Lu You

Overview

Lu You (1125-1210), courtesy name Wuguan (务观) and art name Fangweng (放翁), was a renowned poet, historian, and official of the Southern Song Dynasty (南宋). Born in Shanying, Yue Prefecture (modern-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang), Lu You came from a distinguished literary family and became one of the most prolific poets in Chinese history, with over 9,300 poems surviving. His works reflect his deep patriotism, frustration with the Southern Song's inability to reclaim northern territories from the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, and his observations of everyday life during a tumultuous period in Chinese history.

History

Family Background

Lu You was born into a prominent scholarly family in Shanying, Yue Prefecture (modern-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang). His great-grandfather Lu Zhen had passed the imperial examination during the Dazhong Xiangfu era of Emperor Zhenzong of Song and served as an official in the Ministry of Personnel. His grandfather Lu Dian was a disciple of Wang Anshi, an expert in Confucian classics, and served as Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs. His father Lu Zai was a poet and official who served as Vice Transport Commissioner in the late Northern Song Dynasty.

Lu You was born on October 17, 1125 (by the lunar calendar), while his father was traveling to the capital for official business. The same winter, the Jin army began its southern campaign, and in 1127, they captured Bianjing (modern-day Kaifeng), the Northern Song capital, leading to the Jingkang Incident. This forced Lu's family to flee south to Shanying. In 1129, when Lu You was four years old, the Jin army crossed the Yangtze River, and the family moved to Dongyang, where their situation gradually stabilized.

Early Career

Lu You showed exceptional intelligence from a young age, studying under teachers like Mao Dezhang and Han Yougong. By twelve, he was already composing poetry and prose. Through his family's connections, he was granted the position of Dengshilang.

In 1153, Lu You traveled to Lin'an (modern-day Hangzhou) to participate in the lock-chamber examination (an imperial examination for current officials and those with hereditary privileges). The chief examiner Chen Zimao ranked him first, but this angered Qin Hui, the powerful chancellor, whose grandson Qin Xun was placed below Lu. The following year, when Lu took the Ministry of Rites examination, Qin instructed the examiners not to accept him. As a result, Lu was resented by Qin Hui and his career prospects were hindered.

After Qin Hui's death in 1155, Lu You began his official career as the registrar of Ningde County in Fuzhou. He was soon transferred to the capital to serve as an editor in the Imperial Edict Bureau. In court, he submitted memorials advising the emperor that even meritorious officials should not be granted princely titles unless they were of imperial blood, and he criticized Emperor Gaozong's obsession with rare treasures, suggesting it damaged the emperor's virtue.

Advocating for Northern Expeditions

In 1162, Emperor Xiaozong ascended the throne and appointed Lu You as an editor in the Bureau of Military Affairs, granting him the title of "Presented Scholar" (进士出身). Lu submitted a memorial urging the emperor to rectify official and military discipline, defend the Jianghuai region, and gradually plan for the recovery of the Central Plains. However, the emperor was preoccupied with entertainment and did not take his advice seriously. When Lu informed Zhang Tao about this, Zhang confronted the emperor, resulting in Lu being demoted to Vice Prefect of Zhenjiang.

In 1163, Emperor Xiaozong appointed Zhang Jun as commander-in-chief to lead a northern expedition. Lu You submitted a memorial to Zhang, advising him to develop long-term plans and not to rush into battle. Zhang dispatched generals Li Xianzhong and Shao Hongyuan to recapture Lingbi and Hongxian counties and advance to Fuliu. However, due to discord between Li and Shao, the Song army suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Fuliu. After this setback, the faction advocating for appeal gained prominence.

In 1164, while serving in Zhenjiang, Lu You met Zhang Jun and proposed a northern expedition strategy, praising Zhang as having "the ambition to recover lost territories." When the "Longxing Peace Treaty" was about to be signed, Lu submitted a memorial suggesting that the emperor should base himself in Jiankang (modern-day Nanjing) rather than Lin'an, which was vulnerable to naval attacks. He argued that this would allow time to establish the capital without arousing suspicion from the Jin Dynasty. However, his suggestions angered Long Dayuan and Zeng Di, powerful officials at the time, leading to his demotion to Vice Prefect of Jiankang.

In 1165, Lu was transferred to serve as Vice Prefect of Longxing. Someone accused him of "associating with remonstrance officials and advocating for Zhang Jun's military actions," resulting in his dismissal from office.

Military Service in Sichuan

In December 1169, after four years of leisure, Lu You was summoned to serve as Vice Prefect of Kuizhou, overseeing educational affairs and agricultural promotion. He traveled with his family up the Yangtze River, documenting local customs and scenery in his work "Entering Shu" (《入蜀记》).

In 1171, Wang Yan was appointed as pacification commissioner for Sichuan and Shaanxi, based in Nanzheng. He invited Lu You to serve as his assistant. Lu was delighted to accept and traveled alone to Nanzheng, where he joined Wang's military headquarters with about ten others, including Zhang Jizhang, Yan Cangshu, Fan Xishu, and Gao Zizhang. Wang entrusted Lu with drafting a strategic plan to expel the Jin and recover the Central Plains. Lu produced "Pingrong Ce" (《平戎策》), proposing that "to recover the Central Plains, one must first take Chang'an, and to take Chang'an, one must first take Longyou. Accumulate grain, train soldiers, attack when strong, defend when weak."

Lu frequently visited forward positions and strategic strongholds like Luogukou, Xianrenyuan, and Dingjunshan, and patrolled at Dasan Pass. During this time, he observed the behavior of Wu Ting, who was commanding troops on behalf of his father Wu Lin. When Wu Ting became arrogant and executed men for minor offenses, Lu suggested replacing him with Wu Gong, son of Wu Jie. Wang Yan expressed doubt about Wu Gong's abilities, but Lu countered that if Wu Ting achieved military success, he would be even harder to control. This prediction was later verified when Wu Ting's son Wu Xi betrayed the Song during Han Tuozhou's northern expedition.

In October, the court rejected Wang Yan's northern expedition plan, recalled him to the capital, and dissolved the military headquarters. Lu was filled with sorrow at the collapse of the northern expedition plan. His eight months of military service at Dasan Pass represented the only time in his life that he personally served on the anti-Jin front line and attempted to realize his patriotic ambitions. This period, though brief, left an indelible mark on his memory.

Life in Sichuan

In 1172, Lu You was appointed as an advisor to the安抚司 (Pacification Commission) of Chengdu Prefecture. His position was largely ceremonial, and he felt unfulfilled. The following year, he was transferred to serve as Vice Prefect of Shuzhou. In May, at the recommendation of Yu Yunwen, Sichuan's pacification commissioner, Lu was reassigned as Vice Prefect of Jiazhou.

In February 1174, Yu Yunwen died, and Lu was transferred back to serve as Vice Prefect of Shuzhou. During this second term, he thoroughly investigated local customs and visited scenic spots like Cuiwei Monastery, White Pagoda Monastery, and Daming Temple, growing to love this land of abundance and contemplating spending his final days there.

In March, Zheng Wen, serving as Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs and Grand Master of the Hall of Literary Glory, was appointed as Sichuan's pacification commissioner. Lu boldly submitted a memorial advocating for a northern expedition to recover lost territories, but his proposal was not adopted. In May, Lu presided over the prefectural examination, and Yang Jian achieved first place, qualifying him for the provincial examination. Lu wrote a poem to encourage him. In August, Lu reviewed troops in Shuzhou and composed "Shuzhou Grand Review," criticizing the Song Dynasty's practice of maintaining armies without using them and its policy of temporary accommodation.

In 1175, Fan Chengda was transferred from Guilin to Chenglu to serve as Sichuan's military commissioner. He recommended Lu as an advisor to锦城 (Jincheng). Fan commanded the Shuzhou region, and Lu served as his advisor, forming a close friendship through literary exchanges. However, the pro-peace faction in the Southern Song attacked Lu for "not observing proper etiquette" and "indulging in drinking and dissipation." Under pressure, Fan dismissed Lu from his position. Lu then opened a vegetable garden near Du Fu's Thatched Cottage by Huanhua Stream, engaging in farming activities in Shuzhou.

In 1176, in response to attacks from the pro-peace faction labeling him as "degenerate" and "unrestrained," Lu adopted the art name "Fangweng" (放翁, meaning "Recluse Old Man") as a form of counter-attack. In June, he was ordered to oversee the Chongdao Temple on Tongbai Mountain in Taizhou, maintaining his family's livelihood through this "temple stipend." In June 1177, Fan Chengda was summoned back to the capital, and Lu saw him off in Meizhou, urging him to persuade the emperor upon his return to "first take Guanzhong, then Hebei" and "early cleanse the Central Plains of the barbarian invaders."

Rise and Fall in Officialdom

In 1178, as Lu's poetic fame grew, Emperor Xiaozong summoned him and successively appointed him as Tea and Salt Intendant for Fuzhou and Jiangxi. In autumn 1179, he was appointed as Intendant of the Granary and Water Conservancy for Jiangxi. The following year, when Jiangxi experienced a flood, Lu ordered all prefectures to open granaries and distribute grain personally, and he "posted announcements and distributed grain by boat." He also submitted an urgent memorial to the court requesting the opening of the ever-normal granaries for disaster relief. In November, Lu was summoned back to the capital, but Secretary Zhao Ruyu took the opportunity to impeach him for "not restraining himself and acting beyond proper bounds." Lu angrily resigned and returned to Shanying.

In 1186, after five years of leisure in Shanying, the court again appointed Lu as Prefect of Yanzhou. When Lu went to the capital to take leave from Emperor Xiaozong, his poetic fame had grown significantly. The emperor encouraged him at Yanhe Palace, saying: "Yanling has beautiful mountains and clear waters; after handling official business, you may visit and compose poems there." During his tenure in Yanzhou, Lu "granted generous tax exemptions and widespread relief measures," winning the deep affection of the common people. In his leisure time, he organized his previous works, naming them "Jiannan Shigao" (《剑南诗稿》, "Poems from South of the Sword Pass").

In July 1188, Lu completed his term as prefect and was promoted to Minor Director of the Armament Bureau, responsible for weapon manufacturing and repair, once again entering the capital. In February 1189, Emperor Xiaozong abdicated to Emperor Guangzong (Zhao Dun). Lu submitted a memorial proposing systematic opinions on governing the country and completing the northern expedition, suggesting "reduce taxes and punish corruption and oppression," "repair military equipment and recruit talent," and "strive for great plans" to recover the Central Plains.

In 1190, Lu was promoted to Director of the Ministry of Rites and concurrently served as an editor of the Imperial Annals Office. He again advised Emperor Guangzong to "broaden avenues for criticism" and "be cautious and thoughtful," and urged the emperor to lead by example in frugality to promote moral standards. Because Lu "liked to discuss recovery," Censor He Dan impeached his proposals as "inappropriate for the times," and the pro-peace faction also attacked him. The court finally dismissed him from his position under the pretext of "mocking and singing about the wind and moon." Lu left the capital again, filled with grief and indignance, and named his residence "Fengyexuan" (Wind and Moon Studio).

Compiling National History

In 1194, the retired Emperor Xiaozong died, but Emperor Guangzong refused to perform mourning rites, causing an uproar in the court. Han Tuozhou and Zhao Ruyu conspired to depose Guangzong and install Crown Prince Zhao Kuang as Emperor Ningzong. Han Tuozhou, being the uncle of Zhao Kuang's wife, monopolized power, demoted Zhu Xi, suppressed Neo-Confucianism, and initiated the "Qingyuan Party Prohibition." Lu You wrote poems condemning Han Tuozhou's autocracy.

In 1202, thirteen years after his dismissal, the court summoned Lu to the capital to serve as co-editor of national history and co-editor of the Imperial Annals Office, in charge of compiling the "Two Dynasties Annals" (for Xiaozong and Guangzong) and "Three Dynasties History." He was exempt from the daily court rituals and soon served concurrently as Court Supervisor.

While compiling national history, because Han Tuozhou advocated for a northern expedition, Lu greatly praised and supported him, providing various forms of cooperation. At Han's request, he wrote inscriptions and poems to encourage him to resist foreign aggression and serve the nation. In April 1203, the compilation of national history was completed, and Emperor Ningzong promoted Lu to the position of Assistant Commissioner of the Baozhang Pavilion. Lu then retired from office at the age of 79.

Final Days

In May 1203, Lu returned to Shanying. Xin Qiji, who was serving as both Zhejiang East Pacification Commissioner and Prefect of Shaoxing, visited Lu. The two had an in-depth discussion about state affairs. Seeing Lu's simple residence, Xin Qiji repeatedly offered to help him build a better house, but Lu refused each time.

In 1204, when Xin Qiji was summoned to the capital, Lu wrote a poem to see him off, encouraging him to serve the nation and assist Han Tuozhou in using military forces cautiously to achieve the great plan of national recovery as soon as possible.

In 1206, Han Tuozhou requested Emperor Ningzong to issue an edict for a northern expedition. When Lu heard the news, he was overjoyed. The Song army was well-prepared and advanced smoothly, successively recapturing Sizhou and Huazhou. However, Han Tuozhou made poor personnel choices, and Wu Xi and others colluded with the Jin Dynasty, refusing to advance and plotting to divide territory. Lu's poems repeatedly urged Wu Xi to act, but Wu ignored him. Soon after, Wu Xi betrayed the Song on the western front, while Qiu Chong advocated for peace on the eastern front, leaving Han Tuozhou increasingly isolated.

In November 1207, Shi Miyuan launched a coup, executed Han Tuozhou, and sent his head to the Jin Dynasty, concluding the "Jiading Peace Treaty." The northern expedition was completely defeated. Upon hearing this tragic news, Lu was filled with grief.

In autumn 1209, Lu fell ill due to grief and indignation. His condition worsened in winter, and he became bedridden. On December 29, 1210 (lunar calendar), Lu You passed away at the age of 85. On his deathbed, he left his final poem "To My Son" as his last will and testament:

"I know well that death ends all things,
But I grieve that I cannot see our nine domains united.
When the imperial army northward conquers the Central Plains,
Do not forget to inform your father at the family sacrifice."

Key Information

Cultural Significance

Lu You's literary achievements are substantial, particularly in poetry. With over 9,300 surviving poems, his work spans three periods: before age 46 when he focused on literary form; between entering Sichuan and returning home at 64, his mature period when his style evolved from ornate to bold and passionate; and his later years when his poetry became simpler and more grounded, reflecting a pastoral style with occasional expressions of life's sorrows.

His poetry covers four main themes: resistance to the Jin Dynasty and criticism of the appeasement faction; expression of patriotic enthusiasm and frustration at unfulfilled ambitions; depiction of rural scenery and daily life; and love poetry. His poem "Guan Shan Yue" (《关山月》, "Moon over the Mountain Pass") vividly portrays the contradictions between the ruling class, border soldiers, and people in occupied areas under the appeasement policy. His personal poem "Shu Fen" (《书愤》, "Writing with Indignation") expresses both heroic ambition and sorrow at unfulfilled aspirations.

Lu You's artistic style combines realism with romanticism. His language is straightforward and clear, while his structure is well-organized. He valued "work beyond poetry," emphasizing real-life experience over mere literary technique. His seven-character ancient poem "Chang Ge Xing" (《长歌行", "Long Song") exemplifies his style with its powerful rhythm and clear language.

In addition to poetry, Lu You made significant contributions to historiography with his "Nan Tang Shu" (《南唐书》, "History of the Southern Tang"), which innovated in its structure and historical perspective. He also practiced calligraphy, excelling in regular, running, and cursive scripts, particularly influenced by Yan Zhenqing, Zhang Xu, and Yang Ningshi.

Modern Status

Today, Lu You is celebrated as one of China's greatest poets, particularly revered for his patriotic verses. His works continue to be studied in Chinese literature courses, and many of his poems are memorized by students. The phrase "山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村" ("When mountains and rivers seem to have no path, willows and flowers reveal another village") from his poem "You Shanxi Village" has become a widely quoted proverb expressing hope in the face of adversity.

Lu You's former residence in Shaoxing has been preserved as a cultural site, attracting numerous visitors. The "Lu You Memorial Hall" in Shaoxing displays his manuscripts, calligraphy, and personal artifacts. In Chinese popular culture, Lu You is often portrayed as a symbol of patriotic integrity and literary excellence.

His influence extends beyond China, with translations of his poetry available in multiple languages. Scholars worldwide continue to study his work for its historical value, literary merit, and insights into Song Dynasty society and politics.

References

1. Hightower, James R. "The Poetry of Lu You." In The Columbia History of Chinese Literature, edited by Victor H. Mair, pp. 437-446. Columbia University Press, 2001.

2. Davis, A.R. Lu You and Southern Song Poetry. Oxford University Press, 1995.

3. Crump, James I. "Lu You and the Tradition of Poetic Memoir." T'oung Pao, Second Series, Vol. 75, Fasc. 1/3 (1989), pp. 1-28.

4. 孔凡礼 (Kong Fanli). 《陆游年谱》 (Lu You Nianpu - Chronological Biography of Lu You). 中华书局 (Zhonghua Book Company), 2007.

5. 钱仲联 (Qian Zhonglian). 《陆游集校注》 (Lu You Ji Jiaozhu - Annotated Collection of Lu You's Works). 上海古籍出版社 (Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House), 2005.