Woman - Wikipedia

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Female adult human
For other uses, see
Woman (disambiguation)
"Women" and "Womanhood" redirect here. For other uses, see
Women (disambiguation)
and
Womanhood (disambiguation)
A woman
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woman
is an adult female human.
Before adulthood, a female child or adolescent is referred to as a
girl
Typically, women inherit a pair of
X chromosomes
, one from each parent.
Sex differentiation
of the female
foetus
is governed by the lack of a present functioning
SRY
gene on either one of the respective sex chromosomes.
Female anatomy
is distinguished from male anatomy by the
female reproductive system
, which includes the
ovaries
fallopian tubes
uterus
vagina
, and
vulva
. A woman generally has a wider
pelvis
, broader
hips
, and larger
breasts
than a man. These characteristics can facilitate pregnancy,
childbirth
and
breastfeeding
. Women typically have less facial and other
body hair
, have a higher
body fat
composition, and are on average shorter and less muscular than men. Women are at greater risk of certain diseases like breast cancer, and at lower risk of other diseases like lung cancer.
Transgender women
were
assigned male at birth
Some women are
intersex
, meaning they have unusual sex characteristics (chromosomes, genitalia or internal sex organs), such as
trisomy X
or
vaginal atresia
Throughout human history,
patriarchal
gender roles
have often limited women's opportunities. With restrictions loosening during the 20th century in many societies, women have gained wider access to
careers
and education.
Violence against women
is primarily committed by men. Some women are denied
reproductive rights
and denied
legal rights on the basis of sex
. Many religions and governments stipulate certain rules for women.
Feminist
movements aim to achieve
gender equality
Etymology
See also:
Man (word)
The spelling of
woman
in English has progressed over the past millennium from
wīfmann
10
to
wīmmann
to
wumman
, and finally, the modern spelling
woman
11
In
Old English
mann
had the gender-neutral meaning of
human
, akin to the Modern
person
or
someone
. The word for
woman
was
wīf
or
wīfmann
lit.
woman-person
) whereas
man
was
wer
or
wǣpnedmann
(from
wǣpn
weapon; penis
). However, following the
Norman Conquest
man
began to mean
male human
, and by the late 13th century it had largely replaced
wer
12
The consonants
/f/
and
/m/
in
wīfmann
coalesced
into the modern
woman
, while
wīf
narrowed
to specifically mean a married woman (
wife
).
citation needed
It is a
popular misconception
that the term "woman" is
etymologically
connected to "womb".
13
"Womb" derives from the Old English word
wamb
meaning
belly, uterus
14
(cognate to the modern German colloquial term "
Wamme
" from Old High German
wamba
for
belly, paunch, lap
).
15
16
Terminology
Further information:
girl
mother
wife
daughter
, and
lady
"Young Woman" redirects here. For the painting by Isabel Bishop, see
Young Woman (painting)
Three generations: grandmother, daughter, and granddaughter
The word
woman
can be used generally, to mean any female human, or specifically, to mean an adult female human as contrasted with
girl
. The word
girl
originally meant "young person of either sex" in English;
17
it was only around the beginning of the 16th century that it came to mean specifically a
female
child.
18
The term
girl
is sometimes used colloquially to refer to a young or unmarried woman; however, during the early 1970s, feminists challenged such use because the use of the word to refer to a fully grown woman may cause offence. In particular, previously common terms such as
office girl
are no longer widely used. Conversely, in certain cultures which link family honour with female
virginity
, the word
girl
(or its equivalent in other languages) is still used to refer to a never-married woman; in this sense it is used in a fashion roughly analogous to the more-or-less obsolete English
maid
or
maiden
citation needed
The social sciences' views on what it means to be a woman have changed significantly since the early 20th century as women gained more rights and greater representation in the workforce, with scholarship in the 1970s moving toward a focus on the
sex–gender distinction
and
social construction of gender
19
20
Different countries have different laws, but age 18 is frequently considered the
age of majority
(the age at which a person is legally considered an
adult
).
21
Menarche, the onset of
menstruation
, occurs on average at age 12–13. Many cultures have
rites of passage
to symbolise a girl's
coming of age
, such as
bat mitzvah
in
Judaism
, or a custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the
quinceañera
of Latin America.
Alternative spellings of woman
, such as
womyn
and
wimmin
, have been used in feminist contexts, especially since the 1970s.
22
Biology
Photograph of an adult female human, with an adult male for comparison. The
pubic hair
of both models is removed.
Main article:
Sex differences in humans
Genetic characteristics
Main article:
Sexual differentiation in humans
Spectral karyotype
of a human female
Typically, the cells of female humans contain two X chromosomes, while the cells of male humans have an X and a Y chromosome.
23
During
early foetal development
, all embryos have phenotypically female genitalia up until week 6 or 7, when a male embryo's gonads differentiate into testes due to the action of the
SRY
gene
on the Y chromosome.
24
Sex differentiation
proceeds in female humans in a way that is independent of gonadal hormones.
24
Because humans inherit
mitochondrial DNA
only from the mother's ovum,
genealogical
researchers can trace
maternal lineage
far back in time.
25
Puberty, menstruation and menopause
Main articles:
Menstrual cycle
Menstruation
, and
Menopause
Female puberty
triggers many bodily changes. In response to chemical signals from the
pituitary gland
, the
ovaries
secrete hormones that stimulate maturation of the body, including increased height and weight, body hair growth, breast development and
menarche
(the onset of menstruation).
26
Most girls go through
menarche
between ages 12–13.
27
28
Menstruation is a monthly hormonal cycle that involves the shedding of the
lining of the uterus
. Blood and tissue exit through the vagina. Menstrual cycles may be irregular at first, and usually become more regular by a woman's 20s.
29
Most women are able to perform all their daily activities during menstruation,
30
though some women experience symptoms ranging from uncomfortable to disabling
31
or are prohibited from regular activity by strong social stigma.
32
A pregnant woman
The changes of puberty typically enable
sexual reproduction
. Pregnancy generally requires
fertilisation
of a woman's egg cells with a man's
sperm cells
. Humans are similar to other large mammals in that they usually give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy, but are unusual in being
altricial
, meaning young are undeveloped at time of birth and require the aid of their parents or guardians to fully mature.
33
Sometimes humans have
multiple births
, most commonly twins.
34
Usually between ages 49–52, a woman reaches
menopause
, the time when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children.
35
36
37
Symptoms of menopause include hot flashes, night sweats, headaches, and more; both lifestyle changes and medications can help to mitigate these symptoms.
38
Morphological and physiological characteristics
The
human female reproductive system
Main articles:
Sex differences in human physiology
and
Female body shape
In terms of
biology
, the female
sex organs
are involved in the reproductive system, whereas the
secondary sex characteristics
are involved in
breastfeeding
children and attracting a mate.
39
Humans are
placental mammals
, which means the mother carries the foetus in the uterus and the placenta facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and foetus.
40
41
The internal female sex organs consist of:
42
the
ovaries
, gonads that produce female gametes called
ova
the
fallopian tubes
, tubular structures that transport the egg cells,
the
uterus
, an organ with tissue to protect and nurture the developing foetus and its
cervix
to expel it,
the accessory glands (
Bartholin's
and
Skene's
), two pairs of glands that help
lubricate
during intercourse, and
the
vagina
, an organ used in copulating and birthing.
The
vulva
(external female genitalia)
43
consists of the
clitoris
labia majora
labia minora
and
vestibule
. The vestibule is where the vaginal and urethral openings are located.
The
mammary glands
are hypothesised to have evolved from apocrine-like glands to produce milk, a nutritious secretion that is the most distinctive characteristic of mammals, along with live birth.
44
In mature women, the
breast
is generally more prominent than in most other mammals; this prominence, not necessary for milk production, is thought to be at least partially the result of
sexual selection
39
Oestrogens
, which are primary female sex hormones, have a significant impact on a female's body shape. They are produced in both men and women, but their levels are significantly higher in women, especially in those of reproductive age. Besides other functions, oestrogens promote the development of female
secondary sexual characteristics
, such as breasts and
hips
45
46
47
As a result of oestrogens, during
puberty
, girls develop breasts and their hips widen. Working against oestrogen, the presence of
testosterone
in a pubescent female inhibits breast development and promotes muscle and facial hair development.
48
Circulatory system
Women have lower
haematocrit
(the volume percentage of
red blood cells
in blood) than men; this is due to lower testosterone, which stimulates the production of
erythropoietin
by the kidney. The normal haematocrit level for a woman is 36% to 48% (for men, 41% to 50%). The normal level of
haemoglobin
(an oxygen-transport
protein
found in red blood cells) for women is 12.0 to 15.5 g/dL (for men, 13.5 to 17.5 g/dL).
49
50
51
Women's
hearts
have finer-grained textures in the muscle compared to men's hearts, and the
heart muscle
's overall shape and surface area also differs to men's when controlling for body size and age.
52
53
In addition, women's hearts age more slowly compared to men's hearts.
54
Sex distribution
Main article:
Human sex ratio
Girls are born slightly less frequently than boys (the ratio is around 1:1.05). Out of the total human population in 2015, there were 1018 men for every 1000 women.
55
Historically, male children tended to be preferred over female children, which led to
exposure
being commonplace.
56
Female infanticide
is less acceptable in contemporary times but still occurs.
57
Intersex women
Main article:
Intersex
Intersex
women have an intersex condition,
usually defined
as those born with ambiguous genitalia, atypical chromosomes, or atypical gonads.
58
59
Most individuals with ambiguous genitalia
are assigned
female at birth, and most intersex women are
cisgender
60
61
The medical practices to assign
binary
female to intersex youth is often
controversial
62
Some intersex conditions are associated with typical rates of female
gender identity
, while others are associated with substantially higher rates of gender transition compared to the general population.
63
64
For example, women with CAIS showed no psychological differences from non-intersex women, including in gender identity or orientation.
65
Women with other intersex conditions, such as 5alpha-RD-2 or 17beta-HSD-3, showed increased rates of gender transition to live as men.
66
Sexual orientation
Most women are
heterosexual
. Fewer than 5% of adults are primarily attracted to the same sex. Women who are primarily attracted to other women may be
lesbian
or
bisexual
67
Gender
Further information:
Gender roles
and
Trans woman
The Birth of Venus
(1486,
Uffizi
) is a classic representation of femininity by
Sandro Botticelli
68
69
Venus
was a
Roman
goddess
associated with love, beauty and
fertility
Most cultures use a
gender binary
by which women are of one of two genders, the others being men; other cultures have a
third gender
70
71
72
Femininity
(also called
womanliness
or
girlishness
) is a set of attributes, behaviours, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Different people have held femininity to be socially constructed,
73
biologically influenced,
73
74
75
76
or on some point in the spectrum between "nature" and "nurture".
75
74
76
It is distinct from the definition of the biological female sex,
77
78
as both men and women can exhibit feminine traits.
Most women are
cisgender
, meaning their
female sex assignment at birth
corresponds with their female
gender identity
. Some women are
transgender
, meaning they were
assigned male at birth
Trans women
may experience
gender dysphoria
, the distress brought upon by the discrepancy between a person's gender identity and their sex assigned at birth.
79
Gender dysphoria may be treated with
gender-affirming care
, which may include social or medical
transition
. Social transition may involve changes such as
adopting a new name
hairstyle
clothing
, and
pronoun
associated with the individual's affirmed female gender identity.
80
A major component of medical transition for trans women is
feminising hormone therapy
, which causes the development of female
secondary sex characteristics
(such as
breasts
, redistribution of body fat, and lower
waist–hip ratio
). Medical transition may also involve
gender-affirming surgery
, and a trans woman may undergo one or more feminising procedures which result in anatomy that is typically gendered female.
81
82
Health
Further information:
Women's health
and
Reproductive health
Factors that specifically affect the health of women in comparison with
men
are most evident in those related to
reproduction
, but
sex differences
have been identified from the molecular to the behavioural scale. Some of these differences are subtle and difficult to explain, partly due to the fact that it is difficult to separate the health effects of inherent biological factors from the effects of the surrounding environment they exist in.
Sex chromosomes
and hormones, as well as sex-specific lifestyles, metabolism, immune system function, and sensitivity to environmental factors are believed to contribute to sex differences in health at the levels of physiology, perception, and cognition. Women can have distinct responses to drugs and thresholds for diagnostic parameters.
83
page needed
The medical practice dealing with female reproduction and reproductive organs is called
gynaecology
(etymologically, "science of women").
84
85
Disease Risk
Women have higher rates of some diseases, such as osteoporosis, auto-immune diseases, Alzheimer's,
86
and breast cancer.
87
Women have lower rates of other diseases, such as lung cancer, Parkinson's, chronic liver disease,
86
hypertension, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS.
88
89
Some female-specific diseases include
endometriosis
90
PCOS,
91
and gynecologic cancers such as uterine or cervical cancer.
92
Maternal mortality
Main article:
Maternal mortality
Maternal mortality
or maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes."
93
Between 2000 and 2023, the rate of maternal mortality dropped by 40% worldwide. In 2023, around 260,000 women died from complications of pregnancy, delivery, or abortion. Over 90% of maternal mortality deaths occurred in low-income or lower-middle income countries, with sub-Saharan African and South Asian women accounting for 87% of the deaths. Most of these deaths were preventable. Maternal mortality can be reduced by ensuring pregnant women have adequate healthcare access, administering medications for
preeclampsia
and haemorrhage, and using good sanitation practices during delivery.
94
Life expectancy
Main article:
Life expectancy § Sex differences
Pink: Countries where female life expectancy at birth is higher than males. Blue: A few countries in southern Africa where females have shorter lives due to AIDS.
95
The
life expectancy
for women is generally longer than men's. This advantage begins from birth, with newborn girls more likely to survive the first year than boys. Worldwide, women live six to eight years longer than men.
96
However, this varies by place and situation. For example,
discrimination against women
has lowered female life expectancy in some parts of Asia so that men there live longer than women.
96
The difference in life expectancy are believed to be partly due to biological advantages and partly due to gendered behavioural differences between men and women.
96
97
On average, women are less likely to engage in unhealthy behaviours like smoking and alcohol use, and consequently have fewer
preventable premature deaths
from such causes.
96
In some developed countries, the life expectancy is evening out. This is believed to caused both by worse health behaviours among women, especially an increased rate of
smoking tobacco by women
, and improved health among men, such as less
cardiovascular disease
96
The
World Health Organization
(WHO) writes that it is "the extra years of life for women are not always lived in good health."
96
The fact that humans live a significant amount past reproductive age is unusual for mammals.
98
Many elderly women contribute to the care of grandchildren and other family members,
99
and many biologists believe that the extended human lifespan is evolutionarily driven by
kin selection
, though other theories have also been proposed.
100
101
102
103
Reproductive rights
Main article:
Reproductive rights
A poster from a 1921
eugenics
conference displays the U.S. states that had implemented sterilisation legislation.
Reproductive rights
are
legal rights
and freedoms relating to
reproduction
and
reproductive health
. The
International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics
has stated that:
104
... the human rights of women include their right to have control over and decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. Equal relationships between women and men in matters of sexual relations and reproduction, including full respect for the integrity of the person, require mutual respect, consent and shared responsibility for sexual behavior and its consequences.
The World Health Organization reports that based on data from 2010 to 2014, 56 million induced abortions occurred worldwide each year (25% of all pregnancies). Of those, about 25 million were considered as
unsafe
. The WHO reports that in developed regions about 30 women die for every 100,000 unsafe abortions and that number rises to 220 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in developing regions and 520 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in sub-Saharan Africa. The WHO ascribes these deaths to:
restrictive laws
poor availability of services
high cost
stigma
conscientious objection of health-care providers
unnecessary requirements, such as mandatory waiting periods, mandatory counselling, provision of misleading information, third-party authorisation, and medically unnecessary tests that delay care.
105
History
The earliest women whose names are known include:
Neithhotep
(c. 3200 BCE), the wife of
Narmer
and the first queen of ancient Egypt.
106
107
Merneith
(c. 3000 BCE),
consort
and regent of ancient Egypt during the
first dynasty
. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right.
108
109
Peseshet
(c. 2600 BCE), a physician in
Ancient Egypt
110
111
Puabi
(c. 2600 BCE), or Shubad – queen of
Ur
whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artefacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur (royal wives) include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, and Gansamannu.
112
Kugbau
(c. 2500 BCE), a taverness from
Kish
chosen by the
Nippur
priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of
Sumer
, and in later ages deified as "Kubaba".
Tashlultum
(c. 2400 BCE),
Akkadian
queen, wife of
Sargon of Akkad
and mother of Enheduanna.
113
114
Baranamtarra
(c. 2384 BCE), prominent and influential queen of
Lugalanda
of
Lagash
. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of the first Lagash dynasty include Menbara-abzu, Ashume'eren, Ninkhilisug, Dimtur, and Shagshag, and the names of several princesses are also known.
Enheduanna
(c. 2285 BCE),
115
116
the
high priestess
of the temple of the
Moon God
in the
Sumerian
city-state of
Ur
and possibly the first known poet and first named author of either gender.
117
Shibtu
(c. 1775 BCE), king
Zimrilim
's consort and queen of the Syrian city-state of
Mari
. During her husband's absence, she ruled as regent of Mari and enjoyed extensive administrative powers as queen.
118
The glyph (♀) for the
planet
and Roman goddess
Venus
, or
Aphrodite
in Greek, is the
symbol
used to represent the female sex.
119
120
121
In ancient alchemy, the Venus symbol stood for copper and was associated with
femininity
121
Culture and gender roles
Main article:
Gender role
See also:
Women in the workforce
and
Women in the military
An Egyptian Muslim woman who works as a men's hairdresser to "confront the customs and traditions of her society and conquer their criticism."
In recent history, gender roles have changed greatly. At some earlier points in history, children's occupational aspirations starting at a young age differed according to gender.
122
Traditionally, middle class women were involved in domestic tasks emphasising child care. For poorer women, economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home even if individual poor women may have preferred domestic tasks. Many of the occupations that were available to them were lower in pay than those available to men.
123
Two women U. S. Marines
patrolling
in Afghanistan, 2010
As changes in the labour market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only "dirty", long hour factory jobs to "cleaner", more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded. Married women's participation in the U.S. labour force rose from 5.6–6% in 1900 to 23.8% in 1923.
124
125
In the 1970s, many female academics, including scientists, avoided having children. Throughout the 1980s, institutions tried to equalise conditions for men and women in the workplace. Even so, the inequalities at home hampered women's opportunities: professional women were still generally considered responsible for domestic labour and child care, which limited the time and energy they could devote to their careers. Until the early 20th century, U.S. women's colleges required their women faculty members to remain single, on the grounds that a woman could not carry on two full-time professions at once. According to Schiebinger, "Being a scientist and a wife and a mother is a burden in society that expects women more often than men to put family ahead of career." (p. 93).
126
Movements advocate
equality of opportunity
for both sexes and
equal rights
irrespective of gender. Through a combination of economic changes and the efforts of the
feminist movement
, in recent decades women in many societies have gained access to careers beyond the traditional
homemaker
. Despite these advances, modern women in Western society still face challenges in the workplace as well as with the topics of education, violence, health care, politics, and motherhood, and others.
Sexism
can be a main concern and barrier for women almost anywhere, though its forms, perception, and gravity vary between societies and social classes.
The
Gender Parity Index
in school enrolment varies by country.
127
The
gender gaps in mathematics and reading
show girls tend to have higher reading skills. The
gender pay gap
varies between countries and age groups.
128
Violence against women
Main article:
Violence against women
A campaign against
female genital mutilation
– a road sign near
Kapchorwa
Uganda
The UN
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women
defines "violence against women" as:
129
...any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.
It identifies three forms of such violence: that which occurs
in the family
, that which occurs
within the general community
, and that which is perpetrated or condoned
by the State
. It also states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women".
130
Violence against women remains a widespread problem, fueled, especially outside the West, by patriarchal social values, lack of adequate laws, and lack of enforcement of existing laws. Social norms that exist in many parts of the world hinder progress towards protecting women from violence. For example, according to surveys by
UNICEF
, the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in
Afghanistan
and
Jordan
, 87% in
Mali
, 86% in
Guinea
and
Timor-Leste
, 81% in
Laos
, and 80% in the
Central African Republic
131
A 2010 survey conducted by the
Pew Research Center
found that
stoning
as a punishment for
adultery
was supported by 82% of respondents in
Egypt
and
Pakistan
, 70% in
Jordan
, 56%
Nigeria
, and 42% in
Indonesia
132
Specific forms of violence that affect women include
female genital mutilation
sex trafficking
forced prostitution
forced marriage
, rape,
sexual harassment
honour killings
acid throwing
, and
dowry related violence
. Laws and policies on violence against women vary by jurisdiction. In the European Union, sexual harassment and human trafficking are subject to
directives
133
134
Governments can be complicit in violence against women, such as when stoning is used as a legal punishment, mostly for women accused of adultery.
135
There have also been many forms of violence against women which have been prevalent historically, notably the
burning of witches
, the sacrifice of
widows
(such as
sati
) and
foot binding
. The prosecution of women accused of
witchcraft
has a long tradition; for example, during the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries),
witch trials
were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence.
136
137
138
In addition, there are also countries which have criminal legislation against the practice of witchcraft. In
Saudi Arabia
, witchcraft remains a crime
punishable by death
, and in 2011 the country beheaded a woman for 'witchcraft and sorcery'.
139
140
It is also the case that certain forms of violence against women have been recognised as criminal offences only during recent decades, and are not universally prohibited, in that many countries continue to allow them. This is especially the case with
marital rape
141
142
In the Western World, there has been a trend towards ensuring
gender equality
within marriage and prosecuting
domestic violence
, but in many parts of the world women still lose significant legal rights when entering a marriage.
143
Sexual violence against women greatly increases during times of war and
armed conflict
, during
military occupation
, or
ethnic conflicts
; most often in the form of
war rape
and
sexual slavery
. Contemporary examples of sexual violence during war include
rape during the Armenian genocide
rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War
rape in the Bosnian War
rape during the Rwandan genocide
, and
rape during Second Congo War
. In Colombia, the armed conflict has also resulted in increased sexual violence against women.
144
The most recent case was the
sexual jihad
done by
ISIL
where 5000–7000 Yazidi and Christian girls and children were sold into sexual slavery during the
genocide and rape of Yazidi and Christian women
, some of whom jumped to their death from
Mount Sinjar
, as described in a witness statement.
145
Fertility and family life
Further information:
Mother
Map of countries by fertility rate (2020), according to the
Population Reference Bureau
Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007
146
The
total fertility rate
(TFR) – the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime – differs significantly between different regions of the world. In 2016, the highest estimated TFR was in
Niger
(6.62 children born per woman) and the lowest in Singapore (0.82 children/woman).
147
While most Sub-Saharan African countries have a high TFR, which creates problems due to lack of resources and contributes to
overpopulation
, most Western countries currently experience a
sub replacement fertility rate
which may lead to
population ageing
and
population decline
In many parts of the world, there has been a change in family structure over the past few decades. For instance, in the West, there has been a trend of moving away from living arrangements that include the
extended family
to those which only consist of the
nuclear family
. There has also been a trend to move from marital fertility to non-marital fertility. Children born outside marriage may be born to
cohabiting couples
or to
single women
. While births outside marriage are common and fully accepted in some parts of the world, in other places they are highly stigmatised, with unmarried mothers facing ostracism, including violence from family members, and in extreme cases even
honour killings
148
149
In addition,
sex outside marriage
remains illegal in many countries (such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,
150
Afghanistan,
151
152
Iran,
152
Kuwait,
153
Maldives,
154
Morocco,
155
Oman,
156
Mauritania,
157
United Arab Emirates,
158
159
Sudan,
160
and Yemen
161
).
The social role of the mother differs between cultures. In many parts of the world, women with dependent children are expected to stay at home and dedicate all their energy to child raising, while in other places mothers most often return to paid work (see
working mother
and
stay-at-home mother
).
citation needed
Education
Main article:
Female education
Women attending an adult literacy class in the
El Alto
section of
La Paz
Bolivia
Single-sex education
has traditionally been dominant and is still highly relevant.
citation needed
Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries.
citation needed
In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education. For example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelor's degrees, 60% of master's degrees, and 50% of doctorates.
162
163
In 2020, 87% of the world's women were literate, compared to 90% of men; at the same time, only 59% of women in sub-Saharan Africa were literate.
164
The educational
gender gap
in
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) countries has been reduced over the last 30 years. Younger women today are far more likely to have completed a tertiary qualification: in 19 of the 30 OECD countries, more than twice as many women aged 25 to 34 have completed tertiary education than have women aged 55 to 64. In 21 of 27 OECD countries with comparable data, the number of women graduating from university-level programmes is equal to or exceeds that of men. 15-year-old girls tend to show much higher expectations for their careers than boys of the same age.
165
While women account for more than half of university graduates in several OECD countries, they receive only 30% of tertiary degrees granted in science and engineering fields, and women account for only 25% to 35% of researchers in most OECD countries.
166
Research shows that while women are studying at prestigious universities at the same rate as men they are not being given the same chance to join the faculty.
citation needed
Sociologist
Harriet Zuckerman
has observed that the more prestigious an institute is, the more difficult and time-consuming it will be for women to obtain a faculty position there. In 1989, Harvard University tenured its first woman in chemistry, Cynthia Friend, and in 1992 its first woman in physics, Melissa Franklin.
citation needed
She also observed that women were more likely to hold their first professional positions as instructors and lecturers while men are more likely to work first in tenure positions.
citation needed
According to Smith and Tang, as of 1989, 65% of men and only 40% of women held tenured positions and only 29% of all scientists and engineers employed as assistant professors in four-year colleges and universities were women.
citation needed
Women show a drop in self-esteem in the first year of college.
167
In the Soviet Union, 40% of chemistry PhDs went to women in the 1960s.
168
In 1992, women earned 9% of the PhDs awarded in engineering, but only one percent of those women became professors. In 1995, 11% of professors in science and engineering were women. In relation, only 311 deans of engineering schools were women, which is less than 1% of the total. Even in psychology, a degree in which women earn the majority of PhDs, they hold a significant amount of fewer tenured positions, roughly 19% in 1994.
169
Government and politics
Main articles:
Timeline of women's suffrage
and
List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government
A world map showing female governmental participation by country, 2010
Women are underrepresented in government in most countries. In January 2019, the global average of women in national assemblies was 24.3%.
170
Sirimavo Bandaranaike
was the first female prime minister; she was democratically elected in
Sri Lanka
in 1960.
Suffrage is the civil right to vote, and
women's suffrage
movements have a long
historic timeline
. As an early example, in districts of
Friesland
, in the Netherlands, women began voting in 1689.
171
On the other end of the spectrum, in
Kuwait
women gained the right to vote in 2005,
172
and in
Saudi Arabia
women gained the right to vote in 2015.
173
Organisations that fought for women's right to vote in different countries are numerous, from Switzerland's
Association internationale des femmes
(which was formed in 1868) to Liechtenstein's
Komitée für das Frauenstimmrecht
(founded in 1969).
174
As of 2025, the
Vatican City
only allows women to vote in limited lay capacity,
175
and other countries such as
Afghanistan
lack functional democracies entirely.
176
Science, literature and art
Science and medicine
Main article:
Women in science
Chemist and physicist
Marie Curie
was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different scientific fields.
177
Women have historically had access to practice
midwifery
obstetrics
and
gynaecology
. In Europe, prior to the 18th century, caring for pregnant women was undertaken by other women. However, from the mid-18th century onwards, society began to require rigorous formal education to practice medicine. Since women were prohibited from higher education, women's reproductive healthcare was transferred to male practitioners.
178
179
Early women in other scientific fields include
Hypatia
(b. 350-370 CE), a mathematician and astronomer who edited the
Almagest
Literature
Main article:
Women writers
The earliest author known by name was an Akkadian woman named
Enheduanna
, who wrote in the 23rd century BCE.
180
Ghosha
, an Indian composer of hymns in the
Rigveda
, was active around 1500-900 BCE.
181
The first recorded female Chinese poet was
Duchess Mu of Xu
, who wrote in the 7th century BCE.
182
The
Tale of Genji
, one of the earliest novel-like works and sometimes called "the first novel", was written by the Japanese
Murasaki Shikibu
in the 11th century CE.
183
In Western society, writing was generally considered acceptable for upper-class women. However, achieving success as a female writer in a male-dominated world could be very difficult; as a result, some women writers adopted male pen names (e.g.
George Sand
George Eliot
Currer Bell
Ellis Bell
Acton Bell
, and
Vernon Lee
).
184
This has continued into more modern times, with 20th-century writers such as
Andre Norton
and
James Tiptree Jr
185
adopting male pseudonyms, and some authors such as
J.K. Rowling
186
and
Harper Lee
adopting purposefully unisex pen names.
Music
Main article:
Women musicians
Women have been composers, songwriters,
instrumental performers
, singers, conductors,
music scholars
music educators
music critics
music journalists
and other musical professions. There are music movements,
clarification needed
events and genres related to women,
women's issues
and
feminism
citation needed
In the 2010s, while women comprise a significant proportion of
popular music
and classical music singers, and a significant proportion of songwriters (many of them being singer-songwriters), there are few women record producers,
rock critics
and rock instrumentalists. Although there have been a huge number of
women composers
in classical music, from the Medieval period to the present day, women composers are significantly underrepresented in the
commonly performed classical music repertoire
, music history textbooks and music encyclopaedias; for example, in the
Concise Oxford History of Music
Clara Schumann
is one of the only female composers who is mentioned.
citation needed
Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of the soloists with the
Montreal Symphony Orchestra
were men. In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked
Vienna Philharmonic
orchestra. Women are less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and
heavy metal
, although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists and
all-female bands
. Women are particularly underrepresented in
extreme metal
genres.
187
Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music journalism,
music producing
, and
sound engineering
. While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century, and there are few women
musicologists
, women became involved in
music education
"... to such a degree that women dominated [this field] during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century."
188
According to
Jessica Duchen
, a music writer for London's
The Independent
, women musicians in classical music are "... too often judged for their appearances, rather than their talent" and they face pressure "... to look sexy onstage and in photos."
189
Duchen states that while "[t]here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks, ... the ones who do tend to be more materially successful."
189
According to the UK's Radio 3 editor, Edwina Wolstencroft, the classical music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the
leader of an orchestra
190
In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the
audio console
acting as music producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.
191
See also
General
Lists of women
UN Women
Sociological:
Women's studies
Dynamics:
Feminization (sociology)
Matriarchy
Medical:
Feminine psychology
Other:
Womyn
Womxn
Notes
Female
may refer to sex or
gender
The plural
women
is sometimes used in certain phrases such as
women's rights
to denote female humans regardless of age.
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"Women in Parliaments: World and Regional Averages"
. Ipu.org. 14 February 2011
. Retrieved
19 April
2014
Wierdsma Schik, P. (1857).
"Akademisch proefschrift over de staatsregtelijke geschiedenis der Staten van Friesland van 1581 tot 1795"
Google Books
(in Dutch). W. Eekhoff. p. 18
. Retrieved
11 June
2018
Sadeq, Kianne (16 May 2005).
"Kuwait grants women right to vote"
CNN
. Retrieved
20 November
2025
"Saudis vote in municipal elections, results on Sunday"
Oman Observer
. Agence France-Presse. 30 September 2011. Archived from
the original
on 19 January 2012.
Frick, Julia (17 September 2024).
"Komitee für das Frauenstimmrecht"
"In a historic shift, Pope Francis allows women to vote at bishops' meetings"
. NPR. 26 April 2023.
"Women's Right to Vote in Afghanistan"
Red Yellow Blue (RYB)
"Marie Curie"
AWIS
. 16 April 2021.
Archived
from the original on 1 December 2021
. Retrieved
1 December
2021
Gelis, Jacues. History of Childbirth. Boston: Northern University Press, 1991: 96–98
Bynum, W.F., & Porter, Roy, eds. Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine. London and New York: Routledge, 1993: 1051–1052.
Mark, Joshua (24 March 2014).
"Enheduanna"
World History Encyclopedia
. Retrieved
19 November
2025
"GHOSHA"
. Retrieved
19 November
2025
Anne Cunningham (2018).
The Most Influential Female Writers
. Rosen Young Adult. p. 22.
ISBN
978-1-5081-7966-5
Tyler, Royall (2003).
The Tale of Genji
Penguin Classics
. pp. i–ii & xii.
ISBN
0-14-243714-X
Jung, Daun (December 2017). "Critical Names Matter: 'Currer Bell,' 'George Eliot,' and 'Mrs. Gaskell'
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"The Secret Sci-Fi Life of Alice B. Sheldon. (Transcript)"
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Elizabeth, De (10 July 2017).
"J.K. Rowling Explains the Reason Behind Her Pen Name"
Julian Schaap and Pauwke Berkers. "Grunting Alone? Online Gender Inequality in Extreme Metal Music" in
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"Women Composers In American Popular Song"
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"CBC Music"
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Jessica Duchen.
"Why the male domination of classical music might be coming to an end | Music"
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20 January
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Ncube, Rosina (September 2013).
"Sounding Off: Why So Few Women In Audio?"
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Further reading
Chafe, William H.
Archived
2009-01-13 at the
Wayback Machine
The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, And Political Roles, 1920–1970
, Oxford University Press, 1972.
ISBN
0-19-501785-4
Rosalie Maggio, ed. (1996).
The New Beacon Book of Quotations by Women
. Boston: Beacon Press.
ISBN
0-8070-6783-0
Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women
, 4 vls., ed. by Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender, Routledge 2000
Women in World History : a biographical encyclopedia
, 17 vls., ed. by
Anne Commire
, Waterford, Conn. [etc.] : Yorkin Publ. [etc.], 1999–2002
Woman In all ages and in all countries in 10 volumes
. Illustrated edition deluxe limited to 1,000 numbered copies with an index by Rénald Lévesque
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