បារាំង - វិគីភីឌា

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ពីវិគីភីឌា
អត្ថបទនេះត្រូវការ
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អត្ថបទនេះត្រូវបានសរសេរជាភាសាផ្សេង ដែលមិនមែនជាភាសាខ្មែរ។ បើសិនជាអត្ថបទទុកសម្រាប់អ្នកអានមកពី សហគមន៍នៃភាសាមួយនេះ វាគួរតែចែកចាយទៅវិគីភីឌាជាភាសានោះ។ សូមមើល
បញ្ជីនៃគម្រោងវិគីភីឌាទាំងអស់
សូមមើល
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លើ
ក្រុមទំព័រដែលត្រូវការបំណកប្រែទៅជាភាសាខ្មែរ
ដើម្បីពិភាក្សា ។ ប្រសិនបើ អត្ថបទមិនត្រូវបាន
សរសេរជាភាសាខ្មែរឡើងវិញទេ
ក្នុងរយៈពេលពីរសប្ដាហ៍ទៀត អត្ថបទនឹងត្រូវ
ចុះបញ្ជីដើម្បីលុបចោល
និង/ឬ ប្ដូរវាទៅកាន់វិគីភីឌាជាភាសាដើមរបស់វាវិញ ។
បើសិនជា
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គ្រាន់តែចង់បិទស្លាកទំព័រនេះត្រូវការបំណកប្រែ សូមបញ្ចូល
{{អាទេស.:ត្រូវការបកប្រែ | ទំ. = បារាំង | ភាសា = មិនស្គាល់ | ផ្ដល់យោបល់ = }} ~~~~
ទៅខាងក្រោម នៃ
ផ្នែក នៃ
ក្រុមទំព័រនេះត្រូវការបំណកប្រែទៅជាភាសាខ្មែរ
អត្ថបទនេះស្ដីអំពី ប្រទេស។ ចំពោះការប្រើប្រាស់ផ្សេងទៀត សូមមើល
បារាំង (អសង្ស័យកម្ម)
សាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំង
République française
ភាសាបារាំង
ទង់ជាតិ
វរលញ្ឆករ
បាវចនា
Liberté, égalité, fraternité
"សេរីភាព សមភាព ភាតរភាព"
ភ្លេងជាតិ
La Marseillaise
មហាត្រា
ទីតាំងប្រទេសបារាំង (ក្រហម) នៅលើភូគោល
រដ្ឋធានី
និង ទីក្រុងធំបំផុត
ប៉ារីស
48°51′N
2°21′E
 / 
48.850°N 2.350°E
 /
48.850; 2.350
ភាសាផ្លូវការ
ភាសាបារាំង
សម្គាល់ ១
សាសនា
(ឆ្នាំ ២០២២)
៤៧%
កាតូលិក
២%
ប្រូតេស្តង់
១%
អូស្សូដក់
៣៣% គ្មានជំនឿសាសនា
៤%
ឥស្លាមសាសនា
២%
ព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនា
១% សាសនាផ្សេងៗ
៩% មិនបានបញ្ជាក់
រដ្ឋាភិបាល
រដ្ឋឯកភូត
សាធារណរដ្ឋអាស្រ័យរដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ
ប្រកាន់
ប្រព័ន្ធពាក់កណ្តាលប្រធានាធិបតីនិយម
ប្រធានាធិបតី
​អេម៉ានុយអែល ម៉ាក្រុង​
នាយករដ្ឋមន្ត្រី
សេបាស្ទីយ៉ង់ ឡឺក័រនូ
នីតិបញ្ញត្តិ
សភាតំណាងរាស្ត្រ
សភាជាន់ខ្ពស់
ព្រឹទ្ធសភា
សភាជាន់ទាប
រដ្ឋសភា
និម្មិតកម្ម
រាជាណាចក្រហ្វ្រង់ស៊ា
(បង្រួបបង្រួមដោយស្តេច
ក្លូវីសទី១
៤៨១
សន្ធិសញ្ញាវែរដុង
សីហា ៨៤៣
ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រ
៣ កក្កដា ៩៨៧
- ប្រកាសជា
សាធារណរដ្ឋ
២២ កញ្ញា ១៧៩២
រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញបច្ចុប្បន្ន
៤ តុលា ១៩៥៨
ក្រឡាផ្ទៃ
- ផ្ទៃសរុប
៦៤០,៦៧៩
គ.ម
ទី៤២
- ផ្ទៃទឹក (%)
០.៨៦ (ត្រឹមឆ្នាំ២០១៥)
បារាំងដីគោក
IGN
៥៥១,៦៩៥ គម
សម្គាល់ ២
ទី៥០
- បារាំងដីគោក (
កាដាស្ត្រេ
៥៤៣,៩៤០ គម
សម្គាល់ ៣
ទី៥០
ប្រជាជន
- ប៉ាន់ស្មាន (ឆ្នាំ ២០២១)
៦៧,៤១៣,០០០
ទី២០
ដង់ស៊ីតេ
១១៦ នាក់/គ.ម
ទី៨៩
GDP
PPP
ប៉ាន់ស្មាន (ឆ្នាំ ២០២១)
- សរុប
៣.២៣២ ទ្រីលានដុល្លារ
ទី៩
- ក្នុងម្នាក់
៤៩,៤៩២ ដុល្លារ
ទី២៥
GDP
(ចារឹក)
ប៉ាន់ស្មាន (ឆ្នាំ ២០២១)
- សរុប
២.៩៣៨ ទ្រីលានដុល្លារ
ទី៧
- ក្នុងម្នាក់
៤៤,៩៩៥ ដុល្លារ
ទី២៤
ជីនី
(២០១៩)
29.2
ទាប
HDI
(២០១៩)
0.901
ខ្ពស់ណាស់
ទី២៦
រូបិយវត្ថុ
អឺរ៉ូ
) (
EUR
សម្គាល់ ៤
ហ្វ្រង់
(XPF)
សម្គាល់ ៥
ល្វែងម៉ោង
UTC
+១
ម៉ោងអឺរ៉ុបកណ្តាល
- រដូវក្តៅ (
DST
UTC
+២
ម៉ោងរដូវក្តៅអឺរ៉ុបកណ្តាល
ទម្រង់កាលបរិច្ឆេទ
dd/mm/yyyy (
គ.ស.
បណ្ដាញចែកចាយអគ្គិសនី
230 V–50 Hz
ទិសបើកបរ
ស្តាំ
កូដហៅទូរស័ព្ទ
៣៣
ដែនកម្រិតខ្ពស់
.fr
ប្រទេសបារាំង
(បារាំង:
France
ហ្វ្រង្សិ៍
) ដោយមានឈ្មោះផ្លូវការថា
សាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំង
គឺជា
ប្រទេសឆ្លងទ្វីប
មួយដែលមានទឹកដីចម្បងស្ថិតនៅតំបន់
អឺរ៉ុបខាងលិច
​និងមានទឹកដីក្រៅស្រុកមួយចំនួនស្ថិតនៅតាមទ្វីប
អាមេរិកខាងត្បូង
និងរួមទាំង
មហាសមុទ្រអាត្លង់ទិក
មហាសមុទ្រប៉ាស៊ីហ្វិក
និង
មហាសមុទ្រឥណ្ឌា
តំបន់មាតុបុរៈ
របស់ប្រទេសនេះលាតសន្ធឹងពីតំបន់
រ៉ាំង
នៅភាគខាងកើតទៅដល់
មហាសមុទ្រអាត្លង់ទិក
នៅភាគខាងលិច និងពី
សមុទ្រមេឌីទែរ៉ានេ
នៅភាគខាងត្បូងដល់
ផ្លូវទឹកអង់គ្លេស
និង
សមុទ្រខាងជើង
។ ទឹកដីក្រៅប្រទេសរួមមាន៖
គុយយ៉ានបារាំង
នៅ
អាមេរិកខាងត្បូង
សង់ព្យែរនិងមីកូឡុង
នៅសមុទ្រអាត្លង់ទិកខាងជើង
ឥណ្ឌីបារាំងខាងលិច
និងបណ្តុំកោះជាច្រើនទៀតនៅទ្វីប
អូសេអានី
និង
មហាសមុទ្រឥណ្ឌា
។ ដោយសារតែមានទឹកដីជាប់មាត់សមុទ្រច្រើន ប្រទេសបារាំងមាន
តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ចផ្តាច់មុខ
ដ៏ធំបំផុតលើពិភពលោក។ នៅប៉ែកអឺរ៉ុប បារាំងមានព្រំប្រទល់ជាប់នឹងប្រទេស
បែលហ្សិក
លុចសំបួ
អាល្លឺម៉ង់
ស្វីស
ម៉ូណាកូ
អ៊ីតាលី
អង់ដូរ៉ា
និងប្រទេស
អេស្ប៉ាញ
រីឯនៅ
ទ្វីបអាមេរិក
វិញ វាមានព្រំប្រទល់ជាប់ប្រទេស
ហុល្លង់
ស៊ូរីណាម
និងប្រទេស
ប្រេស៊ីល
។ បារាំងមាន
តំបន់អាំងតេក្រាលចំនួនដប់ប្រាំបី
(ប្រាំនៅក្រៅប្រទេស) ដែលលាតសន្ធឹងលើផ្ទៃដីសរុប ៦៤៣,៨០១ គីឡូម៉ែត្រក្ររ៉េ និងមានប្រជាជនជាង ៦៧ លាននាក់ (គិតត្រឹមខែឧសភា ឆ្នាំ២០២១)។
ប្រទេសបារាំងគឺជា
សាធារណរដ្ឋ
ឯកភូត
ប្រកាន់
ប្រព័ន្ធពាក់កណ្តាលប្រធានាធិបតីនិយម
ដែលមានរដ្ឋធានីឈ្មោះថា
ប៉ារីស
ដោយវាត្រូវជាទីក្រុងធំបំផុតក្នុងប្រទេស និងជាមជ្ឈមណ្ឌលវប្បធម៌ និងពាណិជ្ជកម្មដ៏សំខាន់។ តំបន់ទីក្រុងសំខាន់ៗផ្សេងទៀតរួមមាន៖
លីយ៉ុង
ម៉ាសែល
ធូលូស
ប័រដូ
លីល
និង
នីស
ទឹកដីបារាំងសព្វថ្ងៃបានទទួលវត្តមានមនុស្សដំបូងៗតាំងពីស័ក
ប៉ាលេអូលីទិក
មកម្លេះ ហើយទឹកដីមាតុបុរៈបារាំងត្រូវកុលសម្ព័ន្ធសែលតិកមួយក្រុមដែលគេស្គាល់ថា"
ហ្គោល
"ចូលមកតាំងទីលំនៅក្នុងអំឡុង
យុគដែក
។ ពួករ៉ូមបាន
កាត់តំបន់នេះបញ្ចូលជាផ្នែកមួយនៃទឹកដីខ្លួន
នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ ៥១ មុន គ.ស ដែលជាហេតុនាំឱ្យ
វប្បធម៌ហ្កាល់ឡូ-រ៉ូម៉ាំង
លេចឡើង និងត្រូវជាមូលដ្ឋានគ្រឹះនៃ
ភាសាបារាំង
។ ពួក
ហ្វ្រង់
ដែលជាក្រុន
ជនជាតិជឺម៉ាំង
មួយបានបង្កើត
ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រហ្វ្រង់ស៊ា
ហើយបានក្លាយជាមាតុបេះដូងនៃ
ចក្រភពការអូលីនជាន
សន្ធិសញ្ញាវ៉ែដុង
នៃឆ្នាំ ៨៤៣ បានបែងចែកចក្រភពនោះដោយមានរដ្ឋ
ហ្វ្រង់ស៊ាខាងលិច
ក្លាយទៅជា
ព្រះរាជាណាចក្របារាំង
នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ៩៨៧។ នៅ
យុគសម័យកណ្តាល
បារាំងបានក្លាយជាអាណាចក្រសក្តិភូមិដ៏មានឥទ្ធិពលមួយ ហើយមានវិមជ្ឈការខ្ពស់។ ស្តេច
ហ្វីលីពទី២
បានពង្រឹងអំណាចរាជវង្សប្រកបដោយជោគជ័យ ហើយបានកម្ចាត់ចោលនូវគូប្រជែងរបស់ទ្រង់ដើម្បីបង្កើនវិសាលភាពរាជ្យទឹកដីបារាំង។ នៅចុងរជ្ជកាលរបស់ព្រះអង្គ ប្រទេសបារាំងបានក្លាយទៅជារដ្ឋដ៏មានឥទ្ធិពលបំផុតនៅទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុប។ ចាប់ពីពាក់កណ្តាលសតវត្សទី១៤ ដល់ពាក់កណ្តាលសតវត្សទី១៥ ប្រទេសបារាំងបានធ្លាក់ចូលទៅក្នុងជម្លោះរាជវង្សជាបន្តបន្ទាប់ដែលមានប្រទេស
អង់គ្លេស
ជាប់ពាក់ព័ន្ធ គេតែងសម្តៅលើជម្លោះនេះថា
សង្រ្គាមមួយរយឆ្នាំ
ហើយអត្តសញ្ញាណរបស់បារាំងថ្មីបានលេចឡើងជាលទ្ធផល។ នៅក្នុង
សម័យបុនវុឌ្ឍិសិល្បៈ
Renaissance
) ប្រទេសបារាំងបានឆ្លងកាត់វឌ្ឍនភាពសិល្បៈនិងវប្បធម៌ ជម្លោះជាមួយ
រាជត្រកូលហាបស្បួក
និងនិម្មិតកម្មនៃ
ចក្រភពអាណានិគមលំដាប់ពិភពលោក
ដែលដល់សតវត្សទី២០ វាក៏ក្លាយជាចក្រភពមហាអំណាចធំទីពីរនៅលើភពផែនដី។
១០
នៅពាក់កណ្តាលទីពីរនៃសតវត្សទី១៦ បារាំងត្រូវប្រឈមនឹង
សង្រ្គាមស៊ីវិលសាសនា
រវាងអ្នកកាន់
និកាយកាតូលិក
និងពួក
ហ៊ូហ្គូណូ
ដែលជាហេតុនាំឱ្យប្រទេសចុះទន់ខ្សោយយ៉ាងខ្លាំង។ ប្រទេសបារាំងបានលេចចេញជាមហាអំណាចសារជាថ្មីនៅអឺរ៉ុបក្នុងសតវត្សទី១៧ ក្រោមការដឹកនាំរបស់ស្តេចនាម
ល្វីទី១៤
បន្ទាប់ពីទ្រង់បានបិទបញ្ចប់ឆាក
សង្រ្គាមសាមសិបឆ្នាំ
១១
កង្វះគោលនយោបាយសេដ្ឋកិច្ច ពន្ធវិសមភាព និងសង្រ្គាមជាញឹកញាប់ (ជាពិសេសការបរាជ័យនៅក្នុង
សង្គ្រាមប្រាំពីរឆ្នាំ
និងការ
ចូលធ្វើអន្តរាគមន៍
នៅក្នុង
សង្គ្រាមឯករាជ្យអាមេរិក
) បាននាំឱ្យព្រះរាជាណាចក្រធ្លាក់ក្នុងស្ថានភាពសេដ្ឋកិច្ចមិនជាក់លាក់នៅចុងសតវត្សទី១៨។ បញ្ហាទាំងនេះបានធ្វើឱ្យ
បដិវត្តន៍បារាំង
ផ្ទុះឡើងនៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ១៧៨៩ ដែលជាលទ្ធផល
របបចាស់
Ancien Régime
) ត្រូវបានគេផ្តួលរំលំ និងការបង្កើតនូវ
សេចក្តីប្រកាសសិទ្ធិមនុស្ស
ដែលបង្ហាញពីឧត្តមគតិរបស់ប្រទេសនេះរហូតមកដល់ពេលបច្ចុប្បន្ន។
ប្រទេសបារាំងបានឈានដល់ចំណុចកំពូលខាងផ្នែកនយោបាយ និងយោធានៅដើមសតវត្សទី១៩ ក្រោមការដឹកនាំរបស់
ណាប៉ូលេអុងបូណាប៉ារត៍
ដោយពេលនោះបារាំងបានដណ្តើមកាន់កាប់ទឹកដីមួយភាគធំនៃទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុប ហើយបានបង្កើត
ចក្រភពបារាំងទីមួយ
ឡើង។
បដិវត្តន៍បារាំង
និង
សង្គ្រាមណាប៉ូលេអូនិក
បានផ្លាស់ប្តូររូបរាងដំណើរប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រអឺរ៉ុប និងពិភពលោកទាំងមូល។ ការដួលរលំនៃចក្រភពទីមួយបាននាំឱ្យឥទ្ធិពលបារាំងធ្លាក់ចុះជាបន្តបន្ទាប់ ដែលក្នុងនោះប្រទេសបារាំងត្រូវប្រឈមនឹងវិបត្តិរដ្ឋាភិបាលរហូតដល់ការបង្កើតឡើងនៃ
សាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំងទីបី
នៅក្រោយ
សង្គ្រាមបារាំង-ព្រុស
ក្នុងឆ្នាំ១៨៧០។ នៅក្នុងទសវត្សរ៍បន្ទាប់ៗ គេបានឆ្លងកាត់សម័យសុទិដ្ឋិនិយមនៅបារាំងដូចជា ការរីកចម្រើនផ្នែកវប្បធម៌ និងវិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ ក៏ដូចជាភាពចម្រុងចម្រើនផ្នែកសេដ្ឋកិច្ចដែលគេនិយមស្គាល់ថា "
សម័យសោភ័ណ
" (
Belle Époque
)។ ប្រទេសបារាំងគឺជាប្រទេសមួយក្នុងចំណោមប្រទេសដែលចូលរួមក្នុង
សង្គ្រាមលោកលើកទី១
ដោយជាលទ្ធផល វាបានទទួលបានជ័យជម្នះតែត្រូវបាត់បង់ជីវិតមនុស្ស និងសេដ្ឋកិច្ចជាច្រើន។ ប្រទេសនេះក៏ជាប្រទេសមួយក្នុងចំណោម
មហាអំណាចសម្ព័ន្ធមិត្ត
នៃ
សង្គ្រាមលោកលើកទី២
ផងដែរប៉ុន្តែមិនយូរប៉ុន្មានវាក៏ត្រូវទទួលរងការត្រួតត្រាពីសំណាក់សត្រូវរបស់ខ្លួនហៅ
មហាអំណាចអ័ក្ស
នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ១៩៤០។ បន្ទាប់ពីបានរំដោះនៅឆ្នាំ១៩៤៤
សាធារណរដ្ឋទីបួន
ដែលមានអត្ថិភាពដ៏ខ្លីត្រូវបានបង្កើតឡើង ហើយក្រោយមកត្រូវបានរំលាយនៅក្នុងដំណើរនៃ
សង្គ្រាមអាល់ហ្សេរី
សាធារណរដ្ឋទីប្រាំ
បច្ចុប្បន្នត្រូវបានបង្កើតឡើងនៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ១៩៥៨ ដោយមហាវីរបុរសបារាំងគឺលោក
សាល ដឺ ហ្គោល
។ អាល់ហ្សេរី និងរួមទាំងទឹកដីអាណានិគមបារាំងភាគច្រើនបានទទួលឯករាជ្យនៅទសវត្សរ៍ឆ្នាំ១៩៦០ ដោយភាគច្រើនបានរក្សាទំនាក់ទំនងសេដ្ឋកិច្ច និងយោធាយ៉ាងជិតស្និទ្ធជាមួយបារាំងមកដល់សព្វថ្ងៃ។
ប្រទេសបារាំងរក្សាបាននូវឋានៈជាមជ្ឈមណ្ឌល
សិល្បៈ
វិទ្យាសាស្ត្រ
និង
ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសកល
។ វាជាប្រទេសដែលមានចំនួន
បេតិកភណ្ឌពិភពលោកច្រើនបំផុតទីប្រាំ
របស់អង្គការ
យូណេស្កូ
និងជាគោលដៅទេសចរណ៍ឈានមុខគេរបស់ពិភពលោកដោយទទួលបានភ្ញៀវទេសចរបរទេសជាង ៨៩ លាននាក់នៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០១៨។
១២
ប្រទេសបារាំងគឺជា
ប្រទេសអភិវឌ្ឍ
មួយដែលមាន
សេដ្ឋកិច្ចធំជាងគេទី ៧ នៅលើពិភពលោក
បើគិតតាមផលិតផលក្នុងស្រុកសរុបជាមធ្យម និង
ធំជាងគេទី ៩
បើគិតតាមយុគភាពនៃអំណាចទិញ។ បើ​និយាយ​ពី​ទ្រព្យ​សម្បត្តិ​សរុប​តាម​គ្រួសារ វា​ជាប់​ចំណាត់​ថ្នាក់​ទី​បួន​នៅលើ​ពិភពលោក។
១៣
ប្រទេសបារាំងមានកម្រិត
អប់រំ
ការថែទាំសុខភាព
អាយុសង្ឃឹមរស់
និង
ការអភិវឌ្ឍមនុស្ស
ខ្ពស់។
១៤
១៥
បារាំងនៅតែអាចរក្សាតំណែងជា
មហាអំណាច
មួយបាននៅក្នុងកិច្ចការពិភពលោក
១៦
ដោយជាសមាជិកអចិន្ត្រៃយ៍មួយក្នុងចំណោម
សមាជិកអចិន្ត្រៃយ៍ទាំងប្រាំ
នៃ
ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាសន្តិសុខអង្គការសហប្រជាជាតិ
និងជា
រដ្ឋអាវុធនុយក្លេអ៊ែរ
ផ្លូវការមួយផងដែរ។ ប្រទេសបារាំងគឺជាសមាជិកស្ថាបនិក និងឈានមុខគេនៃ
សហភាពអឺរ៉ុប
និង
តំបន់អឺរ៉ូ
១៧
ក៏ដូចជាសមាជិកសំខាន់នៃ
ក្រុមប្រាំពីរ
(G7)
អង្គការសន្ធិសញ្ញាអាត្លង់ទិកខាងជើង
(អូតង់ ឬណាតូ)
អង្គការសម្រាប់កិច្ចសហប្រតិបត្តិការ និងអភិវឌ្ឍន៍សេដ្ឋកិច្ច
(OECD) និង
ហ្វ្រង់កូហ្វូនី
Francophonie
)។
និរុត្តិសាស្ត្រ
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
ឈ្មោះនៃបារាំង
The name "France" comes from the
Latin
Francia
, which means "country of the
Franks
".
១៨
There are various theories as to the origin of the name Franks: one is that it is derived from the
Proto-Germanic
word
frankon
which translates as
javelin
or
lance
as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a
francisca
១៩
Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient
Germanic language
, Frank means
free
as opposed to
slave
ត្រូវការអំណះអំណាង
ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រ
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្របារាំង
សម័យបុរេប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រ
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្របារាំងនៅសម័យបុរេប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រ
One of the
Lascaux
paintings of which depicts a horse (
Dordogne
, approximately 18,000 BC).
The oldest traces of human life (
homo
) in what is now France date from approximately 1.8 million years ago.
២០
Humans were then confronted by a hard and variable climate, marked by several glacial eras which led them to a
nomadic
hunter-gatherer
life.
២០
France has a large number of decorated caves from the
upper Paleolithic
era, including one of the most famous and best preserved:
Lascaux
២០
(approximately 18,000 BC).
At the end of the
last glacial period
(10,000 BC), the climate softened
២០
and from approximately 7,000 BC, this part of Western Europe entered the
Neolithic
era and its inhabitants became
sedentary
. After strong demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia, metallurgy appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium, initially working gold, copper and bronze, and later iron.
២១
France has numerous
megalithic
sites from the Neolithic period, including the exceptionally dense
Carnac stones
site (approximately 3,300 BC).
ហ្គូល
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
Gaul
Celts
, and
Roman Gaul
In 600 BC,
Ionian
Greeks
, originating from
Phocaea
, founded the
colony of Massalia
(present-day
Marseille
), on the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea
. This makes it France's oldest city.
២២
២៣
At the same time, some Gallic Celtic tribes penetrated parts of the current territory of France, and this occupation spread to the rest of France between the 5th and 3rd century BC.
២៤
The
Maison Carrée
was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman
city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes
) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire
The concept of
Gaul
emerged at that time; it corresponds to the territories of Celtic settlement ranging between the
Rhine
, the
Atlantic Ocean
, the
Pyrenees
and the Mediterranean. The borders of modern France are roughly the same as those of ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic
Gauls
. Gaul was then a prosperous country, of which the southernmost part was heavily subject to Greek and Roman influences. However, around 390 BC, the Gallic
chieftain
Brennus
and his troops made their way to Italy through the
Alps
, defeated the Romans in the
Battle of the Allia
, and besieged and
ransomed
Rome. The Gallic invasion left Rome weakened and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC, when they entered into a formal peace treaty with Rome. But the Romans and the Gauls would maintain an adversarial relationship for the next several centuries and the Gauls would remain a threat in
Italia
Around 125 BC, the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans, who called this region
Provincia Romana
("Roman Province"), which over time evolved into the name
Provence
in French.
២៥
Julius Caesar
conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt carried out by the Gallic chieftain
Vercingetorix
in 52 BC.
២៦
Gaul was divided by
Augustus
into Roman provinces.
២៧
Many cities were founded during the
Gallo-Roman period
, including
Lugdunum
(present-day
Lyon
), which is considered to be the capital of the Gauls.
២៧
These cities were built in traditional Roman style, with a
forum
, a theatre, a
circus
, an
amphitheatre
and
thermal baths
. The Gauls mixed with Roman settlers and eventually adopted
Roman
speech (
Latin
, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. The
Roman polytheism
merged with the
Gallic paganism
into the same
syncretism
From the 250s to the 280s AD, Roman Gaul suffered a serious crisis with its "
limes
" or fortified borders protecting the Empire being attacked on several occasions by
barbarians
២៨
Nevertheless, the situation improved in the first half of the 4th century, which was a period of revival and prosperity for Roman Gaul.
២៩
In 312, the emperor
Constantin I
converted to Christianity. Christians, persecuted until then, increased rapidly across the entire Roman Empire.
៣០
But, from the beginning of the 5th century, the
Barbarian Invasions
resumed,
៣១
and
Germanic tribes
, such as the
Vandals
Suebi
and
Alans
crossed the Rhine and settled in Gaul, Spain and other parts of the
collapsing Roman Empire
៣២
Kingdom of Francia (3rd century–843)
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
Francia
Merovingian dynasty
, and
Carolingian dynasty
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
List of French monarchs
និង
France in the Middle Ages
At the end of the
Antiquity
period, ancient Gaul was divided into several Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory, known as the
Kingdom of Syagrius
(West). Simultaneously,
Celtic Britons
, fleeing the
Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
, settled the western part of
Armorica
. As a result, the Armorican
peninsula
was renamed
Brittany
Celtic culture
was revived and independent
petty kingdoms
arose in this region.
With
Clovis
' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy
elective
and
secular
until then, became
hereditary
and of
divine right
The pagan
Franks
, from whom the ancient name of "Francie" was derived, originally settled the north part of
Gaul
, but under
Clovis I
conquered most of the other kingdoms in northern and central Gaul. In 498, Clovis I was the first Germanic conqueror after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity, rather than
Arianism
; thus France was given the title "Eldest daughter of the Church" (
បារាំង:
La fille aînée de l’Église
) by the papacy,
៣៣
and French kings would be called "the Most Christian Kings of France" (
Rex Christianissimus
).
The Franks embraced the Christian
Gallo-Roman culture
and ancient Gaul was eventually renamed
Francia
("Land of the Franks"). The Germanic Franks adopted
Romanic languages
, except in north Gaul where Roman settlements were less dense and where
Germanic languages
emerged. Clovis made Paris his capital and established the
Merovingian dynasty
, but his kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among their heirs, so four kingdoms emerged from Clovis's: Paris,
Orléans
Soissons
, and
Rheims
The
last Merovingian kings
lost power
to their
mayors of the palace
(head of household). One mayor of the palace,
Charles Martel
, defeated an
Islamic invasion of Gaul
at the
Battle of Tours
(732) and earned respect and power within the Frankish kingdoms. His son,
Pepin the Short
, seized the crown of Francia from the weakened Merovingians and founded the
Carolingian dynasty
. Pepin's son,
Charlemagne
, reunited the Frankish kingdoms and built a vast empire across
Western
and Central Europe.
Proclaimed
Holy Roman Emperor
by
Pope Leo III
and thus establishing in earnest the French government's longtime
historical association
with the
Catholic Church
៣៤
Charlemagne tried to revive the
Western Roman Empire
and its cultural grandeur.
French territorial evolution
from 985 to 1947
Charlemagne's son,
Louis I
(emperor 814–840), kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive his death. In 843, under the
Treaty of Verdun
, the empire was divided between Louis' three sons, with
East Francia
going to
Louis the German
Middle Francia
to
Lothair I
, and
West Francia
to
Charles the Bald
. West Francia approximated the area occupied by, and was the precursor, to modern France.
៣៥
During the 9th and 10th centuries, continually threatened by
Viking invasions
, France became a very decentralised state: the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, and the authority of the king became more religious than secular and thus was less effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen. Thus was established
feudalism
in France. Over time, some of the king's vassals would grow so powerful that they often posed a threat to the king. For example, after the
Battle of Hastings
in 1066,
William the Conqueror
added "King of England" to his titles, becoming both the vassal to (as Duke of
Normandy
) and the equal of (as king of England) the king of France.
Kingdom of France (843–1791)
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
Kingdom of France
Capetian dynasty
Valois dynasty
, and
Bourbon dynasty
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
List of French monarchs
France in the Middle Ages
Early modern France
និង
Ancien Régime
Joan of Arc
led the French army to several important victories during the
Hundred Years' War
which paved the way for the final victory.
The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when
Hugh Capet
, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned
King of the Franks
៣៦
His descendants – the
Capetians
, the
House of Valois
, and the
House of Bourbon
– progressively unified the country through wars and dynastic inheritance into the Kingdom of France, which was fully declared in 1190 by
Philip II Augustus
. Gerbert d'Aurillac (Gerbert of Aurillac) was the first French pope; his reign as
Pope Sylvester II
lasted from 999 to 1003.
The
Albigensian Crusade
was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical
Cathars
in the south-western area of modern-day France. In the end, the Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous
County of Toulouse
was annexed into the kingdom of France.
៣៧
Later Kings expanded their territory to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the North, Centre and West of France. Meanwhile, the royal authority became more and more assertive, centred around a
hierarchically conceived society
distinguishing
nobility
, clergy, and
commoners
Charles IV the Fair
died without an heir in 1328.
៣៨
Under the rules of the
Salic law
the crown of France could not pass to a woman nor could the line of kingship pass through the female line.
៣៨
Accordingly, the crown passed to Philip of Valois, a cousin of Charles, rather than through the female line to Charles' nephew, Edward, who would soon become
Edward III of England
. During the reign of
Philip of Valois
, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.
៣៨
However, Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the
Black Death
៣៩
England and France went to war in what would become known as the
Hundred Years' War
៤០
The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the
English Kings
remained extensive for decades.
With charismatic leaders, such as
Joan of Arc
and
La Hire
, strong French counterattacks won back English continental territories. Like the rest of Europe, France was struck by the Black Death. Around 1340, France had a population of approximately 17 million,
៤១
which by the end of the
pandemic
had declined by about one-half.
៤២
The
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre
(1572) was the climax of the
French Wars of Religion
, which were brought to an end by the
Edict of Nantes
(1598).
The
French Renaissance
saw a long set of wars, known as the
Italian Wars
, between the Kingdom of France and the powerful
Holy Roman Empire
. It also saw the first standardization of the French language, which would become the official language of France and the language of Europe's aristocracy. French explorers, such as
Jacques Cartier
or
Samuel de Champlain
, claimed lands in the Americas for France, paving the way for the expansion of the
First French colonial empire
The rise of Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion, where, in the most notorious incident, thousands of
Huguenots
were murdered in the
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre
of 1572.
៤៣
The Wars of Religion were ended by
Henry IV
's
Edict of Nantes
, which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots.
Under
Louis XIII
, the energetic
Cardinal Richelieu
reinforced the centralization of the state, royal power and French dominance in Europe, foreshadowing the reign of
Louis XIV
. During Louis XIV's minority and the regency of
Queen Anne
and
Cardinal Mazarin
, a period of trouble known as the
Fronde
occurred in France, which was at that time
at war with Spain
. This rebellion was driven by the great feudal lords and
sovereign courts
as a reaction to the
rise of royal power
in France.
Louis XIV
, the "sun king" was the
absolute monarch of France
and made France the leading European power.
The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. By turning powerful feudal lords into
courtiers
at the
Palace of Versailles
, Louis XIV's personal power became unchallenged. Remembered for his numerous wars, he made France the leading European power. France possessed the largest population in Europe (see
Demographics of France
) and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the most-used language in diplomacy, science, literature and international affairs, and remained so until the 20th century.
៤៤
France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Louis XIV
revoked the Edict of Nantes
, forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile.
Under
Louis XV
, France lost
New France
and most of its
Indian possessions
after its defeat in the
Seven Years' War
, which ended in 1763. Its
continental territory
kept growing, however, with notable acquisitions such as
Lorraine
(1766) and
Corsica
(1770). An unpopular king, Louis XV's weak rule, his ill-advised financial, political and military decisions, and his debauchery discredited the monarchy and arguably led to the French Revolution 15 years after his death.
៤៥
៤៦
Louis XVI
, Louis XV's grandson, actively
supported the Americans
, who were seeking their
independence from Great Britain
(realized in the
Treaty of Paris (1783)
). The example of the
American Revolution
and the financial crisis which followed France's involvement in it were two of many contributing factors to the French Revolution.
Much of the
Enlightenment
occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs and inventions, such as the
discovery of oxygen
(1778) and the first
hot air balloon carrying passengers
(1783), were achieved by French scientists. French explorers, such as
Bougainville
and
Lapérouse
, took part in the
voyages of scientific exploration
through maritime expeditions around the globe. The Enlightenment philosophy, in which
reason
is advocated as the primary source for
legitimacy
and
authority
, undermined the power of and support for the monarchy and helped pave the way for the French Revolution.
Republics and Empires (1792–)
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
French Revolution
ចក្រភពបារាំងទីមួយ
Second French Empire
, and
French colonial empire
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
France in the 19th century
និង
France in the 20th century
The
Storming of the Bastille
on 14 July 1789 was the starting event of the
French Revolution
After the
storming of the Bastille
on 14 July 1789, the absolute monarchy was abolished and France became a
constitutional monarchy
. Through the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
, France established fundamental rights for French citizens (who could only be male). The Declaration affirms "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man" to "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression". It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges and proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men, as well as access to public office based on talent rather than birth.
របបរាជានិយមត្រូវបានរឹតបន្តឹង ហើយប្រជាពលរដ្ឋទាំងអស់ត្រូវមានសិទ្ធិចូលរួមក្នុងដំណើរការនីតិបញ្ញត្តិ។ សេរីភាពនៃការបញ្ចេញមតិ និងសារព័ត៌មានត្រូវបានប្រកាស ហើយការចាប់ខ្លួនតាមអំពើចិត្តមិនត្រូវបានអនុញ្ញាត។ សេចក្តីថ្លែងការណ៍ក៏បានអះអាងនូវគោលការណ៍នៃអធិបតេយ្យភាពដ៏ពេញនិយម ដែលផ្ទុយពីសិទ្ធិដ៏ទេវភាពរបស់ស្តេចដែលកំណត់លក្ខណៈនៃរាជាធិបតេយ្យបារាំង និងសមភាពសង្គមក្នុងចំណោមប្រជាពលរដ្ឋ ដោយលុបបំបាត់ឯកសិទ្ធិរបស់អភិជន និងបព្វជិត។
While Louis XVI, as a
constitutional king
, enjoyed popularity among the population, his disastrous
flight to Varennes
seemed to justify rumours he had tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion. His credibility was deeply undermined to the extent that the
abolition of the monarchy
and establishment of a republic became an increasing possibility.
European
monarchies gathered
against the new régime, to restore the French absolute monarchy. The foreign threat exacerbated France's political turmoil and deepened the sense of urgency among the various factions and
war was declared against Austria
on 20 April 1792.
Mob violence
occurred during the
insurrection of 10 August 1792
៤៧
and the
following month
៤៨
As a result of this violence and the political instability of the constitutional monarchy, the
Republic was proclaimed
on 22 September 1792.
Napoleon
Emperor of the French
, and his
Grande Armée
built a
vast Empire
across Europe. He helped spread the French revolutionary ideals and his legal reforms had a major influence worldwide.
Louis XVI
was
convicted
of
treason
and
guillotined
in 1793. Facing increasing pressure from European monarchies, internal guerrilla wars and
counterrevolutions
(such as the
War in the Vendée
or the
Chouannerie
), the
young Republic
fell into the
Reign of Terror
. Between 1793 and 1794, between 16,000 and 40,000 people were executed. In Western France, the civil war between the
Bleus
("Blues", supporters of the Revolution) and the
Blancs
("Whites", supporters of the Monarchy) lasted from 1793 to 1796 and led to the loss of between 200,000 and 450,000 lives.
៤៩
៥០
Both foreign armies and French counterrevolutionnaries were crushed and the French Republic survived. Furthermore, it extended greatly its boundaries and established "
Sister Republics
" in the surrounding countries. As the threat of a foreign invasion receded and France became mostly pacified, the
Thermidorian Reaction
put an end to
Robespierre
's rule and to the Terror. The
abolition of slavery
and male
universal suffrage
, enacted during this radical phase of the revolution, were cancelled by subsequent governments.
After a
short-lived governmental scheme
Napoleon Bonaparte
seized control of the Republic
in 1799 becoming
First Consul
and later
Emperor
of the
French Empire
(1804–1814/1815). As a continuation of
the wars
sparked by the European monarchies against the French Republic, changing sets of
European Coalitions
declared wars on Napoleon's Empire. His armies conquered most of continental Europe, while members of the
Bonaparte
family were appointed as monarchs in some of the newly established kingdoms.
៥១
These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms, such as the
Metric system
, the
Napoleonic Code
and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. After the catastrophic
Russian campaign
, Napoleon was
defeated
and the Bourbon monarchy
restored
. About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars.
៥១
Douaumont ossuary
. With 4.3 million wounded from a population of only 39.6 million at the time, the Third French Republic sustained the highest
number of total casualties
among the Allies during
World War I
After his
brief return
from exile, Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the
Battle of Waterloo
, the monarchy was
re-established
(1815–1830), with new constitutional limitations. The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the
July Revolution
of 1830, which established the constitutional
July Monarchy
, which lasted until 1848, when the
French Second Republic
was proclaimed, in the wake of the European
Revolutions of 1848
. The abolition of slavery and male
universal suffrage
, both briefly enacted during the French Revolution were re-enacted in 1848.
In 1852, the
president of the French Republic
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte
, Napoleon I’s nephew, was proclaimed emperor of the
second Empire
, as Napoleon III. He multiplied French interventions abroad, especially in
Crimea
, in
Mexico
and
Italy
. Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in the
Franco-Prussian War
of 1870 and his regime was replaced by the
Third Republic
France had
colonial possessions
, in various forms, since the beginning of the 17th century. In the 19th and 20th centuries, its
global overseas colonial empire
extended greatly and became the second largest in the world behind the
British Empire
. Including
metropolitan France
, the total area of land under French
sovereignty
almost reached 13 million square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s, 8.6% of the world's land.
Charles de Gaulle
took an active part in all major events of the 20th century: a hero of World War I, leader of the
Free French
during
World War II
, he then became
President
, where he facilitated decolonization, maintained France as a major power and overcame the
revolt of May 1968
France was a member of the
Triple Entente
when World War I broke out. A small part of Northern France was occupied, but France and its allies emerged victorious against the
Central Powers
, at a tremendous human and material cost. World War I left 1.4 million French soldiers dead, 4% of its population,
៥២
between 27 and 30% of the conscript classes of 1912–1915.
៥៣
The interbellum years were marked by
intense international tensions
and a variety of social reforms introduced by the
Popular Front government
Annual leave
working time reduction
, women in Government among others). France was occupied following the
German
Blitzkrieg
campaign in World War II, with metropolitan France divided into a
German occupation zone in the north
and
Vichy France
, a newly established authoritarian regime collaborating with Germany, in the south.
៥៤
The
Allies
and the
French Resistance
eventually emerged victorious from the
Axis powers
and French sovereignty was restored.
The
Fourth Republic
was established after World War II and saw spectacular economic growth (
les
Trente Glorieuses
). Suffrage was extended to women in 1944. France was one of the founding members of
NATO
(1949). France attempted to
regain control of French Indochina
but was defeated by the
Viet Minh
in 1954. Only months later, France faced a new
conflict in Algeria
. The debate over whether or not to keep control of
Algeria
, then home to over one million
European settlers
៥៥
wracked the country and nearly led to civil war.
In 1958, the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the
Fifth Republic
, which contained a strengthened Presidency.
៥៦
In the latter role, Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the war. The Algerian War was concluded with the
Évian Accords
in 1962 that led to Algerian independence. France granted independence progressively to its colonies. A vestige of the colonial empire are the
French overseas departments and territories
In the wake of the series of worldwide
protests of 1968
, the
revolt of May 1968
had an enormous social impact. In France, it is considered to be the watershed moment when a conservative moral ideal (religion, patriotism, respect for authority) shifted towards a more liberal moral ideal.
ប្រទេសបារាំងបានឈានមុខគេក្នុងប្រទេសជាសមាជិកសហភាពអឺរ៉ុបដែលកំពុងស្វែងរកទុនលើសន្ទុះនៃសហជីពរូបិយវត្ថុដើម្បីបង្កើតឧបករណ៍នយោបាយ ការការពារ និងសន្តិសុខរបស់សហភាពអឺរ៉ុបដែលមានការរួបរួម និងមានសមត្ថភាពជាងមុន។
៥៧
ភូមិសាស្ត្រ
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Geography of France
A relief map of Metropolitan France, showing cities with over 100,000 inhabitants.
Metropolitan France
is situated mostly between latitudes
41°
and
51° N
, and longitudes
6° W
and
10° E
, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northern
temperate
zone.
From northeast to southwest, France shares borders with
Belgium
Luxembourg
Germany
Switzerland
Italy
Monaco
Spain
and
Andorra
. France also borders
Suriname
to its west and
Brazil
to its east and south, by way of the overseas region of
French Guiana
, which is considered an integral part of the Republic.
៥៨
Corsica
and the French mainland form
Metropolitan France
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Réunion
, and
Mayotte
form, with French Guiana, the overseas regions. These two integral groupings, along with several
overseas collectivities
and
one territory
, comprise the French Republic.
The European territory of France covers 547,030 square kilometres (211,209 sq mi),
៥៨
the largest among
European Union
members.
១៧
France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges of the
Alps
in the south-east, the
Massif Central
in the south-central and
Pyrenees
in the south-west.
At 4,810.45 ម៉ែត្រs (15,782 ft)
៥៩
above sea level, the highest point in Western Europe,
Mont Blanc
, is situated in the Alps on the border between France and Italy. France also has extensive river systems such as the
Seine
, the
Loire
, the
Garonne
, and the
Rhone
, which divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the
Camargue
. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast.
France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excluding
Adélie Land
), is 674,843 km
(260,558 sq mi), 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. France possesses the second largest
exclusive economic zone
(EEZ) in the world,
៦០
covering 11,035,000 km
(4,260,637 sq mi), approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world, just behind the US (11,351,000 km
or 4,382,646 sq mi).
៦១
Climate
កែប្រែ
The north and northwest have a temperate climate, while a combination of maritime influences,
latitude
and altitude produce a varied climate in the rest of Metropolitan France.
៦២
In the south-east a
Mediterranean climate
prevails. In the west, the climate is predominantly
oceanic
with a high level of rainfall, mild winters and cool to warm summers. Inland the climate becomes more
continental
with hot, stormy summers, colder winters and less rain. The
climate of the Alps
and other mountainous regions is mainly
alpine
, with the number of days with temperatures below freezing over 150 per year and snow cover lasting for up to six months.
Limestone
cliffs of
Normandy
near
Étretat
Mediterranean
vegetation (
lavender
) in
Provence
The plains of the
Beauce
Alpine climate
in the
French Alps
Verdon Gorge
in Provence
Vineyards
in
Côte de Nuits
Burgundy
Alpine climate
in
Mercantour National Park
Tropical climate
in
Bora Bora
French Polynesia
Heathland
in
Pointe du Van
, Western
Brittany
Oceanic climate
and sandy beach in
Arcachon Bay
Semi-arid climate in
Corsica
បរិស្ថាន
កែប្រែ
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy
National parks of France
និង
Regional natural parks of France
Regional
(green) and
National (pink) natural parks
in France. Indicated in green and purple colour respectively.
France was one of the first countries to create an environment ministry, in 1971.
៦៣
Although France is one of the most industrialised countries, it is ranked
only seventeenth
by carbon dioxide emissions, behind less populous nations such as Canada or Australia. This situation results from the France's decision to invest in
nuclear power
in 1974 after the
1973 oil crisis
៦៤
which now accounts for 75% of France's electricity production
៦៥
and explains why France pollutes less than comparable countries.
៦៦
៦៧
Like all European Union members, France agreed to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by the year 2020,
៦៨
in comparison the US agreed to a cut of 4% of its emissions.
៦៩
In 2009, French carbon dioxide emissions per capita was lower than the Chinese.
៧០
France was set to impose a
carbon tax
in 2009 at 17 Euros per tonne of carbon emitted.
៧១
The carbon tax would have brought in 4 billion Euros of revenue per year.
៧២
But the tax was abandoned for various reasons, including that French companies would have difficulty competing with companies in neighbouring countries that would not have to pay such steep taxes on carbon emissions. Instituting a carbon tax was an unpopular political move for President Sarkozy.
៧៣
In 2010, a study at Yale and
Columbia
universities ranked France the seventh most environmentally conscious country in the world.
៧៤
៧៥
Forests account for 28% of the land area of France.
៧៦
៧៧
French forests are some of the most diversified of Europe, with more than 140 differents varieties of trees.
៧៨
There are nine
national parks
៧៩
and 46
natural parks
in France.
៨០
France wants to convert 20% of its
Exclusive Economic Zone
to a
Marine Protected Area
by 2020.
៨១
លក្ខណៈទូទៅរបស់ប្រទេសបារាំង
កែប្រែ
Place du Capitole
Château de Chambord
ផ្ទៃដី
កែប្រែ
មានផ្ទៃដីចំនួន ៥៥០០០០ គីឡូម៉ែត្រការេ។ ប្រទេសបារាំងលាតសន្ធឹងលើទឹកដីនៃទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុបភាគខាងលិច ប្រហែល១ភាគ១៥នៃផ្ទៃ ដីសហភាពអឺរ៉ុប ទាំងមូល ហើយជា ប្រទេសមួយដែលមានតំបន់សមុទ្រធំទូលាយ (ជា តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ច ផ្ដាច់មុខលាតសន្ឋឹងលើផ្ទៃ១១លាន គម២)។
ស្ថានភាពដី
កែប្រែ
តំបន់ទំនាប ៖ ២/៣ នៃផ្ទៃដីទាំងមូល.
ប្រជុំភ្នំសំខាន់ៗ: ភ្នំអាល់ (Alpes) ភ្នំដែលមានកំពស់ខ្ពស់ជាងគេនៅអឺរ៉ុបភាគខាងលិច គឺភ្នំម៉ុងប្លង់ ដែលមានកំពស់ ៤៨០៧ម៉ែត្រ ភ្នំពីរេណ៉េ ភ្នំហ៊្សុយរ៉ា ភ្នំអាកឌែន ភ្នំម៉ាស៊្សីស សង់ត្រាល់ និងភ្នំវ៉ូហ្សឺ។
តំបន់មាត់សមុទ្រ: ដោយមានព្រំប្រទល់ជាប់នឹងសមុទ្រចំនួន៤ សមុទ្រខាងជើង សមុទ្រឡាម៉ង់ មហាសមុទ្រ អាត្លង់ទិច និងសមុទ្រម៉េឌីទែរ៉ាណេ ប្រទេសបារាំងមាន ឆ្នេរសរុបប្រវែង ៥៥០០គីឡូម៉ែត្រ។
ដែនដីសំខាន់ហ៊ុំព័ទ្ឋដោយ
មហាសមុទ្រអាត្លង់ទិក
នៅខាងលិច
សមុទ្រម៉ង់
និង
សមុទ្រខាងជើង
(la mer du Nord)នៅខាងជើង ប្រទេស
បែលហ្ស៊ីក
លុចហ្សំបួរ
អាលឺម៉ង់
ស្វីស
និង
អ៊ីតាលី
នៅខាងកើត និងដោយ
សមុទ្រមេឌីទែរ៉ានេ
ប្រទេស
អង់ដូរ៉ា
ម៉ូណាកូ
និង
អេស្បាញ
នៅខាងត្បូង។
ដែនដីឯនាយសមុទ្រមាន
ហ្គុយយ៉ាន
(la Guyane)និង
កោះសាំងម៉ាតាំង
( l’île de Saint-Martin)នៅ
ទ្វីបអាមេរិកខាងត្បូង
ប៉ូលីនេស៊ីបារាំង
( la Polynésie française)
វ៉ាលីនិងហ្វុទុណា
(Wallis-et-Futuna)
ណូវ៉ែលកាលេដូនី
(la Nouvelle-Calédonie) និងកោះ
ខ្លីបពឺតុង
(l’Île Clipperton) នៅ
មហាសមុទ្រប៉ាស៊ីហ្វិក
ឡារ៉េអ៊ុយនីញ៉ុង
(La Réunion)
ម៉ាយ៉ុត
(Mayotte) និងកោះ
អេប៉ាស
(Îles Éparses)នៅ
មហាសមុទ្រឥណ្ឌា
ដែនដែអូស្ត្រាល់និងអង់តាទិកបារាំង
(les Terres australes et antarctiques françaises)​នៅ
ទ្វីបអូសេអានី
និង
មហាសមុទ្រអង់តាទិក
ហ្គាដឺលូប
(la Guadeloupe)
ម៉ាទីនីក
(la Martinique)
កោះសាំងម៉ាតាំង
(l’île Saint-Martin)​
កោះសាំងបេទេលេមី
(l’île Saint-Barthélemy) នៅ
សមុទ្រការ៉ាអ៊ីប
អាកាសធាតុ
កែប្រែ
ប្រទេសបារាំងស្ថិតក្រោមឥទ្ធិពលអាកាសធាតុ៣ប្រភេទ៖
ផ្នែកខាងលិចនៃប្រទេសបារាំងទទួលរងឥទ្ធិពលអាកាសធាតុមហាសមុទ្រ
ផ្នែកខាងត្បូងទទួលរងឥទ្ធិពលអាកាសធាតុម៉េឌីទេរ៉ាណេ
ភាគកណ្ដាល និងខាងកើតទទួលរងឥទ្ធិពលអាកាសធាតុពីដែនទ្វីបជាអាកាសធាតុក្ដៅ ត្រជាក់ខ្លាំង ។
បរិស្ថាន
កែប្រែ
Louis XIV of France
Château de Versailles
Declaration of Human Rights
តំបន់ផលិតផលកសិកម្ម និងព្រៃឈើគ្របដណ្ដប់លើផ្ទៃដី៤៨លានហិកតា គឺស្មើនឹង៨២%នៃផ្ទៃដីគោក។ ព្រៃ​ក្រាស់​លាត​សន្ធឹង​លើ​២៦%​នៃ​ផ្ទៃ​ដី​ហើយ​ជាប់​ចំណាត់​ថ្នាក់​លេខ​៣នៅអឺរ៉ុប បន្ទាប់ពី ស៊ុយអែដ និងហ្វាំងឡង់ ។ ផ្ទៃដីព្រៃឈើនៅប្រទេសបារាំងបានកើន៤៦%ចាប់តាំងពីឆ្នាំ១៩៤៥ ហើយនឹងកើន​ឡើង​ទ្វេ​ដង​ក្នុង​រយៈពេល២០០ឆ្នាំ។ លើលពីនេះ គេឃើញមាន ដើមឈើចំនួន១៣៦ប្រភេទផ្សេងគ្នានៅក្នុងប្រទេសបារាំង ដែលនេះគឺជាករណីពិសេសមួយសំរាប់​ប្រទេស​​នៅ​ក្នុងទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុប។
ចំនួនសត្វព្រៃមាន ការកើនឡើង ក្នុងរយៈពេលតែ២០ឆ្នាំ សត្វប្រើសមានចំនួនកើន ឡើងទ្វេ ដង រីឯពពួកសត្វឈ្លូសវិញកើនឡើងបីដង។
ដើម្បីថែរក្សា និងលើកតំកើងបេតិកភណ្ឌធម្មជាតិរបស់ប្រទេសបារាំង រដ្ឋបានបង្កើត ៖
ឧទ្យានជាតិចំនួន៧
តំបន់ការពារធម្មជាតិ១៥៦កន្លែង
តំបន់ការពាររុក្ខជាតិ និងសត្វចំនួន៥១៦កន្លែង
តំបន់រមណីដ្ឋាន ៤២៩កន្លែង ស្ថិតក្រោមការការពាររបស់ការិយាល័យការពារដែន សមុទ្រ
រាប់បញ្ចូលផងដែរនូវឧទ្យានធម្មជាតិ៤៣កន្លែង។
នៅលើឆាកអន្ដរជាតិ ប្រទេសបារាំងជាភាគីនៃសន្ធិសញ្ញា និងអនុសញ្ញាជាច្រើនក្នុងនោះ មានទាំង អនុសញ្ញា អង្គការសហប្រជាជាតិស្ដីអំពីអា-កាសធាតុ ជីវៈចំរុះ និងការប្រែក្លាយ ជាតំបន់រហស្ថាន។
ប្រជាសាស្ត្រ
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
Demographics of France
and
French people
Population density in the French Republic at the 1999 census.
With an estimated population of 66 million people in July 2013, France is the
21st most populous country in the world
៥៨
In 2004, the Institut Montaigne estimated there were 51 million (85%) white people, 6 million (10%) North African people, 2 million (3.5%) black people and 1 million (1.5%) people of Asian origin in Metropolitan France.
៨២
៨៣
In 2003, France's natural population growth (excluding immigration) was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the European Union. The natural growth rate (excess of births over deaths) rose to 300,000 in 2006,
៨៤
its highest since the end of the
baby boom
in 1973. The
total fertility rate
rose to 2 in 2010,
៨៥
from a nadir of 1.7 in 1994.
៨៦
From 2006 to 2011 population growth was on average +0.6% per year.
៨៤
In 2010, 27% of newborns in metropolitan France had at least one
foreign-born
parent and 24% had at least one parent born outside of Europe (parents born in overseas territories are considered as born in France).
៨៧
In 2008, the French national institute of statistics
INSEE
estimated that 11.8 million foreign-born immigrants and their direct descendants (born in France) lived in France, representing 19% of the country's population. More than 5 million are of European origin and 4 million of
Maghrebi
origin. There are 2.7 million immigrants aged 18–50 (accounting for 10% of the population aged 18–50) and 5 million altogether (8% of the entire population). The second generation aged 18–50 make up 3.1 million (12% of 18–50) and 6.5 million for all ages (11% of population)
៨៨
៨៩
៩០
In 2008, France granted citizenship to 137,000 persons, mostly to people from Morocco, Algeria and Turkey.
៩១
Although it is illegal for the French state to collect data on ethnicity and ancestry, a law with its origins in the 1789 revolution and reaffirmed in the
French Constitution
of 1958, some surveys, like the TeO ("Trajectories and origins") survey conducted jointly by
INED
and
INSEE
in 2008, are allowed to.
៩២
៩៣
Before this survey, it was estimated that 5 million people were of
Italian
ancestry (the most numerous immigrant community),
៩៤
between 3 million
៩៥
and 6 million
៩៦
people are of
North African
ancestry, 2.5 million people are of
Sub-Saharan African
ancestry, 200,000 people are of
Turkish
ancestry,
៩៧
and many more are of other
European ethnic ancestry
, such as
Spaniards
Portuguese
Poles
, and
Greeks
៩៤
៩៨
៩៩
បច្ចុប្បន្ននេះ វាត្រូវបានគេប៉ាន់ប្រមាណថា 40% នៃប្រជាជនបារាំងត្រូវបានចុះមកយ៉ាងហោចណាស់មួយផ្នែកពីរលកផ្សេងគ្នានៃអន្តោប្រវេសន៍ដែលប្រទេសបានទទួល។
១០០
Between 1921 and 1935 about 1.1 million net immigrants came to France.
១០១
An estimated 1.6 million
pieds noirs
returned to France as the country's North African possessions gained independence.
១០២
១០៣
France accepts about 200,000 legal immigrants each year.
១០៤
France is the leading
asylum
destination in Western Europe with an estimated 50,000 applications in 2005 (a 15% decrease from 2004).
១០៥
The European Union allows free movement between the member states, France however put in place controls to curb
Eastern European
migration.
The
largest cities
in France, in terms of metropolitan area population, are Paris (11,836,970),
Lyon
(1,757,180),
Marseille
(1,618,369),
Lille
(1,163,934),
Toulouse
(1,118,472),
Bordeaux
(1,009,313),
Nice
(999,678),
Nantes
(768,305). A perennial political issue concerns
rural flight
Language
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
French language
and
Languages of France
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
Language policy in France
និង
Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
France's legacy: a map of the
Francophone
world
native language
administrative language
secondary or non-official language
francophone minorities
According to Article 2 of the Constitution, the official language of France is French,
១០៦
Romance language
derived from
Latin
. Since 1635, the
Académie française
has been France's official authority on the French language, although its recommendations carry no legal power.
រដ្ឋាភិបាលបារាំងមិនគ្រប់គ្រងជម្រើសនៃភាសាក្នុងការបោះពុម្ពដោយបុគ្គលនោះទេ ប៉ុន្តែការប្រើប្រាស់ភាសាបារាំងត្រូវបានទាមទារដោយច្បាប់ក្នុងការទំនាក់ទំនងពាណិជ្ជកម្ម និងកន្លែងធ្វើការ។ In addition to mandating the use of French in the territory of the Republic, the French government tries to promote French in the European Union and globally through institutions such as
La Francophonie
. The perceived threat from
anglicisation
has prompted efforts to safeguard the position of the French language in France. Besides French, there exist 77 vernacular minority languages of France, eight spoken in French metropolitan territory and 69 in the French
overseas territories
From the 17th to the mid-20th century, French served as the pre-eminent international language of diplomacy and international affairs as well as a
lingua franca
among the educated classes of Europe.
១០៧
The dominant position of French language in international affairs was overtaken by English, since the emergence of the US as a major power.
៤៤
១០៨
១០៩
Though for most of the time in which French served as an international lingua franca, it was not the native language of most Frenchmen: a report in 1794 conducted by
Henri Grégoire
found that of the country's 25 million people, only three million spoke French natively; the rest spoke one of the country's many regional languages, such as
Alsatian
Breton
or
Occitan
១១០
Through the expansion of public education, in which French was the sole language of instruction, as well as other factors such as increased urbanization and the rise of mass communication, French gradually came to be adopted by virtually the entire population, a process not completed until the 20th century.
As a result of France's extensive
colonial ambitions
between the 17th and 20th centuries, French was introduced to America, Africa, Polynesia, South-East Asia, and the Caribbean. French is the second most studied foreign language in the world after English,
១១១
and is a lingua franca in some regions, notably in Africa. The legacy of French as a living language outside Europe is mixed: it is nearly extinct in some former French colonies (South-east Asia), while creoles and pidgins based on French have emerged in the French departments in the
West Indies
and the South Pacific (
French Polynesia
). On the other hand, many former French colonies have adopted French as an official language, and the total number of French speakers is increasing, especially in Africa.
It is estimated that between 300 million
១១២
and 500 million
១១៣
people worldwide can speak French, either as a
mother tongue
or a
second language
សាសនា
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Religion in France
Notre-Dame de Reims
is the Roman Catholic cathedral where the
kings of France were crowned
until 1825.
១១៤
France is a
secular
country, and
freedom of religion
is a constitutional right. French religious policy is based on the concept of
laïcité
, a strict
separation of church and state
under which public life is kept completely secular.
Catholicism
has been the predominant religion in France for more than a millennium, though it is not as actively practised today as it was. Among the 47,000 religious buildings in France, 94% are
Roman Catholic
១១៥
Whilst in 1965, 81% of the French declared themselves to be Catholics, in 2009 this proportion was 64%. Moreover, whilst 27% of the French went to Mass once a week or more in 1952, only 5% did so in 2006.
១១៦
The same survey found that
Protestants
accounted for 3% of the population, an increase from previous surveys, and 5% adhered to other religions, with the remaining 28% stating they had no religion.
១១៦
Evangelical Christianity may be the fastest growing religion in France.
១១៧
The
French Revolution
saw a radical shift in the status of the Catholic Church with the launch of a brutal
campaign of de-Christianization
. After the back and forth of Catholic royal and secular republican governments over the 19th century,
laïcité
was established with the
1905 law on the Separation of the Churches and the State
១១៨
According to a poll in January 2007,
១១៩
only 5% of the French population attended church regularly (10% attend church services regularly among the respondents who did identify themselves as Catholics). The poll showed
១២០
51% identified as being Catholics, 31% identified as being agnostics or
atheists
(another poll
១២១
sets the proportion of atheists equal to 27%)
, 10% identified as being from other religions or being without opinion, 4% identified as Muslim, 3% identified as Protestant, 1% identified as
Buddhist
, 1% identified as Jewish. Meanwhile, an independent estimate by the politologist Pierre Bréchon in 2009 concluded that the proportion of Catholics had fallen to 42% while the number of atheists and agnostics had risen to 50%.
១២២
Estimates of the number of
Muslims in France
vary widely. In 2003, the French Ministry of the Interior estimated the total number of people of Muslim background to be between 5 and 6 million (8–10%).
១២៣
១២៤
According to the Pewforum, "In France, proponents of a 2004 law banning the wearing of religious symbols in schools say it protects Muslim girls from being forced to wear a headscarf, but the law also restricts those who want to wear headscarves – or any other “conspicuous” religious symbol, including large Christian crosses and Sikh turbans – as an expression of their faith"
១២៥
The current
Jewish community in France
numbers around 600,000 according to the
World Jewish Congress
and is the largest in Europe.
Since 1905 the French government has followed the principle of
laïcité
, in which it is prohibited from recognising any specific right to a religious community (except for legacy statutes like that of military chaplains and the
local law in Alsace-Moselle
). Instead, it merely recognises
religious organisations
, according to formal legal criteria that do not address religious doctrine. Conversely, religious organizations should refrain from intervening in policy-making.
១២៦
Certain bodies of beliefs such as
Scientology
Children of God
, the
Unification Church
, or the
Order of the Solar Temple
are considered
cults
("
sectes
" in French),
១២៧
and therefore do not have the same status as religions in France.
Secte
is considered a pejorative term in France.
១២៨
សុខភាព
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Health in France
The
Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital
, a teaching hospital in Paris, one of Europe's largest hospitals.
១២៩
The
French healthcare system
was ranked first worldwide by the
World Health Organization
in 1997
១៣០
and then again in 2000.
១៣១
Care is generally free for people affected by
chronic diseases
affections de longues durées
) such as cancer, AIDS or
Cystic Fibrosis
. Average life expectancy at birth is 78 years for men and 85 years for women, one of the highest of the European Union.
១៣២
There are 3.22 physicians for every 1000 inhabitants in France,
១៣៣
and average health care spending per capita was US$4,719 in 2008.
១៣៤
As of 2007, approximately 140,000 inhabitants (0.4%) of France are living with HIV/AIDS.
៥៨
Even if the
French
have the reputation of being one of the thinnest peoples in developed countries,
១៣៥
១៣៦
១៣៧
១៣៨
១៣៩
១៤០
France—like other rich countries—faces an increasing and recent epidemic of
obesity
, due mostly to the replacement of traditional healthy French cuisine by
junk food
in French eating habits.
១៣៥
១៣៦
១៤១
Nevertheless, the French obesity rate is far below that of the USA (for instance, obesity rate in France is the same that the American once was in the 1970s
១៣៦
), and is still the lowest of Europe,
១៣៨
១៤១
but it is now regarded by the authorities as one of the main public health issues
១៤២
and is fiercely fought; rates of childhood obesity are slowing in France, while continuing to grow in other countries.
១៤៣
ការអប់រំ
កែប្រែ
The
National and University Library
on the campus of the
University of Strasbourg
អត្ថបទដើម:
Education in France
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
History of education in France
និង
Baccalauréat
In 1802,
Napoleon
created the
lycée
១៤៤
Nevertheless it is
Jules Ferry
who is considered to be the father of the French modern school, which is free, secular, and compulsory until the age of 13 since 1882
១៤៥
(school attendance in France is now compulsory until the age of 16
១៤៦
).
Nowadays, the schooling system in France is centralized, and is composed of three stages, primary education, secondary education, and higher education. The
Programme for International Student Assessment
, coordinated by the
OECD
, currently ranks France's education as the 25th best in the world, being neither significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average.
១៤៧
Primary and secondary education are predominantly public, run by the
Ministry of National Education
Higher education in France
is divided between
public universities
and the prestigious and selective
Grandes écoles
, such as
Science Po Paris
for Political studies,
HEC Paris
for Economics,
Polytechnique
and the
École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris
that produces high-profile engineers, or the
École nationale d'administration
for careers in the great corps of the State. The
Grandes écoles
have been criticised for alleged
elitism
១៤៨
nevertheless they have produced many if not most of France's high-ranking civil servants, CEOs, and politicians.
ប្រជាជន
កែប្រែ
ណាប់ប៉ូឡេអុងទី១
មានប្រជាជនរស់នៅ៦៣,៨ លាននាក់ (២០០៨)។ ដង់សីតេប្រជាជន: ៩៨,១ នាក់/គម
។ទីក្រុងដែលមានប្រជាជនរស់នៅលើសពី ១០០ ០០០នាក់ មានចំនួន៥៧។ ក្នុងនោះមានទីក្រុង៥ ដែលមានប្រជាជន រស់នៅច្រើនជាងគេ ៖
ទីក្រុង
ប្រជាជនក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០០៦
1. បារីស
៩,៦ លាន
2. លីល
១,៧ លាន
3. លីយ៉ុង
១,៤ លាន
4. ម៉ាកសី
១,៣ លាន
5. ទូលូ
១ លាន
Administrative divisions
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
Administrative divisions of France
Regions of France
, and
Departments of France
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
Metropolitan Area (France)
និង
List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants (2006 census)
France is divided into 27 administrative
regions
៥៨
22 are in
metropolitan France
(21 are on the continental part of metropolitan France; one is the territorial collectivity of
Corsica
), and five are
overseas regions
. The regions are further subdivided into 101
departments
១៤៩
which are numbered (mainly alphabetically). This number is used in postal codes and vehicle number plates amongst others.
The 101 departments are subdivided into 341
arrondissements
which are, in turn, subdivided into 4,051
cantons
. These cantons are then divided into 36,697
communes
, which are municipalities with an elected municipal council. There are 2,588
intercommunal
entities grouping 33,414 of the 36,697 communes (i.e. 91.1% of all the communes). Three communes, Paris, Lyon and Marseille are subdivided into 45
municipal arrondissements
The regions, departments and communes are all known as
territorial collectivities
, meaning they possess local assemblies as well as an executive. Arrondissements and cantons are merely administrative divisions. However, this was not always the case. Until 1940, the arrondissements were territorial collectivities with an elected assembly, but these were suspended by the
Vichy regime
and definitely abolished by the
Fourth Republic
in 1946.
Metropolitan regions
កែប្រែ
The 22
regions
and 96
departments
of metropolitan France includes Corsica (
Corse
, lower right). Paris area is expanded (inset at left)
Region
Departments
រដ្ឋធានី
Alsace
Bas-Rhin
Haut-Rhin
Strasbourg
Aquitaine
Dordogne
Gironde
Landes
Lot-et-Garonne
Pyrénées-Atlantiques
Bordeaux
Auvergne
Allier
Cantal
Haute-Loire
Puy-de-Dôme
Clermont-Ferrand
Brittany
Côtes-d'Armor
Finistère
Ille-et-Vilaine
Morbihan
Rennes
Burgundy
Côte-d'Or
Nièvre
Saône-et-Loire
Yonne
Dijon
Centre
Cher
Eure-et-Loir
Indre
Indre-et-Loire
Loiret
Loir-et-Cher
Orléans
Champagne-Ardenne
Ardennes
Aube
Haute-Marne
Marne
Châlons-en-Champagne
Corsica
Corse-du-Sud
Haute-Corse
Ajaccio
Franche-Comté
Doubs
Haute-Saône
Jura
Territoire de Belfort
Besançon
Île-de-France
Essonne
Hauts-de-Seine
ប៉ារីស
Seine-et-Marne
Seine-Saint-Denis
Val-de-Marne
Val-d'Oise
Yvelines
Paris
Languedoc-Roussillon
Aude
Gard
Hérault
Lozère
Pyrénées-Orientales
Montpellier
Limousin
Corrèze
Creuse
Haute-Vienne
Limoges
Lorraine
Meurthe-et-Moselle
Meuse
Moselle
Vosges
Metz
Lower Normandy
Calvados
Manche
Orne
Caen
Midi-Pyrénées
Ariège
Aveyron
Gers
Haute-Garonne
Hautes-Pyrénées
Lot
Tarn
Tarn-et-Garonne
Toulouse
Nord-Pas-de-Calais
Nord
Pas-de-Calais
Lille
Pays de la Loire
Loire-Atlantique
Maine-et-Loire
Mayenne
Sarthe
Vendée
Nantes
Picardy
Aisne
Oise
Somme
Amiens
Poitou-Charentes
Charente
Charente-Maritime
Deux-Sèvres
Vienne
Poitiers
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence
Alpes-Maritimes
Bouches-du-Rhône
Hautes-Alpes
Var
Vaucluse
Marseille
Rhône-Alpes
Ain
Ardèche
Drôme
Haute-Savoie
Isère
Loire
Rhône
Savoie
Lyon
Upper Normandy
Eure
Seine-Maritime
Rouen
Overseas regions
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Overseas departments and territories of France
Among the 101 departments of France, five (
French Guiana
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Mayotte
, and
Réunion
) are in overseas regions (ROMs) that are also simultaneously overseas departments (DOMs) and are an integral part of France (and the European Union) and thus enjoy exactly the same status to metropolitan departments.
Name
ស្ថានភាពរដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ
រដ្ឋធានី
ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស French Guiana
Overseas region (
régions d'outre-mer
) and simultaneously overseas department (
département d'outre-mer
or DOM)
Cayenne
Guadeloupe
Overseas region (
régions d'outre-mer
) and simultaneously overseas department (
département d'outre-mer
or DOM)
Basse-Terre
ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Martinique
Overseas region (
régions d'outre-mer
) and simultaneously overseas department (
département d'outre-mer
or DOM)
Fort-de-France
Mayotte
Overseas region (
régions d'outre-mer
) and simultaneously overseas department (
département d'outre-mer
or DOM)
Mamoudzou
ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Réunion
Overseas region (
régions d'outre-mer
) and simultaneously overseas department (
département d'outre-mer
or DOM)
Saint-Denis
Overseas territories and collectivities
កែប្រែ
In addition to the 27 regions and 101 departments, the French Republic has five
overseas collectivities
French Polynesia
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
, and
Wallis and Futuna
), one
sui generis
collectivity (
New Caledonia
), one
overseas territory
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
), and one island possession in the Pacific Ocean (
Clipperton Island
).
The lands making up the French Republic, shown at the same
geographic scale
Overseas collectivities and territories form part of the French Republic, but do not form part of the European Union or its fiscal area (with the exception of St. Bartelemy, which seceded from Guadeloupe in 2007). The Pacific Collectivities (COMs) of French Polynesia, Wallis and Fortuna, and New Caledonia continue to use the
CFP franc
១៥០
whose value is strictly linked to that of the euro. In contrast, the five overseas regions used the French franc and now use the euro.
១៥១
Name
ស្ថានភាពរដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ
រដ្ឋធានី
ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Clipperton Island
State private property under the direct authority of the
French government
Uninhabited
ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស French Polynesia
Designated as an overseas land (
pays d'outre-mer
or POM), the status is the same as an overseas collectivity.
Papeete
ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស French Southern and Antarctic Lands
Overseas territory (
territoire d'outre-mer
or TOM)
Port-aux-Français
New Caledonia
Sui generis
collectivity
Nouméa
Saint Barthélemy
Overseas collectivity (
collectivité d'outre-mer
or COM)
Gustavia
Saint Martin
Overseas collectivity (
collectivité d'outre-mer
or COM)
Marigot
ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Overseas collectivity (
collectivité d'outre-mer
or COM). Still referred to as a
collectivité territoriale
Saint-Pierre
ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Wallis and Futuna
Overseas collectivity (
collectivité d'outre-mer
or COM). Still referred to as a
territoire
Mata-Utu
ការគ្រប់គ្រងរដ្ឋបាល
កែប្រែ
ទឹកដីនៃសាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំងចែកជា ៖
មេត្រូប៉ូល រួមមានទាំងអស់២២តំបន់ និង៩៦ខេត្ដ
ខេត្ដឯនាយសមុទ្រចំនួន៤ (DOM) ហ្គាដឺឡុប ម៉ាកទីនិក ហ្គីយាន ឡារ៉េអ៊ុយនីញុង
ដែនដីឯនាយសមុទ្រចំនួន៧: Polynésie française, Wallis et Futuna, Mayotte, Saint-Pierre និងMiquelon, les Terres australes និងantarctiques françaises, Saint-Barthélémy, Saint-Martin,
និង La Nouvelle Calédonie.
Governance
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Politics of France
Government
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
Government of France
and
Constitution of France
ឯកសារ:Logo de la République française.svg
Logo of the French Republic
The French Republic is a
unitary
semi-presidential
republic with strong democratic traditions.
១៥២
The constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by
referendum
on 28 September 1958.
១៥៣
It greatly strengthened the authority of the executive in relation to parliament. The executive branch itself has two leaders: the
President of the Republic
, currently
François Hollande
, who is
head of state
and is elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year term (formerly 7 years),
១៥៤
and the Government, led by the president-appointed
Prime Minister
, currently
Jean-Marc Ayrault
François Hollande
, elected
President of the French Republic
in April 2012.
The French
parliament
is a
bicameral
legislature comprising a
National Assembly
Assemblée Nationale
) and a
Senate
១៥៥
The National Assembly deputies represent local constituencies and are directly elected for 5-year terms.
១៥៦
The Assembly has the power to dismiss the cabinet, and thus the majority in the Assembly determines the choice of government. Senators are chosen by an electoral college for 6-year terms (originally 9-year terms), and one half of the seats are submitted to election every 3 years starting in September 2008.
១៥៧
The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National Assembly has the final say.
១៥៨
The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament.
French politics are characterised by two politically opposed groupings: one left-wing, centred around the
French Socialist Party
, and the other right-wing, centred previously around the
Rassemblement pour la République (RPR)
and now its successor the
Union for a Popular Movement (UMP)
១៥៩
Since the 2012 elections, the executive branch is currently composed mostly of the Socialist Party.
ច្បាប់
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Law of France
France uses a
civil legal
system;
៥៨
that is, law arises primarily from written statutes; judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judicial interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to
case law
). Basic principles of the
rule of law
were laid in the
Napoleonic Code
(which was, in turn, largely based on the royal law codified under
Louis XIV
). In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As
Guy Canivet
, first president of the
Court of Cassation
, wrote about the management of prisons:
Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any restriction of Freedom must be provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and proportionality.
That is, Law should lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy.
The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
French law is divided into two principal areas:
private law
and
public law
. Private law includes, in particular,
civil law
and
criminal law
. Public law includes, in particular,
administrative law
and
constitutional law
. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil law, criminal law, and administrative law. Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminal
ex post facto
laws are prohibited). While administrative law is often a subcategory of civil law in many countries, it is completely separated in France and each body of law is headed by a specific supreme court: ordinary courts (which handle criminal and civil litigation) are headed by the
Court of Cassation
and administrative courts are headed by the
Council of State
To be applicable, every law must be officially published in the
Journal officiel de la République française
France does not recognize
religious law
as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions. France has long had neither
blasphemy
laws nor
sodomy laws
(the latter being abolished in 1791). However, "offenses against
public decency
" (
contraires aux bonnes mœurs
) or
disturbing public order
trouble à l'ordre public
) have been used to repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution. Laws prohibiting discriminatory speech in the press are
as old as 1881
. Some consider however that
hate speech laws in France
are too broad or severe and damage
freedom of speech
ត្រូវការអំណះអំណាង
France has laws against
racism
and
antisemitism
១៦០
France's attitude towards
freedom of religion
is complex. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitutional rights set forth in the 1789
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
. However, since the
1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State
, the State tries to prevent its policy-making from being influenced by religion and became suspicious in recent decades towards new religious tendencies of the French society: the Parliament has
listed many religious movements as dangerous cults
since 1995, and has
banned wearing conspicuous religious symbols in schools
since 2004. In 2010, it banned the
wearing of face-covering Islamic veils in public
. As some have complained that they have suffered from discrimination thus, and after criticism by human rights groups such as
Amnesty International
and
Human Rights Watch
១៦១
១៦២
these laws remain controversial, although they are supported by most of the population.
១៦៣
France is tolerant of the
LGBT community
. Since 1999,
civil unions
for homosexual couples are permitted, and since May 2013,
same-sex marriage
and
LGBT adoption
are legal in France.
១៦៤
Foreign relations
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Foreign relations of France
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
European Union
Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Latin Union
United Nations Security Council
និង
NATO
France is a member of the United Nations and serves as one of the permanent members of the UN Security Council with veto rights.
១៦៥
It is also a member of the
G8
World Trade Organization
(WTO),
១៦៦
the
Secretariat of the Pacific Community
(SPC)
១៦៧
and the
Indian Ocean Commission
(COI).
១៦៨
It is an associate member of the
Association of Caribbean States
(ACS)
១៦៩
and a leading member of the
International Francophone Organisation
(OIF) of fifty-one fully or partly French-speaking countries.
១៧០
French President
François Mitterrand
and German Chancellor
Helmut Kohl
, in 1987.
Former French President
Nicolas Sarkozy
and United States President
Barack Obama
, before NATO summit, in
Strasbourg
, on 3 April 2009
France hosts the headquarters of the
OECD
១៧១
UNESCO
១៧២
Interpol
១៧៣
Alliance Base
១៧៤
and the
International Bureau for Weights and Measures
១៧៥
France has the
second largest network
of
diplomatic missions
in the world, second only to the USA.
១៧៦
In 1953, France received a request from the United Nations to pick a
coat of arms
that would represent it internationally. Thus the
French emblem
was adopted and is currently used on passports.
១៧៧
Postwar French foreign policy has been largely shaped by membership of the European Union, of which it was a
founding member
. Since the
1960s
, France has developed close ties with reunified Germany to become the
most influential driving force of the EU
១៧៨
In the 1960s, France sought to exclude the British from the European unification process,
១៧៩
seeking to build its own standing in continental Europe. However, since 1904, France has maintained an "
Entente cordiale
" with the United Kingdom, and there has been a strengthening of links between the countries, especially
militarily
France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), but under President de Gaulle, it excluded itself from the joint military command to protest the
special relationship
between the United States and Britain and to preserve the independence of French foreign and security policies.
១៨០
France vigorously opposed the
2003 invasion of Iraq
១៨១
១៨២
straining bilateral relations with the US
១៨៣
១៨៤
and the UK.
១៨៥
However, as a result of Nicolas Sarkozy's
pro-American
politics (much criticised in France by the leftists and by a part of the right),
១៨៦
១៨៧
France rejoined the NATO joint military command on 4 April 2009.
In the early 1990s, the country drew considerable criticism from other nations for its underground nuclear tests in
French Polynesia
១៨៨
France retains strong political and economic influence in its
former African colonies
Françafrique
១៨៩
and has supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping missions in
Ivory Coast
and
Chad
១៩០
Recently, after the unilateral declaration of independence of northern
Mali
by the
Tuareg
MNLA
and the subsequent regional
Northern Mali conflict
with several Islamist groups including
Ansar Dine
and
MOJWA
, France and other African states intervened to help the Malian Army to retake control.
In 2009, France was the second largest (in absolute numbers) donor of
development aid
in the world, behind the US, and ahead of Germany, Japan and the UK.
១៩១
This represents 0.5% of its GDP, in this regard rating France as tenth largest donor on the list.
១៩២
The organisation managing the French help is the
French Development Agency
, which finances primarily humanitarian projects in
sub-Saharan Africa
១៩៣
The main goals of this help are "developing infrastructure, access to health care and education, the implementation of appropriate economic policies and the consolidation of the rule of law and democracy."
១៩៣
Military
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
French Armed Forces
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
Military history of France
និង
Deployments of the French military
Examples of France's military. Clockwise from top left: Nuclear aircraft carrier
Charles de Gaulle
; A
Rafale
fighter aircraft
; French
Chasseurs Alpins
patrolling the valleys of Kapisa province in Afghanistan; a
Leclerc tank
in Paris for the
14 July
Bastille Day Military Parade
The French Armed Forces (
Armées françaises
) are the military and paramilitary forces of France, under the
president
as supreme commander. They consist of the
French Army
Armée de Terre
),
French Navy
Marine Nationale
), the
French Air Force
Armée de l'Air
) and the auxiliary paramilitary force, the
National Gendarmerie
Gendarmerie nationale
) and are among the
largest armed forces
in the world. While administratively a part of the French armed forces, and therefore under the purview of the
Ministry of Defence
, the Gendarmerie is operationally attached to the
Ministry of the Interior
The gendarmerie is a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force. It encompasses the counter terrorist units of the
Parachute Intervention Squadron of the National Gendarmerie
Escadron Parachutiste d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale
) and the
National Gendarmerie Intervention Group
Groupe d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale
). One of the French intelligence units, the
Directorate-General for External Security
Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure
) reports to the Ministry of Defence. The other, the
Central Directorate of Interior Intelligence
Direction Centrale du Renseignement Intérieur
), reports directly to the Ministry of the Interior. There has been no national
conscription
since 1997.
១៩៤
France is a
permanent member of the Security Council of the UN
, and a
recognised nuclear state
since 1960. France has signed and ratified the
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
(CTBT)
១៩៥
and acceeded to the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
. France's annual military expenditure in 2011 was US$62.5 billion, or 2.3%, of its GDP making it the
fifth biggest military spender in the world
after the United States, China, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
១៩៦
French nuclear deterrence, (formerly known as “
Force de Frappe
”), relies on complete independence. The current French nuclear force consists of four
Triomphant
class submarines equipped with
submarine-launched ballistic missiles
. In addition to the submarine fleet, it is estimated that France has about 60
ASMP
medium-range
air-to-ground missiles
with
nuclear warheads
១៩៧
of which around 50 are deployed by the Air Force using the
Mirage 2000N
long-range nuclear strike aircraft, while around 10 are deployed by the French Navy's
Super Étendard Modernisé (SEM)
attack aircraft which operate from the nuclear-powered
aircraft carrier
Charles de Gaulle
. The new
Rafale F3
aircraft will gradually replace all Mirage 2000N and SEM in the nuclear strike role with the improved
ASMP-A
missile with a nuclear warhead.
France has major military industries with one of the largest
aerospace industries
in the world.
១៩៨
១៩៩
Its industries have produced such equipment as the Rafale fighter, the
Charles de Gaulle
aircraft carrier, the
Exocet
missile and the
Leclerc
tank amongst others. Despite withdrawing from the
Eurofighter
project, France is actively investing in European joint projects such as the
Eurocopter Tiger
multipurpose frigates
, the
UCAV
demonstrator
nEUROn
and the
Airbus A400M
. France is a major arms seller,
២០០
២០១
with most of its arsenal's designs available for the export market with the notable exception of nuclear-powered devices.
The
military parade
held in Paris each 14 July for
France's national day
is the oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe.
២០២
ហិរញ្ញវត្ថុរបស់រដ្ឋាភិបាល
កែប្រែ
សូមមើលផងដែរ:
Taxation in France
French government borrowing (
budget deficits
) as a percentage of GNP, 1960–2009
In April and May 2012, France held a
presidential election
in which the winner,
François Hollande
, had opposed
austerity
measures, promising to eliminate France's budget deficit by 2017. The new government stated that it aimed to cancel recently enacted tax cuts and exemptions for the wealthy, raising the top tax bracket rate to 75% on incomes over a million euros, restoring the retirement age to 60 with a full pension for those who have worked 42 years, restoring 60,000 jobs recently cut from public education, regulating rent increases; and building additional public housing for the poor.
In June, Hollande's
Socialist Party
won a supermajority in
legislative elections
capable of amending the
French Constitution
and enabling the immediate enactment of the promised reforms. French government bond interest rates fell 30% to record lows,
២០៣
less than 50
basis points
above German government bond rates.
២០៤
បំណុលរដ្ឋាភិបាល
កែប្រែ
Under European Union rules, member states are supposed to limit their debt to 60% of output or be reducing the ratio structurally towards this ceiling, and run public deficits of no more than 3% of GDP. The French government has run a
budget deficit
each year since the early 1970s. In 2012, French government debt levels reached 1.8 trillion euros, the equivalent of 90% of French GDP.
២០៥
In late 2012,
credit rating agencies
warned that growing French government debt levels risked
France's AAA credit rating
, raising the possibility of a future downgrade and subsequent higher borrowing costs for the French government.
២០៦
ស្ថាប័ននានារបស់បារាំង
កែប្រែ
រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ
កែប្រែ
រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ
ថ្ងៃទី ៤ តុលា ឆ្នាំ១៩៥៨ ចែងពីដំណើរការស្ថាប័ននានានៃសាធារណរដ្ឋទី៥។
រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញត្រូវបានគេសើរើ ពិនិត្យឡើងវិញជាច្រើនដងទាក់ទងនឹង ៖
ការបោះឆ្នោតប្រធានាធិបតីជាសកល និងដោយចំពោះ (១៩៦២)
ការដាក់បញ្ចូលជំពូកថ្មីមួួយស្ដីការទទួលខុសត្រូវខាងព្រហ្មទណ្ឌរបស់សមាជិករដ្ឋាភិបាល(១៩៩៣)
ការបង្កើតសម័យប្រជុំរួមមួយរវាងស្ថាប័នសភា
ការពង្រីកដែនធ្វើប្រជាមតិ(១៩៩៥)
អន្ដរបញ្ញត្ដិស្ដីពីលក្ខន្ដិកៈរបស់កោះណូវែលកាលេដូនី ( Nouvelle-Calédonie ) (១៩៩៨)
ការបង្កើតសហព័ន្ធសេដ្ឋកិច្ចនិងរូបិយវត្ថុ
ភាពស្មើគ្នារវាងបុរសនិងស្ដ្រីនៅក្នុងការទទួលអណត្ដិបោះឆ្នោតនានា និងទទួលនូវដែលគេជ្រើសរើស
ការទទួលស្គាល់យុត្ដាធិការនៃតុលាការព្រហ្មទណ្ឌអន្ដរជាតិ(១៩៩៩)
ការកាត់បន្ថយអាណត្ដិប្រធានាធិបតី(២០០០)
កែទំរង់ការទទួលខុសត្រូវខាងព្រហ្មទណ្ឌរបស់ប្រមុខរដ្ឋ
បញ្ចូលការហាមឃាត់់ទោសប្រហារជីវិតក្នុងរដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ
កំណែទំរង់ភាពស្វយ័តរបស់កោះណូវែលកាឡេដូនី(២០០៧)
ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាធម្មនុញ្ញ
កែប្រែ
ឯកសារ:Logo de la République française.svg
French Republic
President Nicolas Sarkozy
Palace of Luxembourg
ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាធម្មនុញ្ញ
មានសមាជិក៩រូប និងមានសមត្ថកិច្ចត្រួតពិនិត្យជាពិសេសនៃ ភាពត្រឹម ត្រូវ តាមច្បាប់ នៃការបោះឆ្នោតនានា និងពិនិត្យធម្មនុញ្ញភាពនៃច្បាប់រៀបចំអង្គការ ព្រម ទាំងច្បាប់ ដែលដាក់មកអនុម័ត។
ប្រធានាធិបតីនៃសារធារណរដ្ឋ
កែប្រែ
ប្រមុខរដ្ឋត្រូវបានជ្រើសរើសសំរាប់រយៈពេល៥ឆ្នាំតាមរយៈការបោះឆ្នោតជាសកល និង ដោយចំពោះ (អណត្ដិ​​រយៈ​ពេល​៥​ឆ្នាំ​នេះ​បាន​បង្កើត​ឡើង​បន្ទាប់​ពី​ការ​ធ្វើ​ប្រជាមតិ​នៅ​ថ្ងៃទី ២៤ ខែកញ្ញា ឆ្នាំ២០០០)។ លោក នីកូឡា សាកូហ្ស៊ី ជាប្រធានាធិបតីទី៦នៃសាធារណរដ្ឋ ទី៥ លោកបានជាប់ឆ្នោតនៅថ្ងៃទី៧ឧសភា ឆ្នាំ​២០០៧ ។
ប្រធានាធិបតីតែងតាំងនាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី និងសមាជិករដ្ឋាភិបាលតាមសំណើររបស់នាយក រដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី (មាត្រា ទី៨នៃរដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ)។
ប្រធានាធិបតីដឹកនាំគណៈរដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី ប្រកាសអោយប្រើច្បាប់នានា ជាបញ្ជាការនៃកងកម្លាំង ប្រដាប់អាវុធ។ ប្រធានាធិបតីអាចរំលាយរដ្ឋសភា ហើយ​ក្នុង​ករណី​ធ្ងន់​ធ្ងរ​ ប្រធានាធិបតីមានអំណាចពិសេស (មាត្រាទី១៦)។
នាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី និងរដ្ឋាភិបាល
កែប្រែ
ក្រោមការដឹកនាំរបស់នាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី រដ្ឋាភិបាលកំណត់ និងដឹកនាំនយោបាយជាតិ។ នាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី ទទួល ខុសត្រូវចំពោះរដ្ឋសភា (មាត្រាទី២០)។ នាយក​រដ្ឋ​មន្ដ្រី​ដឹក​នាំ​សកម្មភាពរដ្ឋាភិបាលនិងធានានូវការអនុវត្ដច្បាប់ (មាត្រាទី២១)។ លោក François Fillon ត្រូវ បានតែងតាំងជានាយក រដ្ឋមន្ដ្រីនៅថ្ងៃទី១៧ ឧសភា ឆ្នាំ២០០៧។
សភា
កែប្រែ
សភាមានពីរថ្នាក់ ៖
ព្រឹទ្ធសភា
៖ ព្រឹទ្ធសមាជិកត្រូវជ្រើសតាំងសំរាប់រយៈពេល៦ឆ្នាំ(ពីមុនមានរយៈពេល៩ឆ្នាំ) ចាប់តាំងពីឆ្នាំ ២០០៣ ដោយការបោះឆ្នោតជាសកល និងមិនចំពោះ ហើយត្រូវបានផ្លាស់ ប្ដូរសមាជិក ៣០% ក្នុងរយៈ ពេលបីឆ្នាំម្ដង។ ការបោះឆ្នោតលើកចុងក្រោយ បានប្រព្រឹត្ដ ទៅនៅខែ កញ្ញាឆ្នាំ២០០៤។
រដ្ឋភាជាតិ
៖ តំណាងរាស្ដ្រត្រូវបានជ្រើសតាំងសំរាប់រយៈពេល៥ឆ្នាំដោយការបោះឆ្នោត ជាសកល និង ដោយចំពោះ។ ការបោះឆ្នោតលើកចុងក្រោយបាន ប្រព្រឹត្ដទៅនៅខែមិថុ- នា ឆ្នាំ២០០៧។
ក្រៅពីត្រួតពិនិត្យរដ្ឋាភិបាល សភាទាំងពីរថ្នាក់មានតួនាទីរៀបចំ និងអនុម័តច្បាប់។ ក្នុងករណីមិនមានការយល់ព្រម រដ្ឋសភាជាតិធ្វើការសំរេចជាស្ថាពរ។
ព្រឹទ្ធសភា
កែប្រែ
ក្រោយ​ការបោះឆ្នោតខែកញ្ញឆ្នាំ២០០៤ ព្រឹទ្ធសភាមានសមាជិក៣៣១នាក់ដែលមកពី ៖
គណបក្សសហព័ន្ធសំរាប់ចលនាប្រជាជន ( UMP ) ៖ ១៥៨នាក់
គណបក្សសង្គមនិយម ៖ ៩៦នាក់
ក្រុមគណបក្សកណ្ដាលនិយម ៖ ៣០នាក់
គណបក្សកុម្មុយនិស្ដ គណបក្សសាធារណរដ្ឋ និងគណបក្សពលរដ្ឋ ៖ ២៣នាក់
គណបក្សសម្ព័ន្ធភាពប្រជាធិបតី និងសង្គមអឺរ៉ុប ៖១៦នាក់
បេក្ខជនឯករាជ្យ ៖ ៦នាក់ ។
រដ្ឋសភាជាតិ
កែប្រែ
រដ្ឋសភាជាតិ
បន្ទាប់ពីការបោះឆ្នោតថ្ងៃទី១០ និង១៧ឆ្នាំ២០០៧មិថុនា រដ្ឋសភាជាតិមានតំណាងរាស្ដ្រ៥៧៧នាក់ មកពី ៖
គណបក្សសហព័ន្ធសំរាប់ចលនាប្រជាជន (UMP) ៖ ៣១៤នាក់ (សម្ព័ន្ធភាព៦គណបក្ស)
ក្រុមសង្គមនិយម និងប្រជាជនៈ ១៨៦នាក់(សម្ព័ន្ធ១៨គណបក្ស)
ក្រុមប្រជាធិបតីឆ្វេងនិយម និងសាធារណរដ្ឋ ៖ ២៤នាក់ (គ្មានសម្ព័ន្ធភាព)
ក្រុមគណបក្សកណ្ដាលនិយមថ្មី ៖ ២០នាក់(សម្ព័ន្ធភាព២គណបក្ស)
តំណាងរាស្ដ្រមិនស្ថិតក្នុងក្រុមណាមួយ ៖ ២០នាក់
តុលាការ
កែប្រែ
តុលាការជាអ្នកការពារសេរីភាពបុគ្គល (មាត្រា៦៦នៃ រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ)។ អំណាចតុលាការបា- រាំងបានរៀបចំ ទៅតាមភាពខុសគ្នាជាមូលដ្ឋានរវាង ៖
តុលាការយុត្ដិធម៌ត្រូវទទួលខុសត្រូវជំលោះរវាងបុគ្គល និងបុគ្គល។
តុលាការរដ្ឋបាលដោះស្រាយជំលោះរវាងប្រជាជននិងអំណាចសាធារណៈ។
តុលាការមានពីរលំដាប់ថ្នាក់ ៖
1.
យុត្ដាធិការរដ្ឋប្បវេណី
តុលាការនីតិរួម (តុលាការជាន់ខ្ពស់) រឺនីតិពិសេសផ្សេងៗ (សាលាតំបូង តុលាការពាណិជ្ជ កម្ម តុលាការកិច្ចការសន្ដិសុខសង្គម និងក្រុមតុលាការការងារដែលដោះស្រាយជំលោះ រវាងបុគ្គលិក និយោជិក និងនិយោជក។
2.
យុត្ដិធិការព្រហ្មទណ្ឌ
ទទួលបន្ទុកវិនិច្ឆ័យលើបទល្មើស៣ប្រភេទ ៖
បទលហុដែលវិនិច្ឆ័យដោយតុលាការនគរបាល
បទល្មើសដែលវិនិច្ឆ័យដោយតុលាការលហុ
បទឧក្រិដ្ឋដោយសាលាឧក្រិដ្ឋ
មានតុលាការដោយឡែកសំរាប់រដ្ឋប្បវេណី និងព្រហ្មទណ្ឌតុលាការកុមារ។
សាលាវិនិច្ឆ័យ
៖គឺជាតុលាខ្ពស់ជាងគេ ហើយទទួលខុសត្រូវពិនិត្យបណ្ដឹងសារទុក្ខលើអង្គច្បាប់ប្រឆាំងនឹងសាលដីការបស់សាលាឧទ្ធរណ៍។យុត្ដាធិការ​​​​ខ្ពស់​ជាង​គេក្នុង​តុលាការរដ្ឋបាលគឺក្រុមប្រឹក្សារដ្ឋដែលមានសមត្ថកិច្ចធ្វើការវិនិច្ឆ័យចុងក្រោយ គេបង្អស់លើភាពត្រឹមត្រូវនៃលិខិតរដ្ឋបាលតាមច្បាប់។ ក្រុម​ប្រឹក្សា​រដ្ឋ​នេះ​ក៏ផ្ដល់​ការពិគ្រោះផងដែរដល់រដ្ឋាភិបាលក្នុងការផ្ដល់ជាគំនិតស្ដីពីសេចក្ដី ព្រាងច្បាប់និង សេចក្ដីព្រាងក្រឹត្យមួយចំនួន។
ភ្លេង និងបាវចនាជាតិ
កែប្រែ
thumb|right|La Defense
Tour de France
បទចំរៀងសំរាប់កងទ័ពនៅទីក្រុង Rhin ដែលត្រូវបានតែងឡើងនៅទីក្រុងស្ដ្រាសបួ ឆ្នាំ ១៧៩២ បានក្លាយជាបទ Marseillaise ហើយចុងបញ្ចប់់ត្រូវបាន ប្រើជាភ្លេងជាតិនៅ ថ្ងៃទី១៤ កក្កដា ឆ្នាំ១៧៩៥។
បាវវចនារបស់សាធារណៈរដ្ឋបារាំងគឺ “សេរីភាព សមភាព ភាតរភាព“។
ទង់ជាតិបារាំង
កែប្រែ
នៅឆ្នាំ១៧៨៩ លោកឧត្ដមសេនីយ Fayette បាន បន្ថែមពណ៌សដែលជានិមិត្ដរូបនៃរាជា និយម ទៅលើ សញ្ញាទង់ជាតិដែលមានពណ៌ខៀវ និង ពណ៌ក្រហម របស់កងទ័ពជាតិទីក្រុង ប៉ារីស ។ ទង់ជាតិបីពណ៌ជា និមិត្ដរូបផ្លូវការរបស់ សាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំង។
ការពារជាតិ
កែប្រែ
នៅឆ្នាំ២០០៧ ថវិកាការពារជាតិឡើងដល់ ៣៦,២៥ពាន់លានអឺរ៉ូ គឹស្មើនឹង២,០២%នៃ ផលិតផល ក្នុងស្រុកសរុប និងថវិកាជាតិ១០,៨២%។
ច្បាប់ស្ដីពីការរៀបចំកម្មវិធីផ្នែកយោធាឆ្នាំ២០០៣-២០០៨កំនត់ពីមធ្យោបាយ និងចំនួនទ័ព ដើម្បី ឆានាទៅ សំរេចគោលបំណងរបស់ប្រធានាធិបតី និង​រដ្ឋា​ភិបាល​ក្នុងការផ្ដល់អោយ ប្រទេសបារាំងការ ការពារមួយ ដោយស្របទៅតាមតំរូវការរបស់ខ្លួន។ច្បាប់​នេះ​មាន​គោល​ដៅ​បង្កើត​កិច្ច​ខំ​ប្រឹង​ប្រែង​ក្នុង​ការ​ធ្វើ​អោយ​ឧបករណ៍ការពារជាតិ របស់យើងអាចឆ្លើយ តបទៅនឹងបញ្ហាចំពោះមុខនានា។
កិច្ចខំប្រឹងប្រែងខាងលើស្ដែងអោយឃើញតាមរយៈ ៖
ការពង្រឹងមធ្យោបាយប្រយុទ្ធប្រឆាំង នឹងភេវរកម្ម។
សុវត្ថិភាព និងភាពទុកចិត្ដនៃការទប់ស្កាត់អាវុធនុយក្លេអ៊ែររបស់ប្រទេសបារាំង។
ការចូលរួមរបស់ប្រទេសបារាំងក្នុងការបង្ការ និងដោះស្រាយជលោះផ្សេងៗ (ចំនួនទ័ព ប្រមាណពី១៥ ទៅ២០ ០០០នាក់ត្រូវបានដាក់ពង្រាយក្នុងប្រតិបត្ដិការ )។
សហប្រតិបត្ដិការយោធាក្នុងអង្គការអូតង់ និងសហគមអឺរ៉ុប។
នៅឆ្នាំ២០០៦ ទ័ពកងកំលាំងប្រដាប់អាវុធកើនឡើងដល់៣៤៧ ៩០៣នាក់ គិតទាំងយោធា និងជន ស៊ីវិល ហើយបែងចែកដូចខាងក្រោម ៖
កងទ័ពជើងគោកមាន ១៣៣ ៦២៧នាក់
កងទ័ពអាកាសមាន ៥៩ ១១៨នាក់
កងទ័ពជើងទឹកមាន ៤២ ៧៥២នាក់
កងអាវុធហត្ថមាន ៩៧ ៧២៣នាក់
ក្នុងសេវាសាធារណៈ (សុខភាព ការងារសង្គមកិច្ច)មាន១៤ ៦៨៣នាក់
សេដ្ឋកិច្ច
កែប្រែ
បារាំងជាប្រទេសមានអនុភាពសេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិភពលោកលំដាប់ទី៦បន្ទាប់ពី
សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក
ជប៉ុន
អាលឺម៉ង់
ចិន
និង
អង់គ្លេស
។​
Main articles:
Economy of France
and
Energy in France
ព័ត៌មាន​បន្ថែម:
List of companies of France
and
Economic history of France
A member of the
G8
group of leading industrialised countries, it is ranked as the world's
seventh largest
and the EU's
second largest
economy by
purchasing power parity
២០៧
With 39 of the 500 biggest companies in the world in 2010, France ranks fourth in the
Fortune Global 500
, ahead of Germany and the UK.
២០៨
France joined 11 other EU members to launch the euro in 1999, with
euro coins
and
banknotes
completely replacing the
French franc
(₣) in 2002.
២០៩
France derives
75% of its electricity from nuclear power
, the highest percentage in the world.
២១០
France has a
mixed economy
which combines extensive private enterprise
២១១
២១២
with substantial state enterprise and government intervention. The government retains considerable influence over key segments of infrastructure sectors, with majority ownership of railway, electricity, aircraft, nuclear power and telecommunications.
៥៨
It has been relaxing its control over these sectors since the early
1990s
៥៨
The government is slowly
corporatising
the state sector and selling off holdings in
France Télécom
Air France
, as well as in the insurance, banking, and defence industries.
៥៨
France has an important aerospace industry led by the European consortium
Airbus
, and has its own national
spaceport
, the
Centre Spatial Guyanais
France is part of a monetary union, the
Eurozone
(dark blue), and of the
EU single market
According to the
World Trade Organization
(WTO), in 2009 France was the world's sixth largest exporter and the fourth largest importer of manufactured goods.
២១៣
In 2008, France was the third largest recipient of
foreign direct investment
among OECD countries at $118 billion, ranking behind Luxembourg (where foreign direct investment was essentially monetary transfers to banks located there) and the US ($316 billion), but above the UK ($96.9 billion), Germany ($25 billion), or Japan ($24 billion).
២១៤
២១៥
In the same year, French companies invested $220 billion outside France, ranking France as the second largest outward direct investor in the OECD, behind the US ($311 billion), and ahead of the UK ($111 billion), Japan ($128 billion) and Germany ($157 billion).
២១៤
២១៥
Financial services, banking and the insurance sector are an important part of the economy. The Paris stock exchange (បារាំង:
La Bourse de Paris
) is an old institution, created by
Louis XV
in 1724.
២១៦
In 2000, the stock exchanges of Paris, Amsterdam and Bruxelles merged into
Euronext
២១៧
In 2007, Euronext merged with the
New York stock exchange
to form
NYSE Euronext
, the world's largest stock exchange.
២១៧
Euronext Paris
, the French branch of the NYSE Euronext group is Europe's 2nd largest stock exchange market, behind the
London Stock Exchange
French companies have maintained key positions in the insurance and banking industries:
AXA
is the world's largest insurance company. The leading French banks are
BNP Paribas
and the
Crédit Agricole
, ranking as the world's first and sixth largest banks in 2010
២១៨
(by assets), while the
Société Générale
group was ranked the world's eighth largest in 2009.
France is the smallest emitter of
carbon dioxide
among the
G8
, due to its heavy investment in
nuclear power
២១៩
As a result of large investments in nuclear technology, most electricity produced by France is generated by 59 nuclear power plants (75% in 2012).
២២០
In this context, renewable energies are having difficulty taking off.
Agriculture
កែប្រែ
Vineyards
near
Carcassonne
France has historically been a large producer of agricultural products.
២២១
Large tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and
EU subsidies
have combined to make France the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe
២២២
(representing 20% of the EU's agricultural production
២២៣
) and the world's third biggest exporter of agricultural products.
២២៤
Wheat, poultry, dairy, beef, and pork, as well as internationally recognized processed foods are the primary French agricultural exports.
Rosé wines
are primarily consumed within the country, but
champagne
and
Bordeaux
wines are major exports, being known worldwide. EU agriculture subsidies to France have decreased in recent years, but still amounted to $8 billion in 2007.
២២៥
That same year, France sold 33.4 billion euros of transformed agricultural products.
២២៦
Agriculture is thus an important sector of France's economy: 3.8% of the active population is employed in agriculture, whereas the total agri-food industry made up 4.2% of French GDP in 2005.
២២៣
Labour market
កែប្រែ
French GDP per capita is similar to comparable European countries such as Germany and the UK.
២២៧
GDP per capita is determined by (i) productivity per hour worked, (ii) the number of hours worked, which is one of the lowest of developed countries,
២២៨
and (iii) the employment rate.
France has one of the lowest 15–64 years employment rates of the OECD countries: in 2012, only 71% of the French population aged 15–64 years were in employment, compared to 74% in Japan, 77% in the UK, 73% in the US and 77% in Germany.
២២៩
This gap is due to the low employment rate for 15–24 years old: 38% in 2012, compared to 47% in the OECD. This low rate is explained by the high
minimum wages
which prevent low productivity workers – such as young people – from easily entering the labour market,
២៣០
ineffective university curricula that fail to prepare students adequately for the labour market.
២៣១
It has been argued that French laws that protect full-time workers have the effect of trapping highly educated youth into temporary and informal employment, because of the difficulty and expense of dealing with formal full-time employees.
២៣២
In July 2013, the unemployment rate for France was 11%.
២៣៣
Shorter working hours and the reluctance to reform the labour market are mentioned as weak spots of the French economy in the view of
right-wing
commentators, whilst the
left
claims lack of government policies fostering social justice.
Liberal economists
have stated repeatedly that the main problem in the French economy is the issue of structural reforms, in order to increase the size of the working population in the overall population, reduce the taxation level and the administrative burden.
Keynesian economists
have different answers to the unemployment issue, and their theories led to the
35-hour workweek
law in the 2000s (decade), which turned out to be a failure in reducing unemployment. Afterwards, between 2004 and 2008, the government made some supply-side reforms to combat unemployment but met with fierce resistance,
២៣៤
especially with the
contrat nouvelle embauche
and the
contrat première embauche
which both were eventually repealed.
២៣៥
The Sarkozy government used the
revenu de solidarité active
to redress the negative effect of the
revenu minimum d'insertion
on the incentive to work.
២៣៦
ទេសចរណ៍
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Tourism in France
The
Palace of Versailles
is one of the most popular tourist destinations in France.
With 83 million foreign tourists in 2012,
២៣៧
France is
ranked
as the first tourist destination in the world, ahead of the US (67 million) and China (58 million). This 83 million figure excludes people staying less than 24 hours, such as North Europeans crossing France on their way to Spain or Italy. It is third in income from tourism due to shorter duration of visits.
២៣៨
The
Mont Saint-Michel
is one of the most visited sites of France
France has 37 sites inscribed in
UNESCO's World Heritage List
and features cities of high cultural interest, beaches and seaside resorts,
ski
resorts, and rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (
green tourism
). Small and picturesque French villages are promoted through the association
Les Plus Beaux Villages de France
(litt. "The Most Beautiful Villages of France").
The "
Remarkable Gardens
" label is a list of the over 200 gardens classified by the
French Ministry of Culture
. This label is intended to protect and promote remarkable gardens and
parks
. France attracts many religious pilgrims on their
way to St. James
, or to
Lourdes
, a town in the
Hautes-Pyrénées
that hosts several million visitors a year.
France, especially Paris, has some of the world's largest and renowned museums, including the
Louvre
, which is the
most visited art museum in the world
, the
Musée d'Orsay
, mostly devoted to
impressionism
, and
Beaubourg
, dedicated to
Contemporary art
The
Château de Chambord
is one of the many
French royal
residences of the
Loire Valley
Disneyland Paris
is Europe's most popular theme park, with 15 million combined visitors to the resort's
Disneyland Park
and
Walt Disney Studios Park
in 2009.
២៣៩
With more than 10 millions tourists a year, the
French Riviera
(or
Côte d'Azur
), in south-east France, is the second leading tourist destination in the country, after the
Paris region
២៤០
It benefits from 300 days of sunshine per year, 115 kiloម៉ែត្រs (71 mi) of coastline and beaches, 18 golf courses, 14 ski resorts and 3,000 restaurants.
២៤១
Each year the
Côte d'Azur
hosts 50% of the world's
superyacht
fleet.
២៤២
Another major destination are the
Châteaux
of the
Loire Valley
, this
World Heritage Site
is noteworthy for its architectural heritage, in its historic towns but in particular its castles (
châteaux
), such as the
Châteaux
d'
Amboise
, de Chambord, d'
Ussé
, de
Villandry
and
Chenonceau
The most popular tourist sites include: (according to a 2003 ranking
២៤៣
visitors per year):
Eiffel Tower
(6.2 million), Louvre Museum (5.7 million), Palace of Versailles (2.8 million), Musée d'Orsay (2.1 million),
Arc de Triomphe
(1.2 million),
Centre Pompidou
(1.2 million),
Mont Saint-Michel
(1 million), Château de Chambord (711,000),
Sainte-Chapelle
(683,000),
Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg
(549,000),
Puy de Dôme
(500,000),
Musée Picasso
(441,000),
Carcassonne
(362,000).
Transport
កែប្រែ
Main articles:
Transport in France
and
Rail transport in France
TGV Duplex
, which can reach a maximum speed of 320 km/h (198.84 mph).
The railway network of France, which as of 2008
[update]
stretches 29,473 kiloម៉ែត្រs (18,314 mi)
២៤៤
is the second most extensive in Western Europe after the German one.
២៤៥
It is operated by the
SNCF
, and high-speed trains include the
Thalys
, the
Eurostar
and
TGV
, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph) in commercial use.
២៤៦
២៤៧
The Eurostar, along with the
Eurotunnel Shuttle
, connects with the United Kingdom through the
Channel Tunnel
. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe, except
Andorra
. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with both
underground services
and tramway services complementing bus services.
There are approximately 1,027,183 kiloម៉ែត្រs (638,262 mi) of serviceable roadway in France, ranking it the most extensive network of the European continent.
២៤៨
The Paris region is enveloped with the most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighbouring Belgium, Spain, Andorra, Monaco, Switzerland, Germany and Italy. There is no annual registration fee or
road tax
; however, motorway usage is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as
Renault
(27% of cars sold in France in 2003),
Peugeot
(20.1%) and
Citroën
(13.5%).
២៤៩
Over 70% of new cars sold in 2004 had
diesel engines
, far more than contained petrol or
LPG
engines.
២៥០
France possesses the
Millau Viaduct
, the world's tallest bridge,
២៥១
and has built many important bridges such as the
Pont de Normandie
There are 475
airports
in France.
៥៨
Charles de Gaulle Airport
, located in the vicinity of Paris, is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world.
Air France
is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in
Marseille
២៥២
which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea.
២៥៣
២៥៤
12,261 kiloម៉ែត្រs (7,619 mi) of waterways traverse France including the
Canal du Midi
which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the
Garonne
river.
៥៨
វប្បធម៌
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
វប្បធម៌បារាំង
ប្រទេសបារាំងគឺជាមជ្ឈមណ្ឌលនៃការអភិវឌ្ឍន៍វប្បធម៌លោកខាងលិចអស់ជាច្រើនសតវត្សមកហើយ។ វិចិត្រករបារាំងជាច្រើនបានស្ថិតក្នុងចំណោមអ្នកល្បីល្បាញបំផុតនៃសម័យកាលរបស់ពួកគេ ហើយប្រទេសបារាំងនៅតែត្រូវបានទទួលស្គាល់នៅលើពិភពលោកសម្រាប់ប្រពៃណីវប្បធម៌ដ៏សម្បូរបែបរបស់វា។
The successive political regimes have always promoted artistic creation, and the creation of the
Ministry of Culture
in 1959 helped preserve the cultural heritage of the country and make it available to the public. The Ministry of Culture has been very active since its creation, granting subsidies to artists, promoting French culture in the world, supporting festivals and cultural events, protecting
historical monuments
. The French government also succeeded in maintaining a
cultural exception
to defend audiovisual products made in the country.
France receives the highest number of tourists per year, largely thanks to the numerous cultural establishments and historical buildings implanted all over the territory. It counts 1,200
museums
welcoming more than 50 million people annually.
២៥៥
The most important cultural sites are run by the government, for instance through the public agency
Centre des monuments nationaux
, which is responsible for approximately 85 national historical monuments.
The 43,180 buildings protected as historical monuments include mainly residences (many
castles
, or
châteaux
in French) and religious buildings (
cathedrals
basilicas
, churches, etc.), but also statutes, memorials and
gardens
. The
UNESCO
inscribed 38 sites in
France on the World Heritage List
២៥៦
សិល្បៈ
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
French art
Claude Monet
founded the
Impressionist
movement (
Femme avec un parasol
, 1886,
Musée d'Orsay
).
The origins of French art were very much influenced by
Flemish art
and by
Italian art
at the time of the Renaissance.
Jean Fouquet
, the most famous medieval French painter, is said to have been the first to travel to Italy and experience the Early Renaissance at first hand. The Renaissance painting
School of Fontainebleau
was directly inspired by Italian painters such as
Primaticcio
and
Rosso Fiorentino
, who both worked in France. Two of the most famous French artists of the time of
Baroque era
Nicolas Poussin
and
Claude Lorrain
, lived in Italy.
The 17th century was the period when French painting became prominent and individualized itself through classicism. Louis XIV's prime minister
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
founded in 1648 the
Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture
to protect these artists, and in 1666 he created the still-active
French Academy in Rome
to have direct relations with Italian artists.
French artists developed the
rococo
style in the 18th century, as a more intimate imitation of old baroque style, the works of the court-endorsed artists
Antoine Watteau
François Boucher
and
Jean-Honoré Fragonard
being the most representative in the country. The French Revolution brought great changes, as
Napoleon
favoured artists of
neoclassic style
such as
Jacques-Louis David
and the highly influential
Académie des Beaux-Arts
defined the style known as
Academism
. At this time France had become a centre of artistic creation, the first half of the 19th century being dominated by two successive movements, at first
Romanticism
with
Théodore Géricault
and
Eugène Delacroix
, and
Realism
with
Camille Corot
Gustave Courbet
and
Jean-François Millet
, a style that eventually evolved into
Naturalism
Le Penseur
by
Auguste Rodin
(1902),
Musée Rodin
, Paris.
In the second part of the 19th century, France's influence over painting became even more important, with the development of new styles of painting such as
Impressionism
and
Symbolism
. The most famous impressionist painters of the period were
Camille Pissarro
Édouard Manet
Edgar Degas
, Claude Monet and
Auguste Renoir
២៥៧
The second generation of impressionist-style painters,
Paul Cézanne
Paul Gauguin
Toulouse-Lautrec
and
Georges Seurat
, were also at the avant-garde of artistic evolutions,
២៥៨
as well as the
fauvist artists
Henri Matisse
André Derain
and
Maurice de Vlaminck
២៥៩
២៦០
At the beginning of 20th century, Cubism was developed by
Georges Braque
and the Spanish painter
Pablo Picasso
, living in Paris. Other foreign artists also settled and worked in or near Paris, such as
Vincent van Gogh
Marc Chagall
Amedeo Modigliani
and
Wassily Kandinsky
Many museums in France are entirely or partly devoted to sculptures and painting works. A huge collection of old masterpieces created before or during the 18th century are displayed in the state-owned
Musée du Louvre
, such as
Mona Lisa
, also known as La Joconde. While the
Louvre Palace
has been for a long time a museum, the Musée d'Orsay was inaugurated in 1986 in the old railway station
Gare d'Orsay
, in a major reorganization of national art collections, to gather French paintings from the second part of the 19th century (mainly Impressionism and Fauvism movements).
២៦១
២៦២
Modern works are presented in the
Musée National d'Art Moderne
, which moved in 1976 to the
Centre Georges Pompidou
. These three state-owned museums welcome close to 17 million people a year.
២៦៣
Other national museums hosting paintings include the
Grand Palais
(1.3 million visitors in 2008), but there are also many museums owned by cities, the most visited being the
Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris
(0.8 million entries in 2008), which hosts contemporary works.
២៦៣
Outside Paris, all the large cities have a Museum of Fine Arts with a section dedicated to European and French painting. Some of the finest collections are in
Lyon
Lille
Rouen
Dijon
Rennes
and
Grenoble
ស្ថាបត្យកម្ម
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
French architecture
Saint Louis'
Sainte Chapelle
represents the French impact on religious architecture.
Opéra Garnier
, Paris, a symbol of the French
Second Empire
style
The world's most visited paid monument,
២៦៤
the
Eiffel Tower
is an icon of both Paris and France.
During the Middle Ages, many fortified
castles
were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are
Chinon
Château d'Angers
, the massive
Château de Vincennes
and the so-called
Cathar castles
. During this era, France had been using
Romanesque architecture
like most of Western Europe. Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in France are the
Saint Sernin Basilica
in
Toulouse
, the largest romanesque church in Europe,
២៦៥
and the remains of the
Cluniac Abbey
The
Gothic architecture
, originally named
Opus Francigenum
meaning « French work »,
២៦៦
was born in
Île-de-France
and was the first French style of architecture to be copied in all Europe.
២៦៧
Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic
cathedrals
and basilicas, the first of these being the
Saint Denis Basilica
(used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are
Notre-Dame de Chartres
and
Notre-Dame d'Amiens
. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church:
Notre-Dame de Reims
២៦៨
Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious palaces, the most important one being the
Palais des Papes
in Avignon.
The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the
French Renaissance
and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in the
Loire Valley
. Such residential castles were the
Château de Chambord
, the
Château de Chenonceau
, or the
Château d'Amboise
Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages,
Baroque architecture
replaced the traditional Gothic style. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success in the secular domain than in a religious one.
២៦៩
In the secular domain, the
Palace of Versailles
has many baroque features.
Jules Hardouin Mansart
, who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architect of the baroque era; he is famous for his dome at
Les Invalides
២៧០
Some of the most impressive provincial baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as the
Place Stanislas
in
Nancy
. On the military architectural side,
Vauban
designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.
២៧១
២៧២
After the Revolution, the
Republicans
favoured
Neoclassicism
although neoclassicism was introduced in France prior to the revolution with such building as the
Parisian Pantheon
or the
Capitole de Toulouse
. Built during the first French Empire, the
Arc de Triomphe
and
Sainte Marie-Madeleine
represent the best example of
Empire style
architecture.
២៧៣
Under
Napoleon III
, a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth; extravagant buildings such as the neo-baroque
Palais Garnier
were built. The urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous; for example,
Haussmann's renovation of Paris
. The architecture associated to this era is named
Second Empire
in English, the term being taken from the
Second French Empire
. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France; the associated architect was
Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
. In the late 19th century,
Gustave Eiffel
designed many bridges, such as
Garabit viaduct
, and remains one of the most influential bridge designers of his time, although he is best remembered for the iconic
Eiffel Tower
In the 20th century, French-Swiss architect
Le Corbusier
designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The
Louvre Pyramid
is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings had to be under 37 meters, or 121 feet.
២៧៤
France's largest financial district is
La Defense
, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.
២៧៥
Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is the
Millau Viaduct
. Some famous modern French architects include
Jean Nouvel
Dominique Perrault
Christian de Portzamparc
or
Paul Andreu
អក្សរសិល្ប៍
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
French literature
ឯកសារ:French literary figures.jpg
French literary figures. Clockwise from top left:
Molière
is the most played author in the
Comédie-Française
២៧៦
Victor Hugo
is one of the most important French novelists and poets, and is sometimes seen as the greatest French writer of all time.
២៧៧
19th-century poet, writer, and translator
Charles Baudelaire
; 20th-century philosopher and novelist
Jean-Paul Sartre
The earliest French literature dates from the
Middle Ages
, when what is now known as modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects and writers used their own spelling and grammar. Some authors of French mediaeval texts are unknown, such as
Tristan and Iseult
and
Lancelot-Grail
. Other authors are known, for example
Chrétien de Troyes
and
Duke William IX of Aquitaine
, who wrote in
Occitan
Much mediaeval French poetry and literature were inspired by the legends of the
Matter of France
, such as
The Song of Roland
and the various
chansons de geste
. The
Roman de Renart
, written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude, tells the story of the mediaeval character
Reynard
('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing.
An important 16th-century writer was
François Rabelais
, whose novel
Gargantua and Pantagruel
has remained famous and appreciated until now.
Michel de Montaigne
was the other major figure of the French literature during that century. His most famous work,
Essais
, created the literary genre of the essay.
២៧៨
French poetry
during that century was embodied by
Pierre de Ronsard
and
Joachim du Bellay
. Both writers founded the
La Pléiade
literary movement.
During the 17th century,
Madame de La Fayette
published anonymously
La Princesse de Clèves
, a novel that is considered to be one of the very first
psychological novels
of all times.
២៧៩
Jean de La Fontaine
is one of the most famous
fabulist
of that time, as he wrote hundreds of fables, some being far more famous than others, such as
The Ant and the Grasshopper
. Generations of French pupils had to learn his fables, that were seen as helping teaching
wisdom
and
common sense
to the young people. Some of his verses have entered the popular language to become proverbs.
២៨០
Jean Racine
, whose incredible mastery of the
alexandrine
and of the French language has been praised for centuries, created plays such as
Phèdre
or
Britannicus
. He is, along with
Pierre Corneille
Le Cid
) and Molière, considered as one of the three great dramatists of the France's
golden age
. Molière, who is deemed to be one of the greatest masters of comedy of the
Western literature
២៨១
wrote
dozens of plays
, including
Le Misanthrope
L'Avare
Le Malade imaginaire
, and
Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme
. His plays have been so popular around the world that French language is sometimes dubbed as "the language of Molière" (
la langue de Molière
),
២៨២
just like English is considered as "the language of
Shakespeare
".
French literature and poetry flourished even more in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Denis Diderot
's best-known works are
Jacques the Fatalist
and
Rameau's Nephew
. He is however best known for being the main redactor of the
Encyclopédie
, whose aim was to sum up all the knowledge of his century (in fields such as arts, sciences, languages, philosophy) and to present them to the people, in order to fight ignorance and
obscurantism
. During that same century,
Charles Perrault
was a prolific writer of famous children's fairy tales including
Puss in Boots
Cinderella
Sleeping Beauty
and
Bluebeard
. At the start of the 19th century,
symbolist poetry
was an important movement in French literature, with poets such as Charles Baudelaire,
Paul Verlaine
and
Stéphane Mallarmé
២៨៣
The 19th century saw the writings of many renowned French authors. Victor Hugo is sometimes seen as "the greatest French writer of all times"
២៧៧
for excelling in all
literary genres
. The preface of his play
Cromwell
is considered to be the manifesto of the
Romantic movement
Les Contemplations
and
La Légende des siècles
are considered as "poetic masterpieces",
២៨៤
Hugo's verse having been compared to that of Shakespeare,
Dante
and
Homer
២៨៤
His novel
Les Misérables
is widely seen as one of the greatest novel ever written
២៨៥
and
The Hunchback of Notre Dame
has remained immensely popular.
Other major authors of that century include
Alexandre Dumas
The Three Musketeers
and
The Count of Monte-Cristo
),
Jules Verne
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea
),
Émile Zola
Les Rougon-Macquart
),
Honoré de Balzac
La Comédie humaine
),
Guy de Maupassant
Théophile Gautier
and
Stendhal
The Red and the Black
The Charterhouse of Parma
), whose works are amongst the most well known in France and the world.
The
Prix Goncourt
is a French literary prize first awarded in 1903.
២៨៦
Important writers of the 20th century include
Marcel Proust
Louis-Ferdinand Céline
Albert Camus
, and
Jean-Paul Sartre
Antoine de Saint Exupéry
wrote
Little Prince
which has remained popular for decades with children and adults around the world.
២៨៧
As of 2010, French authors had more
Literature Nobel Prizes
than
those of any other nation
២៨៨
ទស្សនវិជ្ជា
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
French philosophy
Medieval philosophy was dominated by
Scholasticism
until the emergence of
Humanism
in the Renaissance.
Modern philosophy
began in France in the 17th century with the philosophy of
René Descartes
Blaise Pascal
, and
Nicolas Malebranche
. Descartes revitalised
Western philosophy
, which had been declined after the Greek and Roman eras.
២៨៩
His
Meditations on First Philosophy
changed the primary object of philosophical thought and raised some of the most fundamental problems for foreigners such as
Spinoza
Leibniz
Hume
Berkeley
, and
Kant
René Descartes
, founder of modern philosophy.
During the 18th century, French philosophers produced one of the most important works of the
Age of Enlightenment
. In
The Spirit of the Laws
Baron de Montesquieu
theorized the principle of
separation of powers
, which has been implemented in all
liberal democracies
since
it was first applied in the United States
. In
The Social Contract
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
openly criticized the European
divine right monarchies
and strongly affirmed the principle of the
sovereignty of the people
Voltaire
came to embody the Enlightenment with his defence of civil liberties, such as the right to a free trial and freedom of religion.
19th-century French thought was targeted at responding to the social malaise following the French Revolution. Rationalist philosophers such as
Victor Cousin
and
Auguste Comte
, who called for a new social doctrine, were opposed by reactionnary thinkers such as
Joseph de Maistre
Louis de Bonald
and
Lamennais
, who blamed the rationalist rejection of traditional order. De Maistre is considered, together with the Englishman
Edmund Burke
, one of the founders of European conservatism, while Comte is regarded as the founder of
positivism
and
sociology
In the early 20th century, French
spiritualist
thinkers such as
Maine de Biran
Henri Bergson
and
Louis Lavelle
influenced Anglo-Saxon thought, including the Americans
Charles Sanders Peirce
and
William James
, and the Englishman
Alfred North Whitehead
. In the late 20th century, partly influenced by German
phenomenology
and
existentialism
postmodern philosophy
began in France, with notable
post-structuralist
thinkers including
Jean-François Lyotard
Jean Baudrillard
Jacques Derrida
Jacques Lacan
Michel Foucault
and
Gilles Deleuze
Sciences
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
List of French inventions and discoveries
Ariane 4
launched from
Kourou
French Guiana
(1988)
France has been since the
Middle Ages
a major focus of knowledge and discoveries. Around the beginning of the 11th century
Pope Sylvester II
reintroduced the
abacus
and
armillary sphere
, and introduced
Arabic numerals
and
clocks
to northern and western Europe.
២៩០
The
University of Paris
, founded in the mid-12th century, is still one of the most important universities of the Western world.
២៩១
In the 17th century,
René Descartes
defined a
method for the acquisition of scientific knowledge
, while
Blaise Pascal
became famous for his work on
probability
and
fluid mechanics
. They were both key figures of the
Scientific revolution
which erupted in Europe during this period. The
Academy of Sciences
was founded by
Louis XIV
to encourage and protect the spirit of
French
scientific research
. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is one of the earliest
academies of sciences
The
Age of Enlightenment
was marked by the work of biologist
Buffon
and chemist
Lavoisier
, who discovered the role of
oxygen
in
combustion
, while
Diderot
and
D'Alembert
published the
Encyclopédie
which aimed to give access to "useful knowledge" to the people, a knowledge that they can apply to their everyday life.
២៩២
With the
Industrial Revolution
, the 19th century saw spectacular scientific developments in France with scientists such as
Augustin Fresnel
, founder of modern
optics
Sadi Carnot
who laid the foundations of
thermodynamics
, or
Louis Pasteur
, a pioneer of
microbiology
. Other eminent French scientists of the 19th century have their
names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower
Famous French scientists of the 20th century include the mathematician and physicist
Henri Poincaré
, physicists
Henri Becquerel
Pierre
and
Marie Curie
, remained famous for their work on
radioactivity
, the physicist
Paul Langevin
or virologist
Luc Montagnier
, co-discoverer of
HIV AIDS
As of 2012,
65 French
people have been awarded a
Nobel Prize
២៩៣
and 11 have received the
Fields Medal
២៩៤
តន្ត្រី
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Music of France
Serge Gainsbourg
, one of the world's most influential popular musicians.
២៩៥
France has a long and varied musical history. It experienced a golden age in the 17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed several musicians and composers in the royal court. The most renowned composers of this period include
Marc-Antoine Charpentier
François Couperin
Michel-Richard Delalande
Jean-Baptiste Lully
and
Marin Marais
, all of them composers at the court. After the death of the "Roi Soleil", French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the music of
Jean-Philippe Rameau
reached some prestige, and today he is still one of the most renowned French composers.
French classical music knew a revival in the 19th and 20th century, at the end of the romantic movement, at first with opera composers
Hector Berlioz
Georges Bizet
Gabriel Fauré
Charles Gounod
Jacques Offenbach
Édouard Lalo
Jules Massenet
and
Camille Saint-Saëns
. This period was a golden age for operas, being popular in the country the
opéra bouffon
, the
opera-ballet
and the
opéra comique
genres. Later came precursors of modern classical music
Érik Satie
Francis Poulenc
, and above all
Maurice Ravel
and
Claude Debussy
, who invented new musical forms.
២៩៦
២៩៧
២៩៨
២៩៩
More recently, at the middle of the 20th century,
Maurice Ohana
Pierre Schaeffer
and
Pierre Boulez
contributed to the evolutions of
contemporary classical music
៣០០
Daft Punk
, pioneers of the
French house
French music then followed the rapid emergence of pop and rock music at the middle of the 20th century. Although English-speaking creations achieved popularity in the country,
French pop music
, known as
chanson française
, has also remained very popular. Among the most important French artists of the century are
Édith Piaf
Georges Brassens
Léo Ferré
Charles Aznavour
and
Serge Gainsbourg
. Although there are very few rock bands in France compared to English-speaking countries,
៣០១
bands such as
Noir Désir
Mano Negra
Niagara
Les Rita Mitsouko
and more recently
Superbus
Phoenix
and
Gojira
៣០២
have reached worldwide popularity.
Other French artists with international careers have been popular in several countries, for example female singers
Dalida
Mireille Mathieu
and
Mylène Farmer
៣០២
electronic music pioneers
Jean-Michel Jarre
Laurent Garnier
and
Bob Sinclar
, and later
Martin Solveig
and
David Guetta
. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), electronic duos
Daft Punk
Justice
and
Air
also reached worldwide popularity and contributed to the reputation of modern electronic music in the world.
៣០២
៣០៣
៣០៤
Among current musical events and institutions in France, many are dedicated to classical music and operas. The most prestigious institutions are the state-owned
Paris National Opera
(with its two sites
Palais Garnier
and
Opéra Bastille
), the
Opéra National de Lyon
, the
Théâtre du Châtelet
in Paris, the
Théâtre du Capitole
in
Toulouse
and the
Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux
. As for music festivals, there are several events organized, the most popular being the
Eurockéennes
and
Rock en Seine
. The
Fête de la Musique
, imitated by many foreign cities, was first launched by the French government in 1982.
៣០៥
៣០៦
Major music halls and venues in France include
Le Zénith
sites present in many cities and other places in Paris (
Paris Olympia
Théâtre Mogador
Élysée Montmartre
, etc.).
Cinema
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Cinema of France
Palme d'Or
from the
Cannes Film Festival
, the world's most prestigious and publicized film festival.
៣០៧
៣០៨
៣០៩
France has historical and strong links with
cinema
, with two
Frenchmen
, Auguste and Louis Lumière (known as the
Lumière Brothers
) having created cinema in 1895.
៣១០
France remains a leader in filmmaking, as of 2006 producing more films than any other European country.
៣១១
The nation also hosts the
Cannes Festival
, one of the most important and famous film festivals in the world.
៣១២
៣១៣
Although the French film market is dominated by
Hollywood
, France is the only nation in the world where American films make up the smallest share of total film revenues, at 50%, compared with 77% in Germany and 69% in Japan.
៣១៤
French films account for 35% of the total film revenues of France, which is the highest percentage of national film revenues in the developed world outside the United States, compared to 14% in Spain and 8% in the UK.
៣១៤
Until recently, France had for centuries been the cultural center of the world,
១០៧
although its dominant position has been surpassed by the
United States
. Subsequently, France takes steps in protecting and promoting its culture, becoming a leading advocate of the
cultural exception
៣១៥
The nation succeeded in convincing all EU members to refuse to include culture and audiovisuals in the list of liberalized sectors of the WTO in 1993.
៣១៦
Moreover, this decision was confirmed in a voting in the
UNESCO
in 2005, and the principle of "cultural exception" won an overwhelming victory: 198 countries voted for it, only 2 countries, the U.S and Israel, voted against it.
៣១៧
Fashion
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
French fashion
Chanel
's headquarters on the
Place Vendôme
, Paris.
Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and modern "haute couture" originated in Paris in the 1860s. Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and New York City, is considered one of the world's fashion capitals, and the city is home or headquarters to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression
Haute couture
is, in France, a legally protected name, guaranteeing certain quality standards.
The association of France with fashion and style (បារាំង:
la mode
) dates largely to the reign of
Louis XIV
៣១៨
when the luxury goods industries in France came increasingly under royal control and the French royal court became, arguably, the arbiter of taste and style in Europe. But France renewed its dominance of the high fashion (បារាំង:
couture or haute couture
) industry in the years 1860–1960 through the establishing of the great
couturier
houses such as Chanel,
Dior
, and
Givenchy
. The French perfume industry is world leader in its sector and is centered around the town of
Grasse
៣១៩
In the 1960s, the elitist "Haute couture" came under criticism from France's
youth culture
. In 1966, the designer
Yves Saint Laurent
broke with established Haute Couture norms by launching a
prêt-à-porter
("ready to wear") line and expanding French fashion into mass manufacturing. With a greater focus on marketing and manufacturing, new trends were established by
Sonia Rykiel
Thierry Mugler
Claude Montana
Jean-Paul Gaultier
and
Christian Lacroix
in the 1970s and 1980s. The 1990s saw a conglomeration of many French couture houses under luxury giants and multinationals such as
LVMH
ប្រព័ន្ធផ្សព្វផ្សាយ
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Telecommunications in France
Compared to other developed countries, the French do not spend much time reading newspapers, due to the popularity of broadcast media. Best-selling daily national newspapers in France are
Le Monde
and
Le Figaro
, with around 300,000 copies sold daily, but also
L'Équipe
, dedicated to sports coverage.
៣២០
In the past years, free dailies made a breakthrough, with
Metro
20 Minutes
and
Direct Plus
distributed at more than 650,000 copies respectively.
៣២១
However, the widest circulations are reached by regional daily
Ouest France
with more than 750,000 copies sold, and the 50 other regional papers have also high sales.
៣២២
៣២៣
The sector of weekly magazines is stronger and diversified with more than 400 specialized weekly magazines published in the country.
៣២៤
The most influential news magazine are left-wing
Le Nouvel Observateur
, centrist
L'Express
and right-wing
Le Point
(more than 400.000 copies),
៣២៥
but the highest circulation for weeklies is reached by TV magazines and by women’s magazines, among them
Marie Claire
and
ELLE
, which have foreign versions. Influential weeklies also include investigative and satirical papers
Le Canard Enchaîné
and
Charlie Hebdo
, as well as
Paris Match
. Like in most industrialized nations, the print media have been affected by a
severe crisis
in the past decade. In 2008, the government have launched a major initiative to help the sector reform to be financially independent,
៣២៦
៣២៧
but in 2009 it had to give 600.000 euros to help the print media cope with the
economic crisis
, in addition to existing subsidies.
៣២៨
In 1974, after years of centralized monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agency
ORTF
was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national radio stations
៣២៩
៣៣០
remained under state-control. It was only in 1981 that the government allowed free broadcasting in the territory, ending state monopoly on radio.
៣៣០
French television was partly liberalized in the next two decade with the creation of several commercial channels, mainly thanks to cable and satellite television. In 2005 the national service
Télévision Numérique Terrestre
introduced digital television all over the territory, allowing the creation of other channels.
The four existing national channels are now owned by state-owned consortium
France Télévisions
, while public broadcasting group
Radio France
run five national radio stations. Among these public media are
Radio France Internationale
, which broadcasts programs in French all over the world, and Franco-German TV channel
TV5 Monde
. In 2006, the government created global news channel
France 24
. Long-established TV channels
TF1
(privatized in 1987),
France 2
and
France 3
have the highest shares, while radio stations
RTL
Europe 1
and state-owned
France Inter
are the least listened to.
សង្គម
កែប្រែ
Marianne
, in a painting by
Eugène Delacroix
La Liberté guidant le peuple
Liberty Leading the People
) (1830)
According to a BBC poll in 2010, based on 29,977 responses in 28 countries, France is globally seen as a positive influence in the world's affairs: 49% have a positive view of the country's influence, whereas 19% have a negative view.
៣៣១
៣៣២
The
Nation Brand Index
of 2008 suggested that France has the second best international reputation, only behind
Germany
៣៣៣
According to a poll in 2011, the French were found to have the highest level of religious tolerance and to be the country where the highest proportion of the population defines its identity primarily in term of nationality and not religion.
៣៣៤
69% of French have a favourable view of the US, making France one of the most pro-American countries in the world.
៣៣៥
In January 2010, the
magazine
International Living
ranked France as "best country to live in", ahead of 193 other countries, for the fifth year running.
៣៣៦
៣៣៧
The four official symbols of the Republic, as stated by the
Constitution
៣៣៨
all commemorate events from the French Revolution.
Bastille Day
, the national holiday, commemorates the
Fête de la Fédération
, held on 14 July 1790 to celebrate the
storming of the Bastille
៣៣៩
The origins of the
Tricolour flag
date to the Revolution, as the
cockade
was the symbols adopted by the revolutionaries in 1789.
៣៤០
The national anthem,
La Marseillaise
, was written in 1792 as a war song for the French Army.
៣៤១
៣៤២
The official motto of the French Republic, "
Liberté, égalité, fraternité
" (Liberty, equality, brotherhood), also appeared during the Revolution.
៣៤៣
Marianne
, an unofficial symbol, is an allegorical figure of liberty and the Republic, and appeared at the time of the Revolution.
៣៤៤
A common and traditional symbol of the French people is the
Gallic rooster
. Its origins date back to Antiquity, since the Latin word Gallus meant both "
rooster
" and "inhabitant of Gaul". Then this figure gradually became the most widely shared representation of the French, used by French monarchs, then by the Revolution and under the successive republican regimes as representation of the national identity, used for some stamps and coins.
៣៤៥
Gastronomy
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
French cuisine
Foie gras
with mustard seeds and green onions in duck
jus
. Foie gras belongs to the protected gastronomical heritage of France.
៣៤៦
French cuisine is renowned for being one of the finest in the world.
៣៤៧
៣៤៨
៣៤៩
៣៥០
៣៥១
៣៥២
French cuisine is extremely diverse and has exerted a major influence on other western cuisines.
៣៥៣
According to the regions, traditional recipes are different, the North of the country prefers to use butter as the preferred fat for cooking, whereas
olive oil
is more commonly used in the South.
៣៥៤
Moreover, each region of France has iconic traditional specialities :
Cassoulet
in the Southwest,
Choucroute
in Alsace,
Quiche
in the
Lorraine region
Beef bourguignon
in the
Bourgogne
provençal
Tapenade
, etc. France's most renowned products are
wines
៣៥៥
including Champagne,
Bordeaux
Bourgogne
, and
Beaujolais
as well as a large variety of different
cheeses
, such as
Camembert
Roquefort
and
Brie
. There are more than 400 different varieties.
៣៥៦
៣៥៧
French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the
quality of life
and the attractiveness of France.
៣៣៧
A French publication, the
Michelin guide
, had by 2006 awarded 620 stars to French restaurants, at that time more than any other country, although the guide also inspects more restaurants in France than in any other country (by 2010, Japan was awarded as many Michelin stars as France, despite having half the number of Michelin inspectors working there).
៣៥៨
៣៥៩
កីឡា
កែប្រែ
អត្ថបទដើម:
Sport in France
The
Tour de France
is the oldest and most prestigious of
Grands Tours
, and the world's most famous cycling race.
៣៦០
Popular sports played in France include
football
judo
, tennis
៣៦១
and
basketball
៣៦២
France has hosted events such as the
1938
and
1998 FIFA World Cups
៣៦៣
and the
2007 Rugby World Cup
៣៦៤
Stade de France
in
Saint-Denis
is France's largest stadium and was the venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and 2007 Rugby World Cup finals. France hosts the annual
Tour de France
, the most famous
road bicycle race
in the world.
៣៦៥
៣៦៦
France is famous for its
24 Hours of Le Mans
sports car
endurance race
៣៦៧
Several major tennis tournaments take place in France, including the
Paris Masters
and the French Open, one of the four
Grand Slam
tournaments. French
martial arts
include
Savate
and
Fencing
France has a close association with the Modern Olympic Games; it was a French aristocrat, Baron
Pierre de Coubertin
, who suggested the Games' revival, at the end of the 19th century.
៣៦៨
៣៦៩
After
Athens
was awarded the first Games, in reference to the Olympics' Greek origins, Paris hosted the second Games
in 1900
៣៧០
Paris was the first home of the
International Olympic Committee
, before it moved to
Lausanne
៣៧១
Since 1900, France has hosted the Olympics on 4 further occasions: the
1924 Summer Olympics
, again in Paris
៣៦៩
and three
Winter Games
1924
in
Chamonix
1968
in
Grenoble
and
1992
in
Albertville
).
៣៦៩
The
Stade de France
was built for the
1998 FIFA World Cup
, and is listed as a
UEFA category four stadium
Both the
national football team
and the
national rugby union team
are nicknamed “
Les Bleus
” in reference to the team’s shirt color as well as the national French tricolor flag. Football is the most popular sport in France, with over 1,800,000 registered players, and over 18,000 registered clubs.
៣៧២
The football team is among the most successful in the world, particularly at the start of the 21st century, with one
FIFA World Cup
victory in 1998,
៣៧៣
one FIFA World Cup second place in 2006,
៣៧៤
and two
UEFA European Championships
in
1984
៣៧៥
and
2000
៣៧៦
The top national football club competition is
Ligue 1
. France has produced some of the greatest players in the world, including three time
FIFA World Player of the Year
Zinedine Zidane
, three time
Ballon d'Or
recipient
Michel Platini
, record holder for most goals scored at a World Cup
Just Fontaine
, first football player to receive the
Légion d'honneur
Raymond Kopa
, and the all-time leading goalscorer for the French national team
Thierry Henry
Rugby union
is popular, particularly in Paris and the southwest of France.
៣៧៧
The national rugby union team has competed at every
Rugby World Cup
, and takes part in the annual
Six Nations Championship
. Stemming from a
strong domestic league
, the French rugby team has won 16 Six Nations Championships, including 8
grand slams
; and has reached the semi-final of the Rugby World Cup 6 times and the final 3 times.
Rugby league in France
is a sport that is most popular in the south, in cities such as
Perpignan
and
Toulouse
. The
Catalans Dragons
currently play in the
Super League
, which is the top tier rugby league competition in Europe. The
Elite One Championship
is the professional competition for rugby league clubs in France.
In recent decades, France has produced world-elite basketball players, most notably
Tony Parker
. The
French National Basketball Team
won gold at the
FIBA EuroBasket 2013
. The national team has won two Olympic Silver Medals: in
2000
and
1948
កំណត់សម្គាល់
កែប្រែ
សម្រាប់ព័ត៌មានអំពីភាសាតាមតំបន់, សូមមើល
ភាសានៃបារាំង
ទិន្នន័យរបស់
វិទ្យាស្ថានភូមិសាស្ត្រជាតិ
(IGN) ដោយរាប់បញ្ចូលទាំងផ្ទៃទឹកដែរ
ទិន្នន័យចុះបញ្ជីទឹកដីរបស់បារាំងដែលមិនរាប់បញ្ចូលបឹង ស្រះ និងផ្ទាំងទឹកកកធំជាង ១ គម
(២៤៧ ហិចតា) ក៏ដូចជាមាត់ទន្លេផងដែរ។
ត្រូវបានប្រើប្រាស់នៅក្នុងសាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំងទាំងមូលលើកលែងតែទឹកដីក្រៅស្រុកនៅឯមហាសមុទ្រប៉ាស៊ីហ្វិក
ទឹកដីក្រៅស្រុករបស់បារាំងនៅឯមហាសមុទ្រប៉ាស៊ីហ្វិក
ឯកសារយោង
កែប្រែ
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៥,០
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specified (
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and
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specified (
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៥៨,០២
៥៨,០៣
៥៨,០៤
៥៨,០៥
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Rugby
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មានវប្បធម៌ នយោបាយ និងប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រទាក់ទិននឹងអឺរ៉ុប ប៉ុន្តែមានទីតាំងភូមិសាស្ត្រស្ថិតក្នុងតំបន់
អាស៊ីខាងលិច
ទំព័រគំរូ:Countries of North America
ទំព័រគំរូ:Countries of South America
ទំព័រគំរូ:Countries of Africa
ទំព័រគំរូ:Countries and territories of Oceania
ទំព័រគំរូ:Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea
International organisations
ទំព័រគំរូ:EU members
ទំព័រគំរូ:G8 nations
ទំព័រគំរូ:G20
Members of the
United Nations
Security Council
Permanent members
China
France
Russia
United Kingdom
United States
Term ends 31 December 2013
Azerbaijan
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Morocco
Pakistan
Togo
Term ends 31 December 2014
Argentina
Australia
Luxembourg
Rwanda
South Korea
ទំព័រគំរូ:Council of Europe members
ទំព័រគំរូ:Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ទំព័រគំរូ:North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
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ម៉ាទីនីខ
សត. ព្យែរនិងមីឃ្លុង
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សាធារណរដ្ឋឆែក
សាធារណរដ្ឋដូមីនីក
ថៃ
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ស៊ែប៊ី
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ស្លូវេនី
ហុងគ្រី
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ឡេតូនី
អ៊ុយក្រែន
អូទ្រីស
សមាជិកទាក់ទង។
ចាត់ទុកជាបណ្ដោះអាសន្នដោយ
បារាំងសព្ទ
ជាសាធារណរដ្ឋម៉ាសេដ្វានយូហ៊្គោស្លាវ សូមមើល
ជម្លោះឈ្មោះម៉ាសេដ្វាន
Coordinates
47°N
2°E
 / 
47°N 2°E
 /
47; 2
ប្រភពពត៌មាន
កែប្រែ
ស្ថានទូតបារាំងប្រចាំព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា
Archived
2011-10-01 at the
វេយប៊ែខ ម៉ាស៊ីន
ការទស្សទាយអាកាសធាតុ
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​ក្រិក
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មានកំណត់
កូសូវ៉ូ
ត្រង់ស៍នីស្រ្ទី
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អាប់កាស៊ី
អូសេទីខាងត្បូង
ទឹកដីអនិស្សរភាព
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ប្រជុំកោះហ្វេរ៉ូ
ហ្វាំងឡង់
ប្រជុំកោះអាឡាំង
សហរាជាណាចក្រ
Akrotiri and Dhekelia
ហ្គីប្រាលតា
ហ្គឿនស៊ី
អាយអូហ្វមែន
ជឺស៊ី
មានទឹកដីនៅក្នុងទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុប និងនៅក្នុងទ្វីបផ្សេងទៀត។
មានវប្បធម៌ នយោបាយ និងប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រទាក់ទិននឹងអឺរ៉ុប ប៉ុន្តែមានទីតាំងភូមិសាស្ត្រស្ថិតក្នុងតំបន់
អាស៊ីខាងលិច
Group of Eight (G8)
សមាជិករបស់ G8
សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក
សហរាជាណាចក្រ
អ៊ីតាលី
កាណាដា
អាល្លឺម៉ង់
ជប៉ុន
បារាំង
រុស្ស៊ី
+5
ប្រេស៊ីល
ចិន
ឥណ្ឌា
ម៉ិកស៊ិក
អាហ្វ្រិកខាងត្បូង
អង្គការអន្តរជាតិ
អសប
សហភាពអឺរ៉ុប
បានពី "
ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម
CS1 អង់គ្លេស-language sources (en)
CS1 errors: redundant parameter
អត្ថបទទាំងអស់ដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅខូច
អត្ថបទទាំងអស់ដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅខូចពីមករា 2023
អត្ថបទដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅភាសាបារាំង
CS1 errors: parameter link
CS1 errors: unsupported parameter
អត្ថបទដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅភាសាប៊ុលហ្គារី
CS1 maint: unrecognized language
Webarchive template warnings
CS1 errors: dates
CS1 errors: generic name
អត្ថបទទាំងអស់ដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅខូចពីSeptember 2013
Pages using ISBN magic links
អត្ថបទវិគីភីឌាដែលត្រូវការបកប្រែ
Articles with hatnote templates targeting a nonexistent page
Articles containing Latin-language text
អត្ថបទទាំងអស់ជាមួយការថ្លែងគ្មានប្រភព
អត្ថបទជាមួយការថ្លែងគ្មានប្រភពពីOctober 2013
Articles containing undetermined-language text
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Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2008
Articles with invalid date parameter in template
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Coordinates on Wikidata
បារាំង
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រដ្ឋសមាជិកនៃអង្គការអន្តរជាតិនៃក្រុមប្រទេសនិយាយភាសាបារាំង
រដ្ឋសមាជិកនៃអង្គការសម្រាប់មេឌីទែរ៉ានេ
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អត្ថបទដែលមានបរាមាត្រកាលបរិច្ឆេទអសុពលភាពក្នុងទំព័រគំរូ
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