Battle of Changping

Overview

The Battle of Changping was a pivotal military conflict that took place from May to October 260 BCE during the Warring States period of Chinese history. It was fought between the state of Qin and the state of Zhao in the Changping area (modern-day Gaoping City, Jincheng, Shanxi Province). The battle resulted in a decisive victory for Qin, which inflicted catastrophic losses on Zhao, including the deaths of approximately 450,000 Zhao soldiers. This engagement marked a turning point in the power dynamics of the Warring States period and accelerated Qin's eventual unification of China.

History

Historical Records

Several ancient texts provide accounts of the Battle of Changping, though with some variations in detail:

• Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), Qin Basic Annals: "In the forty-seventh year, Qin attacked Shangdang of Han. Shangdang surrendered to Zhao, and Qin consequently attacked Zhao. Zhao dispatched troops to counter Qin. Qin sent Wu'anjun Bai Qi to attack and utterly defeated Zhao at Changping, killing over 400,000 men."

• Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), House of Zhao: "Zhao dispatched troops to take Shangdang. Lian Po's army was stationed at Changping. In the seventh month, Lian Po was dismissed and Zhao Kuei replaced him as commander. The Qin army besieged Zhao Kuei, and Zhao Kuei surrendered with his army. Over 400,000 men were buried alive."

• Lüshi Chunqiu: "Although Qin achieved a great victory at Changping, it took three years to resolve the conflict, by which time their soldiers and people were exhausted and their supplies depleted."

• Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), Biographies of Bai Qi and Wang Jian: "In the forty-seventh year, Qin sent Zuoshuchang Wang He to attack Han and capture Shangdang. The people of Shangdang fled to Zhao. Zhao's army was stationed at Changping to support the people of Shangdang. In the fourth month, He attacked Zhao. Zhao sent Lian Po to command. Zhao soldiers violated Qin scouts, who killed Zhao's deputy commander Jia. In the sixth month, Zhao's positions were breached, and two fortresses and four commanders were captured. In the seventh month, Zhao's army built ramparts to defend themselves. Qin attacked their ramparts, capturing two commanders, defeating their formation, and seizing the western rampart. Lian Po held firm against Qin, refusing to engage despite Qin's repeated provocations. King Zhao repeatedly rebuked him. Qin's chancellor Ying Shao then sent someone to bribe Zhao with a thousand gold pieces to sow discord, saying: 'What Qin fears most is only Ma Fu's son Zhao Kuei commanding. Lian Po is easily dealt with and will surrender soon.' King Zhao, angered by Lian Po's losses and defeats, his refusal to fight, and believing Qin's disinformation, replaced Lian Po with Zhao Kuei to attack Qin. When Qin learned that Ma Fu's son was commanding, they secretly appointed Wu'anjun Bai Qi as supreme general, with Wang He as deputy commander, ordering that anyone who revealed Bai Qi's command be executed. When Zhao Kuei arrived, he attacked the Qin army. The Qin army feigned defeat and retreated, deploying two flanking forces to ambush them. Zhao's army pursued the retreating enemy to Qin's ramparts but could not breach them. Meanwhile, Bai Qi's 25,000-man force cut off Zhao's rear, while another 5,000 cavalry force split Zhao's army in two, severing their supply lines. Qin then sent light troops to attack. Zhao's forces suffered several defeats, and Zhao Kuei, realizing he had been trapped, ordered a halt to the attack and built defensive positions to prepare for breakout attempts. When King Qin learned of Zhao's severed supply lines, he personally went to Henei, granted commoners one rank each, and mobilized all males over fifteen to Changping to intercept reinforcements and supplies. By September, Zhao's soldiers had gone without food for forty-six days, resorting to cannibalism. Zhao organized his remaining troops into four groups for breakout attempts, but after four or five attempts, they failed. Zhao Kuei personally led elite troops in a desperate charge but was shot and killed by Qin archers. With their commander dead and suffering heavy casualties, Zhao's remaining soldiers surrendered to Bai Qi. Bai Qi calculated: 'Qin has already captured Shangdang, but its people prefer Zhao to Qin. Zhao's soldiers are treacherous. If we don't execute them all, they may cause trouble.' Thus, Bai Qi tricked them and had all surrendered Zhao soldiers buried alive, sparing only 240 young men to return to Zhao. In total, Qin killed or captured 450,000 Zhao soldiers. The people of Zhao were shocked."

Background

Historical Context

During the Warring States period, Fan Sui presented King Zhaoxiang of Qin with a strategy for unifying China. Fan Sui argued that Qin must truly digest conquered territories through the principle of "gaining an inch means an inch of our kingdom, gaining a foot means a foot of our kingdom" and advocated the "befriend distant states while attacking nearby ones" (远交近攻) strategy. This approach was enthusiastically adopted by King Zhaoxiang, who appointed Fan Sui as chancellor.

The "befriend distant states while attacking nearby ones" strategy focused first on the three closest states—Han, Zhao, and Wei—while temporarily ignoring the more distant states of Qi and Chu. This strategy not only secured Qin's conquered territories but also undermined the "vertical alliance" of eastern feudal states, accelerating Qin's unification process.

Qin's Background

Qin was located to the west of Zhao and was one of the major states during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Qin's original territory was in Qín (modern-day Tianshui), which was then on the periphery of Chinese civilization. During the reign of Duke Mu of Qin, the state began participating in central plains hegemony, gradually becoming one of the Seven Warring States.

During King Zhaoxiang's reign, Qin accelerated its campaigns to annex the six other states. Key victories included the Battle of Chusha (where Qin decisively defeated Chu), the Battle of Yique (where Qin defeated Han and Wei, clearing the way for eastward expansion), the Battle of Yingying (where Qin gained extensive territories from Chu), and the Battle of Huayang (where Qin defeated a joint Zhao-Wei alliance, capturing several cities from Wei and the Guanjing fortress from Zhao).

Zhao's Background

Zhao was one of the Seven Warring States. Its rulers originally held the title of Marquis of Zhao. In the early Warring States period, the rulers of Han, Zhao, and Wei were recognized by the Zhou king as the final step in the Partition of Jin, establishing them as new states during the Warring States period.

Since the ninth year of King Nan of Zhou's reign (306 BCE), following King Wuling of Zhao's "Hu Fu Qi She" (胡服骑射) military reform—adopting nomadic-style clothing and cavalry tactics—Zhao's national strength and military power had grown significantly. King Wuling personally disguised himself as an envoy to Qin to survey its terrain, planning to attack Qin from Jiuyuan to bypass the Hangu Pass.

Causes of the War

In the forty-fifth year of King Nan of Zhou's reign (270 BCE), Qin's army crossed into Zhao and was defeated by Zhao's general Zhao She at Yuyu (northwest of modern-day Heshan, Shanxi). At this time, the Wei native Fan Sui entered Qin and proposed the "befriend distant states while attacking nearby ones" strategy. Based on this strategy, King Zhaoxiang first attacked Wei before turning to Han.

In the fifty-third year of King Nan of Zhou's reign (262 BCE), Qin attacked and captured Yewang (modern-day Qinyang, Henan), completely severing the connection between Han's Shangdang Commandery and its main territory.

King Huanhui of Han was terrified and sent Yangchengjun to apologize to Qin, offering to cede Shangdang in exchange for peace. However, Shangdang's governor Feng Ting refused to surrender to Qin and conspired with the people of Shangdang to utilize Zhao's power to resist Qin, offering the seventeen cities of Shangdang to Zhao.

King Xiaocheng of Zhao consulted with Pingyangjun Zhao豹, who advised against accepting Shangdang, arguing that Feng Ting's offer was meant to bring disaster upon Zhao. The benefits of accepting it would be outweighed by the calamity.

King Xiaocheng then summoned Pingyangjun Zhao Sheng and Zhao Yu for advice. Both persuaded the king to accept Feng Ting's offer, saying: "It would take an army of millions fighting for years to capture seventeen cities. Now we can obtain them effortlessly—this is a great opportunity that must not be missed."

The king agreed. When asked who could resist Qin's Wu'anjun Bai Qi if they attacked after accepting Shangdang, Pingyangjun replied: "No one can match Bai Qi. Lian Po is brave and skilled in battle and cares for his soldiers. While he may be inferior to Bai Qi in open battle, he is fully capable of defending fortifications."

Thus, King Xiaocheng followed Pingyangjun's advice, enfeoffed Feng Ting as Marquis of Huayang, sent Pingyangjun to receive Shangdang, and dispatched Lian Po to lead troops to Changping (modern-day Gaoping, Jincheng, Shanxi) to prepare against Qin's attack.

Zhao's acceptance of Shangdang angered Qin, which decided to send troops against Zhao.

Course of the Battle

Capture of Shangdang

In early 261 BCE, King Zhaoxiang of Qin sent troops to capture Goushi (south of modern-day Yanshi, Henan) and Lunshi (southwest of modern-day Dengfeng, Henan) to intimidate Han.

In early 260 BCE, King Zhaoxiang ordered Zuoshuchang Wang He to lead troops and capture Shangdang. The people of Shangdang fled to Zhao, where Zhao's army at Changping received them. The pre-Changping battle for Shangdong thus concluded.

Lian Po's Retreat

In the fourth lunar month of 260 BCE, the Battle of Changping began when Qin's general Wang He attacked Zhao's army at Changping. King Xiaocheng of Zhao ordered Lian Po to engage the Qin forces. Lian Po's army wounded Qin's scouts, who in turn killed Zhao's deputy commander Jia.

In the sixth lunar month, Wang He led his troops in an offensive, breaching Zhao's positions, defeating Lian Po, and killing four Zhao commanders. Two important Zhao strongholds, Erzhang City and Guanglang City, were captured by Qin.

In the seventh lunar month, Zhao's army built ramparts and withdrew into fortified positions, refusing to engage. The Qin army launched a strong assault, capturing Zhao's western rampart and killing two more Zhao commanders.

After successive defeats, Lian Po retreated to the east bank of the Dan River, constructing defensive walls. From then on, Zhao's forces remained entrenched and refused to fight. King Xiaocheng was dissatisfied with Lian Po's fear of Qin and the prolonged stalemate, repeatedly sending messengers to rebuke him.

In the seventh lunar month, the king replaced Lian Po with Zhao Kuei.

Zhao's Peace Negotiations

When Zhao's initial forces were defeated, King Xiaocheng discussed with Lou Chang and Yu Qing whether to personally lead troops to fight Qin decisively. Lou Chang believed this would be futile and suggested sending a high-ranking envoy to negotiate peace with Qin. Yu Qing argued that if Qin was determined to attack Zhao, peace talks would be difficult. Instead, he suggested sending envoys with treasures to Chu and Wei to mobilize a coalition against Qin, which would make Qin more inclined to negotiate. However, King Xiaocheng adopted Lou Chang's advice and sent Zheng Xue to negotiate peace with Qin.

Yu Qing repeatedly advised: "If Zheng Xue goes to Qin, the king and Fan Sui will receive him with great ceremony to show the world. Chu and Wei will believe Zhao has already made peace and will not send troops to help Zhao. Qin will know that no other states will help Zhao, making peace impossible. Without peace, Zhao's army will surely be defeated."

Ultimately, King Xiaocheng did not accept Yu Qing's advice. Zheng Xue went to Qin to seek peace. To deceive Zhao and prevent a coalition while gaining time for military preparations, Qin received Zhao's envoy Zheng Xue enthusiastically and publicized that Qin and Zhao had reconciled, discouraging other states from sending aid to Zhao. Zhao's position thus became even more isolated.

Change of Commanders

King Xiaocheng was already angered by Lian Po's repeated defeats and his refusal to fight. Meanwhile, Qin's chancellor Ying Shao had sent someone to Zhao with a thousand gold pieces to spread disinformation, claiming: "Lian Po is easily defeated. What Qin fears most is Ma Fu's son Zhao Kuei."

The king decided to change commanders. At that time, Li Mu was still young and unproven. The famous general Yue Yi had recently defected from Yan to Zhao but had not yet fully committed to Zhao's cause. The king believed Qin's disinformation and appointed Zhao Kuei to replace Lian Po as commander.

In the seventh lunar month of 260 BCE, Zhao Kuei arrived at Changping with reinforcements and took command. Upon assuming his position, Zhao Kuei replaced military leaders, changed military regulations, and reversed Lian Po's defensive strategy, ordering an active offensive against Qin.

When King Zhaoxiang learned that Zhao Kuei had replaced Lian Po, to ensure a complete victory that would decide the fate of the war, he secretly appointed Wu'anjun Bai Qi as supreme general, demoting Wang He to deputy commander, and ordered that anyone who revealed Bai Qi's command be executed.

Bai Qi's Strategy

When Zhao Kuei ordered his troops to attack the Qin army, Bai Qi feigned defeat and retreated. Not knowing that Qin had secretly replaced Wang He with the famous Bai Qi, Zhao Kuei ordered his forces to pursue the retreating enemy all the way to Qin's ramparts, but they could not breach them.

Bai Qi then ordered a 25,000-man force to attack Zhao's rear, cutting off their retreat route, while a 5,000 cavalry force inserted itself between Zhao's army and the ramparts, splitting Zhao's main force into two isolated units while also severing their supply lines.

Bai Qi then dispatched light troops to attack Zhao's forces multiple times. After several defeats, Zhao Kuei realized he had been trapped and ordered a halt to the attack, constructing defensive positions in preparation for breakout attempts.

When King Zhaoxiang learned that Zhao's main supply line had been cut, he personally went to Henei Commandery (modern-day Qinyang and surrounding areas), promoted the commoners one rank each, and mobilized all males over fifteen to the Changping battlefield to intercept reinforcements and supplies.

Qin's Victory

By the ninth lunar month of 260 BCE, Zhao's main army had gone without food for forty-six days. Many Zhao soldiers starved to death or died during failed breakout attempts, with some resorting to cannibalism. Zhao Kuei organized the remaining Zhao troops into four breakout units, but after four or five attempts, they failed to break through.

Zhao Kuei then personally led elite troops in a desperate charge but was defeated and killed by Qin archers.

Without their commander and suffering catastrophic casualties, Zhao's remaining soldiers surrendered to Qin's general Bai Qi. Bai Qi stated: "Zhao's soldiers are treacherous and unreliable. If we don't execute them all, they may cause trouble." Bai Qi then ordered the Qin army to bury all surrendered Zhao soldiers alive, sparing only 240 young soldiers to return to Zhao.

In the Battle of Changping, Qin's forces killed or captured 450,000 Zhao soldiers and civilians, causing shock throughout Zhao. The battle ended in Qin's victory. After the battle, Zhao was severely weakened and no longer able to confront Qin comprehensively. Qin's unification of China became merely a matter of time. King Xiaocheng regretted not following Pingyangjun Zhao豹's advice and, remembering Zhao Kuei's mother's earlier words opposing his son's appointment, did not execute her.

Key Information

Cultural Significance

The Battle of Changping has had profound cultural significance in Chinese history and military thought:

• Historical Turning Point: The battle marked a decisive shift in the balance of power during the Warring States period. After this defeat, Zhao never fully recovered its military strength, and Qin's path to unification became virtually unstoppable.

• Military Strategy: The battle is studied as a classic example of strategic deception and encirclement tactics. Bai Qi's feigned retreat and subsequent encirclement of Zhao's forces demonstrated masterful battlefield command.

• Idiomatic Expression: The battle gave rise to the Chinese idiom "paper general" (纸上谈兵), which refers to someone who talks about military strategy theoretically without practical experience. This idiom originates from Zhao Kuei, who was knowledgeable in military texts but inflexible in applying them in actual combat.

• Moral and Ethical Debates: The mass execution of surrendered Zhao soldiers has been a subject of ethical debate throughout Chinese history. Bai Qi's decision to bury the prisoners alive has been criticized as excessively cruel, though some argue it was a pragmatic military decision to prevent future rebellions.

• Literary and Artistic Depictions: The battle has been depicted in numerous literary works, paintings, and modern media. It remains a popular subject in historical novels, television dramas, and documentaries about Chinese history.

Modern Status

Today, the Battle of Changping is remembered as one of the largest and most devastating battles of the Warring States period and ancient China as a whole. Archaeological discoveries at the battlefield site continue to provide insights into the conflict.

The main battlefield site is located in the valley between the Eastern and Western Liangshan Mountains near the Dan River in modern Gaoping City, Shanxi Province. It has been designated as a key cultural relics protection site by the provincial government.

In 1995, a mass grave site was discovered in Yonglu Village, Gaoping City, containing numerous human remains and artifacts such as knives, coins, arrowheads, and belt hooks. These findings have provided important physical evidence for studying the battle, though some scholars debate whether the site represents the mass execution of prisoners as traditionally believed.

The site includes several landmarks associated with the battle:

• Skull Temple (骷髅庙): Located 2.5 km west of Gaoping City, this temple was first built during the Tang Dynasty to commemorate the Zhao soldiers killed in the battle. It contains stone inscriptions from the Ming and Qing dynasties.

• White Terrace (白起台): A large earthen mound between Wanghe and Wangjiang villages, traditionally said to be a pile of skulls collected by Qin forces after the battle.

• Valley of Remorse (省冤谷): Originally called "Killing Valley" (杀谷), this area was renamed by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang after he saw the skulls piled like mountains during his tour.

Modern historical scholarship continues to debate aspects of the battle, particularly regarding its duration and casualty figures. While traditional accounts describe a six-month battle with 450,000 Zhao casualties, some historians suggest these numbers may be exaggerated or represent conflicts over a longer period.

References

1. Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). Qin Basic Annals, House of Zhao, Biographies of Bai Qi and Wang Jian.

2. Lü Buwei. Lüshi Chunqiu (Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals).

3. Yang, K. C. Ancient China's Warring States Period. Harvard University Press, 1955.

4. Lewis, M. E. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007.

5. Sawyer, R. D. The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China. Westview Press, 1993.