. Some survive only in
Renaissance Latin
translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original
Greek
54
When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as
idioms
puns
, peculiar
grammatical
structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the
Till Eulenspiegel
folk tales is in
High German
but contains puns that work only when back-translated to
Low German
. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-
metaphrastic
translator.
Supporters of
Aramaic primacy
—the view that the
Christian
New Testament
or its sources were originally written in the
Aramaic language
—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing
Greek
text of the New Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd-century Gnostic
Gospel of Judas
, which survives only in
Coptic
, was originally written in Greek.
John Dryden
(1631–1700), the dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in
prepositions
because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions.
55
56
Dryden created the proscription against "
preposition stranding
" in 1672 when he objected to
Ben Jonson
's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference.
57
Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he back-translated his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of
no sentence-ending prepositions
, subsequently adopted by other writers.
58
Translators
edit
language
is not merely a collection of
words
and of rules of
grammar
and
syntax
for generating
sentences
, but also a vast interconnecting system of
connotations
and
cultural
references whose mastery, writes
linguist
Mario Pei
, "comes close to being a lifetime job."
59
Michael Wood
, a
Princeton University
emeritus professor, writes: "[T]ranslation, like language itself, involves contexts, conventions, class, irony, posture and many other regions where
speech acts
hang out. This is why it helps to compare translations [of a given work]."
60
Emily Wilson
, a professor of classical studies at the
University of Pennsylvania
and herself a translator, writes:
[I]t is [hard] to produce a good literary translation. This is certainly true of translations of
ancient Greek
and
Roman
texts, but it is also true of literary translation in general: it is very difficult. Most readers of foreign languages are not translators; most writers are not translators. Translators have to read and write at the same time, as if always playing multiple instruments in a
one-person band
. And most one-person bands do not sound very good.
61
When in 1921, three years before his death, the English-language novelist
Joseph Conrad
– who had long had little contact with everyday spoken Polish – attempted to translate into English
Bruno Winawer
's short Polish-language play,
The Book of Job
, he predictably missed many crucial nuances of contemporary Polish language.
62
The translator's role, in relation to the original text, has been compared to the roles of other interpretive artists, e.g., a musician or actor who interprets a work of musical or dramatic art. Translating, especially a text of any complexity (like other human activities
63
), involves
interpretation
: choices must be made, which implies interpretation.
12
Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a
play
or a
sonata
is a representation of the
script
or the
score
, one among many possible representations."
65
A translation of a text of any complexity is – as, itself, a work of art – unique and unrepeatable.
Joseph Conrad
Joseph Conrad, whose writings
Zdzisław Najder
has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae,
66
advised his niece and
Polish
translator
Aniela Zagórska
[D]on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion
il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire
[it is better to interpret than to translate] ...
Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ...
[It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"
67
Conrad advised another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the
idiom
is the
clearness
of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."
68
Conrad thought
C.K. Scott Moncrieff
's English translation of
Marcel Proust
's
À la recherche du temps perdu
In Search of Lost Time
—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering,
Remembrance of Things Past
) to be preferable to the French original.
69
Emily Wilson writes that "translation always involves interpretation, and [requires] every translator... to think as deeply as humanly possible about each verbal, poetic, and interpretative
choice
."
70
Daniel Mendelsohn
, a
classicist
at
Bard College
, has similarly said, in an interview, that
a lot of people, when they think about translation, think you sit down with a dictionary and look at the text and get going, but you really have to have an interpretation.... You need to make a decision. I don’t think there’s any translation that is not also an interpretation. There’s no such thing as an absolutely transparent translation.
71
Translation of other than the simplest brief texts requires painstakingly
close reading
of the
source text
and the draft translation, so as to resolve the ambiguities inherent in
language
and thereby to
asymptotically
approach the most accurate rendering of the source text.
72
Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure of human language.
Psychologist
and
neural scientist
Gary Marcus
notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is
ambiguous
, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending language that we do not usually notice."
73
An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a
pronoun
in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.
74
Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.
Ambiguity is a concern both to translators and – as the writings of poet and literary critic
William Empson
have demonstrated – to
literary critics
. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in
poetry
and
diplomacy
; it can be more problematic in ordinary
prose
75
Individual
expressions
words
phrases
sentences
– are fraught with
connotations
. As Empson demonstrates, any piece of language seems susceptible to "alternative reactions", or as Joseph Conrad once wrote, "No English word has clean edges." All expressions, Conrad thought, carried so many connotations as to be little more than "instruments for exciting blurred emotions."
76
Translators may render only parts of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not assume the role of
censor
and surreptitiously delete or
bowdlerize
passages merely to please a political or moral interest.
77
Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of
painting
has schooled many a novice painter.
78
A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any thoughts of his own. Translating (like
analytic philosophy
) compels precise analysis of
language elements
and of their usage. In 1946 the poet
Ezra Pound
, then at
St. Elizabeth's Hospital
, in
Washington, D.C.
, advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet
W.S. Merwin
: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have."
79
Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.
81
A translator acts as a bridge between two languages and cultures. When he has completed the first draft of a translation, he stands at the bridge's midpoint. Only after he has fully converted the vocabulary, idioms, grammar, and syntax of the source text to those of the target language, does he arrive at the bridge's other end.
Translators, including monks who spread
Buddhist
texts in
East Asia
, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between
cultures
; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of
grammatical structures
idioms
, and
vocabulary
Interpreting
edit
Hernán Cortés
and
La Malinche
right
) meet
Moctezuma II
in
Tenochtitlan
, 8 November 1519.
Lewis and Clark
and their
Native American
interpreter,
Sacagawea
Main article:
Interpreting
Interpreting
is the facilitation of
oral
or
sign-language
communication
, either simultaneously or consecutively, between two, or among three or more, speakers who are not speaking, or signing, the same language. The term "interpreting," rather than "interpretation," is preferentially used for this activity by Anglophone interpreters and translators, to avoid confusion with other meanings of the word "
interpretation
."
Unlike English, many languages do not employ two separate words to denote the activities of
written
and live-communication (
oral
or
sign-language
) translators.
Even English does not always make the distinction, frequently using "translating" as a synonym for "interpreting."
Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in
human history
. A prime example is
La Malinche
, also known as
Malintzin
Malinalli
and
Doña Marina
, an early-16th-century
Nahua
woman from the Mexican
Gulf Coast
. As a child she had been sold or given to
Maya
slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently, given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the
Spanish
conquest of
Mexico
, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to
Hernán Cortés
83
Lin Shu
Nearly three centuries later, in the
United States
, a comparable role as interpreter was played for the
Lewis and Clark Expedition
of 1804–6 by
Sacagawea
. As a child, the
Lemhi Shoshone
woman had been kidnapped by
Hidatsa
Indians and thus had become bilingual. Sacagawea facilitated the expedition's traverse of the
North American continent
to the
Pacific Ocean
84
The famous Chinese man of letters
Lin Shu
(1852 – 1924), who knew no foreign languages, rendered Western literary classics into Chinese with the help of his friend Wang Shouchang (王壽昌), who had studied in France. Wang interpreted the texts for Lin, who rendered them into Chinese. Lin's first such translation, 巴黎茶花女遺事 (
Past Stories of the Camellia-woman of Paris
Alexandre Dumas, fils
's,
La Dame aux Camélias
), published in 1899, was an immediate success and was followed by many more translations from the French and the English.
85
Sworn translation
edit
Sworn translation
, also called "certified translation," aims at legal equivalence between two documents written in different languages. It is performed by someone authorized to do so by local regulations, which vary widely from country to country. Some countries recognize self-declared competence. Others require the translator to be an official state appointee. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, certain government institutions require that translators be accredited by certain translation institutes or associations in order to be able to carry out certified translations.
Internet
edit
Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that wish to secure more accurate translations. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translations, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available.
86
With the recent emergence of translation
crowdsourcing
87
translation memory
techniques, and
internet
applications,
citation needed
translation agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to
businesses
, individuals, and enterprises.
While not instantaneous like its machine counterparts such as
Google Translate
and
Babel Fish
(now defunct), as of 2010 web-based human translation has been gaining popularity by providing relatively fast, accurate translation of business communications, legal documents, medical records, and
software localization
88
Web-based human translation also appeals to private website users and bloggers.
89
Contents of websites are translatable but URLs of websites are not translatable into other languages. Language tools on the internet provide help in understanding text.
Computer assisted
edit
Main article:
Computer-assisted translation
Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a
target text
with the assistance of a computer program. The machine supports a human translator.
Computer-assisted translation can include standard
dictionary
and grammar software. The term, however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including translation memory,
terminology
-management,
concordance
, and alignment programs.
These tools speed up and facilitate human translation, but they do not provide translation. The latter is a function of tools known broadly as machine translation. The tools speed up the translation process by assisting the human translator by memorizing or committing translations to a database (translation memory database) so that if the same sentence occurs in the same project or a future project, the content can be reused. This translation reuse leads to cost savings, better consistency and shorter project timelines.
Machine translation
edit
Main article:
Machine translation
Machine translation (MT) is a process whereby a computer program analyzes a
source text
and, in principle, produces a target text without human intervention. In reality, however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing and
post-editing
90
With proper
terminology
work, with preparation of the
source text
for machine translation (pre-editing), and with reworking of the machine translation by a human translator (post-editing), commercial machine-translation tools can produce useful results, especially if the machine-translation system is integrated with a translation memory or
translation management system
91
Unedited machine translation is publicly available through tools on the
Internet
such as
Google Translate
Almaany
92
Babylon
DeepL Translator
, and
StarDict
. These produce rough translations that, under favorable circumstances, approximate the meaning of the source text. With the Internet, translation software can help non-native-speaking individuals understand web pages published in other languages. Whole-page-translation tools are of limited utility, however, since they offer only a limited potential understanding of the original author's intent and context; translated pages tend to be more erroneously humorous and confusing than enlightening.
Interactive translations with
pop-up windows
are becoming more popular. These tools show one or more possible equivalents for each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the likeliest equivalent as the mouse glides over the foreign-language text. Possible equivalents can be grouped by pronunciation. Also, companies such as
Ectaco
produce pocket devices that provide machine translations.
Claude Piron
Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in
human language
is
context
-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error; therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.
Claude Piron
writes that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's job; the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve
ambiguities
in the
source text
, which the
grammatical
and
lexical
exigencies of the target language require to be resolved.
94
Such research is a necessary prelude to the pre-editing necessary in order to provide input for machine-translation software, such that the output will not be
meaningless
90
The weaknesses of pure machine translation, unaided by human expertise, are those of artificial intelligence itself.
95
As of 2018, professional translator Mark Polizzotti held that machine translation, by
Google Translate
and the like, was unlikely to threaten human translators anytime soon, because machines would never grasp nuance and
connotation
96
Writes Paul Taylor: "Perhaps there is a limit to what a computer can do without knowing that it is manipulating imperfect representations of an external reality."
97
Gary Marcus
notes that a so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence is an incapacity for reliable
disambiguation
. "[V]irtually every sentence [that people generate] is
ambiguous
, often in multiple ways." A prominent example is known as the "pronoun disambiguation problem": a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a
pronoun
in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.
98
Literary translation
edit
Translation of
literary works
novels
short stories
plays
poems
, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. Notable in
Canadian literature
specifically
as translators are figures such as
Sheila Fischman
Robert Dickson
, and
Linda Gaboriau
; and the Canadian
Governor General's Awards
annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations.
Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include
Vasily Zhukovsky
Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński
Vladimir Nabokov
Jorge Luis Borges
Robert Stiller
Lydia Davis
Haruki Murakami
Achy Obejas
, and
Jhumpa Lahiri
In the 2010s a substantial gender imbalance was noted in literary translation into English,
99
with far more male writers being translated than women writers. In 2014 Meytal Radzinski launched the
Women in Translation
campaign to address this.
100
101
102
History
edit
The first important translation in the West was that of the
Septuagint
, a collection of
Jewish
Scriptures translated into early
Koine Greek
in
Alexandria
between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures.
103
Throughout the
Middle Ages
, Latin was the
lingua franca
of the western learned world. The 9th-century
Alfred the Great
, king of
Wessex
in
England
, was far ahead of his time in commissioning
vernacular
Anglo-Saxon
translations of
Bede
's
Ecclesiastical History
and
Boethius
Consolation of Philosophy
. Meanwhile, the
Christian Church
frowned on even partial adaptations of
St. Jerome
's
Vulgate
of
c.
384 CE
104
the standard Latin Bible.
In
Asia
, the spread of
Buddhism
led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The
Tangut Empire
was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented
block printing
, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the
Chinese
centuries to render.
citation needed
The
Arabs
undertook
large-scale efforts at translation
. Having conquered the
Greek
world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions
were made into Latin
, chiefly at
Córdoba
in
Spain
105
King
Alfonso X the Wise
of
Castile
in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a
Schola Traductorum
(School of Translation) in
Toledo
. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish, and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance European
Scholasticism
, and thus European science and culture.
The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language.
Geoffrey Chaucer
The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century by
Geoffrey Chaucer
, who adapted from the
Italian
of
Giovanni Boccaccio
in his own
Knight's Tale
and
Troilus and Criseyde
, began a translation of the French-language
Roman de la Rose
, and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English
poetic
tradition on
adaptations
and translations from those earlier-established
literary languages
105
The first great English translation was the
Wycliffe Bible
c.
1382
), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English
prose
. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with
Thomas Malory
's
Le Morte d'Arthur
—an adaptation of
Arthurian romances
so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great
Tudor
translations are, accordingly, the
Tyndale New Testament
(1525), which influenced the
Authorized Version
(1611), and
Lord Berners
' version of
Jean Froissart
's
Chronicles
(1523–25).
105
Marsilio Ficino
Meanwhile, in
Renaissance
Italy
, a new period in the history of translation had opened in
Florence
with the arrival, at the court of
Cosimo de' Medici
, of the
Byzantine
scholar
Georgius Gemistus Pletho
shortly before the fall of
Constantinople
to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of
Plato
's works was undertaken by
Marsilio Ficino
. This and
Erasmus
' Latin edition of the
New Testament
led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato,
Aristotle
and
Jesus
105
Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on
adaptation
France
's
Pléiade
, England's Tudor poets, and the
Elizabethan
translators adapted themes by
Horace
Ovid
Petrarch
and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a
middle class
and the development of
printing
, with works such as the original authors
would have written
, had they been writing in England in that day.
105
The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward an ideal of
stylistic
equivalence, but even to the end of this period, which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century, there was no concern for
verbal
accuracy
106
In the second half of the 17th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make
Virgil
speak "in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman". As great as Dryden's poem is, however, one is reading Dryden, and not experiencing the Roman poet's concision. Similarly,
Homer
arguably suffers from
Alexander Pope
's endeavor to reduce the Greek poet's "wild paradise" to order. Both works live on as worthy
epics, more than as a point of access to the Latin or Greek.
106
Edward FitzGerald
Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of
James Macpherson
's "translations" of
Ossian
—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.
106
Benjamin Jowett
The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any
bawdy
passages and the addition of copious explanatory
footnotes
In regard to style, the
Victorians
' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or
pseudo
-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a
foreign
classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period,
Edward FitzGerald
's
Rubaiyat
of
Omar Khayyam
(1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.
106
In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by
Benjamin Jowett
, who translated Plato into simple, straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.
106
Modern translation
edit
As a language evolves, texts in an earlier version of the language—original texts, or old translations—may become difficult for modern readers to understand. Such a text may therefore be translated into more modern language, producing a "modern translation" (e.g., a "modern English translation" or "modernized translation").
Such modern rendering is applied either to literature from classical languages such as Latin or Greek, notably to the Bible (see "
Modern English Bible translations
"), or to literature from an earlier stage of the same language, as with the works of
William Shakespeare
(which are largely understandable by a modern audience, though with some difficulty) or with
Geoffrey Chaucer
's
Middle-English
Canterbury Tales
(which is understandable to most modern readers only through heavy dependence on footnotes). In 2015 the
Oregon Shakespeare Festival
commissioned professional translation of the entire Shakespeare canon, including disputed works such as
Edward III
107
into contemporary vernacular English; in 2019, off-off-Broadway, the canon was premiered in a month-long series of staged readings.
108
Anna North
writes: "Translating the long-dead language
Homer
used — a variant of
ancient Greek
called Homeric Greek — into contemporary English is no easy task, and translators bring their own skills, opinions, and stylistic sensibilities to the text. The result is that every translation is different, almost a new poem in itself." An example is
Emily Wilson
's 2017 translation of Homer's
Odyssey
, where by conscious choice Wilson "lays bare the morals of its time and place, and invites us to consider how different they are from our own, and how similar."
109
Poetry
edit
Hofstadter
Jakobson
Nabokov
Views on the possibility of satisfactorily translating poetry show a broad spectrum, depending partly on the degree of latitude desired by the translator in regard to a poem's formal features (rhythm, rhyme, verse form, etc.), but also relating to how much of the suggestiveness and imagery in the host poem can be recaptured or approximated in the target language. In his 1997 book
Le Ton beau de Marot
Douglas Hofstadter
argued that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible not only of its literal meaning but also of its form and structure (meter, rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.).
110
The
Russian
-born
linguist
and
semiotician
Roman Jakobson
, however, had in his 1959 paper "
On Linguistic Aspects of Translation
", declared that "poetry by definition [is] untranslatable".
Vladimir Nabokov
, another Russian-born author, took a view similar to Jakobson's. He considered rhymed, metrical, versed poetry to be in principle untranslatable and therefore rendered his 1964 English translation of
Alexander Pushkin
's
Eugene Onegin
in prose
Hofstadter, in
Le Ton beau de Marot
, criticized Nabokov's attitude toward verse translation. In 1999 Hofstadter published his own translation of
Eugene Onegin
, in verse form.
However, a number of more contemporary literary translators of poetry lean toward
Alexander von Humboldt
's notion of language as a "third universe" existing "midway between the phenomenal reality of the 'empirical world' and the internalized structures of consciousness."
111
Perhaps this is what poet
Sholeh Wolpé
, translator of the 12th-century Iranian epic poem
The Conference of the Birds
, means when she writes:
Twelfth-century Persian and contemporary English are as different as sky and sea. The best I can do as a poet is to reflect one into the other. The sea can reflect the sky with its moving stars, shifting clouds, gestations of the moon, and migrating birds—but ultimately the sea is not the sky. By nature, it is liquid. It ripples. There are waves. If you are a fish living in the sea, you can only understand the sky if its reflection becomes part of the water. Therefore, this translation of
The Conference of the Birds
, while faithful to the original text, aims at its re-creation into a still living and breathing work of literature.
112
Poet
Sherod Santos
writes: "The task is not to reproduce the content, but with the flint and the steel of one's own language to spark what Robert Lowell has called 'the fire and finish of the original.
113
According to
Walter Benjamin
While a poet's words endure in his own language, even the greatest translation is destined to become part of the growth of its own language and eventually to perish with its renewal. Translation is so far removed from being the sterile equation of two dead languages that of all literary forms it is the one charged with the special mission of watching over the maturing process of the original language and the birth pangs of its own.
114
Gregory Hays, in the course of discussing
Roman
adapted translations of
ancient Greek literature
, makes approving reference to some views on the translating of poetry expressed by
David Bellos
, an accomplished French-to-English translator. Hays writes:
Among the
idées reçues
[received ideas] skewered by David Bellos is the old saw that "poetry is what gets lost in translation." The saying is often attributed to
Robert Frost
, but as Bellos notes, the attribution is as dubious as the idea itself. A translation is an assemblage of words, and as such it can contain as much or as little poetry as any other such assemblage. The
Japanese
even have a word (
chōyaku
, roughly "hypertranslation") to designate a version that deliberately improves on the original.
115
The translator's task, when translating
rhymed verse
, is more constraining than is the task of the verse's author: the author has full freedom to coordinate his thought with his words; the translator is constrained to adjusting his words to the author's thought.
Book titles
edit
Book-title translations can be either descriptive or symbolic. Descriptive book titles, for example
Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
's
Le Petit Prince
(The Little Prince), are meant to be informative, and can name the protagonist, and indicate the theme of the book. An example of a symbolic book title is
Stieg Larsson
's
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo
, whose original Swedish title is
Män som hatar kvinnor
(Men Who Hate Women). Such symbolic book titles usually indicate the theme, issues, or atmosphere of the work.
When translators are working with long book titles, the translated titles are often shorter and indicate the theme of the book.
116
Plays
edit
The translation of plays poses many problems such as the added element of actors, speech duration, translation literalness, and the relationship between the arts of drama and acting. Successful play translators are able to create language that allows the actor and the playwright to work together effectively.
117
: 55
Play translators must also take into account several other aspects: the final performance, varying theatrical and acting traditions, characters' speaking styles, modern theatrical discourse, and even the acoustics of the auditorium, i.e., whether certain words will have the same effect on the new audience as they had on the original audience.
118
Audiences in Shakespeare's time were more accustomed than modern playgoers to actors having longer stage time.
117
: 56
Modern translators tend to simplify the sentence structures of earlier dramas, which included compound sentences with intricate hierarchies of subordinate clauses.
119
120
Chinese literature
edit
In translating Chinese literature, translators struggle to find true fidelity in translating into the target language. In
The Poem Behind the Poem
, Barnstone argues that poetry "can't be made to sing through a mathematics that doesn't factor in the creativity of the translator".
121
A notable piece of work translated into English is the
Wen Xuan
, an anthology representative of major works of Chinese literature. Translating this work requires a high knowledge of the
genres
presented in the book, such as poetic forms, various prose types including memorials, letters, proclamations, praise poems, edicts, and historical, philosophical and political disquisitions, threnodies and laments for the dead, and examination essays. Thus the literary translator must be familiar with the writings, lives, and thought of a large number of its 130 authors, making the
Wen Xuan
one of the most difficult literary works to translate.
122
Religious texts
edit
Further information:
Bible translations
and
Quran translations
Jerome
patron saint
of translators and
encyclopedists
An important role in history has been played by translation of religious texts. Such translations may be influenced by tension between the text and the religious values the translators wish to convey.
123
For example,
Buddhist
monks
who translated the
Indian
sutras
into
Chinese
occasionally adjusted their translations to better reflect
China
's distinct
culture
, emphasizing notions such as
filial piety
One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the 3rd century BCE rendering of some books of the biblical
Old Testament
from Hebrew into
Koine Greek
. The translation is known as the "
Septuagint
", a name that refers to the supposedly seventy translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible at
Alexandria
, Egypt. According to legend, each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and all seventy versions proved identical. The
Septuagint
became the
source text
for later translations into many languages, including Latin,
Coptic
Armenian
, and
Georgian
Still considered one of the greatest translators in history, for having rendered the Bible into Latin, is
Jerome
(347–420 CE), the
patron saint
of translators. For centuries the
Roman Catholic Church
used his translation (known as the
Vulgate
), though even this translation stirred controversy. By contrast with Jerome's contemporary,
Augustine of Hippo
(354–430 CE), who endorsed precise translation, Jerome believed in adaptation, and sometimes invention, in order to more effectively bring across the meaning. Jerome's colorful Vulgate translation of the Bible includes some crucial instances of "overdetermination". For example,
Isaiah
's prophecy announcing that the Savior will be born of a virgin, uses the word '
almah
, which is also used to describe the dancing girls at
Solomon
's court, and simply means young and nubile. Jerome, writes
Marina Warner
, translates it as
virgo
, "adding divine authority to the virulent cult of
sexual
disgust that shaped Christian moral theology (the [Moslem]
Quran
, free from this linguistic trap, does not connect
Mariam
Mary
's miraculous nature with moral horror of sex)." The apple that
Eve
offered to
Adam
, according to Mark Polizzotti, could equally well have been an
apricot
, orange, or banana; but Jerome liked the
pun
malus/malum
(apple/evil).
30
Pope Francis
has suggested that the phrase "lead us not into temptation", in the
Lord's Prayer
found in the
Gospels of Matthew
(the first Gospel, written
c.
80
–90 CE) and
Luke
(the third Gospel, written
c.
80
–110 CE), should more properly be translated, "do not let us fall into temptation", commenting that God does not lead people into temptation—
Satan
does.
Some important early Christian authors interpreted the Bible's Greek text and
Jerome
's Latin Vulgate similarly to Pope Francis. A.J.B. Higgins
125
in 1943 showed that among the earliest Christian authors, the understanding and even the text of this devotional verse underwent considerable changes. These ancient writers suggest that, even if the Greek and Latin texts are left unmodified, something like "do not let us fall" could be an acceptable English rendering. Higgins cited
Tertullian
, the earliest of the Latin
Church Fathers
c.
155
– c.
240 CE
, "do not allow us to be led") and
Cyprian
c.
200
–258 CE, "do not allow us to be led into temptation"). A later author,
Ambrose
c.
340
–397 CE), followed Cyprian's interpretation. Augustine of Hippo (354–430), familiar with Jerome's Latin Vulgate rendering, observed that "many people... say it this way: 'and do not allow us to be led into temptation.'"
126
In 863 CE the brothers
Saints Cyril and Methodius
, the
Byzantine Empire
's "Apostles to the Slavs", began translating parts of the Bible into the
Old Church Slavonic
language, using the
Glagolitic script
that they had devised, based on the
Greek alphabet
The periods preceding and contemporary with the
Protestant Reformation
saw translations of the Bible into
vernacular
(local) European languages—a development that contributed to
Western Christianity
's split into Roman Catholicism and
Protestantism
over disparities between Catholic and Protestant renderings of crucial words and passages (and due to a Protestant-perceived need to reform the Roman Catholic Church). Lasting effects on the religions, cultures, and languages of their respective countries were exerted by such Bible translations as
Martin Luther
's into German (the
New Testament
, 1522),
Jakub Wujek
's into Polish (1599, as revised by the
Jesuits
), and
William Tyndale's version
(New Testament, 1526 and revisions) and the
King James Version
into English (1611).
Mistranslation:
Michelangelo
's
horned Moses
Efforts to translate the Bible into English had their
martyrs
William Tyndale
c.
1494
–1536) was convicted of
heresy
at
Antwerp
, was strangled to death while tied at the stake, and then his dead body was burned.
127
Earlier,
John Wycliffe
c.
mid-1320s
– 1384) had managed to die a natural death, but 30 years later the
Council of Constance
in 1415 declared him a heretic and decreed that his works and earthly remains should be burned; the order, confirmed by
Pope Martin V
, was carried out in 1428, and Wycliffe's corpse was exhumed and burned and the ashes cast into the
River Swift
. Debate and religious
schism
over different translations of religious texts continue, as demonstrated by, for example, the
King James Only movement
A famous
mistranslation
of a
Biblical
text is the rendering of the Hebrew word
קֶרֶן
keren
), which has several meanings, as "
horn
" in a context where it more plausibly means "beam of light": as a result, for centuries artists, including sculptor
Michelangelo
, have rendered
Moses the Lawgiver
with horns growing from his forehead.
Chinese
translation, verses 33–34 of
Quran'
surah
(chapter) 36
Such fallibility of the translation process has contributed to the
Islamic
world's ambivalence about translating the
Quran
(also spelled
Koran
) from the original Arabic, as received by the prophet
Muhammad
from
Allah
(God) through the angel
Gabriel
incrementally between 609 and 632 CE, the year of Muhammad's death. During prayers, the
Quran
, as the miraculous and inimitable word of Allah, is recited only in Arabic. However, as of 1936, it had been translated into at least 102 languages.
128
A fundamental difficulty in translating the
Quran
accurately stems from the fact that an Arabic word, like a Hebrew or Aramaic word, may have a
range of meanings
, depending on
context
. This is said to be a linguistic feature, particularly of all
Semitic languages
, that adds to the usual similar difficulties encountered in translating between any two languages.
128
There is always an element of human judgment—of interpretation—involved in understanding and translating a text. Muslims regard any translation of the
Quran
as but one possible interpretation of the
Quranic (Classical) Arabic
text, and not as a full equivalent of that divinely communicated original. Hence such a translation is often called an "interpretation" rather than a translation.
129
To complicate matters further, as with other languages, the meanings and usages of some expressions have changed
over time
, between the Classical Arabic of the
Quran
, and modern Arabic. Thus a modern Arabic speaker may misinterpret the meaning of a word or passage in the
Quran
. Moreover, the interpretation of a Quranic passage will also depend on the historic context of Muhammad's life and of his early community. Properly researching that context requires a detailed knowledge of
hadith
and
sirah
, which are themselves vast and complex texts. Hence, analogously to the translating of
Chinese literature
, an attempt at an accurate translation of the
Quran
requires a knowledge not only of the Arabic language and of the target language, including their respective evolutions, but also a deep understanding of the two
cultures
involved.
Experimental literature
edit
Experimental literature, such as
Kathy Acker
’s novel
Don Quixote
(1986) and
Giannina Braschi
’s novel
Yo-Yo Boing!
(1998), features a translative writing that highlights discomforts of the interlingual and translingual encounters and literary translation as a creative practice.
130
131
These authors weave their own translations into their texts.
Acker's
Postmodern
fiction both fragments and preserves the materiality of
Catullus
’s Latin text in ways that tease out its semantics and syntax without wholly appropriating them, a method that unsettles the notion of any fixed and finished translation.
130
Whereas Braschi's trilogy of experimental works (
Empire of Dreams
, 1988;
Yo-Yo Boing!
, 1998, and
United States of Banana
, 2011) deals with the very subject of translation.
132
Her trilogy presents the evolution of the Spanish language through loose translations of dramatic, poetic, and philosophical writings from the Medieval,
Golden Age
, and
Modernist
eras into contemporary Caribbean, Latin American, and Nuyorican Spanish expressions. Braschi's translations of classical texts in Iberian Spanish (into other regional and historical linguistic and poetic frameworks) challenge the concept of national languages.
133
Science fiction
edit
Science fiction
being a
genre
with a recognizable set of conventions and literary genealogies, in which language often includes
neologisms
, neosemes,
clarification needed
and
invented languages
, techno-scientific and
pseudoscientific
vocabulary,
134
and fictional representation of the translation process,
135
136
the translation of science-fiction texts involves specific concerns.
137
The science-fiction translator tends to acquire specific competences and assume a distinctive publishing and cultural agency.
138
139
As in the case of other mass-fiction genres, this professional specialization and role often is not recognized by publishers and scholars.
140
Translation of science fiction accounts for the transnational nature of science fiction's repertoire of shared conventions and
tropes
. After
World War II
, many European countries were swept by a wave of translations from the English.
141
142
Due to the prominence of English as a source language, the use of
pseudonyms
and
pseudotranslations
became common in countries such as Italy
137
and Hungary,
143
and English has often been used as a
vehicular language
to translate from languages such as Chinese and Japanese.
144
More recently, the international market in science-fiction translations has seen an increasing presence of source languages other than English.
144
Technical translation
edit
Main article:
Technical translation
Technical translation renders documents whose useful lives are often limited – such as manuals, instruction sheets, internal memos, minutes, and financial reports – for a limited audience who are directly affected by the document. Thus, a user guide for a particular model of refrigerator is useful only for the refrigerator's owner and will remain useful only so long as that refrigerator model is in use. Similarly, software documentation generally pertains to a particular software, whose applications are used only by a certain class of users.
145
Some translators need to entrust letters, debates, and similar texts in other languages and specialized fields to other translators in order to enhance the completeness of their work. For example, in the book
Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Abbasi
the translator collaborated with an Ottoman Turkish translator and a specialist in Islamic sciences to translate the work into English.
146
Some translators also need to travel to different countries for accurate translation and identification of geographical names. They sometimes seek assistance from specialists to read and translate certain difficult and illegible historical texts.
146
Survey translation
edit
survey
questionnaire
consists of a list of questions and answer categories aimed at extracting data from a particular group of people about their attitude, behavior, or knowledge. In cross-national and cross-cultural
survey research
, translation is crucial to collecting comparable data.
147
148
Originally developed for the
European Social Surveys
, the model TRAPD (Translation, Review, Adjudication, Pretest, and Documentation) is now "widely used in the global survey research community, although not always labeled as such or implemented in its complete form".
149
150
151
A team approach is recommended in the survey-translation process, to include translators, subject-matter experts, and persons helpful to the process.
152
For example, even when project managers and researchers do not speak the language of the translation, they know the study objectives well and the intent behind the questions, and therefore have a key role in improving the translation.
153
In addition, a survey-translation framework based on
sociolinguistics
states that a linguistically appropriate translation cannot be wholly sufficient to achieve the communicative effect of the source-language survey; the translation must also incorporate the social practices and cultural norms of the target language.
154
See also
edit
American Literary Translators Association
Back-translation
Bible translations
Bible translations into English
Bilingual dictionary
Bilingual pun
Bilingualism
Brevity law
Bridge language
Calque
CEATL
Certified translation
Chinese translation theory
Code mixing
Communication accommodation theory
Contrastive linguistics
Critical period hypothesis
Dictionary-based machine translation
Diglossia
Dummy pronoun
Equivalence (translation)
European Master's in Translation
Example-based machine translation
False cognate
False friend
First language
Formulaic language
Fusional languages
Graeco-Arabic translation movement
Head (linguistics)
History of scholarship
Homophonic translation
Humour in translation
Hybrid word
Idiom
Indeterminacy of translation
Indirect translation
Inflected languages
International Federation of Translators
Internationalization and localization
Interpreting notes
Legal translation
Lexicography
Literal translation
Machine translation
Medical translation
Menzerath's law
Metaphrase
Mobile translation
Multilingualism
National Translation Mission
(NTM)
Neural machine translation
Ontological commitment
Paralanguage
Pseudotranslation
Register (sociolinguistics)
Rule-based machine translation
Second language
Second-language acquisition
Self-translation
Semantic equivalence (linguistics)
Skopos theory
Sound symbolism
Statistical machine translation
Syntax
Synthetic languages
Technical translation
Terminology
Textual criticism
Transcription (linguistics)
Translating for legal equivalence
Translation associations
Translation criticism
Translation memory
Translation-quality standards
Languages portal
Notes
edit
French philosopher and writer
Gilles Ménage
(1613-92) commented on translations by humanist Perrot Nicolas d'Ablancourt (1606-64): "They remind me of a woman whom I greatly loved in
Tours
, who was beautiful but unfaithful."
31
Cf. a supposed comment by
Winston Churchill
: "This is the type of pedantry up with which I will not put."
"Interpretation" in this sense is to be distinguished from the function of an "
interpreter
" who translates orally or by the use of
sign language
Rebecca Armstrong writes: "A translator has to make choices; any word they choose will carry its own nuance, a particular set of interpretations, implications and associations. [Often the translator] need[s] to render the same [...] word differently in different contexts."
64
See "
Poetry
", below, for a similar observation concerning the occasional superiority of the translation over the original.
Elsewhere Merwin recalls Pound saying: "[A]t your age you don't have anything to write about. You may think you do, but you don't. So get to work translating. The
Provençal
is the real source...."
80
For example, in
Polish
, a "translation" is "
przekład
" or "
tłumaczenie
." Both "translator" and "interpreter" are "
tłumacz
." For a time in the 18th century, however, for "translator," some writers used a word, "
przekładowca
," that is no longer in use.
82
J.M. Cohen observes: "Scientific translation is the aim of an age that would reduce all activities to
techniques
. It is impossible however to imagine a literary-translation machine less complex than the human brain itself, with all its knowledge, reading, and discrimination."
93
For instance, Henry Benedict Mackey's translation of
St. Francis de Sales
's "
Treatise on the Love of God
" consistently omits the saint's analogies comparing God to a nursing mother, references to Bible stories such as the rape of Tamar, and so forth.
MJC Warren, Lecturer in Biblical and Religious Studies,
University of Sheffield
, points out (more explicitly than Charles McNamara) that Luke gives a shorter version of Jesus's Lord's Prayer, leaving off the request that God "deliver us from evil"; that (as Charles McNamara also says) accurate translation is not the question here; and that the Bible records a number of incidents when God commands evil actions, such as that
Abraham
kill his only son,
Isaac
(whose execution is canceled at the last moment).
124
References
edit
The Oxford Companion to the English Language
, Namit Bhatia, ed., 1992, pp. 1,051–54.
W.J. Hutchins,
Early Years in Machine Translation: Memoirs and Biographies of Pioneers
, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2000.
M. Snell-Hornby,
The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints?
, Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 2006, p. 133.
"Rosetta Stone",
The Columbia Encyclopedia
, 5th ed., 1994, p. 2,361.
Vélez, Fabio.
Antes de Babel
. pp.
3–
21.
Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83.
Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 84.
Lydia Davis
, "Eleven Pleasures of Translating",
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIII, no. 19 (8 December 2016), pp. 22–24. "I like to reproduce the word order, and the order of ideas, of the original [text] whenever possible. [p. 22] [T]ranslation is, eternally, a compromise. You settle for the best you can do rather than achieving perfection, though there is the occasional perfect solution [to the problem of finding an equivalent expression in the target language]." (p. 23.)
Typically,
analytic languages
Typically,
synthetic languages
Some examples of this are described in the article,
"Translating the 17th of May into English and other horror stories"
, retrieved 15 April 2010.
Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 85.
L.G. Kelly, cited in Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86.
Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86.
J.M. Cohen, "Translation",
Encyclopedia Americana
, 1986, vol. 27, p. 12.
Bakir, K.H. 1984. Arabization of Higher Education in Iraq. PhD thesis, University of Bath.
Wakim, K.G. 1944. Arabic Medicine in Literature. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 32 (1), January: 96-104.
Hitti, P.K. 1970. History of the Arabs from the Earliest Times to the Present. 10th ed. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Monastra, Y., and W. J. Kopycki. 2009. Libraries. In: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. edited by J.L. Esposito, 2nd ed., vol.3, 424-427. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hussain, S.V. 1960. Organization and Administration of Muslim Libraries: From 786 A.D. to 1492 A.D. Quarterly Journal of the Pakistan Library Association 1 (1), July: 8-11.
S.A. El Gabri,
The Arab Experiment in Translation
, New Delhi, India, Bookman’s Club, 1984.
Perry Link
, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry" (review of
Eliot Weinberger
, with an afterword by
Octavio Paz
19 Ways of Looking at
Wang Wei
(with More Ways)
, New Directions; and
Eliot Weinberger
The Ghosts of Birds
, New Directions),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), pp. 49–50.
Perry Link
, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry",
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (November 24, 2016), p. 49.
Perry Link
, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry",
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), p. 50.
Christopher de Bellaigue
, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry,
Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950
, University of Chicago Press),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXII, no. 10 (June 4, 2015), p. 77.
Malise Ruthven
, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of
Christopher de Bellaigue
The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times
, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa,
Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century
, Cambridge University Press),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 22.
Malise Ruthven
, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of
Christopher de Bellaigue
The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times
, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa,
Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century
, Cambridge University Press),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 24.
Christopher de Bellaigue
, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry,
Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950
),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 77–78.
Christopher de Bellaigue
, "Dreams of Islamic Liberalism" (review of Marwa Elshakry,
Reading Darwin in Arabic, 1860–1950
),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 78.
Marina Warner
, "The Politics of Translation" (a review of
Kate Briggs
This Little Art
, 2017;
Mireille Gansel
, translated by
Ros Schwartz
, 2017;
Mark Polizzotti
Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto
, 2018;
Boyd Tonkin
, ed.,
The 100 Best Novels in Translation
, 2018;
Clive Scott
The Work of Literary Translation
, 2018),
London Review of Books
, vol. 40, no. 19 (11 October 2018), p. 22.
Quoted in
Amparo Hurtado Albir
La notion de fidélité en traduction
(The Idea of Fidelity in Translation), Paris, Didier Érudition, 1990, p. 231.
Dryden, John.
"Preface to Sylvae"
Bartelby.com
. Retrieved
27 April
2015
Antoine Berman
L'épreuve de l'étranger
, 1984.
Lawrence Venuti
, "Call to Action", in
The Translator's Invisibility
, 1994.
Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 83-87.
"How to Overcome These 5 Challenges of English to Spanish Translation"
. Jr Language. 23 June 2017
. Retrieved
30 September
2017
Mudau, Thama; Kabinde-Machate, Martha L.; Mandende, Itani P. (15 March 2024).
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ISSN
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Willis Barnstone,
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(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), p. 228.
Basil Hatim and
Jeremy Munday
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, Introduction, pg. 171.
Milton Park
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, 2004.
ISBN
9780415283052
Bai Liping, "Similarity and difference in Translation." Taken from
Similarity and Difference in Translation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Similarity and Translation
, pg. 339. Eds. Stefano Arduini and Robert Hodgson. 2nd ed.
Rome
: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 2007.
ISBN
9788884983749
Carline FéRailleur-Dumoulin,
A Career in Language Translation: Insightful Information to Guide You in Your Journey as a Professional Translator
, pgs. 1-2.
Bloomington
AuthorHouse
, 2009.
ISBN
9781467052047
Pokorn, Nike K. (2007). "In defense of fuzziness".
Target
19
(2):
190–
191.
doi
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Christiane Nord
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, pg. 1. 2nd ed.
Amsterdam
Rodopi
, 2005.
ISBN
9789042018082
Gerard-Rene de Groot, "Translating legal information." Taken from
Translation in Law
, vol. 5 of the
Journal of Legal Hermeneutics
, pg. 132. Ed. Giuseppe Zaccaria.
Hamburg
: LIT Verlag Munster, 2000.
ISBN
9783825848620
Basil Hatim and
Jeremy Munday
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, Introduction, pg. 10.
Milton Park
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, 2004.
ISBN
9780415283052
Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
(2020).
Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond
. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
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ISBN
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Munday, Jeremy
(2016).
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ISBN
978-1138912557
Munday, Jeremy (2016).
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. London/New York: Routledge. pp.
67–74
ISBN
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Measurement in Nursing and Health Research
, pg. 454. Eds. Carolyn Waltz,
Ora L. Strickland
and Elizabeth Lenz. 4th ed.
New York
Springer Publishing
, 2010.
ISBN
9780826105080
Crystal, Scott.
"Back Translation: Same questions – different continent"
(PDF)
Communicate
(Winter 2004): 5. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 20 May 2006
. Retrieved
20 November
2007
"Back Translation for Quality Control of Informed Consent Forms"
(PDF)
Journal of Clinical Research Best Practices
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 5 May 2006
. Retrieved
1 February
2006
Twain, Mark; Strothmann, F. (Frederick); Roy J. Friedman Mark Twain Collection (Library of Congress) DLC (1903).
The jumping frog : in English, then in French, then clawed back into a civilized language once more by patient, unremunerated toil
. Boston Public Library. New York : Harper & Bros.
Czesław Miłosz
The History of Polish Literature
, pp. 193–94.
Kotrc RF, Walters KR. A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus. A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic. Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila. 1979 December;1(4):256–304.
Gilman, E. Ward (ed.). 1989. "A Brief History of English Usage", Webster's Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield (Mass.): Merriam-Webster, pp. 7a-11a
Archived
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Greene, Robert Lane.
"Three Books for the Grammar Lover in Your Life: NPR"
NPR.org
NPR
. Retrieved
18 May
2011
Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum,
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language
, Cambridge (UK), Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 627 f.
Stamper, Kory (1 January 2017).
Word by Word: The Secret Life of Dictionaries
. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 47.
ISBN
9781101870945
Mario Pei
The Story of Language
, p. 424.
Michael Wood
, "Break your bleedin' heart" (review of
Marcel Proust
Swann's Way
, translated by
James Grieve
, NYRB, June 2023,
ISBN
978 1 68137 6295
, 450 pp.; and
Marcel Proust
The Swann Way
, translated by
Brian Nelson
, Oxford, September 2023,
ISBN
978 0 19 8871521
, 430 pp.),
London Review of Books
, vol. 46, no. 1 (4 January 2024), pp. 37–38. (p. 38.)
Emily Wilson
, "Ah, how miserable!" (review of three separate translations of
The Oresteia
by
Aeschylus
: by
Oliver Taplin
, Liveright, November 2018; by
Jeffrey Scott Bernstein
, Carcanet, April 2020; and by
David Mulroy
, Wisconsin, April 2018),
London Review of Books
, vol. 42, no. 19 (8 October 2020), pp. 9–12, 14. (Quotation: p. 14.)
Zdzisław Najder
Joseph Conrad: A Life
, Camden House, 2007, ISBN 978-1-57113-347-2, pp. 538–39.
Stephen Greenblatt
, "Can We Ever Master King Lear?",
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 3 (23 February 2017), p. 36.
Rebecca Armstrong, "All Kinds of Unlucky" (review of
The
Aeneid
, translated by
Shadi Bartsch
, Profile, November 2020,
ISBN
978 1 78816 267 8
, 400 pp.),
London Review of Books
, vol. 43, no. 5 (4 March 2021), pp. 35–36. (Quotation: p. 35.)
Mark Polizzotti
, quoted in
Marina Warner
, "The Politics of Translation" (a review of
Kate Briggs
This Little Art
, 2017;
Mireille Gansel
Translation as Transhumance
, translated by
Ros Schwartz
, 2017;
Mark Polizzotti
Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto
, 2018;
Boyd Tonkin
, ed.,
The 100 Best Novels in Translation
, 2018;
Clive Scott
The Work of Literary Translation
, 2018),
London Review of Books
, vol. 40, no. 19 (11 October 2018), p. 21.
Zdzisław Najder
Joseph Conrad: A Life
, 2007, p. IX.
Zdzisław Najder
Joseph Conrad: A Life
, 2007, p. 524.
Zdzisław Najder
Joseph Conrad: A Life
, 2007, p. 332.
Walter Kaiser, "A Hero of Translation" (a review of Jean Findlay,
Chasing Lost Time: The Life of
C.K. Scott Moncrieff
: Soldier, Spy, and Translator
),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), p. 55.
Emily Wilson
, "A Doggish Translation" (review of
The Poems of
Hesiod
: Theogony, Works and Days, and The Shield of Herakles
, translated from the Greek by
Barry B. Powell
University of California Press
, 2017, 184 pp.),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXV, no. 1 (18 January 2018), p. 36.
Lauren Kane, "Translating from Troy to Ithaca", an interview, in the 10 May 2025
New York Review of Books
email newsletter, with
Daniel Mendelsohn
about his English rendition of
Homer
's
Odyssey
published in April 2025.
Christopher Kasparek, translator's foreword to
Bolesław Prus
Pharaoh
, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek,
Amazon Kindle
e-book
, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV.
Gary Marcus
, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind",
Scientific American
, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), p. 63.
Gary Marcus
, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind",
Scientific American
, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), p. 61.
David Bromwich
, "In Praise of Ambiguity" (a review of
Michael Wood
On Empson
Princeton University Press
, 2017),
The New York Review of Books
), vol. LXIV, no. 16 (26 October 2017), pp. 50–52.
Michael Gorra
, "Corrections of Taste" (review of
Terry Eagleton
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, Yale University Press, 323 pp.),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIX, no. 15 (6 October 2022), p. 17.
Billiani, Francesca (2001)
Anka Muhlstein
, "Painters and Writers: When Something New Happens",
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 1 (19 January 2017), p. 35.
W.S. Merwin: To Plant a Tree
: one-hour documentary shown on
PBS
Ange Mlinko
, "Whole Earth Troubador" (review of
The Essential W.S. Merlin
, edited by
Michael Wiegers
, Copper Canyon, 338 pp., 2017),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 19 (7 December 2017), p. 45.
Merwin's introduction to his 2013
Selected Translations
, quoted by
Ange Mlinko
, "Whole Earth Troubador" (review of
The Essential W.S. Merlin
, edited by
Michael Wiegers
, Copper Canyon, 338 pp., 2017),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 19 (7 December 2017), p. 45.
Edward Balcerzan
Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia
(Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), 1977,
passim
Hugh Thomas,
Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes and the Fall of Old Mexico
, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1993, pp. 171-72.
"Sacagawea",
The Encyclopedia Americana
, 1986, volume 24, p. 72.
Chen, Weihong; Cheng, Xiaojuan (1 June 2014).
"An Analysis of Lin Shu's Translation Activity from the Cultural Perspective"
(PDF)
Theory and Practice in Language Studies
(6):
1201–
1206.
doi
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ISSN
1799-2591
"The many voices of the web"
The Economist
. 4 March 2010.
Graham, Paul.
"How Ackuna wants to fix language translation by crowdsourcing it | Wired UK"
. Wired. Archived from
the original
on 17 May 2012
. Retrieved
1 May
2012
Boutin, Paul (26 March 2010).
"Speaklike offers human-powered translation for blogs"
VentureBeat
Toto, Serkan (11 January 2010).
"MyGengo Is Mechanical Turk For Translations"
The Washington Post
See the
annually performed NIST tests since 2001
Archived
22 March 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
and
Bilingual Evaluation Understudy
Vashee, Kirti (2007).
"Statistical machine translation and translation memory: An integration made in heaven!"
ClientSide News Magazine
(6):
18–
20. Archived from
the original
on 28 September 2007.
Altarabin, Mahmoud (2020).
The Routledge Course on Media, Legal and Technical Translation: English-Arabic-English
. Routledge. p. 15.
ISBN
978-1-000-19763-1
J.M. Cohen, "Translation",
Encyclopedia Americana
, 1986, vol. 27, p. 14.
Claude Piron
Le défi des langues
(The Language Challenge), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994.
Gary Marcus
, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish
artificial intelligence
from the natural kind",
Scientific American
, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63.
Wilson, Emily
, "The Pleasures of Translation" (review of Mark Polizzotti,
Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto
, MIT Press, 2018, 182 pp.),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXV, no. 9 (24 May 2018), p. 47.
Paul Taylor, "Insanely Complicated, Hopelessly Inadequate" (review of
Brian Cantwell Smith
The Promise of Artificial Intelligence: Reckoning and Judgment
, MIT, October 2019,
ISBN
978 0 262 04304 5
, 157 pp.;
Gary Marcus
and Ernest Davis,
Rebooting AI: Building Artificial Intelligence We Can Trust
, Ballantine, September 2019,
ISBN
978 1 5247 4825 8
, 304 pp.;
Judea Pearl
and Dana Mackenzie,
The Book of Why: The New Science of Cause and Effect
, Penguin, May 2019,
ISBN
978 0 14 198241 0
, 418 pp.),
London Review of Books
, vol. 43, no. 2 (21 January 2021), pp. 37–39. Paul Taylor quotation: p. 39.
Gary Marcus
, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish
artificial intelligence
from the natural kind",
Scientific American
, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63.
Anderson, Alison (14 May 2013).
"Where Are the Women in Translation?"
Words Without Borders
. Retrieved
28 July
2018
"Women in Translation: An Interview with Meytal Radzinski"
. 25 July 2016.
"Meytal Radzinski - The Bookseller"
www.thebookseller.com
Radzinski, Meytal (3 July 2018).
"Biblibio: Exclusion is a choice - Bias in "Best of" lists"
J.M. Cohen, p. 12.
J.M Cohen, pp. 12-13.
J.M. Cohen, p. 13.
J.M. Cohen, p. 14.
Schuessler, Jennifer (30 September 2016).
"Translating Shakespeare? 36 Playwrights Taketh the Big Risk"
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11 August
2019
Schuessler, Jennifer (3 April 2019).
"A Shakespeare Festival Presents Modern Translations. Cue the Debate (Again)"
The New York Times
. Retrieved
11 August
2019
North, Anna (20 November 2017).
"Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here's what happened when a woman took the job"
Vox
. Retrieved
9 September
2020
A discussion of Hofstadter's otherwise latitudinarian views on translation is found in Tony Dokoupil, "
Translation: Pardon My French: You Suck at This
,"
Newsweek
, 18 May 2009, p. 10.
Steiner, George (2013).
After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation
. Open Road Media. p. 85.
ISBN
978-1-4804-1185-2
OCLC
892798474
ʻAṭṭār, Farīd al-Dīn (2017).
The Conference of the Birds
. translated by Sholeh Wolpé (First ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 24.
ISBN
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OCLC
951070853
Santos, Sherod (2000).
A Poetry of Two Minds
. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 107.
ISBN
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OCLC
43114993
Benjamin, Walter (1996–2003). Bullock, Marcus Paul; Jennings, Michael William (eds.).
Selected Writings
. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. p. 256.
ISBN
978-0-674-00896-0
OCLC
34705134
Gregory Hays, "Found in Translation" (review of
Denis Feeney
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, Harvard University Press),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), p. 58.
Jiří Levý,
The Art of Translation
, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 122.
Carlson, Harry G. (1964). "Problems in Play Translation".
Educational Theatre Journal
16
(1):
55–
58.
doi
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JSTOR
3204378
Jiří Levý,
The Art of Translation
, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, pp. 129-39.
Jiří Levý,
The Art of Translation
, Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011, p. 129.
Kruger, Loren (2007). "Keywords and Contexts: Translating Theatre Theory".
Theatre Journal
59
(3):
355–
58.
doi
10.1353/tj.2007.0146
JSTOR
25070054
S2CID
191603013
Frank Stewart,
The Poem Behind the Poem
, Washington, Copper Canyon Press, 2004.
Eugene Eoyang and Lin Yao-fu,
Translating Chinese Literature
, Indiana University Press, 1995, pp. 42–43.
Tobler, Stefan; Sabău, Antoaneta (1 April 2018).
"Translating Confession, Editorial RES 1/2018"
Review of Ecumenical Studies Sibiu
10
(1):
5–
9.
doi
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S2CID
188019915
MJC Warren, "‘Lead us not into temptation’: why Pope Francis is wrong about the Lord’s Prayer",
The Conversation
, 8 December 2017
[1]
A.J.B. Higgins, "'Lead Us Not into Temptation': Some Latin Variants",
Journal of Theological Studies
, 1943.
Charles McNamara, "Lead Us Not into Temptation? Francis Is Not the First to Question a Key Phrase of the Lord's Prayer",
Commonweal
, 1 January 2018.
[2]
Farris, Michael (2007),
From Tyndale to Madison
, p. 37
Fatani, Afnan (2006). "Translation and the Qur'an". In
Leaman, Oliver
(ed.).
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. Routledge. pp.
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669.
ISBN
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Malise Ruthven
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, Granta, 2006, p. 90,
ISBN
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Fisher, Abigail (October 2020).
"These lips that are not (d)one: Writing with the 'pash' of translation"
(PDF)
TEXT: Journal of Writing and Writing Courses
24
(2):
1–
25.
Braschi and Acker employ certain techniques to produce writing that eschews fixed meaning in favour of facilitating the emergence of fluid and interpermeating textual resonances, as well as to establish a meta-discourse on the writing and translation process.
Moreno Fernandez, Francisco (2020).
Yo-Yo Boing! Or Literature as a Translingual Practice (Poets, Philosophers, Lovers: on the writings of Giannina Braschi)
. Aldama, Frederick Luis; Stavans, Ilan; O'Dwyer, Tess. Pittsburgh, Pa.: U Pittsburgh.
ISBN
978-0-8229-4618-2
OCLC
1143649021
This epilinguistic awareness is apparent in the constant language games and in the way in which she so often plays with this translingual reality and with all the factors with which it contrasts and among which it moves so liquidly.
Stanchich, Maritza.
Bilingual Big Bang: Giannina Braschi's Trilogy Levels the Spanish-English Playing Field (Poets, Philosophers, Lovers)
. Pittsburgh: U Pittsburgh. pp.
63–
75.
Carrión notes, the idea of an only tongue ruling over a considerable number of different nations and peoples is fundamentally questioned.
Carrión, María M. (1 January 1996).
"Geography, (M)Other Tongues and the Role of Translation in Giannina Braschi's El imperio de los sueños"
Studies in 20th & 21st Century Literature
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Csicsery-Ronay, Istvan Jr. (2008).
The Seven Beauties of Science Fiction
. Wesleyan University Press. pp.
13–
46.
ISBN
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Kaindl, Klaus; Spitzel, Karlheinz (2014).
Transfiction: Research into the Realities of Translation Fiction
. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp.
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362.
ISBN
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Mossop, Brian (1 April 1996). "The Image of Translation in Science Fiction & Astronomy".
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doi
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Iannuzzi, Giulia (2 November 2018).
"Science fiction, cultural industrialization and the translation of techno-science in post-World War II Italy"
Perspectives
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hdl
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Iannuzzi, Giulia (2017).
"Traduttore, consulente editoriale, intellettuale: Riccardo Valla e la fantascienza angloamericana in Italia"
Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione: International Journal of Translation
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Iannuzzi, Giulia (2019).
Un laboratorio di fantastici libri. Riccardo Valla intellettuale, editore, traduttore. Con un'appendice di lettere inedite a cura di Luca G. Manenti
. Chieti (Italy).
ISBN
9788833051031
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
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Sohár, Anikó (1999).
The Cultural Transfer of Science Fiction and Fantasy in Hungary 1989-1995
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Byrne, Jody (2006).
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Munshi, Eskandar Beg
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History of Shah 'Abbas the Great (Tārīkh-e 'Ālamārā-ye 'Abbāsī) / Roger M. Savory, translator
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"Special Issue on Questionnaire Translation"
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Cross-cultural survey methods
Wiley
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Sha, Mandy; Immerwahr, Stephen (19 February 2018).
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"FEATURE: Como conversazione: on translation"
The Paris Review
42
(155):
255–
312.
Poets and critics
Seamus Heaney
Charles Tomlinson
Tim Parks
, and others discuss the theory and practice of translation.
Gleick, James
, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of Kevin J. Mitchell,
Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will
, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30.
Godayol, Pilar (February 2013). "Metaphors, women and translation: from les belles infidèles to la frontera".
Gender and Language
(1):
97–
116.
doi
10.1558/genl.v7i1.97
Gorra, Michael
, "Corrections of Taste" (review of
Terry Eagleton
Critical Revolutionaries: Five Critics Who Changed the Way We Read
, Yale University Press, 323 pp.),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIX, no. 15 (6 October 2022), pp. 16–18.
Gouadec, Daniel
(2007).
Translation as a profession
. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
ISBN
9789027216816
Greenblatt, Stephen
, "Can We Ever Master King Lear?",
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 3 (23 February 2017), pp. 34–36.
Hays, Gregory, "Found in Translation" (review of
Denis Feeney
Beyond Greek: The Beginnings of Latin Literature
, Harvard University Press),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), pp. 56, 58.
Kaiser, Walter, "A Hero of Translation" (a review of Jean Findlay,
Chasing Lost Time: The Life of
C.K. Scott Moncrieff
: Soldier, Spy, and Translator
, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 351 pp., $30.00),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), pp. 54–56.
Lauren Kane, "Translating from Troy to Ithaca", an interview, in the 10 May 2025
New York Review of Books
email newsletter, with
Daniel Mendelsohn
about his English rendition of
Homer
's
Odyssey
published in April 2025.
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(1983). "The translator's endless toil (book reviews)".
The Polish Review
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87.
JSTOR
25777966
Includes a discussion of
European-language
cognates
of the
term
, "translation".
Kasparek, Christopher, translator's foreword to
Bolesław Prus
Pharaoh
, translated from the Polish, with foreword and notes, by Christopher Kasparek,
Amazon Kindle
e-book
, 2020, ASIN:BO8MDN6CZV.
Kelly, Louis (1979).
The true interpreter: A history of translation theory and practice in the West
. New York: St. Martin's Press.
ISBN
9780631196402
Link, Perry
, "A Magician of Chinese Poetry" (review of
Eliot Weinberger
, with an afterword by
Octavio Paz
19 Ways of Looking at
Wang Wei
(with More Ways)
, New Directions, 88 pp., $10.95 [paper]; and Eliot Weinberger,
The Ghosts of Birds
, New Directions, 211 pp., $16.95 [paper]),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (24 November 2016), pp. 49–50.
Marcus, Gary
, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish
artificial intelligence
from the natural kind",
Scientific American
, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58–63.
Multiple
tests of artificial-intelligence efficacy are needed because, "just as there is no single test of
athletic
prowess, there cannot be one ultimate test of
intelligence
." One such test, a "Construction Challenge", would test perception and physical action—"two important elements of intelligent behavior that were entirely absent from the original
Turing test
." Another proposal has been to give machines the same standardized tests of science and other disciplines that schoolchildren take. A so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence is an incapacity for reliable
disambiguation
. "[V]irtually every sentence [that people generate] is
ambiguous
, often in multiple ways." A prominent example is known as the "pronoun disambiguation problem": a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a
pronoun
in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.
McNamara, Charles, "Lead Us Not into Temptation? Francis Is Not the First to Question a Key Phrase of the Lord's Prayer",
Commonweal
, 1 January 2018.
[3]
Miłosz, Czesław
(1983).
The history of Polish literature
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ISBN
9780520044777
Mlinko, Ange
, "Whole Earth Troubador" (review of
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, edited by
Michael Wiegers
, Copper Canyon, 338 pp., 2017),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 19 (7 December 2017), pp. 45–46.
Muhlstein, Anka
, "Painters and Writers: When Something New Happens",
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 1 (19 January 2017), pp. 33–35.
Munday, Jeremy (2016).
Introducing Translation Studies: theories and applications (4th ed.)
. London/New York: Routledge.
ISBN
978-1138912557
Najder, Zdzisław (2007).
Joseph Conrad: A Life
. Camden House.
ISBN
978-1-57113-347-2
North, Anna (20 November 2017).
"Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here's what happened when a woman took the job"
Vox
. Retrieved
9 September
2020
Parks, Tim
(2007).
Translating style: a literary approach to translation - a translation approach to literature
. New York: Routledge.
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Pei, Mario
(1984).
The story of language
. New York: New American Library.
ISBN
9780452008700
Introduction by
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, revised edition.
Piron, Claude
(1994).
Le défi des langues: du gâchis au bon sens
The language challenge: from chaos to common sense
] (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan.
ISBN
9782738424327
Polizzotti, Mark,
Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto
, MIT, 168 pp., 2018,
ISBN
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Rose, Marilyn Gaddis (January 1980).
Translation: agent of communication: an international review of arts and ideas (volume 5, issue 1, special issue)
. Hamilton, New Zealand: Outrigger Publishers.
OCLC
224073589
Ruthven, Malise
, Islam in the World, Granta, 2006, ISBN 978-1-86207-906-9.
Ruthven, Malise
, "The Islamic Road to the Modern World" (review of
Christopher de Bellaigue
The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle between Faith and Reason, 1798 to Modern Times
, Liveright; and Wael Abu-'Uksa,
Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century
, Cambridge University Press),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXIV, no. 11 (22 June 2017), pp. 22, 24–25.
Schleiermacher, Friedrich (2004) [2002], "On the different methods of translating (Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens 1813)", in
Venuti, Lawrence
(ed.),
The translation studies reader
, translated by Bernofsky, Susan (2nd ed.), New York: Routledge, pp.
43–
63,
ISBN
9780415319201
Simms, Norman T. (1983).
Nimrod's sin: treason and translation in a multilingual world (volume 8, issue 2)
. Hamilton, New Zealand: Outrigger Publishers.
OCLC
9719326
Snell-Hornby, Mary
; Schopp, Jürgen F. (2013).
"Translation"
European History Online
Mainz
Institute of European History
, retrieved 29 August 2013.
Tatarkiewicz, Władysław
(1980).
A history of six ideas: an essay in aesthetics
. Translated by
Kasparek, Christopher
. The Hague, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff.
ISBN
978-8301008246
Tatarkiewicz, Władysław
O doskonałości
(On Perfection), Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1976; English translation by Christopher Kasparek subsequently serialized in
Dialectics and Humanism: The Polish Philosophical Quarterly
, vol. VI, no. 4 (autumn 1979)—vol. VIII, no 2 (spring 1981), and reprinted in
Władysław Tatarkiewicz
On Perfection
, Warsaw University Press, Center of Universalism, 1992, pp. 9–51 (the book is a collection of papers by and about Professor Tatarkiewicz).
Taylor, Paul, "Insanely Complicated, Hopelessly Inadequate" (review of
Brian Cantwell Smith
The Promise of Artificial Intelligence: Reckoning and Judgment
, MIT, October 2019,
ISBN
978 0 262 04304 5
, 157 pp.;
Gary Marcus
and Ernest Davis,
Rebooting AI: Building Artificial Intelligence We Can Trust
, Ballantine, September 2019,
ISBN
978 1 5247 4825 8
, 304 pp.;
Judea Pearl
and Dana Mackenzie,
The Book of Why: The New Science of Cause and Effect
, Penguin, May 2019,
ISBN
978 0 14 198241 0
, 418 pp.),
London Review of Books
, vol. 43, no. 2 (21 January 2021), pp. 37–39.
Tobler, Stefan; Sabău, Antoaneta (1 April 2018).
"Translating Confession: Editorial RES 1/2018"
Review of Ecumenical Studies
10
(1). Walter de Gruyter GmbH:
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9.
doi
10.2478/ress-2018-0001
ISSN
2359-8107
S2CID
188019915
Vélez, Fabio (2016).
Antes de Babel. Una historia retórica de la traducción
. Granada, Spain: Comares.
ISBN
978-8490454718
Venuti, Lawrence
(1994).
The translator's invisibility
. New York: Routledge.
ISBN
9780415115384
Warner, Marina
, "The Politics of Translation" (a review of Kate Briggs,
This Little Art
, 2017; Mireille Gansel,
Translation as Transhumance
, translated by
Ros Schwartz
, 2017; Mark Polizzotti,
Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto
, 2018;
Boyd Tonkin
, ed.,
The 100 Best Novels in Translation
, 2018;
Clive Scott
The Work of Literary Translation
, 2018),
London Review of Books
, vol. 40, no. 19 (11 October 2018), pp. 21–24.
Wilson, Emily
, "A Doggish Translation" (review of
The Poems of
Hesiod
: Theogony, Works and Days, and The Shield of Herakles
, translated from the Greek by
Barry B. Powell
University of California Press
, 2017, 184 pp.),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXV, no. 1 (18 January 2018), pp. 34–36.
Wilson, Emily
, "Ah, how miserable!" (review of three separate translations of
The Oresteia
by
Aeschylus
: by
Oliver Taplin
, Liveright, November 2018; by Jeffrey Scott Bernstein, Carcanet, April 2020; and by David Mulroy, Wisconsin, April 2018),
London Review of Books
, vol. 42, no. 19 (8 October 2020), pp. 9–12, 14.
Wilson, Emily
, "The Pleasures of Translation" (review of Mark Polizzotti,
Sympathy for the Traitor: A Translation Manifesto
, MIT Press, 2018, 182 pp.),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXV, no. 9 (24 May 2018), pp. 46–47.
Michael Wood
, "Break your bleedin' heart" (review of
Marcel Proust
Swann's Way
, translated by
James Grieve
, NYRB, June 2023,
ISBN
978 1 68137 6295
, 450 pp.; and
Marcel Proust
The Swann Way
, translated by
Brian Nelson
, Oxford, September 2023,
ISBN
978 0 19 8871521
, 430 pp.),
London Review of Books
, vol. 46, no. 1 (4 January 2024), pp. 37–38.
Zethsen, Karen Korning; Askehave, Inger (February 2013). "Talking translation: Is gender an issue?".
Gender and Language
(1):
117–
134.
doi
10.1558/genl.v7i1.117
Further reading
edit
Abu-Mahfouz, Ahmad (2008).
"Translation as a Blending of Cultures"
(PDF)
Journal of Translation
(1):
1–
5.
doi
10.54395/jot-x8fne
S2CID
62020741
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 9 March 2012.
Pamela Crossley
, "We possess all things" (review of
Henrietta Harrison
The Perils of Interpreting: The Extraordinary Lives of Two Translators between Qing China and the British Empire
, Princeton, 2022,
ISBN
978 0 691 22545 6
, 341 pp.),
London Review of Books
, vol. 44, no. 16 (18 August 2022), pp. 31–32. "Historians have fastened their attention on the letters that passed from
George III
to the
Qianlong emperor
and back again. But ... written texts are not so fixed as one might assume. Neither the Chinese nor the British officials read the originals of the messages from the other side; they were content to receive translations... In such circumstances ... meanings become elusive. More than king, emperor or ambassador, the translators decided the substance of the exchange. Historians have tended to attribute meaning to the speakers and not to their humble interpreters. But ... it was the intermediaries – ambassadors, negotiators, translators – who delivered the meanings. The important persons in this process were those in between." (p. 32.)
Rudolf Flesch
The Art of Clear Thinking
, chapter 5: "Danger! Language at Work" (pp. 35–42), chapter 6: "The Pursuit of Translation" (pp. 43–50), Barnes & Noble Books, 1973.
Kenna Hughes-Castleberry
, "A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle
Cain's Jawbone
, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms",
Scientific American
, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 81–82. "This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (
natural-language processing
) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of
context
they receive. This [...] could cause [difficulties] for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze
ancient languages
. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone
civilizations
to serve as
training data
for such a purpose." (p. 82.)
Kelly, Nataly; Zetzsche, Jost (2012).
Found in Translation: How Language Shapes Our Lives and Transforms the World
. TarcherPerigee.
ISBN
978-0399537974
Moore, A. W.
, "A Tove on the Table" (review of 3 translations of Ludwig Wittgenstein's
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
: by
Michael Beaney
, Oxford, May 2023,
ISBN
978 0 19 886137 9
, 100 pp.; by
Alexander Booth
, Penguin, December 2023,
ISBN
978 0 241 68195 4
, 94 pp.; by
Damion Searls
, Norton, April 2024,
ISBN
978 1 324 09243 8
, 181 pp.),
London Review of Books
, vol. 46, no. 15 (1 August 2024), pp. 31-35. "[T]he
[David] Pears
[Brian] McGuinness
[second, 1961 English] translation has one compelling claim to retain its status as the standard, namely ... its wonderful index. That said, I strongly recommend that
anglophone
students of this work get hold of Beaney's and Booth's translations too – and maybe Searls's, but they will need to treat the last with a great deal of caution." (p. 35.)
Nabokov, Vladimir (4 August 1941).
"The Art of Translation"
The New Republic
. Retrieved
19 January
2020
Allison Parshall, "Pain Language: The sound of 'ow' transcends borders",
Scientific American
, vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), pp. 16–18. "Many
languages
have an
interjection
word for expressing pain. [Katarzyna Pisanski
et al.
, writing in the
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
, have] found that pain interjections tend to contain the
vowel
sound 'ah' (written as [a] in the
International Phonetic Alphabet
) and letter combinations that incorporate it, such as 'ow' and 'ai.' These patterns may point back to the origins of human language itself." (p. 16.) "Researchers are continually discovering cases of
symbolism
, or sound
iconicity
, in which a word's intrinsic nature has some connection to its meaning. These cases run counter to decades of
linguistic theory
, which had regarded language as fundamentally arbitrary... [Many words
onomatopoeically
imitate a sound. Also] there's the
'bouba-kiki' effect
, whereby people from varying cultures are more likely to associate the nonsense word 'bouba' with a rounded shape and 'kiki' with a spiked one.... [S]omehow we all have a
feeling
about this,' says Aleksandra Ćwiek ... [She and her colleagues have] show[n] that people associate the
trilled
'R' sound with roughness and the 'L' sound with smoothness.
Mark Dingemanse
... in 2013 found [that] the conversational 'Huh?' and similar words in other languages may be universal." (p. 18.)
Flora Ross Amos, "Early Theories of Translation",
Columbia University Studies in English and Comparative Literature,
1920. At
Project Gutenberg
Sharma, Sandeep (2017).
"Translation and Translation Studies"
There's a Double Tongue
. HP University: 1.
Judith Thurman
, "Mother Tongue: Emily Wilson makes Homer modern",
The New Yorker
, September 11, 2023, pp. 46–53. A biography, and presentation of the translation theories and practices, of
Emily Wilson
. "'As a translator, I was determined to make the whole human experience of the poems accessible,' Wilson said." (p. 47.)
Marion Turner
, "Stop talking englissh [
sic
]" (review of
Zrinka Stahuljak
Fixers: Agency, Translation and the Early Global History of Literature
, Chicago, February 2024,
ISBN
978 0 226 83039 1
, 345 pp.),
London Review of Books
, vol. 46, no. 9 (9 May 2024), p. 13. "The 'fixer' is a slippery figure: Stahuljak, who used to work as an interpreter in war zones, uses the term by analogy with the local interpreters-guides-brokers who make it possible for modern journalists to function in alien terrain. She emphasises that the work they do as interpreters – just one of the many ways in which they enable networks of exchange – is more creative than we might assume. Medieval writers, readers and travellers understood translation as a dynamic process, something that has been obscured by the later emphasis on the value of the
original text
and its author."
Robert Wechsler,
Performing Without a Stage: The Art of Literary Translation
, Catbird Press, 1998.
Garry Wills
, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of
David Bentley Hart
The New Testament: A Translation
Yale University Press
, 577 pp.),
The New York Review of Books
, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the
New Testament
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